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. Tolkien recognised the importance of She to his own fantasy works , especially in its foregrounding of a fictional history and narrative . The figure of She is also considered by many scholars to be a formative influence on Galadriel - Ayesha 's reflecting pool seems to be a direct precursor of Galadriel 's mirror . Other characters in Tolkien 's Legendarium also seem to have been influenced , including Shelob ( who is referred to as " She " and " Her " in the text ) , and the escape across the chasm is highly reminiscent of the escape of the Fellowship across the chasm in Moria . Indeed , Haggard 's characterisation of Ayesha became the prototype of the female antagonist in modern fantasy literature , most famously realised in the figure of the White Witch , Jadis , from C. S. Lewis 's The Chronicles of Narnia . Kor and Ayesha appear in Alan Moore 's Nemo : Heart of Ice
= = = Adaptations = = =
She has been adapted for the cinema at least ten times , and was one of the earliest films to be made in 1899 as La Colonne de feu ( The Pillar of Fire ) , by Georges Méliès . A 1911 version starred Marguerite Snow , a British @-@ produced version appeared in 1916 and in 1917 Valeska Suratt appeared in a production for Fox which is lost . In 1925 a silent film of She , starring Betty Blythe , was produced with the active participation of Rider Haggard , who wrote the intertitles . The film combines elements from all the books in the series .
A decade later another cinematic version of the novel was released , featuring Helen Gahagan , Randolph Scott and Nigel Bruce . This 1935 adaptation was set in the Arctic , rather than Africa , and depicts the ancient civilisation of the story in an Art Deco style , with music by Max Steiner .
The 1965 film , She , was produced by Hammer Film Productions and starred Ursula Andress as Ayesha and John Richardson as her reincarnated love , with Peter Cushing and Bernard Cribbins as other members of the expedition .
In 2001 another adaption was released direct @-@ to @-@ video with Ian Duncan as Leo Vincey , Ophélie Winter as Ayesha and Marie Bäumer as Roxane .
Tim McInnerny starred as Holly with Mia Soteriou as Ayesha and Oliver Chris as Leo in a two @-@ part adaptation on BBC Radio 4 's Classic Serial , originally broadcast on 2 July and 9 July 2006 .
In 2007 a rock @-@ opera / musical version of She was recorded live at the Wyspianski Theatre , Katowice , Poland by Clive Nolan and was released on DVD . In February 2012 the Nolan version of She had its first UK performance at the Playhouse in Cheltenham .
= Lynn Bomar =
Robert Lynn Bomar ( January 21 , 1901 – June 11 , 1964 ) was an American football end in the National Football League ( NFL ) . Bomar played college football , basketball and baseball for Vanderbilt University , following coach Wallace Wade and classmate Hek Wakefield there from prep school , and was a unanimous 1922 All @-@ Southern selection and a consensus 1923 All @-@ American selection in football . The latter season included a first @-@ team All @-@ American selection by Walter Camp , rare for a player in the South . A paralyzing injury ended Bomar 's college career , but he quickly recovered and sat on the bench for all of his team 's games . He played for the New York Giants in 1925 and 1926 , retiring abruptly after a separate injury . Bomar was nicknamed " the Blonde Bear " .
He had a later career in law enforcement . In his position as Tennessee 's Commissioner of Public Safety and Patrol chief , Bomar supervised the ransacking of black households during the 1946 Columbia race riot . He was the warden of Tennessee State Prison from 1955 until his death , and oversaw several executions . In 1956 , Bomar was the first Vanderbilt football player elected to the College Football Hall of Fame .
= = Early life and education = =
Bomar was born on January 21 , 1901 , in Bell Buckle , Tennessee to Oliver Eugene Bomar , a blacksmith , and Elizabeth May McAdams . Vanderbilt records indicate that he spent part of his youth in Gallatin . Bomar attended Webb School in his native Bell Buckle , and spent a year at Castle Heights Military Academy .
= = = Fitzgerald and Clarke = = =
Bomar then attended preparatory school at the Fitzgerald and Clarke Military Academy in Tullahoma , Tennessee . In 1920 , he was a member of teams which won the state prep @-@ school football and basketball championships . In both sports Bomar played under head coach Wallace Wade . While Wade coached at Fitzgerald and Clarke , the school 's overall football record was 15 – 2 . With him on the football team was future college teammate and All @-@ American Hek Wakefield . On March 14 , 1922 , while Bomar was in college , the school burned to the ground and was never rebuilt .
= = Vanderbilt University = =
= = = Football = = =
Bomar played for head coach Dan McGugin 's Vanderbilt Commodores football team at Vanderbilt University from 1921 to 1924 . Wallace Wade was hired as Vanderbilt football 's assistant and line coach for 1921 and head coach of the basketball and baseball teams for 1922 . Bomar and Wakefield enrolled at the school in the same class .
He was prominent on Commodore teams which compiled a win – loss – tie record of 26 – 5 – 4 ( .800 ) and three straight conference titles during his four seasons . Bomar was an All @-@ Southern and All @-@ American selection in 1922 and 1923 . In addition to playing end and tackle ( offense and defense ) , he made the kickoffs . Bomar 's play was described :
The Blonde Bear was one of the world 's greatest football players , who never missed an open field block . When one considers he made Walter Camp 's All @-@ America team when he was backing up the line on defense and blocking and catching passes on offense , his greatness is realized .
[ Bomar ] plucked passes out of the ozone that seemed impossible to get , and then raced through the enemy like they were tied . " Often he started games at fullback , shifted to halfback or end , and finished at tackle . In backing up the line , [ he ] hurled back all comers with the same savage vigor .
His favorite refrain to opponents was , " I hope you don 't like it . "
= = = = 1921 = = = =
During Bomar 's freshman season at Vanderbilt , he was already a standout player as a starting fullback . In a game against the Longhorns at the Texas State Fair in Dallas , the Commodores won 20 – 0 after they were expected to lose by two touchdowns . Texas had been undefeated in 1920 , winning the Southwest Conference . The 1921 squad was considered possibly the best in Longhorns history , and Vanderbilt football seemed to be in decline when Georgia Tech defeated the Commodores 44 – 0 the previous year . Dan McGugin gave a speech invoking late former Vanderbilt quarterback Irby Curry before the game . According to Edwin Pope 's Football 's Greatest Coaches , " The Texas game , sparked by McGugin 's unforgettable oratory , was the big one ; and Vandy got out of the year without a loss . " Bomar scored on a 40 @-@ yard interception return for a touchdown in the fourth quarter , increasing the Commodore lead to two touchdowns . In the sixth game of the season , Vanderbilt defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide 14 – 0 at Birmingham . The victory was expected by insiders ( then often called the " dope " ) , with Vanderbilt favored by two touchdowns . Early in the first quarter several runs by Jess Neely , a long pass from Neely to Tot McCullough and a 17 @-@ yard run by Neely brought the ball to the nine @-@ yard line . After a run by Frank Godchaux , Bomar bucked over the line for a touchdown . The game against the Georgia Bulldogs decided the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) championship that season , with Bomar excelling at linebacker . " Georgia would have trampled Vanderbilt to atoms but for Lynn Bomar , " wrote Nashville Tennessean sportswriter Blinkey Horn . " Lynn Bomar was the stellar performer of the game . In the first @-@ half he made two @-@ thirds of the tackles " , and reportedly prevented five Georgia touchdowns that day . The Commodores tied the Bulldogs 7 – 7 on a fourth @-@ quarter onside kick for a share of the SIAA title , finishing the season with a 7 – 0 – 1 record .
= = = = 1922 = = = =
Vanderbilt had its second straight undefeated season in 1922 , with Bomar playing his preferred position at end . He was a starter in the scoreless tie with Michigan at the dedication of Dudley Field , spending much of the game tackling Michigan runners . According to the school yearbook , Bomar " tore through the Wolverine line constantly , and always emerged after a play on the far side of the defense " and the game included a goal line stand . Another account read , " Thousands of cheering Vanderbilt fans inspired the surge of center Alf Sharp , guard Gus Morrow , tackle Tex Bradford , and end Lynn Bomar , who stopped Michigan cold in four attempts . " The next week against Texas at the Dallas State Fair , Vanderbilt won 20 – 10 . Bomar made an interception and caught a 23 @-@ yard pass from Jess Neely , running 20 yards to set up a Gil Reese touchdown . Against the Tennessee Volunteers , he scored the second of two touchdowns on a short pass from Neely in a 14 – 6 victory .
Bomar 's best offensive performance that year was against Georgia . Neely made a long pass from a few yards behind the line of scrimmage at the 45 @-@ yard line ; Bomar caught it near the seven @-@ yard line , and was tackled by Georgia halfback Loren Chester ( Teany ) Randall at around the three @-@ yard line before Reese scored the touchdown . Neely and Bomar were among the best pass @-@ receiver combinations in Vanderbilt history : " Bomar , unquestionably , was Vanderbilt 's best receiver , snatching everything thrown at him . "
A similar play in the game 's second half scored another touchdown . Quarterback Doc Kuhn dropped back for a more than 40 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Bomar . The pass went 28 yards in the air , with Bomar running the rest of the way . Georgia running back Dave Collings tackled him as he crossed the goal line ( injuring himself ) , and Bomar also made an interception in the 12 – 0 Vanderbilt victory . The season 's final game , against Vanderbilt 's oldest rival Sewanee , had a trick play by the Commodores . A fake run ended with Kuhn tossing the ball to Bomar , who was left open behind the defense and easily ran it in ; Vanderbilt won , 26 – 0 .
After the season , Bomar received first @-@ team All @-@ American honors from Frank G. Menke . He was also chosen a second @-@ team All @-@ American by Walter Camp , a third @-@ team All @-@ American by Walter Eckersall and appeared on Billy Evans ' National Honor Roll . Bomar and Red Barron of Georgia Tech were the two unanimous All @-@ Southern selections . Grantland Rice wrote the next year , " There was no better end in the country last fall " and Camp described Bomar :
Bomar , of Vanderbilt , is only shaded a little by two other ends , largely through the experienced gained by his rivals against stronger opposition . He weighs 200 pounds , is tremendously fast , and a hardy , defensive player . On attack he is able to pick the forward pass out of the air on the full run , and , running with a high @-@ knee action quite like that of the redoubtable Ted Coy , if he cannot get by his man , runs him down and goes on over him , still on his feet .
= = = = 1923 = = = =
In 1923 , assistant coach Wallace Wade was hired as head coach at Alabama and was replaced by former star tackle Josh Cody . A rematch against the Michigan Wolverines at Ferry Field was a 3 – 0 Vanderbilt loss , with consensus All @-@ American center Jack Blott scoring Michigan 's field goal . According to the Michigan Alumnus , Harry Kipke could not return punts for fear of fumbling ; when he received the ball , Vanderbilt ends Hek Wakefield or Bomar would tackle him . In a diagram of the game 's plays , Vanderbilt 's only completed pass was from Bomar to Kuhn . Bomar excelled against Tulane , blocking a number of punts in a 17 – 0 victory . Times @-@ Picayune sportswriter Ed Hebert wrote , " Take Bomar out of the Vandy lineup and Tulane would have won the game by three touchdowns . " A postseason charity game was played against former and contemporary Princeton Tigers all @-@ stars . The game was a 7 – 7 tie , with Vanderbilt 's touchdown scored on an 18 @-@ yard pass from Kuhn to Bomar .
Vanderbilt and Washington and Lee finished the season as Southern Conference co @-@ champions . A sportswriters ' poll chose the Commodores as best team in the South , awarding them the Pickens Trophy ( awarded from 1923 to 1926 ) . Bomar was a consensus All @-@ American , receiving first @-@ team honors from Collier 's Weekly ( Walter Camp ) and second @-@ team honors from Athletic World magazine . He was one of the first players from the South to receive first @-@ team honors from Camp , who described the player :
Bomar of Vanderbilt is an experienced end of 200 pounds in weight , with speed , initiative , and an uncanny perception in diagnosing plays . Bomar can back up a line when needed , can not be swept out by swinging interference and is powerful enough to hold his own even when big guards and tackles come at him .
As a receiver of a forward pass , he has , besides the skill , the excellent quality of being very hard to knock off his feet , and when he and the defense both try for the pass at the same time , Bomar is far more likely to get the ball on account of the fact that he outweighs the majority of defensive players . He has been used in all sorts of positions this year , both in attack and defense and this had broadened his scope and increased his value .
= = = = 1924 = = = =
During Bomar 's senior season ( when he moved to halfback ) , the Commodores tied the Quantico Marines 13 – 13 . Bomar , picking up a fumble , ran 84 yards for a touchdown . According to a newspaper account , " It was Lynn Bomar 's gigantic figure that broke up what looked like a Marine cakewalk . After receiving the kickoff , the Marines drove steadily to Vanderbilt 's 10 @-@ yard line as Goettge repeatedly completed short passes . At the 10 , Groves dropped back . The pass from center was low . He missed it . He reached for the ball . It trickled off his fingers . The Commodores were boring in . Wakefield was in there . Then Bomar came charging through . He picked up the ball and with a twist was out of Groves ' grasp . He came out of the bunch with a long , charging run . Then he seemed a little undecided . One fleeting glance behind him and he struck out . Up came his free arm to brush off his headgear . His thin , yellow hair stood out . On he swept like a thundercloud of vengeance across the goal . Bedlam broke loose . " Captain and guard Tuck Kelly was injured during the game , making Bomar the interim captain two weeks later against the Georgia Bulldogs .
In the Georgia game Bomar had a brain hemorrhage after he was kicked in the chin , and half his body was paralyzed for two days . It was thought that he would never play football again : " Not a player on the team could talk of Bomar 's injury without tears coming to his eyes " , and Bomar sat on the bench for the rest of the season 's games . Known as a devastating blocker and " lightning fast , " he was the first Commodore football player elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1956 . At his induction Bomar said , " I just wish all the men who played with me at Vanderbilt between 1921 and 1924 could also receive this coveted award . They deserve it more than I do . After all , they made it possible for me to be chosen . "
He was a member of the Kappa Sigma fraternity . Nashville sportswriter Fred Russell , who entered Vanderbilt in 1924 , told a story about Bomar in his autobiography Bury Me In An Old Press Box : " As a freshman I had pledged Kappa Sigma fraternity , which at that time had many varsity athletes . Among them was Lynn Bomar , selected All @-@ American end in 1923 ... I also had the responsibility , as a freshman , of awakening Bomar in time for him to get to classes , and at the end of the school year I did this one morning by rolling the biggest lighted firecracker I ever saw under his bed . When it exploded I feared the whole corner of the fraternity house had been blown off , and I was so scared that even Bomar in his BVD 's chasing me across the street and deep into the campus couldn 't catch me . "
According to Vanderbilt 's All @-@ Southern halfback and 1924 captain @-@ elect Gil Reese , " He would never let them jump on me . Whenever anyone would threaten me , Bomar was always right there to say ' Keep your hands off that boy ' . They always did , too . Bomar always looked after me , and he always called back to me when we started on end runs . No one could run interference like Bomar . " Bomar and Reese were on an all @-@ time Vanderbilt team in the school 's 1934 yearbook , and Bomar was chosen for an Associated Press Southeast Area all @-@ time football team for the era from 1920 to 1969 .
= = = Basketball = = =
Bomar also played baseball and basketball at Vanderbilt , and was a forward on the basketball team . He attracted large crowds at basketball games because of his football prowess .
= = = = 1922 – 23 = = = =
The 1922 – 23 team had a 16 – 8 record , beating the LSU Tigers but losing to the Virginia Tech Hokies in the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association tournament . An account of the LSU game read , " Either Vanderbilt was in rare form or L.S.U. has a good fighting team with no shooting ability . Fans were treated to the most one @-@ sided contest of opening day when these two clubs met , the Commodores scoring 13 points before the Louisianans had counted once , winning 36 to 10 . " Bomar scored two points in the game .
= = = = 1923 – 24 = = = =
The team , coached by Josh Cody , had a 7 – 15 record . In the SoCon tournament , Vanderbilt defeated Clemson 42 – 13 and Bomar scored seven points . According to one account , " Reese and Bomar used to be famous for their forward pass work . They are still using it in basketball . Most of Bomar 's passes to Reese are caught over the right shoulder with the recipient facing away from the passer . " Along with Reese , All @-@ Southern forward Alvin Bell was also a teammate . Vanderbilt lost the next game to the eventual tournament champions , Jack Cobb and Cartwright Carmichael @-@ led North Carolina , 37 – 20 . When Bomar was sidelined by a football injury in 1924 , Gil Reese became the basketball team captain .
= = = Baseball = = =
He was a catcher on the baseball team . Cliff Wheatley spoke of the many good catchers from which to choose for his 1922 All @-@ Southern baseball team , " And up at Vanderbilt , Lynn Bomar made a splendid record . "
= = New York Giants = =
= = = 1925 = = =
Bomar fully recovered from his injury and played professional football as an end for the inaugural 1925 New York Giants of the National Football League ( NFL ) with Jim Thorpe , Century Milstead , and Owen Reynolds . He was signed to the Giants by Harry March .
The first noteworthy game for Bomar was a 14 – 0 loss to the Frankford Yellow Jackets . After the Giants ' poor first half , the Yellow Jackets led by 14 points . During the second half the Giants recovered somewhat , with good passes from Jack McBride to Bomar but no chance of a comeback . In a 13 – 0 victory over the Rochester Jeffersons , McBride threw a 27 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Bomar . A 13 – 12 win over the Providence Steam Roller had a 24 @-@ yard touchdown pass from McBride to Bomar and an interesting ending . The Giants were backed up near their end zone , faced with a fourth down and leading 13 – 10 . Providence was set for a blitz on the punter , but when he caught the ball he knelt in the end zone for a safety ( not enough for Providence to win ) . Against the Kansas City Cowboys , several passes from McBride to Bomar netted 24 yards in a 67 @-@ yard touchdown drive for a 9 – 3 victory . Bomar had possibly his best day in a 23 – 0 victory over the Dayton Triangles before a crowd of 18 @,@ 000 . Six of McBride 's completed passes that day were to Bomar , including a 45 @-@ yarder for the Giants ' first touchdown . Bomar was selected to NFL president Joseph Carr 's all @-@ star team .
Although the Giants played well , the team experienced financial hardship during its first year . Player salaries were so low that most had to take additional jobs to support themselves . The team 's brief practices , held at 4 : 30 pm each day to accommodate outside @-@ work schedules , enabled little in @-@ season improvement . Overshadowed by baseball , boxing and college football , professional football was not a popular sport in 1925 and owner Tim Mara spent $ 25 @,@ 000 of his own money during the season to keep the team going . The financial struggle continued until the 11th game of the season , when the visiting Red Grange and the Chicago Bears drew more than 73 @,@ 000 fans ( a pro @-@ football record ) and an additional 20 @,@ 000 were turned away . This gave the Giants much @-@ needed revenue , possibly altering the team 's history . In the 19 – 7 Bears victory , Grange intercepted a pass intended for Bomar and returned it for a touchdown .
= = = 1926 = = =
In the season 's second week Bomar scored against Providence on a 15 @-@ yard pass from McBride , and he scored on a 37 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Walt Koppisch against Kansas City . However , his football career ended abruptly when he dislocated his knee in a game against the Brooklyn Lions .
= = = = Longest pass = = = =
From the top of the American Radiator Building to the ground in Bryant Park , a drop of 324 feet ( 98 @.@ 75 m ) , Bomar completed a pass to Hinkey Haines for a record on November 12 . Haines caught the ball on the fifth attempt . On Bomar 's first attempt , the New York Times reported that the ball " hit the sidewalk and burst " and the third pass knocked Haines over . The stunt took place two days before a game with the Los Angeles Buccaneers . " It was as much as anything a playful jab at Brick Muller " ( the Buccaneers ' end ) , who caught a pass thrown from atop the Telephone Building — a drop of 320 feet ( 97 @.@ 5 m ) — in San Francisco the year before to advertise the first East @-@ West Shrine Game .
= = Personal life = =
Bomar married Veturia Edna Hicks on November 20 , 1927 in Williamson County , Tennessee . Their only son , Robert , was a resident surgeon at Vanderbilt Hospital . Bomar was a Baptist .
= = Law @-@ enforcement career = =
After football and marriage , Bomar was assistant manager of the Colonial Hotel in Springfield , Tennessee for seven years . He sold life insurance , but found it dull . Bomar then began a long career in law enforcement , beginning in the United States Marshals Service office from 1934 to 1939 . In 1939 he became a division chief with the Knoxville Highway Patrol and a year later became director of public safety , overseeing the city 's police and fire departments . For a few months the public @-@ safety position was eliminated , and Bomar was again the Highway Patrol division chief . Governor Prentice Cooper promoted him to chief on a trial basis in 1942 , when the incumbent went on active duty in World War II .
= = = Commissioner of Public Safety = = =
In 1945 , Bomar was appointed as both state commissioner of public safety and patrol chief . In this capacity he worked for the Tennessee Motor Transportation Association , Universal Tire and Appliance Company and the Tennessee Superintendent of Public Works .
= = = = Columbia Race Riots = = = =
In 1946 , Bomar supervised the ransacking of African @-@ American households in the Columbia Race Riot . A February 25 fight between James Stephenson , an African @-@ American Navy veteran , and a white shopkeeper reportedly ignited the unrest . Later that day there was gunfire , fighting and rioting between whites and African Americans in Mink Slide , Columbia 's African @-@ American business district . When black citizens shot out the street lights , three officers and a chief responded to the gunfire ; all four were shot . Bomar , described by one writer as commanding " the firing line of the State Highway Police , " led the team sent in after the shootings with permission from the state attorney general to search homes and businesses for weapons . None of the accused were granted bail or allowed legal counsel , and 12 were charged with attempted murder .
Under oath in court , Bomar said that he had no search warrant and anticipated that he would not have a warrant the next time he searched similar properties . He called journalist Vincent Sheean a " lying Communistic yellow — — . " According to a contemporary account , " In this situation , even though it ’ s fair to say [ Bomar ] was just doing his job , it ’ s equally clear that he was a loose cannon . His personality dominated the scene , and it was the personality of a bully . "
= = = Warden = = =
Bomar was warden of Tennessee State Prison from 1955 until his death . He oversaw the execution of several men including William Tines , an African American convicted of raping a 45 @-@ year @-@ old white woman , who was executed in the electric chair . Tines was the last man executed by electrocution in Tennessee , and the last person executed until Robert Glen Coe in 2000 .
= = = = The Prisonaires = = = =
Bomar supported the Prisonaires , a doo @-@ wop quintet of inmates who received a BMI award for their hit " Just Walkin ' in the Rain " in his office . A spoken @-@ word track on their album , Only Believe ... , was " Message from Prison Warden Lynn Bomar " .
= = Death = =
On June 11 , 1964 , Bomar died a few hours after a heart attack . In 1966 , he was posthumously inducted into the Tennessee Sports Hall of Fame .
= Sitting Bull =
Sitting Bull ( Lakota : Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake in Standard Lakota Orthography , also nicknamed Húŋkešni or " Slow " ; c . 1831 – December 15 , 1890 ) was a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies . He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him , at a time when authorities feared that he would join the Ghost Dance movement .
Before the Battle of the Little Bighorn , Sitting Bull had a vision in which he saw many soldiers , " as thick as grasshoppers , " falling upside down into the Lakota camp , which his people took as a foreshadowing of a major victory in which a large number of soldiers would be killed . About three weeks later , the confederated Lakota tribes with the Northern Cheyenne defeated the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer on June 25 , 1876 , annihilating Custer 's battalion and seeming to bear out Sitting Bull 's prophetic vision . Sitting Bull 's leadership inspired his people to a major victory . Months after their victory at the battle , Sitting Bull and his group left the United States for Wood Mountain , North @-@ West Territories ( now Saskatchewan ) , where he remained until 1881 , at which time he and most of his band returned to US territory and surrendered to U.S. forces . A small remnant of his band under Waŋblí Ǧi decided to stay at Wood Mountain .
After working as a performer with Buffalo Bill 's Wild West show , Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota . Because of fears that he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement , Indian Service agent James McLaughlin at Fort Yates ordered his arrest . During an ensuing struggle between Sitting Bull 's followers and the agency police , Sitting Bull was shot in the side and head by Standing Rock policemen Lieutenant Bull Head ( Tatankapah Lakota : Tȟatȟáŋka Pȟá ) and Red Tomahawk ( Marcelus Chankpidutah Lakota : " Čhaŋȟpí Dúta " ) after the police were fired upon by Sitting Bull 's supporters . His body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial . In 1953 , his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains , reburying them near Mobridge , South Dakota , near his birthplace .
= = Early life = =
Sitting Bull was born in Dakota Territory . In 2007 , Sitting Bull 's great @-@ grandson asserted from family oral tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River , south of present @-@ day Miles City , Montana . He was named Jumping Badger at birth , and nicknamed Hunkesi , or " Slow , " said to describe his careful and unhurried nature . When the boy was fourteen years old he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors ( which included his father and his uncle Four Horns ) in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors . Jumping Badger displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow , which was witnessed by the other mounted Lakota . Upon returning to camp his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son . The name , Tȟatȟaŋka Iyotȟaŋka ( Tatanka Iyotaka ) , which in the Lakota language means " Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down " , would later be abbreviated to " Sitting Bull " . Thereafter , Sitting Bull 's father was known as Jumping Bull . At this ceremony before the entire band , Sitting Bull 's father presented his son with an eagle feather to wear in his hair , a warrior 's horse , and a hardened buffalo hide shield to mark his son 's passage into manhood as a Lakota warrior .
During the Dakota War of 1862 , in which Sitting Bull 's people were not involved , several bands of eastern Dakota people killed an estimated 300 to 800 settlers and soldiers in south @-@ central Minnesota in response to poor treatment by the government and in an effort to drive the whites away . Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War , the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864 , even against bands which had not been involved in the hostilities . In 1864 , two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village . The defenders were led by Sitting Bull , Gall and Inkpaduta . The Lakota and Dakota were driven out , but skirmishing continued into August .
In September , Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a small party near what is now Marmarth , North Dakota . They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect some repairs to an overturned wagon . When he led an attack , Sitting Bull was shot in the left hip by a soldier . The bullet exited out through the small of his back , and the wound was not serious .
= = Red Cloud 's War = =
From 1866 to 1868 , Red Cloud as a leader of the Oglala Lakota fought against US forces , attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of the Powder River Country of Montana . In support of him , Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold , Fort Stevenson , and Fort Buford and their environs from 1865 through 1868 . Sitting Bull also made guerrilla attacks on emigrant parties and smaller forts throughout the upper Missouri River region .
By early 1868 , the U.S. government desired a peaceful settlement to Red Cloud 's War . It agreed to Red Cloud 's demands that the US abandon forts Phil Kearny and C.F. Smith . Gall of the Hunkpapa ( among other representatives of the Hunkpapa , Blackfeet , and Yankton Dakota ) signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2 , 1868 at Fort Rice ( near Bismarck , North Dakota ) . Sitting Bull did not agree to the treaty . He told the Jesuit missionary , Pierre Jean De Smet , who sought him out on behalf of the government : “ I wish all to know that I do not propose to sell any part of part of my country . ” He continued his hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks on forts in the upper Missouri area throughout the late 1860s and early 1870s .
The events of 1866 @-@ 1868 mark a historically debated period of Sitting Bull 's life . According to historian Stanley Vestal , who conducted interviews with surviving Hunkpapa in 1930 , Sitting Bull was made " Supreme Chief of the whole Sioux Nation " at this time . Later historians and ethnologists have refuted this concept of authority , as the Lakota society was highly decentralized . Lakota bands and their elders made individual decisions , including whether to wage war .
= = The Great Sioux War of 1876 = =
Sitting Bull 's band of Hunkpapa continued to attack migrating parties and forts in the late 1860s . When in 1871 the Northern Pacific Railway conducted a survey for a route across the northern plains directly through Hunkpapa lands , it encountered stiff Lakota resistance . The same railway people returned the following year accompanied by federal troops . Sitting Bull and the Hunkpapa attacked the survey party , which was forced to turn back . In 1873 , the military accompaniment for the surveyors was increased again , but Sitting Bull 's forces resisted the survey " most vigorously . " The Panic of 1873 forced the Northern Pacific Railway 's backers ( such as Jay Cooke ) into bankruptcy . This halted construction of the railroad through Lakota , Dakota , and Nakota territory .
After the 1848 finding of gold in the Sierra Nevada and dramatic gains in new wealth from it , other men became interested in the potential for gold mining in the Black Hills . In 1874 , Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer led a military expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln near Bismarck , to explore the Black Hills for gold and to determine a suitable location for a military fort in the Hills . Custer 's announcement of gold in the Black Hills triggered the Black Hills Gold Rush . Tensions increased between the Lakota and whites seeking to move into the Black Hills .
Although Sitting Bull did not attack Custer 's expedition in 1874 , the US government was increasingly pressured by citizens to open the Black Hills to mining and settlement . Failing in an attempt to negotiate a purchase or lease of the Hills , the government in Washington had to find a way around the promise to protect the Sioux in their land , as specified in the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie.It was alarmed at reports of Sioux depredations ( encouraged by Sitting Bull ) . In November 1875 , President Grant ordered all Sioux bands outside the Great Sioux Reservation to move onto the reservation , knowing full well that not all would comply . As of February 1 , 1876 , the Interior Department certified as " hostile " those bands who continued to live off the reservation . This certification allowed the military to pursue Sitting Bull and other Lakota bands as " hostiles " .
Based on tribal oral histories , historian Margot Liberty theorizes many Lakota bands allied with the Cheyenne during the Plains Wars because they thought the other nation was under attack by the US . Given this connection , she suggests the major war should have been called " The Great Cheyenne War " . Since 1860 , the Northern Cheyenne had led several battles among the Plains Indians . Before 1876 , the U.S. Army had destroyed seven Cheyenne camps , more than those of any other nation .
Other historians , such as Robert M. Utley and Jerome Greene , also use Lakota oral testimony , but they have concluded that the Lakota coalition , of which Sitting Bull was the ostensible head , was the primary target of the federal government 's pacification campaign .
= = = Battle of the Little Bighorn = = =
During the period 1868 – 1876 , Sitting Bull developed into the most important of Native American political leaders . After the Treaty of Fort Laramie ( 1868 ) and the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation , many traditional Sioux warriors , such as Red Cloud of the Oglala and Spotted Tail of the Brulé , moved to reside permanently on the reservations . They were largely dependent for subsistence on the US Indian agencies . Many other chiefs , including members of Sitting Bull 's Hunkpapa band such as Gall , at times lived temporarily at the agencies . They needed the supplies at a time when white encroachment and the depletion of buffalo herds reduced their resources and challenged Native American independence .
In 1875 the Northern Cheyenne , Hunkpapa , Oglala , Sans Arc , and Minneconjou camped together for a Sun Dance , with both the Cheyenne medicine man White Bull or Ice and Sitting Bull in association . This ceremonial alliance preceded their fighting together in 1876 . Sitting Bull had a major revelation .
At the climactic moment , " Sitting Bull intoned , ' The Great Spirit has given our enemies to us . We are to destroy them . We do not know who they are .
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protested , stating that it would give an inferior road technically , that the existing development plans permitted the construction , and that the noise would not exceed the permitted limits . They concluded that should these demands remain , the increased costs would terminate the project . On 16 November 1992 , Bergen City Council voted to allow the tunnel , under the condition that the tunnel project financed a new football field . The decision was appealed by lawyers representing the local community , but this was rejected by Hordaland County Governor on 30 August 1993 .
Originally the unlimited company Bjorøy og Tyssøy ANS had been attempted established with capital from locals , but instead the company Fastlandssambandet Bjorøy – Tyssøy AS was established on 29 September 1993 . Capital for NOK 40 @,@ 000 was paid by Fjell Municipality , NOK 20 @,@ 000 by Sund Municipality and NOK 10 @,@ 000 by Jack Jahnsen . The plans were sent to the Ministry of Transport and Communications in October 1992 , who started working on a proposal for parliament in January 1993 . Issues raised by the ministry were that the loans had been issued in 1987 , and whether the land estimated value of the guaranteed real estate was real . The project was presented to the Parliament of Norway , who must approve all toll roads . By then the costs were estimated at NOK 61 @.@ 5 million , including NOK 4 @.@ 5 million in ordinary county grants and NOK 30 million in extraordinary county grants . The proposal estimated annual toll collection costs to NOK 825 @,@ 000 , with the collection taking place on Bjorøy . It was originally planned that the toll plaza would be manned between 06 : 00 and 22 : 00 , meaning passing would be free at night .
An agreement was made between the ministry , the tunnel company and the county municipality on 6 January 1994 to build the tunnel . The company had the right to collect tolls for up to 15 years on fees dictated by the county municipality , and would have to pay NOK 27 million for the tunnel , with the county paying for the rest of the costs . The construction would be the responsibility of Hordaland Public Roads Administration , with the tunnel company only responsible for their part of the financing and the collection of tolls . An agreement was made with Selmer , whereby they would charge NOK 59 @,@ 422 @,@ 500 and take the risk of the project , including any expenditures for unknown geological conditions or similar costs increases . They were also responsible for an insurance to reclaim the investments should it be proven impossible to build the tunnel .
= = = Construction = = =
The construction of the tunnel started on 29 September 1993 , with the original plans calling for the tunnel to open on 15 June 1995 . The original construction consisted of blasting from Bjorøy , but by January 1994 there were problems with water leaks through cracks . The contractor described these as " common problems " when building tunnels , but that construction would be delayed by up to two weeks . To keep up with the schedule , the company started also blasting from the mainland . However , the problems increased , and by September the tunnel was leaking 600 liters ( 130 imp gal ; 160 U.S. gal ) per minute , which was 50 % more than estimated . This caused extra work to be done on the exterior to the tunnel , and costs had increased by several tens of millions of kroner . In particular , a different type of rock had been struck , and 60 tonnes ( 59 long tons ; 66 short tons ) of concrete had been injected without this giving the desired effects .
On 30 September , Selmer stopped construction from the Bjorøy side , although it continued from the mainland . About 750 metres ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) from the Bjorøy side , the construction found a section of sandstone , the upper Jurassic Bjorøy formation , a condition that had never been encountered during subsea tunnel construction before . Geological engineers stated that there was no known solution to overcoming the problem , and that if the contractor had blasted into the area , the tunnel would have been filled with sand and water within minutes .
On a meeting on 10 October , O. T. Blindheim , a geological consulting company , and Selmer presented three alternatives : continued injection of cement , recommended by Blindheim ; freezing , recommended by Selmer because it was the cheapest , but would take more time ; and use of a water @-@ tight shield . A technical committee was established , and on 16 December they recommended the use of cement injection combined with a ring of drainage holes around the tunnel before blasting . The method was to be continually tested , and if it was insufficient , freezing could be used . As the tunnel advanced , the hole was to be continuously secured using carbon fibre @-@ reinforced carbon gunite , self @-@ boring bolts , steel ribs and full pouring . Work was taken up after a meeting on 27 March 1995 , and on 16 August the final blast was made . Representatives from Selmer stated that the method they had chosen had resulted in international interest for the tunnel , and they had demonstrated it to several international delegations .
= = = Tolls and auxiliary roads = = =
The grants were only given for the tunnel to Bjorøy , and not for the necessary roads that would connect Tyssøy to Bjorøy . This caused local controversy , as some people on Bjorøy disagreed that the tolls on the Bjorøy Tunnel should pay for the Tyssøy Bridge . On 13 May 1993 , the costs of the connection to Tyssøy were estimated at NOK 5 million . The issue was not resolved when the construction of the tunnel started . The original costs for the bridge were for NOK 11 @.@ 4 million , including a 20 metres ( 66 ft ) long bridge with a clearance of 10 meters ( 33 ft ) . This was later reduced to 10 metres ( 33 ft ) length and 5 meters ( 16 ft ) , which reduced the costs to NOK 9 @.@ 4 million . Of this , the county paid NOK 4 million , while the two municipalities had advanced the transporting earthwork from the tunnel to the sound . On 22 January 1996 , the tunnel company agreed to advance the construction costs and collect it from the tolls , with Sund Municipality guaranteeing for the debt .
On 2 February 1996 , the tunnel company had an agreement with Bru og Tunnelskelskapet , which operates the Bergen Toll Ring , to collect the tolls in the tunnel using the Autopass automatic toll collection system . A manual collection system was estimated to cost NOK 1 @.@ 4 million per year , while an automated system was estimated at NOK 0 @.@ 4 million . The tunnel opened on 7 May 1996 , the same day the last ferry ran . Originally the plan was to charge tolls similar to the ferry . With a manual system , it would not be possible to charge for two @-@ wheeled vehicles and passengers , so the fares for other vehicles were raised slightly . In 1995 , it had cost NOK 44 for a single passing with a car on the ferry . The tolls were set to NOK 120 for all types of vehicles , except two @-@ wheelers , and NOK 72 was charged per travel with pre @-@ paid ticket books . Bus riders had to pay for two extra zones . The toll plaza was open a few hour each week to allow people to purchase discounted tickets .
The contract for the construction of the bridge to Tyssøy was announced on 20 August 1996 , and was won by NCC Eeg @-@ Henriksen Anlegg , who wanted NOK 8 @.@ 5 million for the job . The link opened on 27 September 1997 . In 2000 , a public meeting was held in which it was proposed to reduce the rates and instead prolong the collection time , but this was rejected . In 1999 , the Norwegian Public Roads Administration reported that the Bjorøy Tunnel had the cheapest administration costs per passing , at NOK 7 @.@ 32 , of all small toll companies . The tolls were removed on 29 January 2005 , after eight years and eight months , almost half the stipulated time .
On 19 January 2004 , the freight ship Rocknes ran aground on the unmarked underwater bank of Revskolt in Vatlestraumen , located above the tunnel . The accident cost 18 people their lives and was the most extensive and costly oil spill in Norwegian history . In an attempt to avoid similar incidents occurring again , the Norwegian Coastal Administration started in May 2012 to blast away the bank , increasing the depth from 9 to 14 meters ( 30 to 46 ft ) . This allows the sailing width though Vatlestraumen to increase by 250 meters ( 820 ft ) . The work required the tarp covering the tunnel to be removed , causing increased leaks in the tunnel during the work period . The project was highly controversial amongst the islanders and the plans were approved by only a single decisive vote in the municipal council . Islanders were especially concerned that the work might damage the tunnel . Calculations conducted by the Coastal Administration conclude that there is no chance of this occurring , as the blasting is taking place 65 meters ( 213 ft ) above the tunnel .
= Smedley Butler =
Smedley Darlington Butler ( July 30 , 1881 – June 21 , 1940 ) was a United States Marine Corps major general , the highest rank authorized at that time , and at the time of his death the most decorated Marine in U.S. history . During his 34 @-@ year career as a Marine , he participated in military actions in the Philippines , China , in Central America and the Caribbean during the Banana Wars , and France in World War I. Butler is well known for having later become an outspoken critic of U.S. wars and their consequences , as well as exposing the Business Plot , an alleged plan to overthrow the U.S. government .
By the end of his career , Butler had received 16 medals , five for heroism . He is one of 19 men to receive the Medal of Honor twice , one of three to be awarded both the Marine Corps Brevet Medal and the Medal of Honor , and the only Marine to be awarded the Brevet Medal and two Medals of Honor , all for separate actions .
In 1933 , he became involved in a controversy known as the Business Plot , when he told a congressional committee that a group of wealthy industrialists were planning a military coup to overthrow Franklin D. Roosevelt , with Butler selected to lead a march of veterans to become dictator , similar to other Fascist regimes at that time . The individuals involved all denied the existence of a plot and the media ridiculed the allegations . A final report by a special House of Representatives Committee confirmed some of Butler 's testimony .
In 1935 , Butler wrote a book entitled War Is a Racket , where he described and criticized the workings of the United States in its foreign actions and wars , such as those he was a part of , including the American corporations and other imperialist motivations behind them . After retiring from service , he became a popular activist , speaking at meetings organized by veterans , pacifists , and church groups in the 1930s .
= = Early life = =
Smedley Butler was born July 30 , 1881 , in West Chester , Pennsylvania , the eldest of three sons . His parents , Thomas and Maud ( née Darlington ) Butler , were descended from local Quaker families . Both of his parents were of entirely English ancestry , all of which had been in what is now the United States since the 1600s . His father was a lawyer , a judge and , for 31 years , a Congressman and chair of the House Naval Affairs Committee during the Harding and Coolidge administrations . His maternal grandfather was Smedley Darlington , a Republican Congressman from 1887 to 1891 .
Butler attended the West Chester Friends Graded High School , followed by The Haverford School , a secondary school popular with sons of upper @-@ class Philadelphia families . A Haverford athlete , he became captain of its baseball team and quarterback of its football team . Against the wishes of his father , he left school 38 days before his seventeenth birthday to enlist in the Marine Corps during the Spanish – American War . Nevertheless , Haverford awarded him his high school diploma on June 6 , 1898 , before the end of his final year ; his transcript stated he completed the Scientific Course " with Credit " .
= = Military career = =
= = = Spanish – American War = = =
In the anti @-@ Spanish war fervor of 1898 , Butler lied about his age to receive a direct commission as a Marine second lieutenant . He trained in Washington D.C. at the Marine Barracks on the corner of 8th and I Streets . In July 1898 , he went to Guantánamo Bay , Cuba , arriving shortly after its invasion and capture . His company soon returned to the U.S. and after a short break , he was assigned to the armored cruiser USS New York for four months . He came home to be mustered out of service in February 1899 , but on 8 April 1899 , he accepted a commission as a first lieutenant in the Marine Corps .
= = = Philippine – American War = = =
The Marine Corps sent him to Manila , Philippines . On garrison duty with little to do , Butler turned to alcohol to relieve the boredom . He once became drunk and was temporarily relieved of command after an unspecified incident in his room .
In October 1899 , he saw his first combat action when he led 300 Marines to take the town of Noveleta , from Filipino rebels known as Insurrectos . In the initial moments of the assault , his first sergeant was wounded . Butler briefly panicked , but quickly regained his composure and led his Marines in pursuit of the fleeing enemy . By noon the Marines had dispersed the rebels and taken the town . One Marine had been killed and ten were wounded . Another 50 Marines had been incapacitated by the humid tropical heat .
After the excitement of this combat , garrison duty again became routine . Butler had a very large Eagle , Globe , and Anchor tattoo made which started at his throat and extended to his waist . He also met Littleton Waller , a fellow Marine with whom he maintained a lifelong friendship . When Waller received command of a company in Guam , he was allowed to select five officers to take with him ; he chose Butler . Before they had departed , their orders were changed and they were sent to China aboard the USS Solace to help put down the Boxer Rebellion .
= = = Boxer Rebellion = = =
Once in China , Butler was initially deployed at Tientsin . He took part in the Battle of Tientsin on July 13 , 1900 and in the subsequent Gaselee Expedition , during which he saw the mutilated remains of Japanese soldiers . When he saw another Marine officer fall wounded , he climbed out of a trench to rescue him . Butler was then himself shot in the thigh . Another Marine helped him get to safety , but also was shot . Despite his leg wound , Butler assisted the wounded officer to the rear . Four enlisted men would receive the Medal of Honor in the battle . Butler 's commanding officer , Major Littleton W. T. Waller , personally commended him and wrote that " for such reward as you may deem proper the following officers : Lieutenant Smedley D. Butler , for the admirable control of his men in all the fights of the week , for saving a wounded man at the risk of his own life , and under a very severe fire . " Commissioned officers were not then eligible to receive the Medal of Honor , and Butler instead received a promotion to captain by brevet while he recovered in the hospital , two weeks before his nineteenth birthday .
He was eligible for the Marine Corps Brevet Medal when it was created in 1921 , and was one of only 20 Marines to receive it . His citation reads :
The Secretary of the Navy takes pleasure in transmitting to First Lieutenant Smedley Darlington Butler , United States Marine Corps , the Brevet Medal which is awarded in accordance with Marine Corps Order No. 26 ( 1921 ) , for distinguished conduct and public service in the presence of the enemy while serving with the Second Battalion of Marines , near Tientsin , China , on 13 July 1900 . On 28 March 1901 , First Lieutenant Butler is appointed Captain by brevet , to take rank from 13 July 1900 .
= = = The Banana Wars = = =
Butler participated in a series of occupations , police actions , and interventions by the United States in Central America and the Caribbean , commonly called the Banana Wars because their goal was to protect American commercial interests in the region , particularly those of the United Fruit Company . This company had significant financial stakes in the production of bananas , tobacco , sugar cane , and other products throughout the Caribbean , Central America and the northern portions of South America . The U.S. was also trying to advance its own political interests by maintaining its influence in the region and especially its control of the Panama Canal . These interventions started with the Spanish – American War in 1898 and ended with the withdrawal of troops from Haiti and President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's Good Neighbor Policy in 1934 . After his retirement , Butler became an outspoken critic of the business interests in the Caribbean , criticizing the ways in which U.S. businesses and Wall Street bankers imposed their agenda on United States foreign policy during this period .
= = = = Honduras = = = =
In 1903 , Butler was stationed in Puerto Rico on Culebra Island . Hearing rumors of a Honduran revolt , the United States government ordered his unit and a supporting naval detachment to sail to Honduras , 1 @,@ 500 miles ( 2 @,@ 414 km ) to the west , to defend the U.S. Consulate in Honduras . Using a converted banana boat renamed the Panther , Butler and several hundred Marines landed at the port town of Puerto Cortés . In a letter home , he described the action : they were " prepared to land and shoot everybody and everything that was breaking the peace " , but instead found a quiet town . The Marines re @-@ boarded the Panther and continued up the coast line looking for rebels at several towns , but found none .
When they arrived at Trujillo , however , they heard gunfire , and came upon a battle in progress that had been waged for 55 hours between rebels called Bonillista and Honduran government soldiers at a local fort . At the sight of the Marines , the fighting ceased and Butler led a detachment of Marines to the American consulate , where he found the consul , wrapped in an American flag , hiding among the floor beams . As soon as the Marines left the area with the shaken consul , the battle resumed and the Bonillistas soon controlled the government . During this expedition Butler earned the first of his nicknames , " Old Gimlet Eye " . It was attributed to his feverish , bloodshot eyes — he was suffering from some unnamed tropic fever at the time — which enhanced his penetrating and bellicose stare .
= = = = Marriage and business = = = =
After the Honduran campaign , Butler returned to Philadelphia . He married Ethel Conway Peters of Philadelphia in Bay Head , New Jersey , on June 30 , 1905 . His best man at the wedding was his former commanding officer in China , Lieutenant Colonel Littleton W. T. Waller . The couple eventually had three children : a daughter , Ethel Peters Butler ( Mrs. John Wehle ) , and two sons , Smedley Darlington , Jr. and Thomas Richard .
Butler was next assigned to garrison duty in the Philippines , where he once launched a resupply mission across the stormy waters of Subic Bay after his isolated outpost ran out of rations . In 1908 , he was diagnosed as having a nervous breakdown and received nine months sick leave which he spent at home . He successfully managed a coal mine in West Virginia , but returned to active duty in the Marine Corps at the first opportunity .
= = = = Central America = = = =
From 1909 to 1912 , Butler served in Nicaragua , enforcing U.S. policy , and once again led his battalion to the relief of a rebel @-@ besieged city , this time Granada , and again , with a 104 @-@ degree fever . In December 1909 , he commanded the 3d Battalion , 1st Marine Regiment , on the Isthmus of Panama . On August 11 , 1912 , he was temporarily detached to command an expeditionary battalion with which he participated in the Battle of Masaya on September 19 , 1912 and the bombardment , assault and capture of Coyotepe Hill , Nicaragua in October 1912 . He remained in Nicaragua until November 1912 , when he rejoined the Marines of 3d Battalion , 1st Marine Regiment , at Camp Elliott , Panama .
= = = = Veracruz , Mexico , and first Medal of Honor = = = =
Butler and his family were living in Panama in January 1914 when he was ordered to report as the Marine officer of a battleship squadron massing off the coast of Mexico , near Veracruz , to monitor a revolutionary movement . He did not like leaving his family and the home they had established in Panama and he intended to request orders home as soon as he determined he was not needed .
On March 1 , 1914 , Butler and Navy Lieutenant ( later Admiral ) Frank Fletcher went ashore in Veracruz and made their way to Jalapa , Mexico and back . A purpose of the trip was to allow Butler and Fletcher to discuss the details of a future expedition into Mexico . Fletcher 's plan required Butler to make his way into the country and develop a more detailed invasion plan while inside its borders . It was a spy mission and Butler was enthusiastic to get started . When Admiral Fletcher explained the plan to the commanders in Washington , D.C. , they agreed to it . Butler was given the go @-@ ahead . He entered Mexico and made his way to the U.S. Consulate in Mexico City , posing as a railroad official named " Mr. Johnson " . He and the chief railroad inspector scoured the city , saying they were searching for a lost railroad employee ; there was no lost employee , and in fact the employee they said was lost never existed . The ruse gave Butler access to various areas of the city . In the process of the so @-@ called search , they located weapons in use by the Mexican army , and determined the sizes of units and states of readiness . They updated maps and verified the railroad lines for use in an impending US invasion . On March 7 , 1914 , he returned to Veracruz with the information he had gathered and presented it to his commanders . The invasion plan was eventually scrapped when authorities loyal to Victoriano Huerta detained a small American naval landing party in Tampico , Mexico , which became known as the Tampico Affair .
When President Woodrow Wilson discovered that an arms shipment was about to arrive in Mexico , he sent a contingent of Marines and sailors to Veracruz to intercept it on April 21 , 1914 . Over the next few days , street fighting and sniper fire posed a threat to Butler 's force , but a door @-@ to @-@ door search rooted out most of the resistance . By April 26 , the landing force of 5 @,@ 800 Marines and sailors secured the city , which they held for the next six months . By the end of the conflict , the Americans reported 17 dead and 63 wounded and the Mexican forces had 126 dead and 195 wounded . After the actions at Veracruz , the United States decided to minimize the bloodshed and changed their plans from a full invasion of Mexico to simply maintaining the city of Veracruz . For his actions on April 22 , Butler was awarded his first Medal of Honor . The citation reads :
For distinguished conduct in battle , engagement of Vera Cruz , 22 April 1914 . Major Butler was eminent and conspicuous in command of his battalion . He exhibited courage and skill in leading his men through the action of the 22d and in the final occupation of the city .
After the occupation of Veracruz , many military personnel received the Medal of Honor , an unusually high number that diminished somewhat the prestige of the award . The Army presented one , nine went to Marines and 46 were bestowed upon Navy personnel . During World War I , Butler , then a major , attempted to return his Medal , explaining he had done nothing to deserve it . The medal was returned with orders to keep it and to wear it as well .
= = = = Haiti and second Medal of Honor = = = =
In 1915 , members of the populace killed the Haitian president Vilbrun Guillaume Sam . In response , the United States ordered the USS Connecticut to Haiti with Major Butler and a group of Marines on board . On October 24 , 1915 , an estimated 400 Cacos ambushed Butler 's patrol of 44 mounted Marines when they approached Fort Dipitie . Surrounded by Cacos the Marines maintained their perimeter throughout the night . The next morning , they charged the much larger enemy force by breaking out in three directions . The startled Haitians fled . In early November Butler and a force of 700 Marines and sailors returned to the mountains to clear the area . At their temporary headquarters base at Le Trou they fought off an attack by about 100 Cacos . After the Americans took several other forts and ramparts during the following days , only Fort Rivière , an old French @-@ built stronghold atop Montagne Noire , was left .
For the operation , Butler was given three companies of Marines and some sailors from the USS Connecticut , about 100 men . They encircled the fort , and gradually closed in on it . Butler reached the fort from the southern side with the 15th Company and found a small opening in the wall . The Marines entered through the opening and engaged the Cacos in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . Butler and the Marines took the rebel stronghold on November 17 , 1915 , an action for which he received his second Medal of Honor , as well as the Haitian Medal of Honor . The entire battle lasted less than twenty minutes . Only one Marine was injured in the assault when he was struck by a rock and lost two teeth . All 51 Haitians in the Fort were killed . Butler 's exploits impressed Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt , who recommended the award based upon Butler 's performance during the engagement . Once the medal was approved and presented in 1917 , Butler achieved the distinction , shared with Dan Daly , of being the only Marines to receive the Medal of Honor twice for separate actions . The citation reads :
For extraordinary heroism in action as Commanding Officer of detachments from the 5th , 13th , 23d Companies and the Marine and sailor detachment from the U.S.S. Connecticut , Major Butler led the attack on Fort Rivière , Haiti , 17 November 1915 . Following a concentrated drive , several different detachments of Marines gradually closed in on the old French bastion fort in an effort to cut off all avenues of retreat for the Caco bandits . Reaching the fort on the southern side where there was a small opening in the wall , Major Butler gave the signal to attack and Marines from the 15th Company poured through the breach , engaged the Cacos in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , took the bastion and crushed the Caco resistance . Throughout this perilous action , Major Butler was conspicuous for his bravery and forceful leadership .
Subsequently , as the initial organizer and commanding officer of the Gendarmerie d 'Haïti , the native police force , Butler established a record as a capable administrator . Under his supervision , social order , administered by the dictatorship , was largely restored and many vital public works projects were successfully completed . He recalled later that , during his time in Haiti , he and his troops " hunted the Cacos like pigs . "
= = = World War I = = =
During World War I Butler was , to his disappointment , not assigned to a combat command on the Western Front . He made several requests for a posting in France , writing letters to his personal friend , Wendell Cushing Neville . While Butler 's superiors considered him brave and brilliant , they described him as " unreliable . "
In October 1918 , he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general at the age of 37 and placed in command of Camp Pontanezen at Brest , France , a debarkation depot that funneled troops of the American Expeditionary Force to the battlefields . The camp had been unsanitary , overcrowded and disorganized . U.S. Secretary of War Newton Baker sent novelist Mary Roberts Rinehart to report on the camp . She later described how Butler tackled the sanitation problems . Butler began by solving the problem of mud : " [ T ] he ground under the tents was nothing but mud , [ so ] he had raided the wharf at Brest of the duckboards no longer needed for the trenches , carted the first one himself up that four @-@ mile hill to the camp , and thus provided something in the way of protection for the men to sleep on . " General John J. Pershing authorized a duckboard shoulder patch for the units . This earned Butler another nickname , " Old Duckboard . " For his exemplary service he was awarded both the Army Distinguished Service Medal and Navy Distinguished Service Medal and the French Order of the Black Star . The citation for the Army Distinguished Service Medal states :
The President of the United States of America , authorized by Act of Congress , July 9 , 1918 , takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Brigadier General Smedley Darlington Butler , United States Marine Corps , for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States , in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. Brigadier General Butler commanded with ability and energy Pontanezen Camp at Brest during the time in which it has developed into the largest embarkation camp in the world . Confronted with problems of extraordinary magnitude in supervising the reception , entertainment and departure of the large numbers of officers and soldiers passing through this camp , he has solved all with conspicuous success , performing services of the highest character for the American Expeditionary Forces .
The citation for the Navy Distinguished Service Medal states :
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Brigadier General Smedley Darlington Butler , United States Marine Corps , for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services in France , during World War I. Brigadier General Butler organized , trained and commanded the 13th Regiment Marines ; also the 5th Brigade of Marines . He commanded with ability and energy Camp Pontanezen at Brest during the time in which it has developed into the largest embarkation camp in the world . Confronted with problems of extraordinary magnitude in supervising the reception , entertainment and departure of large numbers of officers and soldiers passing through the camp , he has solved all with conspicuous success , performing services of the highest character for the American Expeditionary Forces .
Following the war , he became Commanding General of the Marine Barracks at Marine Corps Base Quantico , Virginia . At Quantico , he transformed the wartime training camp into a permanent Marine post . During a training exercise in western Virginia in 1921 , he was told by a local farmer that Stonewall Jackson 's arm was buried nearby , to which he replied , " Bosh ! I will take a squad of Marines and dig up that spot to prove you wrong ! " Butler found the arm in a box . He later replaced the wooden box with a metal one , and reburied the arm . He left a plaque on the granite monument marking the burial place of Jackson 's arm ; the plaque is no longer on the marker but can be viewed at the Chancellorsville Battlefield visitor 's center .
= = = China and stateside service = = =
From 1927 to 1929 , Butler was commander of the Marine Expeditionary Force in China and , while there , cleverly parlayed his influence among various generals and warlords to the protection of U.S. interests , ultimately winning the public acclaim of contending Chinese leaders . When Butler returned to the United States in 1929 he was promoted to major general , becoming , at age 48 , the youngest major general of the Marine Corps . He directed the Quantico camp 's growth until it became the " showplace " of the Corps . Butler won national attention by taking thousands of his men on long field marches , many of which he led from the front , to Gettysburg and other Civil War battle sites , where they conducted large @-@ scale re @-@ enactments before crowds of distinguished spectators .
In 1931 , Butler violated diplomatic norms by publicly recounting gossip about Benito Mussolini in which the dictator allegedly struck and killed a child with his speeding automobile in a hit @-@ and @-@ run accident . The Italian government protested and President Hoover , who strongly disliked Butler , forced Secretary of the Navy Charles Francis Adams III to court @-@ martial him . Butler became the first general officer to be placed under arrest since the Civil War . He apologized to Secretary Adams and the court @-@ martial was canceled with only a reprimand .
= = Director of Public Safety = =
At the urging of Butler 's father , in 1924 , the newly elected mayor of Philadelphia W. Freeland Kendrick asked him to leave the Marines to become the Director of Public Safety , the official in charge of running the city 's police and fire departments . Philadelphia 's municipal government was notoriously corrupt and Butler initially refused . Kendrick asked President Calvin Coolidge to intervene . Coolidge contacted Butler and authorized him to take the necessary leave from the Corps . At the request of the President , Butler served in the post from January 1924 until December 1925 . He began his new job by assembling all 4 @,@ 000 of the city police into the Metropolitan Opera House in shifts to introduce himself and inform them that things would change while he was in charge . He replaced corrupt police officers and , in some cases , switched entire units from one part of the city to another , undermining local protection rackets and profiteering .
Within 48 hours of taking over , Butler organized raids on more than 900 speakeasies , ordering them padlocked and , in many cases , destroyed . In addition to raiding the speakeasies , he also attempted to eliminate other illegal activities : bootlegging , prostitution , gambling and police corruption . More zealous than he was political , he ordered crackdowns on the social elite 's favorite hangouts , such as the Ritz @-@ Carlton and the Union League , as well as on drinking establishments that served the working class . Although he was effective in reducing crime and police corruption , he was a controversial leader . In one instance he made a statement that he would promote the first officer to kill a bandit and stated , " I don 't believe there is a single bandit notch on a policeman 's guns [ sic ] in this city , go out and get some . " Although many of the local citizens and police felt that the raids were just a show , the raids continued for several weeks .
He implemented programs to improve city safety and security . He established policies and guidelines of administration , and developed a Philadelphia police uniform that resembled that of the Marine Corps . Other changes included military @-@ style checkpoints into the city , bandit chasing squads armed with sawed @-@ off shotguns , and armored police cars . The press began reporting on the good and the bad aspects of Butler 's personal war on crime . The reports praised the new uniforms , the new programs and the reductions in crime but they also reflected the public 's negative opinion of their new Public Safety director . Many felt that he was being too aggressive in his tactics and resented the reductions in their civil rights , such as the stopping of citizens at the city checkpoints . Butler frequently swore in his radio addresses , causing many citizens to suggest his behavior , particularly his language , was inappropriate for someone of his rank and stature . Some even suggested Butler acted like a military dictator , even charging that he wrongfully used active @-@ duty Marines in some of his raids . Major R. A. Haynes , the federal Prohibition commissioner , visited the city in 1924 , six months after Butler was appointed . He announced that " great progress " had been made in the city and attributed that success to Butler .
Eventually Butler 's leadership style and the directness of actions undermined his support within the community . His departure seemed imminent . Mayor Kendrick reported to the press , " I had the guts to bring General Butler to Philadelphia and I have the guts to fire him . " Feeling that his duties in Philadelphia were coming to an end , Butler contacted General Lejeune to prepare for his return to the Marine Corps . Not all of the city felt he was doing a bad job , though , and when the news started to break that he would be leaving , people began to gather at the Academy of Music . A group of 4 @,@ 000 supporters assembled and negotiated a truce between him and the mayor to keep him in Philadelphia for a while longer , and the President authorized a one @-@ year extension for him .
Butler devoted much of his second year to executing arrest warrants , cracking down on crooked police and enforcing prohibition . On January 1 , 1926 , his leave from the Marine Corps ended and the President declined a request for a second extension . Butler received orders to report to San Diego and he prepared his family and his belongings for the new assignment . In light of his pending departure , Butler began to defy the Mayor and other key city officials . On the eve of his departure , he had an article printed in the paper stating his intention to stay and " finish the job " . The mayor was surprised and furious when he read the press release the next morning and demanded his resignation . After almost two years in office , Butler resigned under pressure , stating later that " cleaning up Philadelphia was worse than any battle I was ever in . "
= = Military retirement = =
When Commandant of the Marine Corps Major General Wendell C. Neville died July 8 , 1930 , Butler , at that time the senior major general in the Corps , was a candidate for the position . Although he had significant support from many inside and outside the Corps , including John Lejeune and Josephus Daniels , two other Marine Corps generals were seriously considered , Ben H. Fuller and John H. Russell . Lejeune and others petitioned President Hoover , garnered support in the Senate and flooded Secretary of the Navy Charles Adams 's desk with more than 2 @,@ 500 letters of support . With the recent death of his influential father , however , Butler had lost much of his protection from his civilian superiors . The outspokenness that characterized his run @-@ ins with the Mayor of Philadelphia , the " unreliability " mentioned by his superiors when opposing a posting to the Western Front , and his comments about Benito Mussolini resurfaced . In the end , the position of Commandant went to Fuller , who had more years of commissioned service than Butler and was considered less controversial . Butler requested retirement and left active duty on October 1 , 1931 .
= = Later years = =
Even before retiring from the Corps , Butler began developing his post @-@ Corps career . In May 1931 , he took part in a commission established by Oregon Governor Julius L. Meier . The commission laid the foundations for the Oregon State Police . He began lecturing at events and conferences and after his retirement from the Marines in 1931 , he took this up full @-@ time . He donated much of his earnings from his lucrative lecture circuits to the Philadelphia unemployment relief . He toured the western United States , making 60 speeches before returning for his daughter 's marriage to Marine aviator Lieutenant John Wehle . Her wedding was the only time that he wore his dress blue uniform after he left the Marines .
= = = Senate campaign = = =
Butler announced his candidacy for the U.S. Senate in the Republican primary in Pennsylvania in March 1932 as a proponent of Prohibition , known as a " dry " . Butler allied with Gifford Pinchot , but was defeated in the April 26 , 1932 primary election with only 37 @.@ 5 % of the vote to incumbent Senator James J. Davis 's 60 % . A third candidate received the remainder of the votes . According to biographer Mark Strecker , Butler then moved politically to the far left , voting for Norman Thomas of the Socialist Party for president in 1936 .
= = = Bonus Army = = =
During his Senate campaign , Butler spoke out forcefully about the veterans bonus . Veterans of World War I , many of whom had been out of work since the beginning of the Great Depression , sought immediate cash payment of Service Certificates granted to them eight years earlier via the World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924 . Each Service Certificate , issued to a qualified veteran soldier , bore a face value equal to the soldier 's promised payment , plus compound interest . The problem was that the certificates ( like bonds ) , matured 20 years from the date of original issuance , thus , under extant law , the Service Certificates could not be redeemed until 1945 . In June 1932 , approximately 43 @,@ 000 marchers — 17 @,@ 000 of whom were World War I veterans , their families , and affiliated groups — protested in Washington , D.C. The Bonus Expeditionary Force , also known as the " Bonus Army " , marched on Washington to advocate the passage of the " soldier 's bonus " for service during World War I. After Congress adjourned , bonus marchers remained in the city and became unruly . On July 28 , 1932 , two bonus marchers were shot by police , causing the entire mob to become hostile and riotous . The FBI , then known as the United States Bureau of Investigation , checked its fingerprint records to obtain the police records of individuals who had been arrested during the riots or who had participated in the bonus march .
The veterans made camp in the Anacostia flats while they awaited the congressional decision on whether or not to pay the bonus . The motion , known as the Patman bill , was decisively defeated , but the veterans stayed in their camp . Butler arrived with his young son Thomas , in mid @-@ July the day before the official eviction by the Hoover administration . He walked through the camp and spoke to the veterans ; he told them that they were fine soldiers and they had a right to lobby Congress just as much as any corporation . He and his son spent the night and ate with the men , and in the morning Butler gave a speech to the camping veterans . He instructed them to keep their sense of humor and cautioned them not to do anything that would cost public sympathy . On July 28 , army cavalry units led by General Douglas MacArthur dispersed the Bonus Army by riding through it and using gas . During the conflict several veterans were killed or injured and Butler declared himself a " Hoover @-@ for @-@ Ex @-@ President @-@ Republican " .
= = = Lectures = = =
He became widely known for his outspoken lectures against war profiteering , U.S. military adventurism , and what he viewed as nascent fascism in the United States .
In December 1933 , Butler toured the country with James E. Van Zandt to recruit members for the Veterans of Foreign Wars ( VFW ) . He described their effort as " trying to educate the soldiers out of the sucker class . " In his speeches he denounced the Economy Act of 1933 , called on veterans to organize politically to win their benefits , and condemned the FDR administration for its ties to big business . The VFW reprinted one of his speeches with the title " You Got to Get Mad " in its magazine Foreign Service . He said : " I believe in ... taking Wall St. by the throat and shaking it up . " He believed the rival veterans ' group the American Legion was controlled by banking interests . On December 8 , 1933 , he said : " I have never known one leader of the American Legion who had never sold them out — and I mean it . "
In addition to his speeches to pacifist groups , he served from 1935 to 1937 as a spokesman for the American League Against War and Fascism . In 1935 , he wrote the exposé War Is a Racket , a trenchant condemnation of the profit motive behind warfare . His views on the subject are summarized in the following passage from the November 1935 issue of the socialist magazine Common Sense :
I spent 33 years and four months in active military service and during that period I spent most of my time as a high class muscle man for Big Business , for Wall Street and the bankers . In short , I was a racketeer , a gangster for capitalism . I helped make Mexico and especially Tampico safe for American oil interests in 1914 . I helped make Haiti and Cuba a decent place for the National City Bank boys to collect revenues in . I helped in the raping of half a dozen Central American republics for the benefit of Wall Street . I helped purify Nicaragua for the International Banking House of Brown Brothers in 1902 – 1912 . I brought light to the Dominican Republic for the American sugar interests in 1916 . I helped make Honduras right for the American fruit companies in 1903 . In China in 1927 I helped see to it that Standard Oil went on its way unmolested . Looking back on it , I might have given Al Capone a few hints . The best he could do was to operate his racket in three districts . I operated on three continents .
= = = Business Plot = = =
In November 1934 , Butler claimed the existence of a political conspiracy by business leaders to overthrow President Roosevelt , a series of allegations that came to be known in the media as the Business Plot . A special committee of the House of Representatives headed by Representatives John W. McCormack of Massachusetts and Samuel Dickstein of New York , who was later alleged to have been a paid agent of the NKVD , heard his testimony in secret . The McCormack @-@ Dickstein committee was a precursor to the House Committee on Un @-@ American Activities .
In November 1934 , Butler told the committee that one Gerald P. MacGuire told him that a group of businessmen , supposedly backed by a private army of 500 @,@ 000 ex @-@ soldiers and others , intended to establish a fascist dictatorship . Butler had been asked to lead it , he said , by MacGuire , who was a bond salesman with Grayson M – P Murphy & Co . The New York Times reported that Butler had told friends that General Hugh S. Johnson , former head of the National Recovery Administration , was to be installed as dictator , and that the J.P. Morgan banking firm was behind the plot . Butler told Congress that MacGuire had told him the attempted coup was backed by three million dollars , and that the 500 @,@ 000 men were probably to be assembled in Washington , D.C. the following year . All the parties alleged to be involved publicly said there was no truth in the story , calling it a joke and a fantasy .
In its report , the committee stated that it was unable to confirm Butler 's statements other than the conversations with MacGuire . No prosecutions or further investigations followed , and historians have questioned whether or not a coup was actually contemplated . Historians have not reported any independent evidence apart from Butler 's report on what MacGuire told him . Schmidt says Maguire was an " inconsequential trickster . " The news media dismissed the plot , with a New York Times editorial characterizing it as a " gigantic hoax " . When the committee 's final report was released , the Times said the committee " purported to report that a two @-@ month investigation had convinced it that General Butler 's story of a Fascist march on Washington was alarmingly true " and " ... also alleged that definite proof had been found that the much publicized Fascist march on Washington , which was to have been led by Major . Gen. Smedley D. Butler , retired , according to testimony at a hearing , was actually contemplated " . The individuals involved all denied the existence of a plot , despite evidence to the contrary . The media ridiculed the allegations , although a final report by a special House of Representatives Committee confirmed some of Butler 's accusations
The McCormack @-@ Dickstein Committee confirmed some of Butler 's testimony in its final report . " In the last few weeks of the committee 's official life it received evidence showing that certain persons had made an attempt to establish a fascist organization in this country ... There is no question that these attempts were discussed , were planned , and might have been placed in execution when and if the financial backers deemed it expedient . "
= = Death = =
Upon his retirement , Butler bought a home in Newtown Square , Pennsylvania , where he lived with his wife . In June 1940 , he checked himself into the hospital after becoming sick a few weeks earlier . His doctor described his illness as an incurable condition of the upper gastro @-@ intestinal tract that was probably cancer . His family remained by his side , even bringing his new car so he could see it from the window . He never had a chance to drive it . On June 21 , 1940 , Smedley Butler died in the Naval Hospital in Philadelphia .
The funeral was held at his home , attended by friends and family as well as several politicians , members of the Philadelphia police force and officers of the Marine Corps . He was buried at Oaklands Cemetery near West Chester , Pennsylvania . Since his death in 1940 , his family has maintained his home as it was when he died , including a large quantity of memorabilia he had collected throughout his varied career .
= = Honors and awards = =
= = = Military awards = = =
In addition to the Medal of Honor and his other American military decorations , Butler received several awards from other countries including the Haitian National Order of Honour and Merit and the French Order of the Black Star .
= = = Other honors and recognition = = =
The USS Butler ( DD @-@ 636 ) , a Gleaves @-@ class destroyer , was named in his honor in 1942 . This vessel participated in the European and Pacific theaters of operations during the Second World War . She was later converted to a high speed minesweeper .
The Boston , Massachusetts , chapter of Veterans for Peace is called the Smedley D. Butler Brigade in his honor .
Butler was featured in the 2003 Canadian documentary film The Corporation .
In his book My First Days in the White House , Senator Huey Long of Louisiana stated that , if elected to the presidency , he would name Butler as his Secretary of War .
His childhood home at West Chester , The Butler House , was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 .
= = Published works = =
Butler , Smedley ; Burks , Arthur J. ( 1927 ) . Walter Garvin in Mexico . Philadelphia : Dorrance . OCLC 3595275 .
— — ; de Ronde , Philip ( 1935 ) . Paraguay : A Gallant Little Nation : The Story of Paraguay 's War with Bolivia . OCLC 480786605 .
— — ( 1934 ) . Speech . Smedley Butler Talks on Black Shirts in America , Philadelphia . Hearst Vault Material , HVMc71r2 , 1447 .
— — ; Venzon , Anne Cipriano . The Papers of General Smedley Darlington Butler , USMC , 1915 – 1918 . OCLC 10958085 .
— — ; Murphy , William R. Letter to William R. Murphy , 1925 April 25 . OCLC 53437731 .
— — ; Venzon , Anne Cipriano ( 1992 ) . General Smedley Darlington Butler : The Letters of a Leatherneck , 1898 – 1931 . Praeger . ISBN 0 @-@ 275 @-@ 94141 @-@ 8 . Retrieved October 14 , 2007 .
— — ( July 1929 ) . " The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science " . American Marines in China . OCLC 479642987 .
— — ( 1933 ) . Old Gimlet Eye . New York : Farrar & Rinehart . ISBN 0 @-@ 940328 @-@ 01 @-@ 1 . OCLC 219896546 .
— — ; Lejeune , John Archer ; Miller , J. Michael ( 2002 ) . My Dear Smedley : Personal Correspondence of John A. LeJeune and Smedley D. Butler , 1927 – 1928 . Marine Corps Research Center .
— — ( 2003 ) [ 1935 ] . War Is a Racket . Los Angeles : Feral House . ISBN 0 @-@ 922915 @-@ 86 @-@ 5 .
= King vulture =
The king vulture ( Sarcoramphus papa ) is a large bird found in Central and South America . It is a member of the New World vulture family Cathartidae . This vulture lives predominantly in tropical lowland forests stretching from southern Mexico to northern Argentina . It is the only surviving member of the genus Sarcoramphus , although fossil members are known .
Large and predominantly white , the king vulture has gray to black ruff , flight , and tail feathers . The head and neck are bald , with the skin color varying , including yellow , orange , blue , purple , and red . The king vulture has a very noticeable yellow fleshy caruncle on its beak . This vulture is a scavenger and it often makes the initial cut into a fresh carcass . It also displaces smaller New World vulture species from a carcass . King vultures have been known to live for up to 30 years in captivity .
King vultures were popular figures in the Mayan codices as well as in local folklore and medicine . Although currently listed as least concern by the IUCN , they are decreasing in number , due primarily to habitat loss .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
The king vulture was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae as Vultur papa , the type specimen originally collected in Suriname . It was reassigned to the genus Sarcoramphus in 1805 by French zoologist André Marie Constant Duméril . The generic name is a New Latin compound formed from the Greek words σάρξ ( sarx , " flesh " , the combining form of which is σαρκο- ) and ῥάμφος ( rhamphos , " crooked beak of bird of prey " ) . The genus name is often misspelled as Sarcorhamphus , improperly retaining the Greek rough breathing despite agglutination with the previous word @-@ element . The bird was also assigned to the genus Gyparchus by Constantin Wilhelm Lambert Gloger in 1841 , but this classification is not used in modern literature since Sarcoramphus has priority as the earlier name . The species name is derived from Latin word papa " bishop " , alluding the bird 's plumage resembling the clothing of one . The king vulture 's closest living relative is the Andean condor , Vultur gryphus . Some authors have even put these species in a separate subfamily from the other New World vultures , though most authors consider this subdivision unnecessary .
There are two theories on how the king vulture earned the " king " part of its common name . The first is that the name is a reference to its habit of displacing smaller vultures from a carcass and eating its fill while they wait . An alternative theory reports that the name is derived from Mayan legends , in which the bird was a king who served as a messenger between humans and the gods . This bird was also known as the " white crow " by the Spanish in Paraguay . It was called cozcacuauhtli in Nahuatl , derived from cozcatl " collar " and cuauhtli " bird of prey " .
The exact systematic placement of the king vulture and the remaining six species of New World vultures remains unclear . Though both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles , the New World and Old World vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world . Just how different the two are is currently under debate , with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks . More recent authorities maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures or place them in their own order , Cathartiformes . The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead placed them in Incertae sedis , but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible . Like other New World vultures , the king vulture has a diploid chromosome number of 80 .
= = = Fossil record and evolution = = =
The genus Sarcoramphus , which today contains only the king vulture , had a wider distribution in the past . The Kern vulture ( Sarcoramphus kernense ) , lived in southwestern North America during the mid @-@ Pliocene ( Piacenzian ) , some 3 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 million years ago ) . It was a little @-@ known component of the Blancan / Delmontian faunal stages . The only material is a broken distal humerus fossil , found at Pozo Creek , Kern County , California . As per Loye H. Miller 's original description , " [ c ] ompared with [ S. papa ] the type conforms in general form and curvature except for its greater size and robustness . " The large span in time between the existence of the two species suggests that the Kern vulture might be distinct , but as the fossil is somewhat damaged and rather non @-@ diagnostic , even assignment to this genus is not completely certain . During the Late Pleistocene , another species probably assignable to the genus , Sarcoramphus fisheri , occurred in Peru . A supposed king vulture relative from Quaternary cave deposits on Cuba turned out to be bones of the eagle @-@ sized hawk Buteogallus borrasi ( formerly in Titanohierax ) .
Little can be said of the evolutionary history of the genus , mainly because remains of other Neogene New World vultures are usually younger or even more fragmentary . The teratorns held sway over the ecological niche of the extant group especially in North America . The Kern vulture seems to slightly precede the main bout of the Great American Interchange , and it is notable that the living diversity of New World vultures seems to have originated in Central America . The Kern vulture would therefore represent a northwards divergence possibly sister to the S. fisheri – S. papa lineage . The fossil record , though scant , supports the theory that the ancestral king vultures and South American condors separated at least some 5 mya .
= = = Bartram 's " painted vulture " = = =
A " painted vulture " ( " Sarcoramphus sacra " or " S. papa sacra " ) is described in William Bartram 's notes of his travels in Florida during the 1770s . This bird 's description matches the appearance of the king vulture except that it had a white , not black , tail . Bartram describes the bird as being relatively common and even claimed to have collected one . However , no other naturalists record the painted vulture in Florida and sixty years after the sighting its validity began to be questioned , leading to what John Cassin described as the most inviting problem in North American ornithology . An independent account and painting was made of a similar bird by Eleazar Albin in 1734 .
While most early ornithologists defended Bartram 's honesty , Joel Asaph Allen argued that the painted vulture was mythical and that Bartram mixed elements of different species to create this bird . Allen pointed out that the birds ' behavior , as recorded by Bartram , is in complete agreement with the caracara 's . For example , Bartram observed the birds following wildfires to scavenge for burned insects and box turtles . Such behavior is typical of caracaras , but the larger and shorter @-@ legged king vultures are not well adapted for walking . The northern crested caracara ( Caracara cheriway ) was believed to be common and conspicuous in Bartram 's days , but it is notably absent from Bartram 's notes if the painted vulture is accepted as a Sarcoramphus . However , Francis Harper argued that the bird could , as in the 1930s , have been rare in the area Bartram visited and could have been missed .
Harper noticed that Bartram 's notes were considerably altered and expanded in the printed edition , and the detail of the white tail appeared in print for the first time in this revised account . Harper believed that Bartram could have tried to fill in details of the bird from memory and got the tail coloration wrong . Harper and several other researchers have attempted to prove the former existence of a king vulture relative in Florida at this late date , suggesting that the population was in the process of extinction and finally disappeared during a cold spell . Additionally , William McAtee , noting the tendency of birds to form Floridian subspecies , suggested that the white tail could be a sign that the painted vulture was a subspecies of the king vulture .
= = Description = =
Excluding the two species of condors , the king vulture is the largest of the New World vultures . Its overall length ranges from 67 – 81 centimeters ( 27 – 32 in ) and its wingspan is 1 @.@ 2 – 2 meters ( 4 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . Its weight ranges from 2 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 6 – 10 lb ) . An imposing bird , the adult king vulture has predominantly white plumage , which has a slight rose @-@ yellow tinge to it . In stark contrast , the wing coverts , flight feathers and tail are dark grey to black , as is the prominent thick neck ruff . The head and neck are devoid of feathers , the skin shades of red and purple on the head , vivid orange on the neck and yellow on the throat . On the head , the skin is wrinkled and folded , and there is a highly noticeable irregular golden crest attached on the cere above its orange and black bill ; this caruncle does not fully form until the bird ’ s fourth year .
The king vulture has the largest skull and braincase , and strongest bill of the New World vultures . This bill has a hooked tip and a sharp cutting edge . The bird has broad wings and a short , broad , and square tail . The irises of its eyes are white and bordered by bright red sclera . Unlike some New World vultures , the king vulture lacks eyelashes . It also has gray legs and long , thick claws .
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of them were back in regular service later that year . This incident caused further concerns regarding the safety of flights operated by Adam Air , which had received much criticism after the 1 January 2007 crash of Flight 574 .
= = Aircraft = =
The aircraft , a Boeing 737 @-@ 33A , registration PK @-@ KKV , was acquired by Adam Air in January 2007 , having previously been operated by Brazilian operator Varig . The aircraft was manufactured in 1994 .
= = Accident = =
The plane bent upon landing at Juanda International Airport , with the fuselage breaking in the middle of the passenger section . The landing was particularly hard , with baggage being ejected from cabin lockers into the cabin space . The tail section of the plane was bent down compared to the rest of the plane . Subsequent flights to the airport were diverted to alternate airports . Adam Air 's fleet of Boeing 737 @-@ 300s were grounded for safety inspections in the interim . Immediately after the accident , Adam Air repainted the aircraft , covering the original orange livery with a plain white exterior . This is legally permissible , so long as no evidence is destroyed . Also in the immediate aftermath , a large number of passengers cancelled their flights with Adam Air , saying they had " lost faith " in the airline . They were all refunded in full .
= = Grounding of Adam Air 's 737s = =
As a result of the incident , all six remaining Adam Air 737s were immediately grounded awaiting safety checks . Vice @-@ President of Indonesia , Jusuf Kalla , said that all Boeing 737 @-@ 300s should be checked . He eventually decided the entire Indonesian fleet of 737s should be checked , but did not ground any more aircraft . There were also suggestions that Adam Air should be suspended from all operations until the entire fleet could be checked , with MP Abdul Hakim saying " It will be good for the company and the government ... until the flight authorities can determine if Adam Air is still worthy as national aircraft company " .
The Indonesian Transport Ministry said that if the aircraft showed signs of problems , the checks would be expanded to cover all 737s operating in Indonesia . On 5 March , it was reported that five of the six aircraft had returned to normal operations , but the sixth was still undergoing a full maintenance overhaul at maintenance , repair and overhaul firm , GMF AeroAsia facility . Adam Air had resumed its normal schedule by 9 March 2007 .
= = Investigation = =
The accident was investigated by the National Transportation Safety Committee ( INTSC ) . Investigators compiled data from the Indonesian weather agency and from the air traffic control center in Surabaya in an attempt to determine the cause . Officials state the aircraft did pass safety checks prior to its departure . Boeing announced that they would also provide technical assistance to both the authorities and the airline during the course of the investigation .
The final report from the NTSC stated that the probable cause of the accident was an excessive sink rate upon touchdown , following an unstabilised approach . In the report , the INTSC noted that the approach was unstable below 200 feet ( 61 m ) , with a vertical speed occasionally greater than 2500 fpm . The vertical acceleration on landing was measured at 5 g . Additionally , the aircraft initially touched down with the right main gear approximately 4 metres ( 13 ft ) outside of the runway edge .
The investigation further revealed that there was no technical malfunction on the aircraft prior to touchdown .
The flight crew was criticised for not maintaining a sterile cockpit during the landing , with excessive non @-@ flight related discussion going on throughout the flight .
Unusually for an aircraft accident investigation , the investigative committee was not provided information as to the identities of the flight crew of the aircraft .
= = Maintenance concerns = =
The safety record of Adam Air was heavily criticised , especially in the aftermath of Flight 574 . Pilots reported repeated and deliberate breaches of international safety regulations , with aircraft being flown in non @-@ airworthy states for months at a time . They claimed that there had been such incidents as requests to sign documents to allow an aircraft to fly while not having the authority to and while knowing the plane to be not airworthy , flying a plane for several months with a damaged door handle , swapping parts between aircraft to avoid mandatory replacement deadlines , being ordered to fly aircraft after exceeding the take @-@ off limit of five times per pilot per day , flying an aircraft with a damaged window , using spare parts from other aircraft to keep planes in the air , and the ignoring of pilots ' requests not to take off due to unsafe aircraft . The Associated Press quoted one pilot as saying that " Every time you flew , you had to fight with the ground staff and the management about all the regulations you had to violate . " They also claim that if pilots confronted their seniors in the airline , they were grounded or docked pay .
= = Aftermath = =
The Indonesian government announced plans immediately after the accident to ban jets over ten years of age for any commercial purpose . The age limit had been 35 years or 70 @,@ 000 landings . Indonesia also announced plans to reshuffle the Transportation Ministry in response to this incident , Flight 574 and the loss of the ferries MV Senopati Nusantara and MV Levina 1 . Among those to be replaced were the directors of air and sea transports and the chairman of the National Committee for Transportation Safety . Indonesia also intended to introduce a new system of ranking airlines according to their safety record , with a level one ranking meaning the airline has no serious issues , a level two ranking meaning the airline must fix problems , and a level three rating forcing the airline to be shut down .
= Aonchotheca forresteri =
Aonchotheca forresteri is a parasitic nematode that infects the marsh rice rat ( Oryzomys palustris ) in Florida . Occurring mainly in adults , it inhabits the stomach . It is much more common during the wet season , perhaps because its unknown intermediate host is an earthworm that only emerges when it rains . The worm was discovered in 1970 and formally described in 1987 . Originally classified in the genus Capillaria , it was reclassified in Aonchotheca in 1999 . A. forresteri is small and narrow @-@ bodied , with a length of 13 @.@ 8 to 19 @.@ 4 mm in females and 6 @.@ 8 to 9 @.@ 2 mm in males . Similar species such as A. putorii differ in features of the alae and spicule ( organs in the male ) , the size of the female , and the texture of the eggs .
= = Taxonomy = =
Aonchotheca forresteri was discovered during a survey of the endoparasites of Florida marsh rice rats ( Oryzomys palustris ) by John Kinsella from 1970 to 1972 , and is one of several new parasite species in this study , which was done because there were no previous comprehensive studies of the endoparasites of the species . Together with Danny Pence , Kinsella described the worm in a 1987 paper as Capillaria forresteri ; the specific name honors Donald J. Forrester of the College of Veterinary Medicine , University of Florida . Kinsella and Pence described it as one of many species of Capillaria , a large and taxonomically difficult genus . They suggested that it may be closest to some other small species that live in the digestive systems of mammals , such as the very similar C. putorii , which is found in a variety of carnivorans in North America and Europe . In 1982 , Moravec had placed Capillaria putorii and a number of related species in a separate genus , Aonchotheca , and in 1999 Pisanu and Bain transferred Capillaria forresteri and various other species to that genus from Capillaria . Thus , the species is now known as Aonchotheca forresteri .
= = Description = =
Aonchotheca forresteri is a small , narrow @-@ bodied worm . It is narrowest at the front and increases in width to about three fourths of its length . The cuticle , the surface layer , is smooth . Females are 13 @.@ 8 to 19 @.@ 4 mm long , averaging 16 @.@ 9 mm , which makes them substantially longer than female A. putorii , and 55 to 70 ( average 62 ) μm wide . The eggs are smooth , lacking the elaborate pattern on the surface seen in A. putorii , and are 53 to 58 ( 54 ) μm long and 21 to 24 ( 21 ) μm broad . The esophagus , the frontmost part of the digestive system , is 2 @.@ 9 to 3 @.@ 9 ( 3 @.@ 6 ) mm long and is lined by 36 to 45 ( 40 ) cells known as stichocytes . The vulva is located 66 to 105 ( 83 ) μm behind the end of the esophagus and the anus is near the end of the worm , which is rounded .
At 6 @.@ 8 to 9 @.@ 2 ( 7 @.@ 7 ) mm , males are only about half as long as females . Their maximum width is 34 to 42 ( 37 ) μm . The length of the esophagus is 2 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 0 ( 2 @.@ 6 ) mm , of which the muscular pharynx makes up 260 to 315 ( 273 ) μm , and is lined by 35 to 42 ( 37 ) stichocytes . The back region of the worm is 4 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 2 ( 5 @.@ 1 ) mm long . The back , or rectal , opening of the digestive tube is located near the end of the worm , and the length of the cloaca is 530 to 576 ( 550 ) μm . Near the back end , there are two alae ( ridges ) at the sides ( laterally ) , which are 40 to 55 ( 46 ) μm long ; these are located at 10 to 15 μm from another , small ala at the tip . In A. putorii , the lateral alae are much longer and reach the ala at the tip . The spicule , a spikelike structure that functions in reproduction , is curved at the tip and hardened and has a length of 380 to 426 ( 406 ) μm . It is smaller than that of the similar A. tamiasstriati from North American chipmunks and larger than that of A. murissylvatici from various North American and European small rodents , but about as long as that of A. putorii , which however lacks the curved tip .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Marsh rice rats from Paynes Prairie , Alachua County ; Cedar Key , Levy County ; and Lake Istokpoga , Highlands County , all in Florida , have yielded A. forresteri . In Paynes Prairie , the type locality , 82 of 178 animals examined were infected with 1 to 50 ( average 10 ) worms , but in Cedar Key only a single rat contained one worm . The worms were found in the front part , or fundus , of the stomach , with their front ends in the fundal tissue and their back ends projecting into the inside .
In Paynes Prairie , there was no significant difference in rate of infection between males and females , but only 4 % of juveniles were infected , compared to 52 % of adults . Most species of Capillaria occur in multiple hosts , but A. forresteri has been found only in the marsh rice rat , even though several other small mammals ( the round @-@ tailed muskrat , Neofiber alleni ; cotton mouse , Peromyscus gossypinus ; hispid cotton rat , Sigmodon hispidus ; and marsh rabbit , Sylvilagus palustris ) occur in Paynes Prairie . The rice rat eats more animal food than any of those , and perhaps A. forresteri has an intermediate host that is not eaten by the other species . A. forresteri is markedly more prevalent in the wet season ( spring ) than the dry season ( autumn ) , perhaps because rainfall patterns influence the habits of the rice rat in some way . One possibility is that the intermediate host is an earthworm or other oligochaete worm that moves to the surface when it rains .
= Killswitch Engage =
Killswitch Engage is an American metalcore band from Westfield , Massachusetts , formed in 1999 after the disbanding of Overcast and Aftershock . Killswitch Engage 's current lineup consists of vocalist Jesse Leach , guitarists Joel Stroetzel and Adam Dutkiewicz , bassist Mike D 'Antonio , and drummer Justin Foley . The band has released seven studio albums and one DVD . Their latest album , Incarnate , was released on March 11 , 2016 .
Killswitch Engage rose to fame with its 2004 release The End of Heartache , which peaked at number 21 on the Billboard 200 , and was certified gold by the RIAA in December 2007 for over 500 @,@ 000 shipments in the United States . The title track , " The End of Heartache " , was nominated for a Grammy Award in 2005 for Best Metal Performance , and a live DVD titled ( Set This ) World Ablaze was released in 2005 . Killswitch Engage has performed at festivals such as Soundwave Festival , Wacken Open Air , Reading and Leeds Festivals , Ozzfest , Download Festival , Rock on the Range , Rock Am Ring , Mayhem Festival , Monsters of Rock , Pointfest , Knotfest and Heavy MTL . The band has sold over four million records in the U.S. and has been considered notable within the New Wave of American Heavy Metal .
= = History = =
= = = Early years and debut album ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
Killswitch Engage formed following the disbandment of metalcore bands Overcast and Aftershock in 1999 . After Overcast broke up in 1998 , bassist Mike D 'Antonio jammed with Aftershock guitarist Adam Dutkiewicz . Dutkiewicz , now playing drums , recruited guitarist Joel Stroetzel from Aftershock and vocalist Jesse Leach of the band Nothing Stays Gold ( who were signed to a record label owned by Dutkiewicz 's brother Tobias , who was also the vocalist in Aftershock ) to form a new band , Killswitch Engage . The band 's name is derived from an episode of the television series The X @-@ Files entitled " Kill Switch " , written by William Gibson , who gave the episode this title after meeting the industrial band Kill Switch ... Klick .
In 1999 , Killswitch Engage recorded a demo containing four tracks , including " Soilborn " , the first song written by the band . The demo was first released at the band 's first show , opening for melodic death metal act In Flames , in November 1999 . They released their self @-@ titled debut album the following year . Although initially the album was not a financial success and did not land on any charts , it attracted the interest of Carl Severson , who worked at Roadrunner Records at the time . Severson handed Killswitch Engage to several Roadrunner representatives . Mike Gitter , a talent agent of the company , contacted D 'Antonio , attended several of the band 's shows , and offered the band a recording contract with Roadrunner . Realizing that Roadrunner had the resources to promote and distribute Killswitch Engage releases , the band accepted his offer , declining several offers from smaller labels .
= = = Alive or Just Breathing ( 2001 – 2004 ) = = =
For a brief time in 2000 and 2001 , ex @-@ Overcast guitarist Pete Cortese joined Killswitch Engage , but left when he became a father . Killswitch Engage began writing new material for their second album in November 2001 . Mixed in January at Backstage Studios by producer Andy Sneap , the album was titled Alive or Just Breathing for lyrics in the song " Just Barely Breathing " . A music video for the single " My Last Serenade " increased the band 's exposure , and the album peaked at number 37 on the Top Heatseekers chart .
Following Alive or Just Breathing 's release , the album having been written and recorded for two guitarists , the band decided to expand and become a fivesome ; Dutkiewicz moved to guitar and former Aftershock drummer Tom Gomes filled in the vacant drummer position . After Leach was married on April 20 , 2002 and began touring again he fell into a depression . Leach left the band a few days before the band was meant to play a show and sent the band members an e @-@ mail telling them he had quit . D 'Antonio said in an interview that " after three years of hanging out with the dude , and considering him a brother , to just get an email was a little bit harsh . "
The band immediately started to search for a replacement vocalist and found Howard Jones of Blood Has Been Shed . Jones disliked the band 's sound when he first heard it . He commented , " I was like , ' Meh . ' I come from hardcore and dirtier metal , and Killswitch sounded so clean . But the more I listened to it , I realized there 's some really good songs here " . After hearing about Leach 's vocal problems , Jones contacted the band and was accepted as the replacement . Philip Labonte of All That Remains tried out for lead vocals but lost to Jones , who had to quickly memorize seven songs for his debut at the 2002 Hellfest .
The new lineup played on the Road Rage tour in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands in 2002 with 36 Crazyfists and Five Pointe O. Touring continued through the New Year 's Day , and in 2003 the first song to feature Jones , " When Darkness Falls " , appeared on the soundtrack of the 2003 horror film Freddy vs. Jason . Following the 2003 Ozzfest , drummer Gomes left the band because he wished to spend more time with his wife , to pursue his band Something of a Silhouette , and because he was tired of touring . He was replaced by Justin Foley of Blood Has Been Shed , and Foley 's first tour with the band was the MTV2 Headbangers Ball in 2003 .
= = = The End of Heartache ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = =
The End of Heartache was released on May 11 , 2004 , and peaked at number 21 on the Billboard 200 with 38 @,@ 000 sales in its first week , and it also peaked at number 39 on the Australian Albums Chart . The album went on to sell more than 500 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S and was certified gold on December 7 , 2007 . The album received mostly positive reviews , with Jon Caramanica of Rolling Stone calling the album a " stunning collection , retaining much of their signature musical brutality " . Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic commented " riffs upon riffs are piled sky @-@ high into each number that follows , it 's the unpredictable rhythmic shifts used to build and then relieve internal pressure that fuel the Killswitch Engage power source " .
" The End of Heartache " became the main single for the movie Resident Evil : Apocalypse , and in 2005 the song was nominated for Best Metal Performance for the 47th Grammy Awards . In late 2004 , The End of Heartache was re @-@ released as a special edition album , with a second disc featuring various live performances , a Japanese bonus track , and a re @-@ recorded version of " Irreversal " . During the summer of 2005 , the band returned for Ozzfest , and on November 1 , 2005 , Alive or Just Breathing was re @-@ released as part of Roadrunner Records ' 25th anniversary . On November 22 , 2005 , the live DVD ( Set This ) World Ablaze was released , which contained a live concert at the Palladium in Worcester , Massachusetts , an hour @-@ long documentary , and all the band 's music videos . The DVD was certified gold in the US on April 8 , 2006 .
= = = As Daylight Dies ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =
Killswitch Engage played the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2006 , having already played Australian dates without Dutkiewicz , who was suffering from back problems and needed corrective surgery . On May 23 , 2006 , the song " This Fire Burns " was released on the WWE Wreckless Intent album . The track was intended to be the new theme song for WWE wrestler Randy Orton ; however , it was scrapped and later became the theme song for the WWE Judgment Day 2006 pay @-@ per @-@ view . " This Fire Burns " was used as the entrance theme for WWE wrestler CM Punk ( along with his stables the Straight Edge Society and The New Nexus ) from 2006 until 2011 and was later re @-@ released as " This Fire " on the As Daylight Dies Special Edition .
Recorded in three months , As Daylight Dies was released on November 21 , 2006 and peaked at number 32 on the Billboard 200 chart with 60 @,@ 000 sales in its first week . " As Daylight Dies " proved to be one of their biggest albums yet . It also entered the Australian Albums Chart at number 29 . Mixed by Dutkiewicz , the album received mostly positive reviews — Thom Jurek of Allmusic called it " a Top Five metal candidate for 2006 for sure " . Decibel Magazine contributor Nick Terry said " To call As Daylight Dies addictive would be an understatement . That it outdoes its already impressive enough predecessor could almost go without saying " . Cosmo Lee of Stylus Magazine commented " the album is astonishingly badly sequenced " , though he praised the album as being " less emotionally heavy @-@ handed , and a lot more fun " . As of November 27 , 2007 , As Daylight Dies has sold more than 500 @,@ 000 units in the US .
The album 's first single , " My Curse " , peaked at number 21 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart , and is featured in the video games Sleeping Dogs , Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , Burnout Dominator and Burnout Paradise and is available as downloadable content for the Rock Band series . " The Arms of Sorrow " peaked at number 31 on the same chart . The band 's cover of Dio 's " Holy Diver " , originally recorded for a Kerrang ! compilation album titled High Voltage , peaked at number 12 on the Mainstream Rock charts . Early in 2007 , the band had to cancel three of its European tour dates with The Haunted due to Dutkiewicz 's back problems . He required emergency back surgery and was replaced on the tour by Soilwork guitarist Peter Wichers .
Due to Dutkiewicz 's back problems in early 2007 , he was replaced by Damageplan and The Mercy Clinic frontman Patrick Lachman during the No Fear Tour . Dutkiewicz recovered and was able to finish the No Fear tour , and the band began filming its video for As Daylight Dies 's second single , " The Arms of Sorrow " . On August 6 , 2007 , Dutkiewicz was forced to leave the Warped Tour so he could fully recover from his back surgery and continue daily physical therapy . He was replaced by Killswitch 's guitar technician Josh Mihlek for select songs , until his return on August 14 , 2007 .
= = = Second self @-@ titled album ( 2007 – 2011 ) = = =
Killswitch Engage entered the studio in October 2008 to start recording their next album with Dutkiewicz and Brendan O 'Brien co @-@ producing the album . In mid @-@ February , bassist Mike D 'Antonio confirmed in an interview with Metal Hammer that " drums were finished " , and that he had " finished up the last few bass fixes " . He also stated that Howard [ Jones ] was in Atlanta finishing vocals , and that " it shouldn 't be too much longer now . " From March to May , Killswitch Engage was a part of Disturbed 's Music as a Weapon IV festival along with Lacuna Coil , Chimaira , Suicide Silence , Bury Your Dead and more . On April 14 , the band announced the name of their album as Killswitch Engage , the second time the band has self @-@ titled an album . The album was released on June 30 , 2009 , debuting at No. 7 on the Billboard 200 , marking the band 's highest chart position for an album . In July and August , Killswitch Engage took part in Mayhem Festival with headliners Marilyn Manson , Slayer , Bullet for My Valentine and others . In February 2010 , Killswitch Engage announced that vocalist Howard Jones would not be performing with Killswitch Engage during their winter tour with The Devil Wears Prada and Dark Tranquillity ; during the time , All That Remains vocalist Philip Labonte was substituting for Jones until he could return . At least one source speculated that Jones ' hiatus was due to back pain . On March 18 , 2010 , original vocalist Jesse Leach returned to the band for a series of songs . From then on , Leach and Labonte performed as substitute vocalists for the remainder of the tour .
In 2010 , the band contributed the track " My Obsession " to the God of War : Blood & Metal soundtrack . The band was later added as late replacement to 2010 's Download Festival in June , after original sub @-@ headliner , Wolfmother could not attend as scheduled . Afterward , Killswitch Engage took a break from the road , and its members pursued other interests . Adam Dutkiewicz formed the band Times of Grace with Leach and released the debut album " The Hymn of a Broken Man " on January 18 , 2011 . Along with Dutkiewicz and Leach , Times of Grace added Joel Stroetzel to their tour lineup . Justin Foley provided the drum tracking for the band Unearth on their album " Darkness in the Light " , released on July 5 , 2011 . Foley also traveled with the band for their 2011 summer tour . D 'Antonio started the hardcore band Death Ray Vision , with Shadows Fall vocalist Brian Fair and former Killswitch Engage guitarist Pete Cortese .
= = = Jones ' departure and Disarm the Descent ( 2011 – 2015 ) = = =
In an interview with FTC , Gun Shy Assassin , Mike D 'Antonio had stated that the band was currently in the works for a sixth studio album . D 'Antonio stated , " Currently , everyone is individually writing demos for the next Killswitch Engage record . There is no release date yet , but I would assume it will be out early 2012 . " Adam Dutkiewicz followed that up with a statement on the Killswitch Engage Facebook , saying " YO ! Its Adam D ! We 're about to begin writing our new record . Thanks to all of our fans for waiting so friggin ' patiently ... now let 's turn on the " riff faucet " and RAGE ! " On December 1 , 2011 , Mike D 'Antonio posted online that Killswitch Engage should be entering the studio around February / March 2012 to record their sixth album expected around summer 2012 . He also stated that the band had eight demos finished for the new record .
On January 4 , 2012 , the band announced via the band 's official website , along with their other official sources , that Howard Jones had left the band after his nine @-@ year membership with them . In the statement , the band did not disclose the reason for this decision out of respect for Jones , but simply thanked him for his nine years with the band and wished him well , as well as thanking the fans for their support as they began the search for a new lead singer . Soon after the announcement of Jones 's departure , rumors began that Phil Labonte of All That Remains would officially take over lead vocals due to his previous history with the band , although Labonte quickly dispelled the rumor . Many vocalists were considered in the search for a new one for the band . The band 's search for a new singer concluded in February with the announcement that original lead vocalist Jesse Leach would return to the band , as the band felt that Leach 's energy , as well as his overall comfort and command of both the old and new material , made him the clear choice during auditions . Following Leach 's return , the band continued to the process of recording their new album and touring . On April 22 , 2012 , the band performed Leach 's first show since 2002 at the New England Metal and Hardcore Fest .
On June 20 , 2012 , the demo version of a new song titled " This Is Confrontation " was leaked on YouTube . Not long after the song was leaked , the videos were soon deleted . Later , the band took part in Metal Hammer 's " Trespass America Festival " headlined by Five Finger Death Punch with additional support from God Forbid , Emmure , Pop Evil , Trivium and Battlecross . The band performed this song live , confirming the song 's title " No End in Sight " . Not long after the album was confirmed , the song was streamed publicly again . In October 2012 , with Jesse back at the helm , Killswitch Engage announced they would be celebrating the ten year anniversary of their seminal album , " Alive or Just Breathing " with a US Tour through November / December 2012 , in which they would be playing the album live , in its entirety . Support on the tour came from fellow Massachusetts natives Shadows Fall and Acaro .
The album Disarm the Descent was released April 1 , 2013 in the UK . The album debuted at # 15 in the UK charts while debuting at # 7 in the Billboard top 200 April 2 in the US . The first single " In Due Time " was released on February 5 , 2013 . The album has received critical acclaim from reviewers , and has been labeled as a " true standout " and " nothing short of amazing " . It was announced in December 2013 that " In Due Time " was nominated for " Best Metal Performance " at the 2014 Grammy Awards , but lost to " God Is Dead ? " by Black Sabbath . A tour in May 2013 was done to promote the new album . With Miss May I , Darkest Hour , The Word Alive and Affiance as support . As I Lay Dying was originally supposed to be on the tour but dropped due to criminal charges from frontman Tim Lambesis . The band also did a co @-@ headliner with fellow Heavy Metal act Lamb of God in the October 2013 with Testament and Huntress as support for both bands . The band did a small headliner on the east coast for Halloween 2014 . With All That Remains , Death Ray Vision and City of Homes supporting .
= = = Incarnate ( 2015 – present ) = = =
In an interview with Wikimetal , Jesse Leach announced that the band will start demoing new material " in the coming months " .
On February 25 , 2015 the band released a 40 second snippet of a new single titled " Loyalty " . The track appears on the Catch The Throne : The Mixtape Volume 2 to promote the HBO TV series Game of Thrones . The mixtape also features appearances from various other metal and rap acts such as Anthrax and Snoop Dogg .
On March 30 , 2015 , Mike D 'Antonio stated that the band had completed demoing material for its next studio album .
Killswitch Engage took part in a summer tour in July 2015 , opening up for Rise Against with support from letlive .
On December 10 , 2015 the band premiered a new song entitled " Strength of the Mind " on Revolver .
The band also did a small Christmas 2015 tour on the East Coast with Unearth , Act of Defiance and 68 .
On December 16 , 2015 it was revealed that the band 's upcoming seventh album , released on March 11 , 2016 , would be titled Incarnate . With a tour being set to take part in March of this year , Memphis May Fire and 36 Crazyfists will be the support .
= = Musical style and lyrical themes = =
Killswitch Engage primarily play metalcore , combining sounds from extreme metal and hardcore . Like some modern metalcore bands , Killswitch Engage vocally combine singing , screaming vocals , and growls in their music .
Killswitch Engage 's music mixes " crushing " riffs , double bass drum patterns , power chords , dual @-@ guitar harmonies , often punctuated with pinch harmonic squeals in their music and breakdowns that one can expect from the metalcore genre . Their music is influenced by gothenburg metal scene , New York hardcore and thrash metal .
In 2009 , MTV , while naming " The Greatest Metal Bands of All Time " , said that Killswitch Engage have been " called one of the founders of metalcore " . Jason D. Taylor of Allmusic said Alive or Just Breathing is " a pure metal album that seemingly has ignored any fashionable trend and instead relies solely on skill and expertise to sculpt some of the meatiest heavy metal since the glory days of Metallica and Slayer . "
Both current vocalist Jesse Leach and former vocalist Howard Jones write lyrics that are considered positive . Jesse Leach stated on ( Set This ) World Ablaze , that the lyrics contain " unity , positivity , [ and ] love . " On the lyrical themes of Killswitch Engage , Ultimate Guitar reviewer Amy Sciarretto notes :
On Killswitch Engage 's 2009 self @-@ titled album , Howard Jones states the change in lyrical themes :
= = Members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Killswitch Engage ( 2000 )
Alive or Just Breathing ( 2002 )
The End of Heartache ( 2004 )
As Daylight Dies ( 2006 )
Killswitch Engage ( 2009 )
Disarm the Descent ( 2013 )
Incarnate ( 2016 )
= = Accolades = =
Grammy Award
Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards
Boston Music Awards
Loudwire Music Awards
= Tomahawk ( album ) =
Tomahawk is the debut studio album by American experimental rock band Tomahawk . Recorded after a meeting between vocalist Mike Patton and guitarist Duane Denison , the album features members of Faith No More , The Jesus Lizard , Helmet and Melvins . The band toured with Tool in support of the record , but were not well received by Tool 's fans .
Released on October 30 , 2001 , through Patton 's record label Ipecac Recordings , Tomahawk has received positive attention from critics , with most appraisals drawing attention to the versatility of Patton 's vocals . The album charted in both Australia and the United States , reaching a peak of number 20 in the Billboard Independent Albums countdown .
= = Production = =
For Tomahawk , the band is composed of Mike Patton , vocalist for Faith No More and Mr. Bungle ; Duane Denison , guitarist for The Jesus Lizard ; Kevin Rutmanis , bass player for Melvins ; and John Stanier , drummer for Helmet . Patton and Denison met in 2000 at a Mr. Bungle concert in Nashville , Tennessee , and began exchanging music . From there , the two began to jam together with a view to releasing an album . Patton described the new group as " the closest thing to a rock band I 've been involved with for a while " .
The band hired Joe Funderburk to produce the album ; Funderburk had previously worked with Emmylou Harris and The Judds . The album was released through Ipecac Recordings , the record label owned by Patton and Greg Werckman . Ipecac is also home to Rutmanis ' band Melvins , whose vocalist and guitarist Buzz Osborne had previously collaborated with Patton as a member of Fantômas .
= = Release and reception = =
Tomahawk was released on October 30 , 2001 . The album was supported by a tour in which the band supported Tool ; however , Tools fans were unreceptive to Tomahawk and frequently booed their performances .
Writing for AllMusic , Blake Butler rated Tomahawk four stars out of five , describing the album as " moody , violent , beautiful , sarcastic , vomitive , silly [ and ] heartstopping " . Butler praised Patton 's versatility , calling the vocalist " a complete and utter musical visionary , and a mind @-@ blowing and standard @-@ warping genius " . Pitchfork 's Luke Buckman award the album a rating of 7 out of 10 , similarly highlighting Patton 's vocals as exemplary . Buckman called Patton " one of the greatest male vocalists around today " ; and felt that " Flashback " and " Cul de Sac " were among the album 's best songs . Mark Reed of Drowned in Sound rated the album 8 out of 10 , noting the " wit " and " style " of the songwriting . Reed felt that the album was among the most conventional of those recorded by Patton , but still described it as featuring " supercatchy , earstretching vocals , dark lyrics rich in black humour , swathes of crunchy guitars and some of the most unusual rhythms to be played by human hands since time began " .
Writing for the Boston Herald , Butch Lazorchak rated Tomahawk three stars out of four , finding that it " makes mincemeat out of the new @-@ metal Johnny @-@ come @-@ latelies " . Lazorchak described the album as having " an updated ' 70s hard rock approach that echoes Blue Öyster Cult at its sinister best " , and found the opening song " Flashback " to be a " head @-@ crushing pleasure " . Reviewing a leg of the album 's supporting tour for The Irish Times , Peter Crawley felt that " Sir Yes Sir " was a highlight of the album , due to Patton 's " dark utterings " and Rutmanis ' " drilling bassline " . Writing for CMJ New Music Monthly , Dana Buoniconti compared the album to the soundtracks of David Lynch 's film and television work — specifically likening " Honeymoon " and " Sweet Smell of Success " to the Twin Peaks theme . Buoniconti found Tomahawk to be " unsettling and unwholesome " , but " thoroughly appealing " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Tomahawk ( Mike Patton , Duane Denison , Kevin Rutmanis and John Stanier ) .
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart performance = =
Tomahawk reached its highest chart position
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on the United States Independent Albums chart , reaching a peak position of 20 and spending two weeks in that chart . It also reached a peak of 31 in that country 's Top Heatseekers chart . It spent one week in the Australian ARIA Charts , reaching number 37 .
= Pirates of the Caribbean ( film series ) =
Pirates of the Caribbean is a series of fantasy swashbuckler films produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and based on Walt Disney 's theme park ride of the same name . Directors of the series include Gore Verbinski ( 1 – 3 ) , Rob Marshall ( 4 ) , and Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg ( 5 ) . The series was most notably written by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio ( 1 – 4 ) ; other writers include Stuart Beattie ( 1 ) , Jay Wolpert ( 1 ) , and Jeff Nathanson ( 5 ) . The stories followed the adventures of Captain Jack Sparrow ( Johnny Depp ) , Hector Barbossa ( Geoffrey Rush ) , Joshamee Gibbs ( Kevin McNally ) , Will Turner ( Orlando Bloom ) , and Elizabeth Swann ( Keira Knightley ) . The films take place in a fictional historical setting ; a world ruled largely by alternative versions of the British Empire , the East India Company and the Spanish Empire , with pirates representing freedom from the ruling powers .
The film series started with their first release on the big screen in 2003 with Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl , which received positive reviews from the critics and grossed US $ 654 million worldwide . After the first film 's success , Walt Disney Pictures revealed that a trilogy was in the works . The franchise 's second film , subtitled Dead Man 's Chest , was released three years later in 2006 ; the sequel proved successful , breaking financial records worldwide the day of its premiere . Dead Man 's Chest ended up being the number one film of the year upon earning almost $ 1 @.@ 1 billion to @-@ date at the worldwide box office . The third film in the series , subtitled At World 's End , followed in 2007 , and Disney released a fourth film , subtitled On Stranger Tides , in 2011 in conventional 2D , Digital 3 @-@ D and IMAX 3D . On Stranger Tides succeeded in also grossing more than $ 1 billion , becoming the second film in the franchise and only the eighth film in history to achieve this .
So far , the film franchise has grossed $ 3 @.@ 73 billion worldwide ; it is the eleventh highest @-@ grossing film series of all @-@ time and it was the first franchise where more than one film grossed $ 1 billion worldwide .
A fifth film , subtitled Dead Men Tell No Tales , is set to be released on May 26 , 2017 .
= = Films = =
= = = The Curse of the Black Pearl ( 2003 ) = = =
Blacksmith Will Turner teams up with eccentric pirate Captain Jack Sparrow to save Turner 's love , Elizabeth Swann , from undead pirates led by Jack 's former mutinous first mate , Captain Barbossa . Jack wants revenge against Barbossa , who left him stranded on an island before stealing his ship , the Black Pearl , along with 882 pieces of cursed Aztec Gold .
= = = Dead Man 's Chest ( 2006 ) = = =
Lord Cutler Beckett of the East India Trading Company arrests Will and Elizabeth for aiding Captain Jack Sparrow in the previous film . Beckett offers clemency if Will agrees to search for Jack 's compass in a bid to find the Dead Man 's Chest – and inside , the heart of villainous Davy Jones – which would give Beckett control of the seas . However , Jack wants the Chest to escape from an unpaid debt with Jones , who raised the Black Pearl from the seabed ( after it was sunk by Beckett ) and made Jack captain for 13 years in exchange for 100 years of service aboard Jones ' ship .
= = = At World 's End ( 2007 ) = = =
Lord Beckett gains power over Davy Jones , and with the help of Jones ' ship , the Flying Dutchman , he is now executing his plans to extinguish piracy forever . To stand against the East India Trading Co . , Will , Elizabeth , Barbossa , and the crew of the Black Pearl set out to rescue Captain Jack Sparrow from Davy Jones ' Locker . As one of the Nine Pirate Lords , Jack is needed in order to summon an ancient goddess with the power to defeat Beckett 's forces .
= = = On Stranger Tides ( 2011 ) = = =
Captain Jack Sparrow is on a quest to find the fabled Fountain of Youth and crosses paths with a former lover , Angelica . She forces Jack aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge , a ship captained by the infamous pirate Blackbeard , Angelica 's father . Both are also in search of the Fountain ; Angelica to save her father 's soul , Blackbeard to escape a prophecy of his demise at the hands of a one @-@ legged man . Joining the hunt is former pirate captain Barbossa , now a privateer in King George II 's Navy , who is in a race against the Spanish for the Fountain of Youth .
= = = Dead Men Tell No Tales ( 2017 ) = = =
" Thrust into an all @-@ new adventure , a down @-@ on @-@ his @-@ luck Captain Jack Sparrow ( Johnny Depp ) finds the winds of ill @-@ fortune blowing even more strongly when deadly ghost pirates led by his old nemesis , the terrifying Captain Salazar ( Javier Bardem ) , escape from the Devil 's Triangle , determined to kill every pirate at sea , including him . Captain Jack 's only hope of survival lies in seeking out the legendary Trident of Poseidon , a powerful artifact that bestows upon its possessor total control over the seas . "
= = Short film = =
= = = Tales of the Code : Wedlocked ( 2008 ) = = =
Wenches Scarlett ( Lauren Maher ) and Giselle ( Vanessa Branch ) fix each other up for their wedding , in which they would each marry their groom . Upon realizing that both their grooms were the same man – Jack Sparrow – the two wenches find themselves in an auction led by the Auctioneer . The short film serves as a prequel to The Curse of the Black Pearl , explaining just why Jack Sparrow 's boat , the Jolly Mon , was seen sinking at the beginning of the whole story , and explaining why wenches Scarlett and Giselle were so upset with him , and it also implies how Cotton lost his tongue . The plot took inspiration from the " Auction scene " from the original ride .
The short was directed by James Ward Byrkit , and was only included as a special feature in the US 15 disc 3D Blu @-@ ray / 2D Blu @-@ ray / DVD + Digital Copy box set that includes Pirates 1 – 4 ; and in the similar UK 5 @-@ disc set .
= = Production = =
= = = First film = = =
In the early 1990s screenwriters Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio conceived a supernatural spin on the pirate genre after completing work on Aladdin , but there was no interest from any studio . Undeterred , the writing team refused to give up the dream , waiting for a studio to pick up their take on a pirate tale . Disney had Jay Wolpert write a script based on the Pirates of the Caribbean , which producer Jerry Bruckheimer rejected , feeling it was " a straight pirate movie " . Bruckheimer brought Stuart Beattie in to rewrite the script in March 2002 , due to his knowledge of piracy , and later that month Elliott and Rossio were brought in . Elliott and Rossio , inspired by the opening narration of the Pirates of the Caribbean ride , decided to give the film a supernatural edge . As the budget rose , Michael Eisner and Robert Iger threatened to cancel the film , though Bruckheimer changed their minds when he showed them concept art and animatics .
In June 2002 Gore Verbinski signed on to direct The Curse of the Black Pearl , and Johnny Depp and Geoffrey Rush signed on the following month to star . Verbinski was attracted to the idea of using modern technology to resurrect a genre , one that had disappeared after the Golden Age of Hollywood , and recalled his childhood memories of the ride , feeling the film was an opportunity to pay tribute to the " scary and funny " tone of it . Depp was attracted to the story as he found it quirky : rather than trying to find treasure , the crew of the Black Pearl were trying to return it in order to lift their curse ; also , the traditional mutiny had already taken place . Verbinski approached Rush for the role of Barbossa , as he knew he would not play it with attempts at complexity , but with a simple villainy that would suit the story 's tone . Orlando Bloom read the script after Rush , with whom he was working on Ned Kelly , suggested it to him . Keira Knightley came as a surprise to Verbinski : he had not seen her performance in Bend It Like Beckham and was impressed by her audition . Tom Wilkinson was negotiated with to play Governor Swann , but the role went to Jonathan Pryce , whom Depp idolized .
Shooting for The Curse of the Black Pearl began on October 9 , 2002 and wrapped by March 7 , 2003 . Before its release , many executives and journalists had expected the film to flop , as the pirate genre had not been successful for years , the film was based on a theme @-@ park ride , and Depp rarely made a big film . However , The Curse of the Black Pearl became both a critical and commercial success .
= = = Second and third films = = =
After seeing how well the first film was made , the cast and crew signed for two sequels to be shot back @-@ to @-@ back , a practical decision on Disney 's part to allow more time with the same cast and crew . Writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio knew that with an ensemble cast , they weren 't free to invent totally different situations and characters , as with the Indiana Jones and James Bond series , and so had to retroactively turn The Curse of the Black Pearl into the first of a trilogy . They wanted to explore the reality of what would happen after Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann 's embrace at the end of the first film , and initially considered the Fountain of Youth as the plot device . They settled on introducing Davy Jones , the Flying Dutchman and the Kraken , a mythology mentioned twice in the first film . They introduced the historical East India Trading Company ( also mentioned in the first film ) , which for them represented a counterpoint to the themes of personal freedom represented by pirates .
Filming for the sequels began on February 28 , 2005 , with Dead Man 's Chest finishing on March 1 , 2006 , and At World 's End on January 10 , 2007 . The second film was also the first Disney theatrical feature film with the computer @-@ generated Walt Disney Pictures logo .
= = = Fourth film = = =
Rossio and Elliot discovered the novel On Stranger Tides during production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End and decided to use it as the basis for a fourth film . As Gore Verbinski was unavailable , Bruckheimer invited Rob Marshall to direct the film . Elliott and Rossio decided to do a stand @-@ alone film , with a story that would support new characters , and incorporate elements from the novel , such as Blackbeard , the Fountain of Youth and mermaids — the latter two having been already alluded to in the previous films . Depp , Rush , Greg Ellis and Kevin McNally returned to their roles , and the cast saw the additions of Ian McShane as Blackbeard and Penélope Cruz as Angelica , Blackbeard 's daughter and Jack Sparrow 's love interest . A further addition was Richard Griffiths as King George II of Great Britain . After the costly production of two simultaneous films , Disney tried to scale down the fourth installment , giving a lower budget , which led to cheaper locations and fewer scenes with special effects . It was also filmed in 3D , with cameras similar to the ones used in Avatar .
Filming for On Stranger Tides began June 14 , 2010 and ended on November 19 , 2010 . It was released in the United States on May 20 , 2011 . With a budget of $ 378 @.@ 5 million , On Stranger Tides holds the record for most expensive film ever made .
= = = Fifth film = = =
On January 14 , 2011 , it was confirmed that Terry Rossio would write the screenplay for the fifth installment , without his co @-@ writer Ted Elliott . On January 11 , 2013 , Jeff Nathanson signed on to write the script for the film . On May 29 , 2013 , it was announced that Norwegian directors Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg were selected to direct . On August 22 , 2013 , the two revealed that the title of the fifth film would be Dead Men Tell No Tales , alluding to the line well @-@ known from the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park attractions . They also confirmed that they were working on the film , speaking highly of Jeff Nathanson 's " funny and touching " script and that they are inspired by the first film , The Curse of the Black Pearl . On September 10 , 2013 , Disney pushed back the film 's initial 2015 release , with sources indicating that a Summer 2016 release is likely . Producer Jerry Bruckheimer revealed that script issues were behind the delay , and that Jeff Nathanson was at work on a second attempt based on a well @-@ received outline . While Disney originally announced a release on July 7 , 2017 , Dead Men Tell No Tales is now set to be released on May 26 , 2017 .
A spokesman for the Australian Arts Minister confirmed that the fifth installment was set to shoot in Australia after the government agreed to repurpose $ 20 million of tax incentives originally intended for the remake of 20 @,@ 000 Leagues Under the Sea . According to Australian film industry sources , pre @-@ production started in late September 2014 with filming expected to commence in February 2015 . This was officially confirmed by Disney and Ian Walker the Queensland Arts Minister on October 2 , 2014 , stating that filming will take place exclusively in Australia , being the largest production to ever shoot in the country . Village Roadshow Studios and Port Douglas were officially confirmed as filming locations . Production began in Australia on February 17 , 2015 and wrapped on July 9 , 2015 .
= = Principal cast = =
= = Crew and other = =
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office performance = = =
The Pirates of the Caribbean film series was successful at the box office , with each film grossing over $ 600 million , and all at some point ranking among the fifty highest @-@ grossing films of all time . It became the first ever series to own two billion @-@ dollar films , these being Dead Man 's Chest and On Stranger Tides , but other series have followed ( the Batman series , the Marvel Cinematic Universe and Transformers ) .
The Curse of the Black Pearl was the third highest @-@ grossing 2003 film in North America ( behind The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King and Finding Nemo ) and fourth worldwide ( behind The Return of the King , Finding Nemo and The Matrix Reloaded ) . Dead Man 's Chest was the most successful film of 2006 worldwide , and At World 's End led the worldwide grosses in 2007 , though being only fourth in North America ( behind Spider @-@ Man 3 , Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and Shrek the Third ) . On Stranger Tides was the third highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 worldwide ( behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 and Transformers : Dark of the Moon ) and the fifth in North America . All of the sequels broke box office records upon release , of which the most notable are the opening @-@ weekend record in North America ( Dead Man 's Chest ) , the Memorial @-@ Day weekend record in North America ( At World 's End ) and the opening @-@ weekend record outside North America ( On Stranger Tides ) .
= = = Critical and public response = = =
The series is noted for its high quality of acting talent , and is one of the aspects of the films that is always praised . The visual and practical effects are considered some of the best ever done on film , so much so that audiences believed certain CGI elements of the films were real and done practically . The plot and story to the first three sequels received mixed reviews , with the general consensus that they were too bloated and convoluted to follow . Pirates of the Caribbean is noted for reinvigorating the pirates genre of film after decades of either no pirate films , or failed films . The success of the series saw Disney try to replicate Pirates ' success by launching films such as Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time and The Lone Ranger .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = = Academy Awards = = = =
Together , all the first three films were nominated for a total of 11 Academy Awards , of which a single award was won .
= = = = Golden Globe Awards = = = =
Together , all the four films were nominated for a total of 2 Golden Globe Awards , of which neither were won .
= = = = MTV Movie Awards = = = =
Together , all the first three films were nominated for a total of 13 MTV Movie Awards , of which 4 were won .
= = = = Teen Choice Awards = = = =
Together , all the four films were nominated for a total of 25 Teen Choice Awards , of which 16 were won .
= California State Route 266 =
State Route 266 ( SR 266 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California . The route is a connector between Nevada State Route 264 and Nevada State Route 266 , intersecting SR 168 and thus providing a connection to the rest of the Owens Valley . Portions of the route were added to the state highway system in 1931 , and became part of SR 168 in the 1964 state highway renumbering . SR 266 was officially designated in 1968 .
= = Route description = =
State Route 266 begins at the western terminus of Nevada State Route 266 at the Nevada state line . The route travels west @-@ northwest , then turns to the west for another 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) before approaching Oasis , the only unincorporated community that the route passes through . At Oasis , SR 266 intersects SR 168 , which serves as the gateway into the Owens Valley from Nevada . Upon leaving Oasis , SR 266 continues to the west briefly , then turns north @-@ northwest . Within the last 7 miles ( 11 km ) , SR 266 slowly curves northwest as the route approaches the Nevada state line . The route ends at the state line at the southern terminus of Nevada State Route 264 .
The section of SR 266 from the western terminus to the junction with SR 168 is designated by the California State Legislature as eligible by law for the State Scenic Highway System ; however , it has not officially been designated by Caltrans as such . The entire route , consisting of two lanes for two @-@ way traffic , traverses on the flat land in the Fish Lake Valley east of the White Mountains , and it can serve as transportation of agricultural goods between California and Nevada via the route 's only junction State Route 168 . In the event that SR 168 is closed , SR 266 connects to Nevada State Route 264 , which intersects with U.S. Route 6 in order to provide an alternate access to California .
= = History = =
The segment of present @-@ day SR 266 from Oasis to the Nevada state line ( now Nevada State Route 264 ) was incorporated into the State Highway System in 1931 as Legislative Route 63 ; it had formed part of the Midland Trail , one of the first auto trails crossing the entire country . The route remained unchanged until 1965 , when in that year the route 's name was designated as Mono County Road 101 . In 1984 , the definition was modified to redesignate the segment as an extension of State Route 168 in order for that route to be connected to Nevada . Two years later , in 1986 , there was a construction of a new segment traveling east from Oasis and connecting to Nevada State Route 266 . When the extension was complete , the two segments – the SR 168 extension and the newly completed – were assigned SR 266 .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in Mono County .
= Plasma ( physics ) =
Plasma ( from Greek πλάσμα , " anything formed " ) is one of the four fundamental states of matter , the others being solid , liquid , and gas . A plasma has properties unlike those of the other states .
A plasma can be created by heating a gas or subjecting it to a strong electromagnetic field , applied with a laser or microwave generator . This decreases or increases the number of electrons , creating positive or negative charged particles called ions , and is accompanied by the dissociation of molecular bonds , if present .
The presence of a significant number of charge carriers makes plasma electrically conductive so that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields . Like gas , plasma does not have a definite shape or a definite volume unless enclosed in a container . Unlike gas , under the influence of a magnetic field , it may form structures such as filaments , beams and double layers .
Plasma is the most abundant form of ordinary matter in the Universe ( of the forms proven to exist ; the more abundant dark matter is hypothetical and may or may not be explained by ordinary matter ) , most of which is in the rarefied intergalactic regions , particularly the intracluster medium , and in stars , including the Sun . A common form of plasma on Earth is produced in neon signs .
Much of the understanding of plasma has come from the pursuit of controlled nuclear fusion and fusion power , for which plasma physics provides the scientific foundation .
= = Properties and parameters = =
= = = Definition = = =
Plasma is an electrically neutral medium of unbound positive and negative particles ( i.e. the overall charge of a plasma is roughly zero ) . It is important to note that although the particles are unbound , they are not ‘ free ’ in the sense of not experiencing forces . When a charged particle moves , it generates an electric current with magnetic fields ; in plasma , the movement of a charged particle affects and is affected by the general field created by the movement of other charges . This governs collective behavior with many degrees of variation . Three factors are listed in the definition of a plasma stream :
The plasma approximation : Charged particles must be close enough together that each particle influences many nearby charged particles , rather than just interacting with the closest particle ( these collective effects are a distinguishing feature of a plasma ) . The plasma approximation is valid when the number of charge carriers within the sphere of influence ( called the Debye sphere whose radius is the Debye screening length ) of a particular particle is higher than unity to provide collective behavior of the charged particles . The average number of particles in the Debye sphere is given by the plasma parameter , " Λ " ( the Greek uppercase letter Lambda ) .
Bulk interactions : The Debye screening length ( defined above ) is short compared to the physical size of the plasma . This criterion means that interactions in the bulk of the plasma are more important than those at its edges , where boundary effects may take place . When this criterion is satisfied , the plasma is quasineutral .
Plasma frequency : The electron plasma frequency ( measuring plasma oscillations of the electrons ) is large compared to the electron @-@ neutral collision frequency ( measuring frequency of collisions between electrons and neutral particles ) . When this condition is valid , electrostatic interactions dominate over the processes of ordinary gas kinetics .
= = = Ranges of parameters = = =
The factors of a plasma stream can vary by many orders of magnitude , but the properties of plasmas with apparently disparate parameters may be very similar ( see plasma scaling ) . The following chart considers only conventional atomic plasmas and not exotic phenomena like quark gluon plasmas :
= = = Degree of ionization = = =
For plasma to exist , ionization is necessary . The term " plasma density " by itself usually refers to the " electron density " , that is , the number of free electrons per unit volume . The degree of ionization of a plasma is the proportion of atoms that have lost or gained electrons , and is controlled mostly by the temperature . Even a partially ionized gas in which as little as 1 % of the particles are ionized can have the characteristics of a plasma ( i.e. , response to magnetic fields and high electrical conductivity ) . The degree of ionization , <formula> , is defined as <formula> , where <formula> is the number density of ions and <formula> is the number density of neutral atoms . The electron density is related to this by the average charge state <formula> of the ions through <formula> , where <formula> is the number density of electrons .
= = = Temperatures = = =
Plasma temperature is commonly measured in kelvins or electronvolts and is , informally , a measure of the thermal kinetic energy per particle . High temperatures are usually needed to sustain ionization , which is a defining feature of a plasma . The degree of plasma ionization is determined by the electron temperature relative to the ionization energy ( and more weakly by the density ) , in a relationship called the Saha equation . At low temperatures , ions and electrons tend to recombine into bound states — atoms — and the plasma will eventually become a gas .
In most cases the electrons are close enough to thermal equilibrium that their temperature is relatively well @-@ defined , even when there is a significant deviation from a Maxwellian energy distribution function , for example , due to UV radiation , energetic particles , or strong electric fields . Because of the large difference in mass , the electrons come to thermodynamic equilibrium amongst themselves much faster than they come into equilibrium with the ions or neutral atoms . For this reason , the ion temperature may be very different from ( usually lower than ) the electron temperature . This is especially common in weakly ionized technological plasmas , where the ions are often near the ambient temperature .
= = = = Thermal vs. nonthermal plasmas = = = =
Based on the relative temperatures of the electrons , ions and neutrals , plasmas are classified as " thermal " or " non @-@ thermal " . Thermal plasmas have electrons and the heavy particles at the same temperature , i.e. they are in thermal equilibrium with each other . Nonthermal plasmas on the other hand have the ions and neutrals at a much lower temperature ( sometimes room temperature ) , whereas electrons are much " hotter " ( <formula> ) .
= = = = Complete vs. incomplete ionization = = = =
A plasma is sometimes referred to as being " hot " if it is nearly fully ionized , or " cold " if only a small fraction ( for example 1 % ) of the gas molecules are ionized , but other definitions of the terms " hot plasma " and " cold plasma " are common . Even in a " cold " plasma , the electron temperature is still typically several thousand degrees Celsius . Plasmas utilized in " plasma technology " ( " technological plasmas " ) are usually cold plasmas in the sense that only a small fraction of the gas molecules are ionized .
= = = Plasma potential = = =
Since plasmas are very good electrical conductors , electric potentials play an important role . The potential as it exists on average in the space between charged particles , independent of the question of how it can be measured , is called the " plasma potential " , or the " space potential " . If an electrode is inserted into a plasma , its potential will generally lie considerably below the plasma potential due to what is termed a Debye sheath . The good electrical conductivity of plasmas makes their electric fields very small . This results in the important concept of " quasineutrality " , which says the density of negative charges is approximately equal to the density of positive charges over large volumes of the plasma ( <formula> ) , but on the scale of the Debye length there can be charge imbalance . In the special case that double layers are formed , the charge separation can extend some tens of Debye lengths .
The magnitude of the potentials and electric fields must be determined by means other than simply finding the net charge density . A common example is to assume that the electrons satisfy the Boltzmann relation :
<formula>
Differentiating this relation provides a means to calculate the electric field from the density :
<formula>
It is possible to produce a plasma that is not quasineutral . An electron beam , for example , has only negative charges . The density of a non @-@ neutral plasma must generally be very low , or it must be very small , otherwise it will be dissipated by the repulsive electrostatic force .
In astrophysical plasmas , Debye screening prevents electric fields from directly affecting the plasma over large distances , i.e. , greater than the Debye length . However , the existence of charged particles causes the plasma to generate , and be affected by , magnetic fields . This can and does cause extremely complex behavior , such as the generation of plasma double layers , an object that separates charge over a few tens of Debye lengths . The dynamics of plasmas interacting with external and self @-@ generated magnetic fields are studied in the academic discipline of magnetohydrodynamics .
= = = Magnetization = = =
Plasma with a magnetic field strong enough to influence the motion of the charged particles is said to be magnetized . A common quantitative criterion is that a particle on average completes at least one gyration around the magnetic field before making a collision , i.e. , <formula> , where <formula> is the " electron gyrofrequency " and <formula> is the " electron collision rate " . It is often the case that the electrons are magnetized while the ions are not . Magnetized plasmas are anisotropic , meaning that their properties in the direction parallel to the magnetic field are different from those perpendicular to it . While electric fields in plasmas are usually small due to the high conductivity , the electric field associated with a plasma moving in a magnetic field is given by <formula> ( where <formula> is the electric field , <formula> is the velocity , and <formula> is the magnetic field ) , and is not affected by Debye shielding .
= = = Comparison of plasma and gas phases = = =
Plasma is often called the fourth state of matter after solid , liquids and gases , despite plasma typically being an ionized gas . It is distinct from these and other lower @-@ energy states of matter . Although it is closely related to the gas phase in that it also has no definite form or volume , it differs in a number of ways , including the following :
= = Common plasmas = =
Plasmas are by far the most common phase of ordinary matter in the universe , both by mass and by volume . Essentially , all of the visible light from space comes from stars , which are plasmas with a temperature such that they radiate strongly at visible wavelengths . Most of the ordinary ( or baryonic ) matter in the universe , however , is found in the intergalactic medium , which is also a plasma , but much hotter , so that it radiates primarily as X @-@ rays .
In 1937 , Hannes Alfvén argued that if plasma pervaded the universe , it could then carry electric currents capable of generating a galactic magnetic field . After winning the Nobel Prize , he emphasized that :
In order to understand the phenomena in a certain plasma region , it is necessary to map not only the magnetic but also the electric field and the electric currents . Space is filled with a network of currents which transfer energy and momentum over large or very large distances . The currents often pinch to filamentary or surface currents . The latter are likely to give space , as also interstellar and intergalactic space , a cellular structure .
By contrast the current scientific consensus is that about 96 % of the total energy density in the universe is not plasma or any other form of ordinary matter , but a combination of cold dark matter and dark energy . Our Sun , and all stars , are made of plasma , much of interstellar space is filled with a plasma , albeit a very sparse one , and intergalactic space too . Even black holes , which are not directly visible , are thought to be fuelled by accreting ionising matter ( i.e. plasma ) , and they are associated with astrophysical jets of luminous ejected plasma , such as M87 's jet that extends 5 @,@ 000 light @-@ years .
In our solar system , interplanetary space is filled with the plasma of the Solar Wind that extends from the Sun out to the heliopause . However , the density of ordinary matter is much higher than average and much higher than that of either dark matter or dark energy . The planet Jupiter accounts for most of the non @-@ plasma within the orbit of Pluto ( about 0 @.@ 1 % by mass , or 10 − 15 % by volume ) .
Dust and small grains within a plasma will also pick up a net negative charge , so that they in turn may act like a very heavy negative ion component of the plasma ( see dusty plasmas ) .
= = Complex plasma phenomena = =
Although the underlying equations governing plasmas are relatively simple , plasma behavior is extraordinarily varied and subtle : the emergence of unexpected behavior from a simple model is a typical feature of a complex system . Such systems lie in some sense on the boundary between ordered and disordered behavior and cannot typically be described either by simple , smooth , mathematical functions , or by pure randomness . The spontaneous formation of interesting spatial features on a wide range of length scales is one manifestation of plasma complexity . The features are interesting , for example , because they are very sharp , spatially intermittent ( the distance between features is much larger than the features themselves ) , or have a fractal form . Many of these features were first studied in the laboratory , and have subsequently been recognized throughout the universe . Examples of complexity and complex structures in plasmas include :
= = = Filamentation = = =
Striations or string @-@ like structures , also known as birkeland currents , are seen in many plasmas , like the plasma ball , the aurora , lightning , electric arcs , solar flares , and supernova remnants . They are sometimes associated with larger current densities , and the interaction with the magnetic field can form a magnetic rope structure . High power microwave breakdown at atmospheric pressure also leads to the formation of filamentary structures . ( See also Plasma pinch )
Filamentation also refers to the self @-@ focusing of a high power laser pulse . At high powers , the nonlinear part of the index of refraction becomes important and causes a higher index of refraction in the center of the laser beam , where the laser is brighter than at the edges , causing a feedback that focuses the laser even more . The tighter focused laser has a higher peak brightness ( irradiance ) that forms a plasma . The plasma has an index of refraction lower than one , and causes a defocusing of the laser beam . The interplay of the focusing index of refraction , and the defocusing plasma makes the formation of a long filament of plasma that can be micrometers to kilometers in length . One interesting aspect of the filamentation generated plasma is the relatively low ion density due to defocusing effects of the ionized electrons . ( See also Filament propagation )
= = = Shocks or double layers = = =
Plasma properties change rapidly ( within a few Debye lengths ) across a two @-@ dimensional sheet in the presence of a ( moving ) shock or ( stationary ) double layer . Double layers involve localized charge separation , which causes a large potential difference across the layer , but does not generate an electric field outside the layer . Double layers separate adjacent plasma regions with different physical characteristics , and are often found in current carrying plasmas . They accelerate both ions and electrons .
= = = Electric fields and circuits = = =
Quasineutrality of a plasma requires that plasma currents close on themselves in electric circuits . Such circuits follow Kirchhoff 's circuit laws and possess a resistance and inductance . These circuits must generally be treated as a strongly coupled system , with the behavior in each plasma region dependent on the entire circuit . It is this strong coupling between system elements , together with nonlinearity , which may lead to complex behavior . Electrical circuits in plasmas store inductive ( magnetic ) energy , and should the circuit be disrupted , for example , by a plasma instability , the inductive energy will be released as plasma heating and acceleration . This is a common explanation for the heating that takes place in the solar corona . Electric currents , and in particular , magnetic @-@ field @-@ aligned electric currents ( which are sometimes generically referred to as " Birkeland currents " ) , are also observed in the Earth 's aurora , and in plasma filaments .
= = = Cellular structure = = =
Narrow sheets with sharp gradients may separate regions with different properties such as magnetization , density and temperature , resulting in cell @-@ like regions . Examples include the magnetosphere , heliosphere , and heliospheric current sheet . Hannes Alfvén wrote : " From the cosmological point of view , the most important new space research discovery is probably the cellular structure of space . As has been seen in every region of space accessible to in situ measurements , there are a number of ' cell walls ' , sheets of electric currents , which divide space into compartments with different magnetization , temperature , density , etc . "
= = = Critical ionization velocity = = =
The critical ionization velocity is the relative velocity between an ionized plasma and a neutral gas , above which a runaway ionization process takes place . The critical ionization process is a quite general mechanism for the conversion of the kinetic energy of a rapidly streaming gas into ionization and plasma thermal energy . Critical phenomena in general are typical of complex systems , and may lead to sharp spatial or temporal features .
= = = Ultracold plasma = = =
Ultracold plasmas are created in a magneto @-@ optical trap ( MOT ) by trapping and cooling neutral atoms , to temperatures of 1 mK or lower , and then using another laser to ionize the atoms by giving each of the outermost electrons just enough energy to escape the electrical attraction of its parent ion .
One advantage of ultracold plasmas are their well characterized and tunable initial conditions , including their size and electron temperature . By adjusting the wavelength of the ionizing laser , the kinetic energy of the liberated electrons can be tuned as low as 0 @.@ 1 K , a limit set by the frequency bandwidth of the laser pulse . The ions inherit the millikelvin temperatures of the neutral atoms , but are quickly heated through a process known as disorder induced heating ( DIH ) . This type of non @-@ equilibrium ultracold plasma evolves rapidly , and displays many other interesting phenomena .
One of the metastable states of a strongly nonideal plasma is Rydberg matter , which forms upon condensation of excited atoms .
= = = Non @-@ neutral plasma = = =
The strength and range of the electric force and the good conductivity of plasmas usually ensure that the densities of positive and negative charges in any sizeable region are equal ( " quasineutrality " ) . A plasma with a significant excess of charge density , or , in the extreme case , is composed of a single species , is called a non @-@ neutral plasma . In such a plasma , electric fields play a dominant role . Examples are charged particle beams , an electron cloud in a Penning trap and positron plasmas .
= = = Dusty plasma / grain plasma = = =
A dusty plasma contains tiny charged particles of dust ( typically found in space ) . The dust particles acquire high charges and interact with each other . A plasma that contains larger particles is called grain plasma . Under laboratory conditions , dusty plasmas are also called complex plasmas .
= = = Impermeable plasma = = =
Impermeable plasma is a type of thermal plasma which acts like an impermeable solid with respect to gas or cold plasma and can be physically pushed . Interaction of cold gas and thermal plasma was briefly studied by a group led by Hannes Alfvén in 1960s and 1970s for its possible applications in insulation of fusion plasma from the reactor walls . However , later it was found that the external magnetic fields in this configuration could induce kink instabilities in the plasma and subsequently lead to an unexpectedly high heat loss to the walls . In 2013 , a group of materials scientists reported that they have successfully generated stable impermeable plasma with no magnetic confinement using only an ultrahigh @-@ pressure blanket of cold gas . While spectroscopic data on the characteristics of plasma were claimed to be difficult to obtain due to the high pressure , the passive effect of plasma on synthesis of different nanostructures clearly suggested the effective confinement . They also showed that upon maintaining the impermeability for a few tens of seconds , screening of ions at the plasma @-@ gas interface could give rise to a strong secondary mode of heating ( known as viscous heating ) leading to different kinetics of reactions and formation of complex nanomaterials .
= = Mathematical descriptions = =
To completely describe the state of a plasma , we would need to write down all the particle locations and velocities and describe the electromagnetic field in the plasma region . However , it is generally not practical or necessary to keep track of all the particles in a plasma . Therefore , plasma physicists commonly use less detailed descriptions , of which there are two main types :
= = = Fluid model = = =
Fluid models describe plasmas in terms of smoothed quantities , like density and averaged velocity around each position ( see Plasma parameters ) . One simple fluid model , magnetohydrodynamics , treats the plasma as a single fluid governed by a combination of Maxwell 's equations and the Navier – Stokes equations . A more general description is the two @-@ fluid plasma picture , where the ions and electrons are described separately . Fluid models are often accurate when collisionality is sufficiently high to keep the plasma velocity distribution close to a Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution . Because fluid models usually describe the plasma in terms of a single flow at a certain temperature at each spatial location , they can neither capture velocity space structures like beams or double layers , nor resolve wave @-@ particle effects .
= = = Kinetic model = = =
Kinetic models describe the particle velocity distribution function at each point in the plasma and therefore do not need to assume a Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution . A kinetic description is often necessary for collisionless plasmas . There are two common approaches to kinetic description of a plasma . One is based on representing the smoothed distribution function on a grid in velocity and position . The other , known as the particle @-@ in @-@ cell ( PIC ) technique , includes kinetic information by following the trajectories of a large number of individual particles . Kinetic models are generally more computationally intensive than fluid models . The Vlasov equation may be used to describe the dynamics of a system of charged particles interacting with an electromagnetic field . In magnetized plasmas , a gyrokinetic approach can substantially reduce the computational expense of a fully kinetic simulation .
= = Artificial plasmas = =
Most artificial plasmas are generated by the application of electric and / or magnetic fields through a gas . Plasma generated in a laboratory setting and for industrial use can be generally categorized by :
The type of power source used to generate the plasma — DC , RF and microwave
The pressure they operate at — vacuum pressure ( < 10 mTorr or 1 Pa ) , moderate pressure ( ~ 1 Torr or 100 Pa ) , atmospheric pressure ( 760 Torr or 100 kPa )
The degree of ionization within the plasma — fully , partially , or weakly ionized
The temperature relationships within the plasma — thermal plasma ( <formula> ) , non @-@ thermal or " cold " plasma ( <formula> )
The electrode configuration used to generate the plasma
The magnetization of the particles within the plasma — magnetized ( both ion and electrons are trapped in Larmor orbits by the magnetic field ) , partially magnetized ( the electrons but not the ions are trapped by the magnetic field ) , non @-@ magnetized ( the magnetic field is too weak to trap the particles in orbits but may generate Lorentz forces )
= = = Generation of artificial plasma = = =
Just like the many uses of plasma , there are several means for its generation , however , one principle is common to all of them : there must be energy input to produce and sustain it . For this case , plasma is generated when an electric current is applied across a dielectric gas or fluid ( an electrically non @-@ conducting material ) as can be seen in the image to the right , which shows a discharge tube as a simple example ( DC used for simplicity ) .
The potential difference and subsequent electric field pull the bound electrons ( negative ) toward the anode ( positive electrode ) while the cathode ( negative electrode ) pulls the nucleus . As the voltage increases , the current stresses the material ( by electric polarization ) beyond its dielectric limit ( termed strength ) into a stage of electrical breakdown , marked by an electric spark , where the material transforms from being an insulator into a conductor ( as it becomes increasingly ionized ) . The underlying process is the Townsend avalanche , where collisions between electrons and neutral gas atoms create more ions and electrons ( as can be seen in the figure on the right ) . The first impact of an electron on an atom results in one ion and two electrons . Therefore , the number of charged particles increases rapidly ( in the millions ) only " after about 20 successive sets of collisions " , mainly due to a small mean free path ( average distance travelled between collisions ) .
= = = = Electric arc = = = =
With ample current density and ionization , this forms a luminous electric arc ( a continuous electric discharge similar to lightning ) between the electrodes . Electrical resistance along the continuous electric arc creates heat , which dissociates more gas molecules and ionizes the resulting atoms ( where degree of ionization is determined by temperature ) , and as per the sequence : solid @-@ liquid @-@ gas @-@ plasma , the gas is gradually turned into a thermal plasma . A thermal plasma is in thermal equilibrium , which is to say that the temperature is relatively homogeneous throughout the heavy particles ( i.e. atoms , molecules and ions ) and electrons . This is so because when thermal plasmas are generated , electrical energy is given to electrons , which , due to their great mobility and large numbers , are able to disperse it rapidly and by elastic collision ( without energy loss ) to the heavy particles .
= = = Examples of industrial / commercial plasma = = =
Because of their sizable temperature and density ranges , plasmas find applications in many fields of research , technology and industry . For example , in : industrial and extractive metallurgy , surface treatments such as plasma spraying ( coating ) , etching in microelectronics , metal cutting and welding ; as well as in everyday vehicle exhaust cleanup and fluorescent / luminescent lamps , while even playing a part in supersonic combustion engines for aerospace engineering .
= = = = Low @-@ pressure discharges = = = =
Glow discharge plasmas : non @-@ thermal plasmas generated by the application of DC or low frequency RF ( < 100 kHz ) electric field to the gap between two metal electrodes . Probably the most common plasma ; this is the type of plasma generated within fluorescent light tubes .
Capacitively coupled plasma ( CCP ) : similar to glow discharge plasmas , but generated with high frequency RF electric fields , typically 13 @.@ 56 MHz . These differ from glow discharges in that the sheaths are much less intense . These are widely used in the microfabrication and integrated circuit manufacturing industries for plasma etching and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition .
Cascaded Arc Plasma Source : a device to produce low temperature ( ~ 1eV ) high density plasmas ( HDP ) .
Inductively coupled plasma ( ICP ) : similar to a CCP and with similar applications but the electrode consists of a coil wrapped around the chamber where plasma is formed .
Wave heated plasma : similar to CCP and ICP in that it is typically RF ( or microwave ) . Examples include helicon discharge and electron cyclotron resonance ( ECR ) .
= = = = Atmospheric pressure = = = =
Arc discharge : this is a high power thermal discharge of very high temperature ( ~ 10 @,@ 000 K ) . It can be generated using various power supplies . It is commonly used in metallurgical processes . For example , it is used to smelt minerals containing Al2O3 to produce aluminium .
Corona discharge : this is a non @-@ thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltage to sharp electrode tips . It is commonly used in ozone generators and particle precipitators .
Dielectric barrier discharge ( DBD ) : this is a non @-@ thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltages across small gaps wherein a non @-@ conducting coating prevents the transition of the plasma discharge into an arc . It is often mislabeled ' Corona ' discharge in industry and has similar application to corona discharges . It is also widely used in the web treatment of fabrics . The application of the discharge to synthetic fabrics and plastics functionalizes the surface and allows for paints , glues and similar materials to adhere .
Capacitive discharge : this is a nonthermal plasma generated by the application of RF power ( e.g. , 13 @.@ 56 MHz ) to one powered electrode , with a grounded electrode held at a small separation distance on the order of 1 cm . Such discharges are commonly stabilized using a noble gas such as helium or argon .
" Piezoelectric direct discharge plasma : " is a nonthermal plasma generated at the high @-@ side of a piezoelectric transformer ( PT ) . This generation variant is particularly suited for high efficient and compact devices where a separate high voltage power supply is not desired .
= = History = =
Plasma was first identified in a Crookes tube , and so described by Sir William Crookes in 1879 ( he called it " radiant matter " ) . The nature of the Crookes tube " cathode ray " matter was subsequently identified by British physicist Sir J.J. Thomson in 1897 . The term " plasma " was coined by Irving Langmuir in 1928 , perhaps because the glowing discharge molds itself to the shape of the Crookes tube ( Gr. πλάσμα – a thing moulded or formed ) . Langmuir described his observations as :
Except near the electrodes , where there are sheaths containing very few electrons , the ionized gas contains ions and electrons in about equal numbers so that the resultant space charge is very small . We shall use the name plasma to describe this region containing balanced charges of ions and electrons .
= = Research = =
Plasmas are the object of study of the academic field of plasma science or plasma physics , including sub @-@ disciplines such as space plasma physics . There are multiple journals devoted to the subject ( see list ) . It involves the following fields of active research ( see also list of articles ) :
= Neaira ( hetaera ) =
Neaira ( / nɪˈaɪrə / ; Greek : Νέαιρα ) , also Neaera ( / nɪˈɪərə / ) , was a hetaera who lived in the 4th century BC in ancient Greece . She was brought to trial between 343 and 340 BC , accused of marrying an Athenian citizen illegally and misrepresenting her daughter as an Athenian citizen .
The speech made against Neaira in this trial by Apollodorus is preserved as Demosthenes ' fifty @-@ ninth speech , though the speech is often attributed to Pseudo @-@ Demosthenes , who seems to have worked on many of the speeches given by Apollodorus . The speech provides more details than any other about prostitutes of antiquity , and consequently a great deal of information about sex trade in the ancient Greek city @-@ states ( poleis ) .
= = Speech Against Neaira = =
The speech Against Neaira is the source of most of the details of Neaira 's biography . It concerns a case brought against Neaira when she was about fifty by Apollodorus ' son @-@ in @-@ law Theomnestus , though apart from a brief introduction of the case given by Theomnestus , Apollodorus delivered the entirety of the speech . The case revolves around the accusation that Neaira , a foreigner , married an Athenian citizen , and that she was attempting to pass off her own children as Athenian citizens .
While the speech revolves around the life of Neaira , this is of little importance to the substance of the accusations . The details seem to be part of the speech in the hope that the salacious accusations will hide the weakness of Apollodorus ' case . The accuracy of the evidence given in the speech has been questioned , and is known to contain both lies and inaccuracies . Despite this , the speech tells us much about the life of an accomplished hetaera , and is extremely valuable to historians as a source on women 's lives in classical Greece . Indeed , it is our most reliable extant source on prostitution in the classical world , and one of our best sources on women 's lives and gender relations in general for the period .
= = Biography = =
= = = Life with Nikarete = = =
Neaira was probably born in the first decade of the fourth century BC . Her place of birth is unknown , and the earliest event in her life that we know of is her purchase when she was a young girl by Nikarete . Nikarete trained the girls she purchased to be hetaerae , calling them her daughters in order to increase the price her customers would pay , and lived with them in Corinth .
Neaira 's work as a prostitute started before she reached puberty . She is twice described by Apollodorus as having sex for money before she came of age , though possibly due to her age he implies that she was not yet a hetaera . During this time , the orator Lysias was a prominent guest in Nikarete 's brothel and a regular customer of Metaneira , another of Nikarete 's girls . In order to reward her for her services , he arranged for her to be initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries , and funded the journey . Neaira was at this time about twelve or thirteen , and Nikarete accompanied them . Neaira visited Athens again for the Great Panathenaea of 378 , this time accompanying Simus of Thessaly , a young aristocrat .
= = = Leaving Nikarete and Corinth = = =
Around 376 BC , Timanoridas of Corinth and Eukrates of Lefkada paid thirty minae to purchase Neaira from Nikarete , at the high end of prices for hetaerae . When the men married , they agreed to let Neaira buy her freedom for twenty minae , which , with the aid of gifts and loans from her former customers , she did . As part of this deal , Neaira agreed to no longer work as a prostitute in Corinth , and so left the city for Athens with Phrynion , who had helped her buy her freedom .
Neaira was certainly living with Phrynion in Athens by 373 BC , when he took her to a feast given by the general Chabrias to celebrate his victory in the Pythian Games . During this celebration , Apollodorus says , Neaira was sexually assaulted by the guests and slaves of Chabrias while she was drunk and asleep . Due to this and other mistreatment by Phrynion , in 372 BC Neaira left his household and went to Megara , taking with her her clothing and jewellery , two maids , and other possessions belonging to Phrynion .
= = = Life with Stephanus = = =
In Megara , Neaira continued to work as a hetaera , and in 371 met Stephanus . Stephanus offered to act as her patron if she returned with him to Athens . Apollodorus claims that with her she brought two sons and a daughter to Athens , but modern commentators have largely concluded that the sons in question were in fact those of Stephanus , by an Athenian woman . Indeed , Christopher Carey points out that one of the sons , at least , was probably a legitimate son of Stephanus , being named after his father , and John Buckler notes that Apollodorus contradicts himself on whether Neaira 's alleged sons were hers by another man , or hers by Stephanus .
Phrynion learnt that Neaira was back in Athens , and attempted to take her back from Stephanus . Stephanus resisted , claiming that as Neaira was a free woman he had no right ; a claim which Phrynion proceeded to challenge in court , though he was persuaded to settle the case by arbitration instead . The arbitrators decided that Neaira was indeed free , and that in addition to this she was her own kyria ( mistress ) ; this was an extremely unusual decision in a society where all citizen women , at least , had a kyrios ( master ) . Despite this unusual level of freedom , however , Neaira was compelled to split her time between the two men as they agreed , without any input herself .
= = = Trial = = =
Sometime between 343 and 340 BC , Neaira was brought to trial by Theomnestus on behalf of his father @-@ in @-@ law Apollodorus , accused of xenias ( representing herself as a citizen when in fact she was not ) . If she was convicted , the maximum penalty Neaira faced was being sold into slavery and having her property sold . Neaira herself would not have been permitted to speak at her trial , though she was probably present .
The only surviving record of the trial is the speech given by Theomnestus and Apollodorus against Neaira and Stephanus , and the outcome is unknown . No records of Neaira exist after the trial . Modern commentators have noted the weaknesses in Apollodorus ' arguments , though as the outcome of an Athenian trial depended heavily on what the parties involved could persuade the jury to accept , and how much of their dishonesty they could get away with , we cannot say for certain that the suit failed .
= Serranus Clinton Hastings =
Serranus Clinton Hastings ( November 22 , 1814 – February 18 , 1893 ) was a 19th @-@ century politician , rancher and a prominent lawyer in the United States . He studied law as a young man and moved to the Iowa District in 1837 to open a law office . Iowa became a territory a year later , and he was elected a member of the House of Representatives of the Iowa Territorial General Assembly . When the territory became the state of Iowa in 1846 , he won an election to represent the state in the United States House of Representatives . After his term ended , he became Chief Justice of the Iowa Supreme Court . He resigned after one year in office and moved to California . He was appointed to the California Supreme Court as Chief Justice a few months later . He won an election to be Attorney General of California , and assumed office shortly after his term as Chief Justice ended . He began practicing law again as Attorney General . He earned a small fortune with his law practice and used that fortune to finance his successful real estate venture . In 1878 , he founded the Hastings College of the Law with a donation of US $ 100 @,@ 000 .
= = Early life = =
Hastings was born in Watertown , Jefferson County , New York , on November 22 , 1814 to Robert Collins Hastings and Patience Brayton . Robert Collins Hastings was a good friend and supporter of DeWitt Clinton , whom Serranus gets his middle name from . When Robert died in 1824 , the family moved to St. Lawrence County , New York . He completed a six @-@ year course at Gouverneur Academy , and in 1834 , he became taught and became the principal at Norwich Academy , located in Chenango County , New York . He introduced the Hamiltonian system of instruction and the Angletean system of mathematics to the academy . In 1835 , he resigned from his position at the academy to study law .
Hastings began to study law with Charles Thorpe , Esq . , of Norwich . After a few months of study , he decided to move to Lawrenceburg , Indiana . He completed his legal studies there with Daniel S. Majors , Esq . He did not immediately enter the practice of law and instead became an editor of the Indiana Signal , where he supported Martin Van Buren in his presidential campaign . He moved to Terre Haute , Indiana , in December 1836 and underwent a legal examination by Judge Porters of the Circuit Court .
= = Career = =
In January 1837 , Hastings moved to the Iowa District , which was part of the Wisconsin Territory . He settled in Burlington for a short time and then moved to Bloomington , which would later become Muscatine , Iowa . He was examined by Judge Irwin , was admitted to the bar , and opened a law office . Shortly after this , he was commissioned Justice of the Peace by Wisconsin Territorial Governor Henry Dodge . He had jurisdiction over the 90 miles between Burlington , Iowa , and Davenport , Iowa , the western boundary was undefined . He only had one case to deal with : a man accused of stealing US $ 30 from a citizen and $ 3 from the court . He found the man guilty and sentenced him to be tied to an oak tree , receive 33 lashes across his back , be transported across the Mississippi River to Illinois , and be banished from the territory forever . When Iowa Territory was organized in 1838 , he won an election to represent Muscatine County , Louisa County , and Slaughter County in the House of Representatives of the Iowa Territorial General Assembly . He served from November 12 , 1838 , to January 25 , 1839 . He was reelected to that position in 1839 , this time representing Muscatine County and Johnson County from November 4 , 1839 , to January 14 , 1840 . In 1840 , a border
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conflict with Missouri called the Honey War took place . He received the military title of Major and helped capture a sheriff . No battle took place , and the two states compromised on the border issue .
Hastings married Azalea Brodt on June 10 , 1840 , in Muscatine , Iowa . They had two children while living in Muscatine , Marshall and Clara L. He was elected to the Legislative Council that year , representing Muscatine County and Johnson County again , and served from November 3 , 1840 to January 15 , 1841 . He was re @-@ elected the following year , and served from December 6 , 1841 to February 18 , 1842 . He was not elected to the Fifth and Sixth General Assemblies . He was elected President of the Legislative Council for the Seventh General Assembly , and also represented Muscatine County and Johnson County on the council . He served from May 5 , 1845 to June 11 , 1845 . He was elected to the council for the Eight General Assembly , which was also the final one since Iowa was to become a state on December 28 , 1846 . He represented the same counties he had previously , and served from December 1 , 1845 to January 19 , 1846 . During his time on the Legislative Council he helped compile the " Blue Book " of Iowa laws . It became known as the " Old Blue Book " and was the first legal code for the Iowa , Nebraska , Dakota , and Montana Territories .
In 1846 , Hastings was nominated to represent Iowa at large in the United States House of Representatives as a Democrat . On December 29 , 1846 , he was elected over the Whig candidate G. C. R. Mitchell . He was the second youngest member serving in Congress at that time . He served during the second session of the 29th United States Congress , which ended on March 3 , 1847 . Close to a year after his term ended as a member of the House of Representatives , Governor Ansel Briggs appointed him as the third Chief Justice of the Iowa Supreme Court . He started his term on January 26 , 1848 , and resigned on January 14 , 1849 to move to California , his family deciding to stay in Iowa .
Hastings settled in Benicia , California , and a few months later , California legislature selected him to be the first Chief Justice of the California Supreme Court . He started his term on December 20 , 1849 , but the court did not assemble until March 4 , 1850 . In 1851 , his family moved from Iowa to live with him in California . During his term as Chief Justice he ran for the office of Attorney General of California . Elections were held on September 3 , 1851 , and he won with 52 @.@ 2 % of the votes . The Whig candidate , William D. Fair , received the rest of the votes . His term as Chief Justice ended in December 1851 , and he assumed office as Attorney General on January 5 , 1852 . While serving as Attorney General , he could practice law as well , something he could not do as Chief Justice . The wealth he earned during this time became the foundation of the larger fortune he would later earn in real estate . He ended his two @-@ year term on January 2 , 1854 .
= = Later life = =
Hastings continued to practice law after his term as Attorney General ended , and also became a member of the Henley , Hastings & Co. bank firm located in Sacramento , California . The banking firm failed , with little loss to him though . Around 1857 , he left professional life , and started investing in real estate . He and his wife had seven more children after this : Charles Foster Dio . , Douglas , Uhler , Robert Paul , Flora Azalea , Ella , and Lillie . He gradually acquired around one hundred lots of real estate in San Francisco , and bought large tracts of land in Solano , Napa , Lake , and Sacramento counties . In 1861 , he put up many four @-@ room buildings in the south side of San Francisco for the poor with the money he earned in real estate . The rent was $ 10 a month , and as a business venture it was a success . By 1862 , he was worth $ 900 @,@ 000 , which was largely attributed to his real estate investments . In 1865 , he traveled to Europe ; four years later he accompanied William H. Seward to view the recently purchased territory of Alaska . Hastings College of Law , the law department of the University of California , was founded on March 28 , 1878 with his donation of $ 100 @,@ 000 . The college offered him the position of dean and he accepted the offer . He was professor of comparative jurisprudence at the college as well , a position he held until 1887 . He helped establish St. Catherine Academy in Benicia , California , with a donation of $ 6 @,@ 000 . He also helped publish two volumes of the botany of the Pacific coast . His contribution to botany would later be recognized by having the plant genus Hastingsia named after him .
Hastings died at the age of 78 on February 18 , 1893 in San Francisco , California . He was buried at St. Helena Public Cemetery in St. Helena , California .
= Datchet Bridge =
Datchet Bridge , also known as The Divided Bridge , was a road bridge which crossed the River Thames at Datchet from 1706 until it was demolished in 1848 . It was situated on the reach between Old Windsor Lock and Romney Lock and linked Windsor on the Berkshire bank to Datchet on the Buckinghamshire side . The bridge replaced a ferry service which had operated at the site since at least the middle of the 13th century .
The first Datchet Bridge was a wooden bridge commissioned by Queen Anne as the crossing was a convenient back @-@ way to Windsor Castle . Responsibility for the upkeep and maintenance of the crossing later passed to the counties of Berkshire and Buckinghamshire over whose boundary the bridge spanned . There followed many decades of dispute between the counties over who should pay for what . This culminated in 1836 with each county deciding to build their own half , in different materials and not touching in the middle . The resulting " crazy erection " , Buckinghamshire 's side in wood and Berkshire 's in iron , known as The Divided Bridge , was demolished in 1848 and is the only case on the Thames where an established bridge crossing site has completely disappeared .
= = Background = =
Datchet on the north bank of the River Thames has existed as a settlement since before 990 but the first recorded mention of a river crossing is in 1224 when Henry III gave John le Passir a " great oak " with which to make a boat for " passage of Datchet " . In 1278 Edward I paid for William of Eton to a build a " great barge " for Datchet Ferry . Although the Crown had provided for the vessels , the right to operate the ferry and collect tolls sat with the Lord of the Manor of Datchet . This continued until 1680 when the then Lord of the Manor , Colonel Andrew Pitcairn Wheeler , sold the Manor of Datchet to Budd Wase but kept back the ferry rights which he subsequently mortgaged for £ 1000 ( equivalent to £ 146 @,@ 000 today ) . In 1699 Wheeler wrote to William III complaining that a wall built by the King along the Windsor bank was adversely affecting the ferry trade . To settle the complaint the Crown purchased the ferry rights from Colonel Wheeler for £ 7000 ( equivalent to £ 883 @,@ 000 today ) .
The crossing was important to the Crown as the road through Datchet and across the Thames provided a convenient short route from London to Windsor Castle and the ferry was much used by Royalty and courtiers . Privy Purse records show two payments from Elizabeth of York to the Datchet ferryman in 1502 and similarly from Princess Mary in 1522 and her father Henry VIII between 1530 and 1532 . In Elias Ashmole 's account of the 1520 Procession of the order of the Garter he describes how Queen Catherine after watching the procession returned to Windsor Castle from Colnbrook by way of " the fery [ sic ] next way to the castle . " The ferry however did not always provide a quick and efficient service . In 1678 the ferryman , Matthew Hale , received a formal rebuke from Charles II 's Secretary of State , Henry Coventry , for unduly delaying a Royal Messenger . Coventry warned Hale in no uncertain terms :
Despite Coventry 's warning Royal dissatisfaction with the inefficient service provided by the Hale Family , who by 1706 had kept the ferry for over 150 years , continued to grow . This culminated in the decision by Queen Anne to provide a fixed bridge crossing on the site .
= = Queen Anne 's bridge = =
In 1706 a wooden bridge was built by order of Queen Anne to replace the ferry between Datchet , Buckinghamshire and Windsor , Berkshire . It was made of oak provided by the Surveyor General of Woods South of the Trent , Edward Wilcox , who was ordered to fell " sufficient non @-@ navy timber " from the Royal forest " for the better convenience of our passage from our Castle at Windsor " . The building work was supervised by the Surveyor General , Samuel Travers and the final cost was £ 1000 ( equivalent to £ 151 @,@ 000 today ) The better convenience of passage was further enhanced by Queen Anne 's intimate friend Sarah Churchill , Duchess of Marlborough and her husband the first Duke who then lived at Langley and who had a carriage drive built from their house , over the bridge and on to Windsor Castle .
Unlike the upstream toll bridges at Windsor and Maidenhead , the crossing at Datchet was toll @-@ free for both River and road and quickly became a popular crossing . Seeking compensation for loss of income on their bridges , the corporations of Windsor and Maidenhead made claims to the Treasury . In 1708 Windsor was granted an ex @-@ gratia payment of £ 55 ( equivalent to £ 8300 today ) plus £ 25 and £ 20 to two tenants ( equivalent to £ 3600 and £ 2900 respectively ) . Maidenhead 's complaint , not made until 1714 , was noted but no compensation paid .
The bridge was initially maintained by the Crown which paid £ 800 ( equivalent to £ 115 @,@ 000 today ) for repairs in 1737 and in 1770 replaced the original all @-@ wood structure with a bridge of ten wooden arches on stone piers . By 1794 the bridge was " absolutely dangerous for carriages to pass over it and a stone one [ was ] now in contemplation . " Later the same year the central arches of the new bridge collapsed during heavy flooding and King George III deciding that he did not wish to finance the rebuilding instead instated a temporary free ferry . There followed many years of wrangling between the Crown and the counties of Berkshire and Buckinghamshire over who should bear the cost of the building and maintenance of the bridge as the county boundary ran down the centre of the channel of the Thames thus cutting the bridge in half . The matter was forced by the intervention of John Richards , the Rector of Datchet who was also a lawyer ; Richards took legal action and the resulting judgement from the King 's Bench in 1809 was that the two counties must equally share the rebuilding costs , a total of £ 2 @,@ 375 each ( equivalent to £ 155 @,@ 400 today ) . The counties , forced to co @-@ operate , built a new wooden bridge on the old stone piers which was opened by Queen Charlotte and Princess Elizabeth on 4 December 1812 .
= = The Divided Bridge = =
The co @-@ operation was short @-@ lived and arguments over maintenance started again in 1834 when the Buckinghamshire side needed repairs and Berkshire refused to contribute . Lack of maintenance led to the bridge collapsing once more in 1836 and the counties came up with the unique solution of each building their own half . Buckinghamshire decided to rebuild with wooden railings whilst Berkshire built its half in iron suspended by chains . Kelly 's Directory of 1847 noted :
" Datchet is separated from Windsor by the river Thames , over which is a very singular bridge ; one half of it is kept in repair by the county of Bucks and the other half by Berks . The former has a wooden railing and the latter an iron one , suspended by chains , but neither the Bucks nor Berks sides touch each other . "
Even during the building the counties would not work together and had to be ordered by the Lord Chancellor to " proceed in such a manner as not to impede each other " . Consequently when the bridge was finished the two sides did not touch in the middle with Berkshire 's final span being cantilevered out from the last Berkshire stone pier thus needing no support from the Buckinghamshire side . The result was an unsatisfactory , ungainly structure , sarcastically noted on opening as having " scarce a bridge upon the River Thames which surpasses it " . The centre gap was apparent during the Divided Bridge 's whole lifetime and lacking structural integrity the " hideous monstrosity " quickly became unsafe :
" It was no wonder that when Wombwell took his caravans across the crazy erection , the elephant @-@ van broke through and the beast in it nearly came to an untimely end . "
The dispute between the counties was resolved once and for all in 1848 when the Windsor Improvement Act 1848 decreed the dismantling of the Divided Bridge and the building of two new road bridges , Victoria Bridge slightly upstream , and Albert Bridge slightly downstream . Both new bridges opened in 1851 . Once the Divided Bridge was demolished the old Windsor to Datchet road was rerouted over Victoria Bridge and the Berkshire side became part of the private grounds of Windsor Castle . This is the only case on the entire Thames where a main bridge crossing has completely disappeared .
= = Legacy = =
A small plaque erected by the Datchet Parish Council in 2000 is the only reminder of the Divided Bridge . Datchet High Street which once continued on over the bridge to Berkshire ends abruptly at the Thames and the bank on the Buckinghamshire side is now occupied by a marina car park . The Crown and Angel public house on the Berkshire bank depicted in many of the contemporary drawings of the bridge was demolished at the same time as the bridge ; a Victorian estate cottage now stands its place .
= M @-@ 137 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 137 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that serves as a spur route to the Interlochen Center for the Arts and Interlochen State Park . It starts at south of the park and runs north between two lakes in the area and through the community of Interlochen to US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) in Grand Traverse County . The highway was first shown without a number label on maps in 1930 and labelled after an extension the next year . The highway 's current routing was established in the 1950s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 137 at the south of Interlochen State Park at an intersection with Vagabond Lane . Farther south , the roadway continues as County Road 137 ( CR 137 ) . The state highway is a two @-@ lane road that meanders north , connecting to the front gate of the state park and the Interlochen Center for the Arts . The road runs along the isthmus between Green and Duck lakes north of the Green Lake Airport . North of the school , the highway passes through a wooded section before entering the community of Interlochen itself near the Green Lake Township Hall . There M @-@ 137 runs almost due north , crossing a line of the Great Lakes Central Railroad before terminating at its connection with the rest of the state trunkline system at US 31 at Interlochen Corners . The roadway continues north of US 31 as South Long Lake Road after the M @-@ 137 designation ends .
M @-@ 137 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that 4 @,@ 868 vehicles used the highway daily . No section of M @-@ 137 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
A highway along the route of M @-@ 137 connecting US 31 south to the state park was added to the state highway system during the first half of 1930 , initially lacking a designation label on the state maps of the time . This routing was extended by 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) and labelled as M @-@ 137 on maps in 1931 . The former route through the campus of the Interlochen Center for the Arts was abandoned as a roadway on March 26 , 1956 , after M @-@ 137 was realigned to pass to the east of the school and extended further south through the state park area .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Grand Traverse County .
= Henry Burrell ( admiral ) =
Vice Admiral Sir Henry Mackay Burrell , KBE , CB ( 13 August 1904 – 9 February 1988 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) . He served as Chief of the Naval Staff ( CNS ) from 1959 to 1962 . Born in the Blue Mountains , Burrell entered the Royal Australian Naval College in 1918 as a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old cadet . His first posting at sea was aboard the cruiser HMAS Sydney . During the 1920s and 1930s , Burrell served for several years on exchange with the Royal Navy , specialising as a navigator . Following the outbreak of World War II , he filled a key liaison post with the US Navy , and later saw action as commander of the destroyer HMAS Norman , earning a mention in despatches .
Promoted captain in 1946 , Burrell played a major role in the formation of the RAN 's Fleet Air Arm , before commanding the flagship HMAS Australia in 1948 – 49 . He captained the light aircraft carrier HMAS Vengeance in 1953 – 54 , and was twice Flag Officer of the Australian Fleet , in 1955 – 56 and 1958 . Burrell was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1955 and a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1959 . As CNS , he began a major program of acquisitions for the Navy , including new helicopters , minesweepers , submarines and guided @-@ missile destroyers . He also acted to reverse a plan by the government of the day to dismantle the Fleet Air Arm . Knighted in 1960 , Burrell retired to his farm near Canberra in 1962 and published his memoirs , Mermaids Do Exist , in 1986 . He died two years later , aged eighty @-@ three .
= = Early career = =
Henry Mackay Burrell was born at Wentworth Falls , in the Blue Mountains district of New South Wales . He was the third child and only son of schoolteacher Thomas Burrell and his wife Eliza . Henry 's father , who had emigrated from England , joined the Australian Imperial Force at the age of fifty @-@ five during World War I , seeing active service in Egypt . His grandfather and great @-@ grandfather had served in the Royal Navy . Henry attended Parramatta High School before entering the Royal Australian Naval College , Jervis Bay , on 1 January 1918 , at the age of thirteen . A keen sportsman , he competed in rugby union , tennis and hockey , winning colours for hockey . Burrell graduated from the college in 1921 and became a midshipman the next year . He went to sea first aboard the light cruiser HMAS Sydney and then the destroyer HMAS Stalwart . Posted to the United Kingdom for further training in 1924 , he served on the light cruiser HMS Caledon and the battleship HMS Malaya . In April 1925 , he was promoted to sub @-@ lieutenant , rising to lieutenant by July 1926 .
After attending a Royal Navy course in 1930 , Burrell became a specialist navigator , and saw service aboard the minesweeper HMS Pangbourne , destroyers HMAS Tattoo and Stuart , and cruiser HMAS Brisbane . He married Margaret MacKay at Scots ' Church , Melbourne , on 27 December 1933 . Burrell was promoted to lieutenant commander in July 1934 , and graduated from an advanced navigation course the following year .
Burrell served on exchange with the Royal Navy as navigator aboard the cruisers HMS Coventry and HMS Devonshire , the latter during her tour of duty in the Spanish Civil War . Described as being " egalitarian " and " approachable " , his familiarity with ratings earned him the criticism of Devonshire 's captain ; Burrell however believed that a close relationship between officers and men was necessary for the smooth running of a ship . After completing the Royal Navy 's staff course in 1938 , he returned to Australia and was appointed staff officer ( operations ) at the Navy Office , Melbourne , in March 1939 . It was Burrell 's first shore @-@ based position , and he spent the next four months bringing naval sections of the War Book ( preparations for war ) up to date .
= = World War II = =
Burrell was still based at the Navy Office when World War II broke out in September 1939 . A reorganisation of the headquarters in May 1940 saw him promoted to commander and given the new role of Director of Operations , overseeing troop convoys and their air cover , local defence , and staffing issues . Burrell 's " full knowledge of Australian naval plans and resources " led to Prime Minister Robert Menzies personally nominating him to participate in staff talks with representatives of the Royal Navy and US Navy in October . Soon after , he was posted as the first Australian naval attaché to Washington , D.C. , in an effort to improve communications with the US in light of the threat from Japan . Burrell was credited with helping to foster closer cooperation between the two navies in the Pacific region . He also warned the Australian government that Britain and the US would adopt a " Germany @-@ first " strategy in the event of war with Japan , and that the US was prepared to weaken its Pacific fleet to help secure the Atlantic .
Posted to Britain , Burrell was appointed commanding officer of the newly commissioned N @-@ class destroyer HMAS Norman on 15 September 1941 . The ship 's first operation was transporting a Trade Union Congress delegation led by Sir Walter Citrine to Archangel , Russia . After returning to Britain , she steamed to the Indian Ocean to join Admiral Sir James Somerville 's Eastern Fleet at Addu Atoll , Maldives , on 26 February 1942 . Following the Eastern Fleet 's withdrawal to Kilindini , Kenya , Norman took part in the capture of Diego Suarez on Madagascar on 7 May . Later that month , she was reassigned to the Mediterranean and in June was involved in Operation Vigorous , an unsuccessful attempt to resupply the besieged island of Malta . Transferred back to the Indian Ocean , Burrell led Norman in the second campaign of the Battle of Madagascar in September , and was mentioned in despatches on 19 February 1943 for his " bravery and resource " during the operation . By this time Norman was escorting convoys in the Pacific , before deploying to the South Atlantic for anti @-@ submarine duties in April – May .
On 23 June 1943 , Burrell relinquished command of Norman and returned to the Navy Office , Melbourne , as Director of Plans . Having been divorced from his first wife Margaret in November 1941 , he married mineralogist Ada Weller ( also known as Ada Coggan ) on 21 April 1944 ; the couple had a son and two daughters . Burrell took charge of the RAN 's latest Tribal @-@ class destroyer , HMAS Bataan , at her commissioning in Sydney on 25 May 1945 . Arriving on the scene too late to see action , the ship was deployed to Japan via the Philippines in July , docking in Tokyo on 31 August . There she participated in the formal surrender ceremonies that took place on 2 September aboard USS Missouri . Bataan remained in Japan as Australian Squadron representative until November , assisting with the repatriation of inmates from Japanese prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps . On a mission to one such camp at Sendai , Burrell located crewmen from the light cruiser HMAS Perth , which had been sunk in the early hours of 1 March 1942 during the Battle of Sunda Strait ; 320 of her complement of 680 survived the sinking , 105 dying in captivity .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Burrell 's first appointment following the cessation of hostilities was as commander of the 10th Destroyer Flotilla . He was promoted captain in June 1946 , and became Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff ( DCNS ) that October . As DCNS , Burrell played a major role in establishing the Navy 's Fleet Air Arm and preparing for the introduction of carrier @-@ based aircraft . He was appointed an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Governor @-@ General William McKell in July 1947 . From October 1948 to the end of 1949 , Burrell served as commanding officer of the heavy cruiser HMAS Australia , flagship of the RAN . Posted to Britain in 1950 , he attended the Imperial Defence College , London , and spent two years as Assistant Australian Defence Representative . He took command of the light aircraft carrier HMAS Vengeance on 2 December 1952 , less than three weeks after she was commissioned into the RAN after transfer from the Royal Navy . The ship began working up for deployment to the Korean War in June 1953 , but in the end her place was taken by the carrier HMAS Sydney . Vengeance was involved in a collision with HMAS Bataan near the Cocos Islands on 5 April 1954 , while acting as part of the escort for the Royal Yacht of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip during their inaugural tour of Australia , but continued on duty .
Completing his tour as captain of Vengeance , Burrell briefly resumed the role of Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff in August 1954 . The following month he was made an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Queen . Burrell was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1955 New Year Honours . In February he became Flag Officer of the Australian Fleet , with the acting rank of rear admiral ; this was made substantive in July . On 12 May 1956 , he hoisted his standard aboard the recently arrived aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne , marking her replacement of sister ship HMAS Sydney as flagship of the RAN . Burrell was posted soon afterwards to the Navy Office , Canberra , to redevelop the service 's officer structure , leading to a new General List of officers ' seniority . He served as Second Naval Member ( Personnel ) from September 1956 until January 1958 , when he again became Flag Officer of the Australian Fleet . Appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1959 New Years Honours , Burrell was raised to vice admiral on 24 February and became First Naval Member , the Chief of the Naval Staff ( CNS ) . He succeeded Vice Admiral Sir Roy Dowling .
As CNS , Vice Admiral Burrell had to contend with a threat by Defence Minister Athol Townley to disband the Navy 's fixed @-@ wing Fleet Air Arm capability by 1963 , but gained approval for a major vessel re @-@ equipment drive that was to include new submarines , destroyers , minesweepers , and auxiliaries . This led among other things to the procurement of British Oberon @-@ class submarines , selected by Burrell when his original preference for an Australian @-@ built craft proved too expensive , as well as Ton @-@ class minesweepers and the Navy 's first purpose @-@ designed hydrographic survey ship , HMAS Moresby . The re @-@ equipment program also resulted in augmentation of the RAN 's rotary @-@ wing assets with Westland Wessex anti @-@ submarine warfare helicopters . Most significant was the purchase of three Charles F. Adams @-@ class guided @-@ missile destroyers , a decision of " ingenuity and forethought " on the part of Burrell and Navy Minister John Gorton , according to historian Tom Frame . The CNS and his minister enjoyed a close working relationship ; Burrell declared that Gorton " deserves our thanks for his efforts " , and Gorton called Burrell " one of the most honest , sincere and most dedicated sailors " .
The purchase of the destroyers signalled a shift in reliance for equipment from Britain to the United States that was contrary to prevailing Australian defence policy at the time , particularly in what historian Jeffrey Grey described as " the most British of the Australian services , the RAN " , and provoked pressure from the Royal Navy and UK shipbuilders , which had lobbied for purchase of their County @-@ class destroyer . Burrell later declared that the superiority of the US weapons system was a key factor in his preference for the Adams design over the County class . On a mission overseas to discuss trends and acquisitions in January 1960 , he was rebuffed by Britain 's Chief of the Defence Staff , Admiral of the Fleet Lord Louis Mountbatten , who mistakenly thought him responsible for the imminent dissolution of the RAN 's Fleet Air Arm , but warmly welcomed by the US Chief of Naval Operations , Admiral Arleigh Burke . As it happened , Burrell would gain credit for maintaining the integrity of the FAA , and its fixed @-@ wing component remained viable until the early 1980s . He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen 's Birthday Honours , gazetted on 3 June 1960 . In June 1961 , he met with his opposite numbers in the Army and Air Force at a Chiefs of Staff Committee conference to discuss the necessity of Australia acquiring nuclear weapons ; the chiefs agreed that the probability such a capability would be required was remote but that it should remain an option under certain circumstances , a position the defence forces maintained during the ensuing decade .
= = Retirement = =
Burrell made his farewell to the Australian Fleet aboard HMAS Melbourne at Jervis Bay on 8 February 1962 . He left the Navy on 23 February , and was succeeded as CNS by Vice Admiral Hastings Harrington . Burrell retired to Illogan Park , his property near Braidwood in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales . His son Stuart followed him into the Royal Australian Naval College in 1963 . In retirement Burrell enjoyed horse racing both as a gambler and as the owner of several successful mounts . During the 1960s , he was also a member of the ACT Regional Selection Committee of the Winston Churchill Memorial Trusts .
Burrell suffered a serious heart attack in 1980 , having been diagnosed with cardiac problems shortly after his retirement from the Navy . His wife Ada died in August the following year . In 1986 , Burrell published his memoirs as Mermaids Do Exist : The Autobiography of Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Henry Burrell , reflecting on what he described as a " lucky " career , and offering his thoughts on maritime strategy . He died on 9 February 1988 in Woden Valley Hospital . Survived by his three children , Sir Henry Burrell was buried in Gungahlin , Australian Capital Territory , following a private funeral . The Burrell Cup doubles tennis trophy , established by the admiral in 1955 , completed its fifty @-@ eighth year of competition in March 2013 .
= British contribution to the Manhattan Project =
Britain contributed to the Manhattan Project by helping initiate the effort to build the first atomic bombs in the United States during World War II , and helped carry it through to completion in August 1945 by supplying crucial expertise . Following the discovery of nuclear fission in uranium , scientists Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frisch at the University of Birmingham calculated , in March 1940 , that the critical mass of a metallic sphere of pure uranium @-@ 235 was as little as 1 to 10 kilograms ( 2 @.@ 2 to 22 @.@ 0 lb ) , and would explode with the power of thousands of tons of dynamite . The Frisch – Peierls memorandum prompted Britain to create its own atomic bomb project , known as Tube Alloys . Mark Oliphant , an Australian physicist working in Britain , was instrumental in making the British results known in the United States , and this encouraged the expansion of the American Manhattan Project . Initially the British project was larger and more advanced , but after the United States entered the war , the American project soon outstripped and dwarfed its British counterpart . The British government then decided to shelve its own nuclear ambitions , and participate in the American project .
In August 1943 , the prime minister , Winston Churchill , and President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Quebec Agreement , which provided for cooperation between the two countries . The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee and the Combined Development Trust to coordinate the efforts of the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada . A British Mission led by Wallace Akers assisted in the development of gaseous diffusion technology in New York . Britain also produced the powdered nickel required by the gaseous diffusion process . Another mission , led by Oliphant who acted as deputy director at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory , assisted with the electromagnetic separation process . As head of the British Mission to the Los Alamos Laboratory , James Chadwick led a multinational team of distinguished scientists that included Sir Geoffrey Taylor , James Tuck , Niels Bohr , Peierls , Frisch , and Klaus Fuchs , who was later revealed to be a Soviet atomic spy . Four members of the British Mission became group leaders at Los Alamos . William Penney observed the bombing of Nagasaki and participated in the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 .
Cooperation ended with the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 , known as the McMahon Act , and Ernest Titterton , the last British government employee , left Los Alamos on 12 April 1947 . Britain then proceeded with its own nuclear weapons programme , and became the third country to test an independently developed nuclear weapon in October 1952 .
= = Origins = =
The 1938 discovery of nuclear fission in uranium , by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn , raised the possibility that an extremely powerful atomic bomb could be created . Refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries were particularly alarmed by the notion of a German nuclear weapon project . In the United States , three of them , Leo Szilard , Eugene Wigner and Albert Einstein , were moved to write the Einstein – Szilárd letter to United States President Roosevelt warning of the danger . This led to the President creating the Briggs Advisory Committee on Uranium . In Britain , Nobel Prize in Physics laureates George Paget Thomson and William Lawrence Bragg were sufficiently concerned to take up the matter . Their concerns reached the Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence , Major General Hastings Ismay , who consulted with Sir Henry Tizard . Like many scientists , Tizard was sceptical of the likelihood of an atomic bomb being developed , reckoning the odds against success at 100 @,@ 000 to 1 .
Even at such long odds , the danger was sufficiently great to be taken seriously . Thomson , at Imperial College London , and Mark Oliphant , an Australian physicist at the University of Birmingham , were tasked with carrying out a series of experiments on uranium . By February 1940 , Thomson 's team had failed to create a chain reaction in natural uranium , and he had decided that it was not worth pursuing . But at Birmingham , Oliphant 's team had reached a strikingly different conclusion . Oliphant had delegated the task to two German refugee scientists , Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frisch , who could not work on the University 's radar project because they were enemy aliens and therefore lacked the necessary security clearance . They calculated the critical mass of a metallic sphere of pure uranium @-@ 235 , the only fissile isotope found in significant quantity in nature , and found that instead of tons , as everyone had assumed , as little as 1 to 10 kilograms ( 2 @.@ 2 to 22 @.@ 0 lb ) would suffice , which would explode with the power of thousands of tons of dynamite .
Oliphant took the Frisch – Peierls memorandum to Tizard , and the MAUD Committee was established to investigate further . It directed an intensive research effort , and in July 1941 , produced two comprehensive reports that reached the conclusion that an atomic bomb was not only technically feasible , but could be produced before the war ended , perhaps in as little as two years . The Committee unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb as a matter of urgency , although it recognised that the resources required might be beyond those available to Britain . A new directorate known as Tube Alloys was created to coordinate this effort . Sir John Anderson , the Lord President of the Council , became the minister responsible , and Wallace Akers from Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) was appointed the director of Tube Alloys .
= = Early Anglo @-@ American cooperation = =
In July 1940 , Britain had offered to give the United States access to its scientific research , and the Tizard Mission 's John Cockcroft briefed American scientists on British developments . He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British , and not as far advanced . As part of the scientific exchange , the Maud Committee 's findings were conveyed to the United States . Oliphant , one of the Maud Committee 's members , flew to the United States in late August 1941 , and discovered that vital information had not reached key American physicists . He met the Uranium Committee , and visited Berkeley , California , where he spoke persuasively to Ernest O. Lawrence , who was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory . Lawrence in turn spoke to James B. Conant , Arthur H. Compton and George B. Pegram . Oliphant 's mission was a success ; key American physicists became aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb . Armed with British data , Vannevar Bush , the director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , briefed Roosevelt and Vice President Henry A. Wallace in a meeting at the White House on 9 October 1941 .
The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information , but did not initially combine their efforts . British officials did not reply to an August 1941 offer by Bush and Conant to create a combined British and American project . In November 1941 , Frederick L. Hovde , the head of the London liaison office of OSRD , raised the issue of cooperation and exchange of information with Anderson and Lord Cherwell , who demurred , ostensibly over concerns about American security . Ironically , it was the British project that had already been penetrated by atomic spies for the Soviet Union .
Yet the United Kingdom did not have the manpower or resources of the United States , and despite its early and promising start , Tube Alloys fell behind its American counterpart and was dwarfed by it . Britain was spending around £ 430 @,@ 000 per year on research and development , and Metropolitan @-@ Vickers was building gaseous diffusion units for uranium enrichment worth £ 150 @,@ 000 ; but the Manhattan Project was spending £ 8 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 on research and development , and had let construction contracts worth £ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 at the fixed wartime rate of four dollars to the pound . On 30 July 1942 , Anderson advised the prime minister , Winston Churchill , that : " We must face the fact that ... [ our ] pioneering work ... is a dwindling asset and that , unless we capitalise it quickly , we shall be outstripped . We now have a real contribution to make to a ' merger . ' Soon we shall have little or none . "
By then , the positions of the two countries had reversed from what they were in 1941 . The Americans had become suspicious that the British were seeking commercial advantages after the war , and Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , who took over command of the Manhattan Project on 23 September 1942 , wanted to tighten security with a policy of strict compartmentalisation similar to the one that the British had imposed on radar . American officials decided that the United States no longer needed outside help . The Secretary of War , Henry L. Stimson , felt that since the United States was doing " ninety percent of the work " on the bomb , it would be " better for us to go along for the present without sharing anything more than we could help " . In December 1942 , Roosevelt agreed to restricting the flow of information to what Britain could use during the war , even if doing so slowed down the American project . In retaliation , the British stopped sending information and scientists to America , and the Americans then stopped all information sharing .
The British considered how they would produce a bomb without American help . A gaseous diffusion plant to produce 1 kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of weapons @-@ grade uranium per day was estimated to cost up to £ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in research and development , and anything up to £ 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to build in wartime Britain . A nuclear reactor to produce 1 kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of plutonium per day would have to be built in Canada . It would take up to five years to build and cost £ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The project would also require facilities for producing the required heavy water for the reactor costing between £ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and £ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , and for producing uranium metal £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The project would need overwhelming priority , as it was estimated to require 20 @,@ 000 workers , many of them highly skilled , 500 @,@ 000 tons of steel , and 500 @,@ 000 kW of electricity . Disruption to other wartime projects would be inevitable , and it was unlikely to be ready in time to affect the outcome of the war in Europe . The unanimous response was that before embarking on this , another effort should be made to obtain American cooperation .
= = Cooperation resumes = =
By March 1943 Conant decided that British help would benefit some areas of the project . In particular , the Manhattan Project could benefit enough from assistance from James Chadwick , the discoverer of the neutron , and one or two other British scientists to warrant the risk of revealing weapon design secrets . Bush , Conant and Groves wanted Chadwick and Peierls to discuss bomb design with Robert Oppenheimer , and Kellogg still wanted British comments on the design of the gaseous diffusion plant .
Churchill took up the matter with Roosevelt at the Washington Conference on 25 May 1943 , and Churchill thought that Roosevelt gave the reassurances he sought ; but there was no follow @-@ up . Bush , Stimson and William Bundy met Churchill , Cherwell and Anderson at 10 Downing Street in London . None of them were aware that Roosevelt had already made his decision , writing to Bush on 20 July 1943 with instructions to " renew , in an inclusive manner , the full exchange with the British Government regarding Tube Alloys . "
Stimson , who had just finished a series of arguments with the British about the need for an invasion of France , was reluctant to appear to disagree with them about everything , and spoke in conciliatory terms about the need for good post @-@ war relations between the two countries . For his part , Churchill disavowed interest in the commercial applications of nuclear technology . The reason for British concern about the post @-@ war cooperation , Cherwell explained , was not commercial concerns , but so that Britain would have nuclear weapons after the war . Anderson then drafted an agreement for full interchange , which Churchill re @-@ worded " in more majestic language " . News arrived in London of Roosevelt 's decision on 27 July , and Anderson was dispatched to Washington with the draft agreement . Churchill and Roosevelt signed what became known as the Quebec Agreement at the Quebec Conference on 19 August 1943 .
The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee to coordinate the efforts of the United States , United Kingdom and Canada . Stimson , Bush and Conant served as the American members of the Combined Policy Committee , Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Colonel J. J. Llewellin were the British members , and C. D. Howe was the Canadian member . Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir Ronald Ian Campbell , who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States , Lord Halifax , in early 1945 . Dill died in Washington , D.C. , in November 1944 and was replaced both as Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson .
Even before the Quebec Agreement was signed , Akers had already cabled London with instructions that Chadwick , Peierls , Oliphant and Francis Simon should leave immediately for North America . They arrived on 19 August , the day it was signed , expecting to be able to talk to American scientists , but were unable to do so . Two weeks would pass before American officials learnt of the contents of the Quebec Agreement . Over the next two years , the Combined Policy Committee met only eight times .
The first occasion was on 8 September 1943 , on the afternoon after Stimson discovered that he was the chairman . The first meeting established a Technical Subcommittee chaired by Major General Wilhelm D. Styer . Because the Americans did not want Akers on the Technical Subcommittee due to his ICI background , Llewellin nominated Chadwick , whom he also wanted to be Head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project . The other members were Richard C. Tolman , who was Groves 's scientific adviser , and C. J. Mackenzie , the president of the Canadian National Research Council . It was agreed that the Technical Committee could act without consulting the Combined Policy Committee whenever its decision was unanimous . The Technical Subcommittee held its first meeting on 10 September , but negotiations dragged on . The Combined Policy Committee ratified the proposals in December 1943 , by which time several British scientists had already commenced working on the Manhattan Project in the United States .
There remained the issue of cooperation between the Manhattan 's Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago and the Montreal Laboratory . At the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 17 February 1944 , Chadwick pressed for resources to build a nuclear reactor at what is now known as the Chalk River Laboratories . Britain and Canada agreed to pay the cost of this project , but the United States had to supply the heavy water . At that time , the United States controlled , by a supply contract , the only major production site on the continent , that of the Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company at Trail , British Columbia . Given that it was unlikely to have any impact on the war , Conant in particular was cool about the proposal , but heavy water reactors were of great interest . Groves was willing to support the effort and supply the heavy water required , but with certain restrictions . The Montreal Laboratory would have access to data from the research reactors at Argonne and the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge , but not from the production reactors at the Hanford Site ; nor would they be given any information about plutonium . This arrangement was formally approved by the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 19 September 1944 . The Canadian ZEEP ( Zero Energy Experimental Pile ) reactor went critical on 5 September 1945 .
Chadwick supported British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent , abandoning any hopes of a British project during the war . With Churchill 's backing , he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honoured . While the pace of research was easing as the war entered its final phase , these scientists were still in great demand , and it fell to Anderson , Cherwell and Sir Edward Appleton , the Permanent Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research , which was responsible for Tube Alloys , to prise them away from the wartime projects in which they were invariably engaged .
The September 1944 Hyde Park Agreement extended both commercial and military cooperation into the post @-@ war period . Part of the Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent . In June 1945 , Wilson agreed that the use of nuclear weapons against Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee .
= = Gaseous diffusion project = =
Tube Alloys made its greatest advances in gaseous diffusion technology , and Chadwick had originally hoped that the pilot plant at least would be built in Britain . Gaseous diffusion technology was devised by Simon and three expatriates , Nicholas Kurti from Hungary , Heinrich Kuhn from Germany , and Henry Arms from the United States , at the Clarendon Laboratory in 1940 . The prototype gaseous diffusion equipment , two two @-@ stage models and two ten @-@ stage models , was manufactured by Metropolitan @-@ Vickers at a cost of £ 150 @,@ 000 for the four units . Two single @-@ stage machines were later added . Delays in delivery meant that experiments with the single @-@ stage machine did not commence until June 1943 , and with the two @-@ stage machine until August 1943 . The two ten @-@ stage machines were delivered in August and November 1943 , but by this time the research programme they had been built for had been overtaken by events .
The Quebec Agreement allowed Simon and Peierls to meet with representatives of Kellex , who were designing and building K @-@ 25 , the American gaseous diffusion plant , Union Carbide and Carbon , who would operate it , and Harold Urey 's Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories at Columbia University , the Manhattan Project 's centre tasked with research and development of the process . The year 's loss of cooperation cost the Manhattan Project dearly . The corporations were committed to tight schedules , and the engineers were unable to incorporate British proposals that would involve major changes . Nor would it be possible to build a second plant . Nonetheless , the Americans were still eager for British assistance , and Groves asked for a British mission to be sent to assist the gaseous diffusion project . In the meantime , Simon and Peierls were attached to Kellex .
The British mission consisting of Akers and fifteen British experts arrived in December 1943 . This was a critical time . Severe problems had been encountered with the Norris @-@ Adler barrier . Nickel powder and electro @-@ deposited nickel mesh diffusion barriers were pioneered by American chemist Edward Adler and British interior decorator Edward Norris at the SAM Laboratories . A decision had to be made whether to persevere with it or switch to a powdered nickel barrier based upon British technology that had been developed by Kellex . Up to this point , both were under development . The SAM Laboratory had 700 people working on gaseous diffusion and Kellex had about 900 . The British experts conducted a thorough review , and agreed that the Kellex barrier was superior , but felt that it would be unlikely to be ready in time . Kellex 's technical director , Percival C. Keith , disagreed , arguing that his company could get it ready and produce it more quickly than the Norris @-@ Adler barrier . Groves listened to the British experts before he formally adopted the Kellex barrier on 5 January 1944 .
The United States Army assumed responsibility for procuring sufficient quantities of the right type of powdered nickel . In this , the British were able to help . The only company that manufactured it was the Mond Nickel Company at Clydach in Wales . By the end of June 1945 , it had supplied the Manhattan Project with 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) of nickel powder , paid for by the British government and supplied to the United States under Reverse Lend @-@ Lease .
The Americans planned to have the K @-@ 25 plant in full production by June or July 1945 . Having taken two years to get the prototype stages working , the British experts regarded this as incredibly optimistic , and felt that , barring a miracle , it would be unlikely to reach that point before the end of 1946 . This opinion offended their American counterparts and dampened the enthusiasm for cooperation , and the British mission returned to the United Kingdom in January 1944 . Armed with the British Mission 's report , Chadwick and Oliphant were able to persuade Groves to reduce K @-@ 25 's enrichment target ; the output of K @-@ 25 would be enriched to weapons grade by being fed into the electromagnetic plant . Despite the British Mission 's pessimistic forecasts , K @-@ 25 was producing enriched uranium in June 1945 .
After the rest of the mission departed , Peierls , Kurti and Fuchs remained in New York , where they worked with Kellex . They were joined there by Tony Skyrme and Frank Kearton , who arrived in March 1944 . Kurti returned to England in April 1944 and Kearton in September . Peierls moved on to the Los Alamos Laboratory in February 1944 ; Skyrme followed in July , and Fuchs in August .
= = Electromagnetic project = =
On 26 May 1943 , Oliphant wrote to Appleton to say that he had been considering the problem of electromagnetic isotope separation , and believed that he had devised a better method than Lawrence 's , one which would result in a five to tenfold improvement in efficiency , and make it more practical to use the process in Britain . His proposal was reviewed by Akers , Chadwick , Peierls and Simon , who agreed that it was sound . While the majority of scientific opinion in Britain favoured the gaseous diffusion method , there was still a possibility that electromagnetic separation might be useful as a final stage in the enrichment process , taking uranium that had already been enriched to 50 per cent by the gaseous process , and enriching it to pure uranium @-@ 235 . Accordingly , Oliphant was released from the radar project to work on Tube Alloys , conducting experiments on his method at the University of Birmingham .
Oliphant met Groves and Oppenheimer in Washington , D.C. , on 18 September 1943 , and they attempted to persuade him to join the Los Alamos Laboratory , but Oliphant felt that he would be of more use assisting Lawrence on the electromagnetic project . Accordingly , the Technical Subcommittee directed that Oliphant and six assistants would go to Berkeley , and later move on to Los Alamos . Oliphant found that he and Lawrence had quite different designs , and that the American one was frozen , but Lawrence , who had expressed a desire for Oliphant to join him on the electromagnetic project as early as 1942 , was eager for Oliphant 's assistance . Oliphant secured the services of a fellow Australian physicist , Harrie Massey , who had been working for the Admiralty on magnetic mines , along with James Stayers and Stanley Duke , who had worked with him on the cavity magnetron . This initial group set out for Berkeley in a B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber in November 1943 . Oliphant found that Berkeley had shortages of key skills , particularly physicists , chemists and engineers . He prevailed on Sir David Rivett , the head of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Australia , to release Eric Burhop to work on the project . His requests for personnel were met , and the British mission at Berkeley grew in number to 35 , two of whom , Robin Williams and George Page , were New Zealanders .
Members of the British mission occupied several key positions in the electromagnetic project . Oliphant became Lawrence 's de facto deputy , and was in charge of the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory when Lawrence was absent . His enthusiasm for the electromagnetic project was rivalled only by Lawrence 's , and his involvement went beyond scientific problems , extending to policy questions such as whether to expand the electromagnetic plant , although in this he was unsuccessful . The British chemists made important contributions , particularly Harry Emeléus and Philip Baxter , a chemist who had been research manager at ICI , was sent to the Manhattan Project 's Clinton Engineering Works at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , in 1944 in response to a request for assistance with uranium chemistry , and became personal assistant to the general manager . His status as an ICI employee was of no concern to Groves . The British mission was given complete access to the electromagnetic project , both in Berkeley and at the Y @-@ 12 electromagnetic separation plant in Oak Ridge . While some of the British mission remained at Berkeley or Oak Ridge only for a few weeks , most stayed until the end of the war . Oliphant returned to Britain in March 1945 , and was replaced as head of the British
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Matthews to 19 league appearances in 1958 – 59 . Matthews was then used just 15 times in 1959 – 60 , as Suart signed Arthur Kaye to take his place , and local lad Steve Hill also vied for the outside @-@ right position . He enjoyed more games in 1960 – 61 , playing 27 league games as the club narrowly avoiding relegation by the odd point .
He started the 1961 – 62 season behind Hill in the pecking order , only getting his place back in time for a 4 – 0 win over Chelsea after Hill picked up an injury . He made his 440th and final appearance in a Blackpool shirt in a 3 – 0 defeat at Arsenal on 7 October 1961 . It was a fitting final bow as he always enjoyed playing against Arsenal , and he had " so many wonderful memories " at Highbury . With former team @-@ mate and close friend Jackie Mudie at Stoke City , and with Tony Waddington keen to welcome Matthews back to the Victoria Ground , his return to his home @-@ town club was sealed . However Matthews was not impressed when the Blackpool board demanded a £ 3 @,@ 500 transfer fee , with one director being so bold as to tell him " You forget . As a player , we made you . " Having kept secret from Stoke a niggling knee injury Matthews had been carrying , Blackpool got their £ 3 @,@ 500 for the player .
= = = Return to Stoke = = =
At Stoke , Matthews found himself playing Second Division football for the first time in 28 years . Despite Stoke being strapped for cash , Tony Waddington gave him a two @-@ year contract at £ 50 a week – this was double the wages he received at Blackpool . The signing was broadcast live on Sportsweek , as Waddington whispered in his ear " Welcome home , Stan . For years this club has been going nowhere . Now we 're on our way " . Waddington delayed his return debut until 24 October 1961 , when Stoke played Huddersfield Town at the Victoria Ground , the attendance was 35 @,@ 974 – more than treble the previous home game – and Matthews set up one of City 's goals in a 3 – 0 win . He went on to score three goals in 21 games in the rest of the 1961 – 62 campaign .
Waddington signed hardman Eddie Clamp to protect Matthews in the 1962 – 63 season , and the two would also become close friends off the pitch . Along with veteran teammates Jackie Mudie , Jimmy O 'Neill , Eddie Stuart , Don Ratcliffe , Dennis Viollet , and Jimmy McIlroy , Stoke had the oldest team in the Football League . Matthews scored his only goal of the season in the final home game of the campaign , as Luton Town were beaten 2 – 0 , the result ensured Stoke gained promotion to the top flight . Stoke went up as Second Division champions , and Matthews was voted FWA Footballer of the Year for the second time in his career , 15 years after he was made the inaugural winner of the award .
After picking up an injury , he missed January onwards of the 1963 – 64 campaign , and thereby missed the 1964 Football League Cup Final defeat to Leicester City . Discovering that niggling injuries which would have cost him one day out of action now required more than two weeks worth of rest to recover from , Matthews decided to retire after one more season .
He spent the 1964 – 65 season playing for the reserve side . On 1 January 1965 he became the only footballer to ever be knighted ( for services to football ) whilst still an active professional player ; though he never thought himself worthy of such an honour . His only first team appearance of the season was also the last Football League game of his career ; it came on 6 February 1965 , just after his 50th birthday , and was necessitated by injuries to both Peter Dobing and Gerry Bridgwood . The opponents that day were Fulham , and Stoke won the game 3 – 1 . Though he felt he had retired too early , and could have carried on playing for another two years , this brought an end to his 35 @-@ year professional career .
Stoke City arranged a testimonial match in honour of Matthews ; it was much needed as he had spent most of his career constricted to the tight maximum wage that had been enforced upon the English game . The game was played at the Victoria Ground on 28 April 1965 , by which time Matthews had decided to retire as a player , and the pre @-@ match entertainment consisted of another match of two veteran teams featuring many legends of the game . Harry Johnston led out a team consisting of Bert Trautmann , Tim Ward , George Hardwick , Jimmy Hill , Neil Franklin , Don Revie , Stan Mortensen , Nat Lofthouse , Jimmy Hagan , Tom Finney and Frank Bowyer ( reserve ) . Walley Barnes led out an opposing team consisting of Jimmy O 'Neill , Jimmy Scoular , Danny Blanchflower , Jimmy Dickinson , Hughie Kelly , Bill McGarry , Jackie Mudie , Jackie Milburn , Jock Dodds , Ken Barnes , and Arthur Rowley ( reserve ) .
In the main game itself , two teams of legends were formed , a Stan 's XI ( consisting of Football League players ) and an International XI . The International side won 6 – 4 , and Matthews was carried shoulder @-@ high from the field at full time by Puskás and Yashin .
= = = England international career = = =
After playing for England Schoolboys , playing in a trial at Roker Park in front of the England selectors , and representing The Football League , Matthews was given his England debut at Ninian Park in 1934 . Matthews scored the third goal as England beat the Welsh 4 – 0 . His second game would be the infamous Battle of Highbury , where he set up Eric Brook for the first goal of a 3 – 2 win over world champions Italy . The Italians turned the match into a " bloodbath " , and it ended up as the most violent match that Matthews would ever be involved in .
His third cap came in a 3 – 0 over Germany at White Hart Lane on 4 December 1935 , after Ralph Birkett was unable to play due to injury ; Matthews was outplayed by his opposite number Reinhold Münzenberg in both attack and defence . Matthews was jeered by England supporters and condemned by the press .
He would have to wait until 17 April 1937 for another chance in an England shirt , when he was selected to play in front of 149 @,@ 000 spectators against the auld enemy at Scotland 's Hampden Park . He was physically sick before the match , as he would be before any big game . The " Hampden Roar " a big factor , the Scots won 3 – 1 despite a good English performance . After another game against Wales , Matthews scored a hat @-@ trick in a 5 – 4 win against Czechoslovakia .
In 1938 he played eight games for England , starting with defeat to a Scotland team containing a young Bill Shankly . He then travelled to Berlin for another encounter with Münzenberg , where pre @-@ match he witnessed first hand the foreboding devotion the people showed the Führer when his motorcade drove past a café the England team were dining in . The game became infamous as The FA , themselves under instruction from the British government , informed the England team that they had to perform the Nazi salute as part of the strategy of appeasement . England won 6 – 3 with Matthews himself getting on the scoreboard having got the better of Münzenberg this time . The next game was a shock 2 – 1 defeat to Switzerland , which in turn was followed by a 4 – 2 win over France in Paris . Following the conclusion of this summer tour of the continent , Matthews scored in a 4 – 2 defeat to Wales in Cardiff , and then played in England 's 3 – 0 win over a Europe XI at Highbury , their 4 – 0 win over Norway in Newcastle , and their 7 – 0 win over Ireland at Old Trafford .
On 15 April 1939 , he returned to a muddy Hampden Park with England to claim a 2 – 1 victory in front of 142 @,@ 000 rain @-@ soaked supporters ; he set up Tommy Lawton for the winner with seconds to spare . That summer was the last time the England would tour Europe before Hitler 's Nazis were defeated . The first game was against Italy , who gave the English a warm reception despite Benito Mussolini 's breast @-@ beating and the bad blood of five years previous . Again the World Champions , the Italians managed to salvage a 2 – 2 draw at the San Siro after scoring with a clear handball ; this time Matthews left the field with a chipped hip bone for his efforts . The next game was a 2 – 1 loss to Yugoslavia , with Matthews and captain Eddie Hapgood passengers in the game after picking up early injuries ; this injury forced him to sit out the following encounter with Romania .
Following the war , his return for England came against Scotland on 12 April 1947 at Wembley , in a match which finished as a 1 – 1 draw . In the summer he took part in England 's tour of Switzerland and Portugal . Following a surprise defeat to the Swiss , England cantered to a 10 – 0 win over the Portuguese , with Matthews scoring the 10th . In September , he put in one of his finest performances in an England shirt as he set up all of England 's five goals in a 5 – 2 victory over Belgium .
In April 1948 he once again travelled with England to Hampden Park , helping his country to a 2 – 0 victory ; however after the match he was the subject of an FA inquiry after he claimed tea and scones on his expenses ( at the cost of sixpence ) . Regardless of this treatment by the FA , the next month he helped England record a 4 – 0 victory over Italy in Turin . Folklore told that he beat Alberto Eliani only to have the audacity to then pull a comb from his shorts pocket and comb his hair ; the reality was that he simply used his hand to wipe his sweating brow in the beating Italian sun . However the legend would follow him around the world in later life , and spectators in the crowd were convinced that they had witnessed it . Later in the year he played in a goalless draw with Denmark , a 6 – 2 win over Northern Ireland , a 1 – 0 win over Wales , and a 6 – 0 triumph over Switzerland .
Manager Walter Winterbottom began to look for a more defensive winger , and so used Matthews just once in 1949 – a 3 – 1 defeat to Scotland in the British Home Championship . Only after impressing in an FA tour of Canada was he was named as a last minute inclusion in the England squad for the 1950 FIFA World Cup in Brazil . He did not play in the win over Chile or in the infamous defeat to the United States , but played just once , in the 1 – 0 defeat to Spain at the Estádio do Maracanã . The preparation was not ideal as the FA did not take the competition seriously , and the hotel had " unpalatable " food and no training facilities .
After playing only in two further games , a 4 – 4 draw with a Europe XI and a 3 – 1 win over Northern Ireland , he found himself back in the international scene following his heroics in the 1953 FA Cup Final . He was selected to play Hungary 's Golden Team on 25 November 1953 , in a 6 – 3 defeat that became known as the " Match of the Century " . He blamed the FA and the selectors for the heavy loss , though he had great admiration for the Hungarians , particularly Ferenc Puskás .
He did not play in the England 's 7 – 1 defeat to Hungary in Budapest in May 1954 . However he was in the squad for the 1954 FIFA World Cup in Switzerland . Matthews helped England to a 4 – 4 draw with Belgium , though was left out of a win over Switzerland , before he returned to the first XI as England crashed out of the competition with a 4 – 2 defeat to Uruguay at the St. Jakob Stadium after mistakes from goalkeeper Gil Merrick . His third match of the year was a 2 – 0 win over Northern Ireland at Windsor Park in the 1955 British Home Championship , though on the pitch he did not gel well with Don Revie . Matthews then put in a superb in a 2 – 0 win over the Welsh , before he helped England to record a 3 – 1 victory over World Champions West Germany , though only three of the Germans used at Wembley had been in the first XI in the World Cup Final .
England beat Scotland 7 – 2 in April 1955 , and this time Matthews linked up much better with Revie , and 40 @-@ year @-@ old Matthews was largely credited for the outstanding margin of victory . In this game Duncan Edwards was making his England debut ; when Matthews made his , Edwards had not even been born . Matthews went on England 's unsuccessful tour of the continent in 1955 , as the selectors erratic choices helped to ensure a 1 – 0 defeat to France , a 1 – 1 draw with Spain , and a 3 – 1 defeat to Portugal . Left out against Denmark , he was back in the team in October for a 1 – 1 draw with Wales .
Having been awarded the inaugural Ballon d 'Or in 1956 , that May he was recalled to the England front line for an encounter with Brazil ; Brazil would go on to lift the World Cup in 1958 , but Matthews helped the English to record a 4 – 1 victory . He then refused to take part in that summer 's European tour , having already committed himself to his second summer of coaching in South Africa . In his next international game , against Northern Ireland on 6 October 1956 , aged 41 years and 248 days , he became the oldest England player ever to score an international goal .
He played three of England four qualification games for the 1958 FIFA World Cup : a 5 – 1 victory over the Republic of Ireland , and the 5 – 2 and 4 – 1 wins over Denmark . On 15 May 1957 , Matthews became the oldest player ever to represent England , when at 42 years and 104 days old he turned out for the victory over the Danes in Copenhagen . Despite calls by the press for him to be included in the 1958 World Cup squad , this time the selectors did not bow to the pressure . Yet at 23 years , nobody would ever enjoy a longer career with the England team .
He was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1956 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at the BBC Television Theatre .
= = Style of play = =
Franz Beckenbauer said that the speed and skill Matthews possessed meant that " almost no one in the game could stop him " . John Charles noted that " he was the best crosser I 've ever seen – and he had to contend with the old heavy ball " . Johnny Giles said that " he had everything – good close control , great dribbling ability and he was lightning quick . He was also an intelligent player , who knew how to pass the ball " . Despite his great talents , he rarely tackled opponents and was not adept at heading the ball or using his left foot .
Before 1937 – 38 he had scored 43 goals in four seasons , and full @-@ backs began to mark him more tightly ; because of this he decided to drop deeper to collect the ball and aim to play pinpoint crosses as opposed to going for glory himself . Though he would never again score more than six goals in a season , this made him more an effective team player and a greater threat to the opposition .
When running along Blackpool 's beach , at 7 am , no matter the weather , Matthews wore shoes that contained lead , so that when he changed into his football boots , his feet felt light , giving himself the impression that he could run faster . Having trained to a level of fitness few other players would reach , by the mid @-@ 1950s he was able to cut back on his intense training as his level of fitness was by then ingrained in his body . He never smoked ; instead , he was very conscious of every item of food and drink he consumed , and he maintained a rigid daily training regime from childhood up until his old age . In an interview with the FA he said , " I had some very good advice and started to eat more salads and fruit , and every Monday I had no food . Just one day , on a Monday , but I felt better . " The only time he knowingly consumed alcohol was when drinking champagne out of the FA Cup in 1953 .
In addition to his attention to detail in diet and fitness , he also afforded close scrutiny to his kit . 1950 – 51 he struck a boot sponsorship deal with the Co @-@ op , though he instead began wearing a more lightweight pair of boots he had discovered on show at the World Cup – at the time they were not available to buy in England . He would wear the customized boots until his retirement , though they were so delicate that he got through countless pairs every season .
An avid student of the game , in the 1950 FIFA World Cup Matthews stayed on to watch teams such as Brazil and Uruguay compete in the tournament after England 's elimination – the English FA , manager and media all returned home to , as Matthews said , " bury their heads in the sand . " Matthews regularly condemned the " blazer brigade " at the FA in his autobiography , slating them as " conservative " and stressing that many of them were Old Etonians ; in his view they treated players and supporters poorly , demonstrated arrogance by ignoring competitions they did not control ( the World Cup and European domestic competitions ) , and viewed innovations with excessive suspicion ( for example the FA sanctioned only the use of floodlights in 1952 despite artificial lighting having been experimented with as far back as 1878 , and for years insisted on using outdated kit such as heavy " reinforced " boots ) . Writing about the fact that the FA allocated only 12 @,@ 000 of the 100 @,@ 000 available tickets for the 1953 FA Cup Final to Blackpool supporters , Matthews wrote : " I couldn 't make my mind up whether they were dunderheads or simply didn 't care about the genuine supporters who were the lifeblood of the game " .
He was never booked or sent off throughout his entire career , and teammate Jimmy Armfield noted that Matthews would never retaliate to the many extremely physical challenges opponents would often make to try and take him out of the game . Indeed , he ran the full gauntlet of emotions that all footballers run , but always retained a level head on the pitch , never losing his temper or allowing his emotions to affect his game .
= = Coaching and management career = =
Matthews was appointed general manager at Stoke 's rivals Port Vale in July 1965 , alongside good friend Jackie Mudie ; Matthews was unpaid , though was given expenses . The pair had a plan of bringing through talented schoolboys and selling one or two off every so often to improve the club 's bleak financial picture , whilst at the same time advancing through the leagues ; in his autobiography he said that what Dario Gradi later achieved at Crewe Alexandra is what he had in mind for the Vale . Matthews concentrated his search in North East England and Central Scotland , where he discovered talented striker Mick Cullerton , though overlooked a teenage Ray Kennedy .
Handed complete managerial control following Mudie 's resignation in May 1967 , Matthews couldn 't guide the club to success – instead , Port Vale were fined £ 4 @,@ 000 in February / March 1968 and expelled from the Football League for financial irregularities . He was forced to use his name to plead with the other Football League clubs to re @-@ elect the Vale , which they duly did . He stood down as manager in May 1968 , and despite being owed £ 9 @,@ 000 in salary and expenses , agreed to stay at Vale Park to continue his work with the youth team . A " final settlement " was reached in December 1970 , Matthews was given £ 3 @,@ 300 , with the other £ 7 @,@ 000 he was owed to be written off . Player Roy Sproson later said that " he [ Matthews ] trusted people who should never have been trusted and people took advantage of him . I am convinced a lot of people sponged off him and , all the while , the club were sliding . " The experience " left a sour taste " in his mouth , and was enough to convince him never to try his hand as management in English football again .
Matthews gave up his summers every year between 1953 and 1978 to coach poor children in South Africa , Nigeria , Ghana , Uganda and Tanzania . In South Africa in 1975 , he ignored apartheid to form a team of black schoolboys in Soweto called " Stan 's Men " . The members of his team told him that it was their dream to play in Brazil , so Matthews organised a trip there ; they were the first black team ever to tour outside of South Africa . He did not have the money to fund the trip himself , though used his connections ( for the only time other than when he used them to save Port Vale in 1968 ) to arrange sponsorship from Coca @-@ Cola and the Johannesburg Sunday Times newspaper . The South African authorities did not want to cause an international incident , so did not prevent Stan 's Men from getting on the plane to Rio de Janeiro , where they would meet legendary player Zico . It was on this trip that Matthews met Ronnie Biggs . On the way back from the trip , the Stan 's Men captain Gilbert Moiloa called Matthews " black man with the white face " .
He played his final game of football for an England Veterans XI against a Brazil Veterans XI in Brazil in 1985 at the age of 70 ; the English lost 6 – 1 to the likes of Amarildo , Tostão , and Jairzinho . He damaged his cartilage during the match : " a promising career cut tragically short " , he wrote in his autobiography .
= = Retirement and death = =
Having toured the world coaching in Australia , the United States , Canada and especially in Africa , Matthews returned to Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent with wife Mila in 1989 . He later served as president of Stoke City and honorary vice @-@ president of Blackpool .
Matthews died on 23 February 2000 , aged 85 , after falling ill while on holiday in Tenerife . Mila had died the previous year . It was a recurrence of an illness that he first suffered in 1997 . His death was announced on the radio just before the start of an England v Argentina friendly match . He was cremated following a funeral service in Stoke on 3 March 2000 . His funeral was attended by many of his fellow footballers , such as Bobby Charlton and Jack Charlton , Gordon Banks , Nat Lofthouse and Tom Finney . His ashes were buried beneath the centre circle of Stoke City 's Britannia Stadium , which he had officially opened in August 1997 . After his death , more than 100 @,@ 000 people lined the streets of Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent to pay tribute . As the cortège wound its way along the 12 @-@ mile route , employees downed tools and schoolchildren stood motionless to witness his final passing .
After his death , dozens of footballing legends paid tribute to him , and the epilogue to his autobiography contains several pages of quotations . Pelé said he was " the man who taught us the way football should be played " , and Brian Clough added that " he was a true gentleman and we shall never see his like again " . English goalkeeping legend Gordon Banks said that " I don 't think anyone since had a name so synonymous with football in England " , whilst World Cup winning German defender Berti Vogts commented that " It is not just in England where his name is famous . All over the world he is regarded as a true football genius " .
= = = Legacy = = =
Stanley Matthews was inducted into the Ontario Sports Hall of Fame in 1995 . Matthews was made an inaugural inductee of the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 in recognition of his talents . The International Federation of Football History & Statistics voted him the 11th greatest footballer of the 20th century . He was inducted into the Blackpool F.C. Hall of Fame at Bloomfield Road when it was officially opened by Jimmy Armfield in April 2006 . Organised by the Blackpool Supporters Association , Blackpool fans around the world voted on their all @-@ time heroes . Five players from each decade are inducted ; Matthews is in the 1950s . The West Stand at Blackpool 's Bloomfield Road is named in his honour . He was also inducted into the Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent Hall of Fame when it was opened in January 2011 . There is a statue of Matthews outside Stoke City 's Britannia Stadium and another in the centre of Hanley . The dedication on the former reads : " His name is symbolic of the beauty of the game , his fame timeless and international , his sportsmanship and modesty universally acclaimed . A magical player , of the people , for the people . "
The Stanley Matthews Collection is held by the National Football Museum . In February 2010 , the boots worn by Matthews in the 1953 FA Cup Final were auctioned at Bonhams in Chester for £ 38 @,@ 400 , to an undisclosed buyer . Sierra Leonean football club Mighty Blackpool F.C. , based in the capital city of Freetown , changed their name from Socro United in 1954 because of their admiration for Matthews . Ormiston Sir Stanley Matthews Academy is a secondary school in Blurton , Staffordshire named after him .
= = Personal life = =
In the summer of 1934 , Matthews married Betty Vallance , daughter of Stoke City trainer Jimmy Vallance , whom he first met on his 15th birthday in 1930 on his first day as office boy at the Victoria Ground . The couple had two children together : Jean ( born 1 January 1939 ) and Stanley Jr . ( born 20 November 1945 ) , who went on to become a tennis player under the tutelage of John Barrett . He became Wimbledon Boys ' Champion in 1962 , making him the last English player to do so . He never translated his success into the senior game , though , and instead moved to the United States to run the Four Seasons Racquet Club in Wilton , Connecticut . Jean married Robert Gough , whom she had met at their tennis club , in January 1963 ; she later said of her father that " He was a very good father and family man . He kept my brother and me out of the limelight , he was very protective . " In 1965 , Matthews became a grandfather after Jean gave birth to a son , Matthew Gough . She would have two other children — daughters Samantha and Amanda . Gough made Matthews a great @-@ grandfather in 1999 when he and his wife had a son , Cameron . Matthews had six other great @-@ grandchildren .
In 1967 , while on a tour of Czechoslovakia with Port Vale , Matthews met 40 @-@ year @-@ old Mila , who was the group 's interpreter for the trip . Matthews was still married to Betty , but as he was convinced he had found the true love of his life in Mila , he and Betty divorced . He and Mila spent the ensuing years living at various times in Malta ( specifically Marsaxlokk ) , South Africa and Canada . They also travelled extensively as Matthews 's coaching jobs and guest appearances dictated . After Mila died in 1999 at the age of 71 , according to Les Scott ( who helped Matthews write his autobiography ) , Matthews " was never the same person " .
" Self @-@ willed , strong @-@ minded , humorous , generous of spirit and , for all his fame as down to earth as the folk who once adorned the terraces in the hope of seeing him sparkle gold dust on to their harsh working lives . "
= = Statistics = =
a . ^ These three matches were played before competitive football was suspended due to the outbreak of the Second World War and are not included in the total .
b . ^ Domestic and international statistics listed in Matthew 's autobiography :
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Blackpool
FA Cup ( 1 ) : 1953
FA Cup runner @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1948 , 1951
Football League First Division runner @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1955 – 56
Stoke City
Football League Second Division ( 2 ) : 1932 – 33 , 1962 – 63
= = = Country = = =
England
British Home Championship ( 9 ) : 1935 , 1938 , 1939 , 1947 , 1948 , 1950 , 1952 , 1954 , 1955
a . ^ The Championship was shared with Scotland in 1935 , with Wales and Scotland in 1939 , and with Wales in 1952 .
= = = Individual = = =
FWA Footballer of the Year : 1948 , 1963
Ballon d 'Or : 1956
CBE : 1957
Knight Bachelor : 1965
Football League 100 Legends : 1966
English Football Hall of Fame : 2002
PFA Team of the Century ( 1907 @-@ 1976 ) : 2007
= = Autobiography = =
Matthews ' autobiography , The Way It Was , was released by Headline in 2000 . The book is dedicated to his wife Mila , who died the year before its publication . Matthews , then 84 , collaborated with Les Scott , his friend of 10 years , in the writing of the book over an 18 @-@ month period on an almost daily basis . " Stan , as he had been all his life , was an early riser , " wrote Scott in the epilogue . " Our collaborations were over by eleven in the morning and , without fail , took place in his den . He loved working on his book and , after I had left him , he would give the morning 's session more applied thought — more often than not ringing me at home to provide additional thoughts or anecdotes . "
= Choiseul pigeon =
The Choiseul pigeon ( Microgoura meeki ) is an extinct species of bird in the pigeon and dove family , Columbidae . It was endemic to the island of Choiseul in the Solomon Islands , although there are unsubstantiated reports that it may once have lived on several nearby islands . The last confirmed sighting was in 1904 . Other common names were Solomons crested pigeon , Solomon Islands crowned @-@ pigeon and Kuvojo .
The Choiseul pigeon was monotypic within the genus Microgoura and had no known subspecies . Its closest living relative is believed to be the thick @-@ billed ground pigeon , and some authors have suggested that the Choiseul pigeon may be a link between that species and the crowned pigeons . The adult pigeon was largely blue @-@ grey , with a buffy orange belly and a distinctive slaty @-@ blue crest . It is unknown how this crest was held by the bird in life . The bird 's head sported a blue frontal shield surrounded by black feathers and a bicoloured beak . The wings were brown and the short tail was a blackish purple . It was described as having a beautiful rising and falling whistling call .
As the bird became extinct before significant field observations could be made , not much is known about its behaviour . It is believed to have been a terrestrial species that laid a single egg in an unlined depression in the ground . It roosted in pairs or small groups of three or four in small shrubs and was reportedly very tame , allowing hunters to pick it up off its roost . The Choiseul pigeon lived in lowland forests , particularly in coastal swampy areas that lacked mangroves . It was only recorded by Albert Stewart Meek , who collected six adults and an egg from the northern part of the island in 1904 . Despite many subsequent searches , the bird has not been definitively reported since . It is believed to have been rare when Meek collected his specimens . The indigenous peoples reported that the species was driven to extinction due to the introduction of cats , as the pigeon had never previously confronted a carnivorous mammal on Choiseul . The last unconfirmed report of a Choiseul pigeon was in the early 1940s , and the species is considered extinct .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Choiseul pigeon was described by Walter Rothschild in 1904 on the basis of six skins — three male and three female — and an egg collected by Albert Stewart Meek earlier that year . It was placed in the monotypic genus Microgoura , whose name comes from the Ancient Greek word mikros " small " , and goura , a New Guinean aboriginal name for the similarly @-@ crested crowned pigeons of the genus Goura . Rothschild named the species after Meek , giving the bird the specific name meeki . Though its relationships are unclear , the Choiseul pigeon is believed to have been closest to the thick @-@ billed ground pigeon ( Trugon terrestris ) from Indonesia and Papua New Guinea , which has similar plumage . It has been suggested that the Choiseul pigeon was a link between the thick @-@ billed ground pigeon and the crowned pigeons ; however , other sources argue that it may not have been closely related to the crowned pigeons as its crest was quite different . Based on behavioural and morphological evidence , Jolyon C. Parish proposed that the Choiseul pigeon should be placed in the Gourinae subfamily along with the Groura pigeons , the dodo , the Rodrigues solitaire , and others . The Choiseul pigeon has no known subspecies .
Today , five skins and a partial skeleton are kept in the American Museum of Natural History , while a single skin and the egg are kept at the Natural History Museum at Tring . The Choiseul pigeon is also known as the Solomon crowned pigeon , Solomon Islands pigeon , Solomons crested pigeon , Solomon Islands crested pigeon , Choiseul crested pigeon , crested Choiseul pigeon , Meek 's pigeon , Meek 's ground pigeon , and dwarf goura . The indigenous peoples of Choiseul called the species either " kumku @-@ peka " or " kukuru @-@ ni @-@ lua , " which translates literally as " pigeon @-@ belong @-@ ground . "
= = Description = =
The Choiseul pigeon was about 31 cm ( 12 in ) long . The wing of the male was 195 – 197 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 – 7 @.@ 8 in ) , the tail 100 – 105 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 1 in ) , the culmen 34 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) , and the tarsus was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) . The wing of the female was 180 – 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) , the tail 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , the culmen 33 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) , and the tarsus was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) . Adult Choiseul pigeons of both sexes were blue @-@ grey overall with a buffy orange belly . The pigeon had a distinctive long , rounded crest that had a hairy texture . This crest , like the crown , was slaty @-@ blue and emerged from the bird 's hindcrown . Though many artists have speculated , it is unknown how the pigeon held its crest in life as Meek 's notes did not cover this subject . John Gerrard Keulemans ( who produced the illustration accompanying Rothschild 's original description ) , depicted the crest as being flat based on Meek 's specimens ; other artists have presented it as spread and scraggly like that of the crowned pigeons . It has been suggested that the crests of the museum specimens were flattened during preparation .
On the bird 's forehead was a naked and pale chalky @-@ blue frontal shield . This was surrounded by short , velvety black feathers that extended from the base of the bill to the area just below and in front of the eye , while the area below the eye was a pinkish wash . The bird 's chin and throat were sparsely covered with black , velvety feathers , while the neck was a slaty @-@ blue that transitioned into a brownish @-@ grey breast . The abdomen and undertail @-@ coverts were a rich orange , while the undertail was a blackish @-@ grey . The wing was slaty with a hint of brown at its base and became a warm , dark brown by the wingtips ; the underwing was brown . The back was grey and transitioned into a browner rump , while the uppertail @-@ coverts were a dark sooty @-@ grey with blackish tips . The tail , which was short and rounded , was a very dark indigo that had a slightly purple iridescent sheen . The bill was bicoloured ; the upper mandible was chalky @-@ blue with a black tip while the lower mandible was red . The plumage of the juvenile is unknown . The bird 's feet were a dull purplish @-@ red and unfeathered up to the heel , while the iris was a dark brown .
The bird 's voice was never recorded ; however , after it became extinct , the indigenous peoples described it as possessing a " beautiful rising and falling whistling call given from the roost site every evening . " Others described the call as a low " c @-@ r @-@ r @-@ ooo , " " cr @-@ ooo , " or " cr @-@ o @-@ o @-@ o . "
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Not much is known about the species ' behaviour , as it became extinct before significant field observations could be made . It is likely that the Choiseul pigeon was a largely terrestrial species , feeding and nesting near the forest floor . The indigenous people of the town of Vundutura said that the pigeon would roost in pairs or small groups of three or four in small shrubs close to the ground . They claimed that the species was very tame , allowing local hunters to approach it and pick it up off of its perch by hand . They reported that the species had stones in its gizzard . It laid a single dark , cream @-@ coloured egg in an unlined depression on the ground . The egg was about 43 by 31 @.@ 3 mm ( 1 @.@ 69 by 1 @.@ 23 in ) in size , which is considered small in proportion to the bird .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Choiseul pigeon was non @-@ migratory and is thought to have lived on the forest floor in lowland forests , including coastal swampy areas that lacked mangroves . The Choiseul pigeon is usually considered to have been endemic to the island of Choiseul in the Solomon Islands off the coast of New Guinea , where the only specimens were collected . The specimens Meek acquired were likely collected near Choiseul Bay in the northern part of the island . The last reports of the species from the indigenous population came from the Kolombangara River . It also reportedly lived on the neighboring islands of Santa Isabel and Malaita , and it is suspected that it may once have lived on Bougainville Island . However , these reports were never confirmed and must be considered anecdotal . It would be considered very unusual if the Choiseul pigeon were truly endemic to Choiseul as the island hosts no other endemic species , and the pigeon was never linked ecologically with another species on the island .
= = = Last sightings = = =
In January 1904 six specimens and an egg were collected by Albert Stewart Meek , a bird collector for Lord Walter Rothschild , near Choiseul Bay on Choiseul . Several local boys told Meek that the pigeon was also present on the nearby islands of Santa Isabel and Malaita . Though Meek did not travel to these islands , he did search for the Choiseul pigeon on the adjacent Bougainville Island , but did not find any evidence of its presence . No other specimens were ever collected or seen by Western scientists .
The Choiseul pigeon was not searched for again until briefly in 1927 and again in October 1929 , when five veteran collectors belonging to the Whitney South Seas Expedition dedicated three months to searching for the pigeon in multiple locations across Choiseul without success . The indigenous people interviewed by this expedition largely believed that the pigeon was extinct in 1929 . The last reported indigenous sighting was sometime in the early 1
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Lieutenant Governor ’ s Design Award in Architecture for 2014 .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
The Spring Garden Road main library , opened in 1951 , had been considered inadequate by library administrators for several decades . The first report mentioning a replacement building was published in 1971 . An expansion built in 1974 was quickly outgrown . A 1987 assessment noted that the spaces within were " self @-@ contained and inflexible " and that " study space and comfortable reading areas are presently the focus of serious public complaint ... services are cramped and over crowded . "
In the mid @-@ 1990s the municipalities of Halifax , Dartmouth , Bedford , and Halifax County were amalgamated , and a new regional library board was created . In 1995 , the Joint Amalgamation Committee of the merged libraries " agreed that a new central library would be needed to serve the new Halifax Regional Library system and that the site should remain in the present downtown area . " They cited numerous problems with the original building . In addition to its small size ( 3 @,@ 594 square metres [ 38 @,@ 690 sq ft ] ) , technological improvements were hampered by poor wiring and difficulty laying cable in mid @-@ floor locations . Accessibility was poor due to the numerous stairs , levels , and an undersized elevator . Other problems with the building included leaks , asbestos , inoperable windows , the lack of a sprinkler system , inadequate climate control , ceilings as low as 1 @.@ 95 m ( 6 ft 5 in ) , and the lack of numerous services found at other modern libraries .
Following the merger , the new library board undertook extensive planning for a new facility in the hope that a new central library might be part of the 1999 commemoration of the 250th anniversary of the city . The library board commissioned an architectural study , released in 1997 , recommending a new central library of approximately 8 @,@ 800 square metres ( 95 @,@ 000 sq ft ) after concluding a renovation of the existing library would " not result in significant cost savings " and would lead to a less efficient building . Furthermore , it recommended building the new library on a different site in order to avoid costly temporary relocation . This study considered six different sites for the new library and recommended the lot at Queen and Clyde Streets , then a municipal parking lot . The projected cost of construction was just short of $ 24 million at 1997 prices .
The recommendation for a new library was echoed in a 2004 needs assessment and master plan study for the overall library system . The central library was identified as the " first priority " for the library board in terms of capital development , with implementation recommended by 2009 . The study found agreement among survey respondents that the library should be located in downtown Halifax , being the core of the region and an anticipated area of growth in the regional plan .
Following the 2004 demolition of the nearby former Halifax Infirmary , planning and public consultation began , as part of the Spring Garden Road & Queen Street Joint Public Lands Study , in order to determine the future of the glut of vacant public lands in the area . The lot directly on this prime intersection was closely considered as the site of either a new central library or a justice centre , consolidating other courthouse facilities around the city . The site had been occupied by Bellevue House , the army commandant 's house from the 19th century until it was demolished in 1955 . It had then remained a parking lot into the 21st century . In June 2007 , regional council voted to approve " in principle , designation of the property at the corner of Spring Garden Road and Queen Street as the site of the Central Library " and to initiate negotiations for the acquisition of that land from the province . These negotiations , concluded in January 2010 , resulted in a land swap : the municipality acquired the Queen and Spring Garden site from the province in exchange for the former Queen Elizabeth High School and Birk 's ( Barrington and George streets ) lands , plus $ 1 @.@ 9 million " in recognition of the higher value of the provincially owned land . "
On 12 August 2008 , regional council voted to approve the library project in principle and direct municipal staff to develop a financial plan for the project . On 28 April 2009 , the council passed a motion to advance the library as a project under the Building Canada Fund , a federal fund that financed projects jointly with local governments from 2007 to 2014 . This resulted in an $ 18 @.@ 3 million contribution from the federal government .
= = = Architect selection and public consultations = = =
The architects for the new library were chosen through an international competition for a design contract worth C $ 4 @.@ 3 million . Four architectural teams were shortlisted , each a partnership between a local and a non @-@ local firm . The winning scheme , a joint venture by Danish firm Schmidt Hammer Lassen and Fowler Bauld & Mitchell of Halifax , was selected in March 2010 . The other shortlisted teams were Lydon Lynch with HOK , Barrie and Langille with Moriyama and Teshima , and Shore Tilbe Irwin + Partners with John K. Dobbs .
The library governance stated they sought to " involve as many people as possible in the public consultation process for the new central library . " It was suggested in The Coast , a weekly newspaper , that this emphasis on public involvement was a reaction to a negative public response toward a proposed redesign of Point Pleasant Park after its partial destruction in Hurricane Juan . Early planning was undertaken in three public consultation phases during 2008 . Five more public meetings and workshops were held in 2010 following the selection of the design architects . The final design was unveiled by the architects during the fifth of these meetings on 4 November 2010 . A final public event was held at Pier 21 on 14 November 2012 .
= = = War memorial issue = = =
The Spring Garden Road Memorial Library was named after its status as a war memorial and displays several commemorative artefacts , including two Books of Remembrance containing the names of thousands of Halifax County residents who gave their lives in the First World War , Second World War , and Korean War . A page is turned in each book every Remembrance Day . A Silver Cross is also on display . The building contains a plaque reading , " This building was erected in memory of those who gave their lives in defence of their Country , 1914 – 1918 ; 1939 – 1945 . For their Faith , for their Courage , for their Sacrifice , We Will Remember Them . "
Some residents voiced concern that with the closure of the former building the war memorial will effectively disappear . Local author and historian Blair Beed questioned why the term " memorial " was not carried over to the new building , and proposed that " Halifax Memorial Library " would be a more appropriate name lest wartime sacrifices be pushed aside and forgotten . He also worried about the fate of the historical artefacts on display . Another resident suggested that such concerns were not given serious consideration during the public consultation process .
Library management responded that the war commemoration would be incorporated into the local history section of the library , and that the two remembrance books would be joined by a third recognizing those who died in conflicts following the Korean War . They also stated that a " few elements of the existing wartime display such as the Silver Cross , flags and standards " would be transferred to the Maritime Command Museum at Admiralty House , CFB Halifax . The three Books of Remembrance are now on display in a glass case next to the local history room .
= = = Construction and opening = = =
Before construction began , an archaeological dig was undertaken to evaluate the remains of Bellevue House . The land was originally purchased in 1800 by the Duke of Kent , who was based in the city in order to command British forces in North America . Subsequent British commanders took residence in the house , built 1801 and described as an " almost palatial residence " that hosted members of the Royal Family during visits to the colony . It was destroyed in a 1885 fire , but rebuilt . The British left in the early 20th century and the structure was demolished after it was acquired by the Nova Scotia Technical College in 1955 . The site then remained a parking lot for over half a century , meaning the foundation of older structures was preserved under the asphalt . This stands in contrast to the site of the former infirmary next door , where the deep foundation rendered the site archaeologically insignificant . In addition to the foundation of the residence , the archaeological dig uncovered numerous small artefacts including china , cutlery and an 1860 Nova Scotia penny .
Construction of the library by EllisDon began shortly thereafter . Following excavation and blasting for the underground car park , the foundation was poured in 2012 . In May 2014 , the library hosted a tour for journalists and officials from all levels of government . Halifax mayor Mike Savage stated that the new library is " not simply something that ’ s nice to have . It is important and critical to the future of our city . Because more than ever , for a city to succeed , we need to be invested in the knowledge economy . We need to ensure that our citizens have access to all forms of learning . ”
The total cost of the building was $ 57 @.@ 6 million , of which $ 18 @.@ 3 million came from the federal government via the Building Canada Fund , $ 13 million from the provincial government , and the remainder ( $ 26 @.@ 3 million ) from the municipality . The municipal contribution was primarily generated from the sale of the empty lots around the library site .
The library was completed in late 2014 following the transfer of materials from the former library across the street , which closed on 30 August . It opened to the public on Saturday , 13 December 2014 to an estimated 12 @,@ 000 visitors who enjoyed a day of performances and festivities . The first six weeks of operation saw 272 @,@ 000 visitors , who collectively checked out over 167 @,@ 700 items .
= = Design and reception = =
The library is a five @-@ storey structure comprising about 11 @,@ 000 square metres ( 120 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of space , and was designed to accommodate a book collection 50 per cent larger than that of the former Spring Garden Memorial Library . A skylighted atrium , criss @-@ crossed by stairs and walkways , spans the interior height of the structure . The main lobby and children 's collection are concentrated on the lower floors , while much of the upper floors are designated as quiet areas . A rooftop terrace with seating offers a broad view of Downtown , the South End , and Halifax Harbour .
The design , said to resemble a stack of books , has garnered international attention and was featured by CNN as one of ten " eye @-@ popping " new buildings of 2014 . The building topped a list of " high @-@ design libraries " compiled by enRoute and was covered on numerous architecture websites . In the 2014 " Best of Halifax " awards , ranked annually by readers of The Coast , the library was voted the " Best Thing To Happen In Halifax In The Past Year " and the " Best Effort To Improve Halifax " . SNC @-@ Lavalin , the structural and civil engineer , was awarded the " Engineering a Better Canada Award " by the Association of Canadian Engineering Companies for their work on the library . The building was also shortlisted for the World Building of the Year Award in the Civic and Community category at the 2015 World Architecture Festival in Singapore .
The Nova Scotia Association of Architects selected the library to receive the Award of Merit at the Lieutenant Governor ’ s Design Awards in Architecture . The award was presented in 2015 by Brigadier @-@ General J.J. Grant . The awards jury commented : " Without doubt , the new Halifax Central Library has done more to transform the discussion of contemporary architecture in Halifax than any building in the past 40 years . The Halifax Central Library was a real catalyst of local , public and architectural conversation in Halifax ; its program and location has reconstructed the way locals and visitors interact with a building filled with knowledge . "
An architect from Fowler , Bauld & Mitchell stated that the library now sees an average of 6 @,@ 000 visitors daily , a " huge increase " in patronage over the former Spring Garden Road Memorial Library .
= = Programme = =
The library is fully wheelchair @-@ accessible , with multiple elevators . There are public use touchscreen computers , a dedicated computer lab , wireless internet , and conference and community rooms . An automatic conveyor belt system links the book drops to a dedicated sorting room . It handled 80 @,@ 000 books in July 2015 .
The library 's open design and central location enables it to host community events and festivals . In the first year of operation it has served as a venue for major annual Halifax events including Nocturne and The Word on the Street . It hosted the Duke of Edinburgh 's Award ceremony in November 2015 attended by Prince Edward .
= = = Cafés = = =
The building houses two café spaces , one at ground level and one on the fifth floor . Patrons of the latter café have access to a rooftop patio area as well as the " Halifax Living Room " housed in the cantilevered portion of the building overlooking Spring Garden Road . The Living Room was designed as an airy , indoor public space with views of both Citadel Hill and Halifax Harbour as well as the civic square below . The ground floor café , in the corner of the building nearest the intersection , opens earlier than the rest of the library . The concession to operate from both spaces was won by Pavia Gallery Espresso Bar and Café of Herring Cove , who beat out Second Cup and Uncommon Grounds . Pavia holds a ten @-@ year contract with an option for an additional seven years .
The ground floor space is the " main café " with the same offerings as Pavia 's Herring Cove location , while the smaller upstairs café serves light refreshments only . Pavia plans to hold three art @-@ related panel discussions at the library each year .
= = = Artwork = = =
Following a request for proposals seeking a " signature public artwork " to be incorporated into the new library , painter and NSCAD alumnus Cliff Eyland was awarded the $ 430 @,@ 000 commission for his proposal to produce 5 @,@ 000 miniature paintings on medium @-@ density fibreboard cut to the size of old library catalog index cards .
Eyland , who also worked as a curator at the former Technical University of Nova Scotia next door ( now Dalhousie University 's School of Architecture and Planning ) , ended up producing a total of 6 @,@ 000 paintings divided into two installations . At the ground floor , Library Cards comprises 5 @,@ 000 paintings behind the main reception . A further 1 @,@ 000 paintings , " eye @-@ popping , two @-@ colour abstracts of books leaning against each other " , decorate the Living Room in the fifth floor cantilever . This smaller installation is titled Book Shelf Paintings .
The Library Cards paintings cover a variety of themes and subjects , including landscapes , portraits , abstract pieces , and musings on history and libraries . The artist joked , " there are grey landscapes to remind you about why you stay indoors in Nova Scotia to read " and said that portraits of staff at the Spring Garden Road and Halifax North Memorial libraries , photographed by Mary Ann Archibald , were painted and had subsequently been recognized by some of their subjects . He also stated that the library commission is the biggest installation he has done to date .
= = = Auditorium = = =
The ground floor houses a 300 @-@ seat auditorium which also serves as a reading space when not in use for performances . Library CEO Judith Hare stated that the space would complement a recording studio , geared toward young people , planned elsewhere in the library : " people can make their own music ... but also they ’ ll have a place to perform as well . " In 2012 the auditorium was named Paul O ’ Regan Hall following a $ 1 million donation by the O ’ Regan family in honour of the late businessman and philanthropist . Government funding only covered the cost of the building , so donations will go toward expanding the book collection and purchasing new computers and special equipment . The hall is fitted with stowable seats , acoustic ceiling baffles , a video screen , and professional sound and lighting installations .
The hall boasts a $ 62 @,@ 000 Yamaha grand piano donated by local philanthropist and musician Peggy Corkum in May 2015 .
= = = Environmental sustainability = = =
The building design aims to achieve LEED Gold certification from the Canada Green Building Council , in part by incorporating energy and water saving design features such as rainwater harvesting for flushing water , computerized building management , use of local species in landscape design , and automatic lighting control . Low @-@ emission interior finishes have been used to improve indoor air quality , and a green housekeeping policy seeks to reduce exposure of occupants to contaminants .
The library supports the use of public transportation and active transportation by virtue of its central location in a dense , walkable district served by numerous bus routes , and by providing onsite bike parking .
= = = Programming by floor = = =
= = Transportation = =
The library is accessible by public bus transit , as it is located on Spring Garden Road . It is served by numerous Halifax Transit bus routes . Routes 1 , 10 , 14 , 20 and 80 provide service from 6 : 00 am until midnight daily . Route 1 provides service to Dartmouth and Mumford Terminal at 10 @-@ minute headways .
= Bombardment of Papeete =
The Bombardment of Papeete occurred in French Polynesia when German warships attacked on 22 September 1914 , during World War I. The German armoured cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and Gneisenau entered the port of Papeete on the island of Tahiti and sank the French gunboat Zélée and freighter Walkure before bombarding the town 's fortifications . French shore batteries and a gunboat resisted the German intrusion , but were greatly outgunned . The main German objective was to seize the coal piles stored on the island , but these were destroyed by the French at the start of the action .
The German vessels were largely undamaged but the French lost their gunboat . Several of Papeete 's buildings were destroyed and the town 's economy was severely disrupted . The main strategic consequence of the engagement was the disclosure of the cruisers ' positions to the British Admiralty , which led to the Battle of Coronel where the entire German East Asia Squadron defeated a Royal Navy squadron . The depletion of Scharnhorst 's and Gneisenau 's ammunition at Papeete also contributed to their subsequent destruction at the Battle of the Falklands .
= = Background = =
Word of war reached Admiral Maximilian von Spee — of the German East Asia Squadron — while at Ponape ( 17 July – 6 August ) . He concentrated the majority of his squadron at Pagan Island in the nearby Mariana Islands , and then steamed off into the Pacific with the Scharnhorst @-@ class armored cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , the Königsberg @-@ class light cruiser SMS Nürnberg , the auxiliary cruiser SMS Titania , and several colliers at his disposal . Nürnberg and Titania were sent to gather intelligence at Hawaii and raid the cable station at Fanning Island . Von Spee then learned that Australian and New Zealand forces had captured German Samoa , and he sailed off in his flagship Scharnhorst — along with her sister ship Gneisenau — to engage what Allied forces they could find there . Failing to catch the Samoa Expeditionary Force at Apia and having seen no action at all since leaving Pagan Island , the men of Admiral von Spee 's armored cruisers were eager to meet the enemy in battle .
Von Spee decided to raid Papeete in Tahiti on his way to rendezvous with the rest of his squadron at Easter Island . The French held over 5 @,@ 000 t ( 5 @,@ 500 short tons ) of high @-@ quality Cardiff coal at the port , and von Spee hoped to seize the coal piles to replenish his squadron 's supply . Additionally , von Spee aimed at destroying what allied shipping he could find in the harbour , and thought the raid might help raise his men 's morale . Von Spee intended to coal at Suwarrow Atoll before sailing to Papeete , but was prevented by foul weather . Instead , von Spee decided to take Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and attempt to resupply at Bora Bora while Nürnberg and Titania were dispatched to Nukuhiva to guard the fleet 's colliers . The German admiral intended to keep his vessels ' identities secret by disguising them as French ships , flying French flags , and only allowing French- and English @-@ speaking members of his crew contact with the Frenchmen present there . Von Spee managed to replenish his food stores using gold seized by Titania and Nürnberg during their raid of Fanning , and was able to discover the strength of the French military in the region as well as the exact size and positions of the coal piles at Papeete .
The French had no heavy defenses at Papeete but had been warned that von Spee 's squadron might raid Tahiti and that a German squadron had been sighted off Samoa . Although Papeete was the capital of the French Settlements in Oceania , by 1914 it had become a colonial backwater , lacking a wireless station and having a garrison of only 25 colonial infantry and 20 gendarmes . In order to bolster the town 's defenses , Lieutenant Maxime Destremau — commander of the old wooden gunboat Zélée and the ranking officer at Papeete — had his ship 's 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) stern gun and all of her 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) and 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns removed from his vessel and placed ashore to be used in place of Papeete 's antiquated land batteries . Several Ford trucks were turned into impromptu armored cars by mounting them with Zélée 's 37 @-@ mm guns and 160 sailors and marines drilled in preparation to repel any German attempt at landing . Zélée retained only her 100 @-@ mm bow gun and 10 men under the ship 's second in command . In addition to the gunboat and harbor fortifications , the French also had at Papeete the unarmed German freighter Walkure , which had been captured by Zélée at the start of the war . Despite the French preparations , the two German cruisers were more than a match for the forces Destremau commanded at Papeete . Both Scharnhorst and Gneisenau heavily outgunned Zélée , each being armed with eight 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns , six 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns , eighteen 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and four torpedo tubes . Von Spee 's forces also outnumbered the French with over 1 @,@ 500 sailors aboard their vessels , more than enough to form a landing party and overwhelm the forces Destremau had to oppose them .
= = Battle = =
At 07 : 00 on 22 September 1914 , the French sighted two unidentified cruisers approaching the harbor of Papeete . The alarm was raised , the harbor 's signal beacons destroyed , and three warning shots were fired by the French batteries to signal the approaching cruisers that they must identify themselves . The cruisers replied with a shot of their own and raised the German colors , signaling the town to surrender . The French refused the German demands , and von Spee 's vessels began to shell the shore batteries and town from a distance of 6 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) . The land batteries and the gunboat in the harbor returned fire , but scored no hits on the armored cruisers . Having difficulty in discovering the exact position of the French batteries , the German cruisers soon turned their attention to the French shipping in the harbor .
The French commander — Destremau — had ordered the coal piles burned at the start of the action and now smoke began billowing over the town . Zélée and Walkure were sighted and fired upon by the Germans . The French had begun to scuttle their vessels when the action had begun , but both were still afloat when Scharnhorst and Gneisenau began firing upon them and finished the two ships off . By now , most of the Papeete 's inhabitants had fled and the town had caught fire from the German shelling , with two blocks of Papeete set alight . With the coal piles destroyed and the threat of mines in the harbor , von Spee saw no meaningful purpose in making a landing . Accordingly , the German admiral withdrew his ships from Papeete 's harbor by 11 : 00 . After leaving Papeete , the ships steamed out towards Nuku Hiva to meet Nürnberg , Titania , and colliers waiting there .
= = Aftermath = =
By the time von Spee withdrew his ships , large portions of the town had been destroyed . Two entire blocks of Papeete had burnt to the ground before the fires were finally put out . A copra store , a market , and several other buildings and residences were among those destroyed by the shellfire and resulting inferno . While the majority of Papeete 's civilians fled to the interior of the island as soon as the fighting began , a Japanese civilian and a Polynesian boy were both killed by German shellfire . Although the two French vessels in the harbor had been sunk , there were no military casualties on either side and the German vessels took no damage . Overall , the bombardment was estimated in 1915 to have caused over 2 million francs ' worth of property damage , some of which was recouped through the seizure of a German store on the island . In addition to the seizure of their property , several local Germans were interned and forced to repair the damage von Spee 's squadron had caused . Perhaps the most lasting effect of the bombardment on the French was the dramatic fall of copra prices in the region , as local suppliers had previously sold a majority of their produce to German merchants in the area who were now interned . Further havoc and distress spread throughout the island 18 days after von Spee 's squadron had left , when rumors started to spread that a second German bombardment was about to begin .
After withdrawing , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau rendezvoused with Nürnberg and Titania at Nuku Hiva , where they resupplied and their crews took shore leave before moving on to meet the rest of the squadron at Easter Island . Although the Germans had destroyed the shipping at Papeete and wreaked havoc in the town , they had been denied their primary objective of seizing the French coal piles and replenishing their own stocks . Von Spee 's raid allowed the British Admiralty to receive word on his position and heading , allowing them to inform Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock of the German intentions thus leading to the Battle of Coronel . Another effect was the reduction of ammunition available to the two German cruisers . The hundreds of shells fired by von Spee 's ships at Papeete were irreplaceable . The depletion of ammunition as a result of the action at Papeete contributed to the German East Asia Squadron 's failure to adequately defend itself at the Battle of the Falkland Islands against British battlecruisers . Lieutenant Destremau was chastised by his misinformed superior officer for his actions during the defense of Papeete and for the loss of the gunboat Zélée . He was summoned back to Toulon under arrest to be court @-@ martialled , but died of illness in 1915 before the trial . In 1918 , Destremau was finally recognized for his actions at Papeete and was posthumously awarded the Légion d 'honneur .
= Forbes Field =
Forbes Field was a baseball park in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , from 1909 to June 28 , 1970 . It was the third home of the Pittsburgh Pirates Major League Baseball ( MLB ) team , and the first home of the Pittsburgh Steelers , the city 's National Football League ( NFL ) franchise . The stadium also served as the home football field for the University of Pittsburgh " Pitt " Panthers from 1909 to 1924 . The stadium was named after British general John Forbes , who fought in the French and Indian War , and named the city in 1758 .
The US $ 1 million ( $ 26 @.@ 3 million today ) project was initiated by Pittsburgh Pirates ' owner Barney Dreyfuss , with the goal of replacing his franchise 's then @-@ current home , Exposition Park . The stadium was made of concrete and steel ( one of the first of its kind ) in order to increase its lifespan . The Pirates opened Forbes Field on June 30 , 1909 against the Chicago Cubs , and would play the final game that was also against the Cubs on June 28 , 1970 . The field itself featured a large playing surface , with the batting cage placed in the deepest part of center field during games . Seating was altered multiple times throughout the stadium 's life ; at times fans were permitted to sit on the grass in the outfield during overflow crowds . The Pirates won three World Series while at Forbes Field and the other original tenant , the Pittsburgh Panthers football team had five undefeated seasons before moving in 1924 .
Some remnants of the ballpark still stand , surrounded by the campus of the University of Pittsburgh . Fans gather on the site annually on the anniversary of Bill Mazeroski 's World Series winning home run , in what author Jim O 'Brien writes is " one of the most unique expressions of a love of the game to be found in a major league city " .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and design = = =
In 1903 , Pittsburgh Pirates ' owner Barney Dreyfuss began to look for ground to build a larger capacity replacement for the team 's then @-@ current home , Exposition Park . Dreyfuss purchased seven acres of land near the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh , adjacent to Schenley Park , with assistance from his friend , industrialist Andrew Carnegie . The low @-@ priced land was selected so Dreyfuss could spend more on the stadium itself . Dreyfuss signed a contract that he would " make the ballpark ... of a design that would harmonize with the other structures in the Schenley Park district . " The site was initially labeled " Dreyfuss 's Folly " due to its long distance — a 10 @-@ minute trolley ride — from downtown Pittsburgh , but the land around the park developed and criticisms were dropped . Official Pirates ' records show that Forbes Field cost US $ 1 million for site acquisition and construction , however some estimates place the cost at twice that amount .
Dreyfuss announced that unlike established wooden ballparks such as the Polo Grounds , he would build a three @-@ tiered stadium out of steel and concrete to increase longevity — the first of its kind in the nation . Charles Wellford Leavitt , Jr. was contracted to design the stadium 's grandstand . A civil engineer , Leavitt had founded an engineering and landscape architecture firm in 1897 . He had gained experience in steel and concrete constructs while designing the Belmont and Saratoga racetracks . Based on Dreyfuss ' architectural requirements , Leavitt presented a plan for Forbes Field — the only ballpark he would design . Pirates ' manager Fred Clarke also had input into the stadium 's design , giving groundskeepers advice on the field , in addition to designing and patenting a device to spread and remove a canvas tarpaulin over the infield in case of rain .
Initial work on the land began on January 1 , 1909 , but ground was not officially broken until March 1 . Nicola Building Company built the stadium in 122 days and play began less than four months after ground was broken , on June 30 . Though the scoreboard was operated by hand , the ballpark featured multiple innovations such as ramps and elevators to assist fan movement throughout the park , a room for the umpires , and a visiting team clubhouse similar to the Pirates ' . The facade of the stadium featured " buff @-@ colored terra cotta " spelling out " PAC " for the Pittsburgh Athletic Company . The light green steelwork contrasted with the red slate of the roof . Some members of the press urged Dreyfuss to name the stadium after himself . However , the owner decided on Forbes Field , in honor of General John Forbes , who captured Fort Duquesne from the French in 1758 and rebuilt a new " Fort Pitt " at the site . In 1935 , after Dreyfuss ' death , there was renewed media interest in renaming the stadium " Dreyfuss Field " . His widow , Florence , resisted . However , a monument to Dreyfuss was placed in center field just in front of the wall .
= = = Opening = = =
On June 29 , 1909 , the Pittsburgh Pirates defeated the Chicago Cubs , 8 – 1 at Exposition Park . The two teams opened Forbes Field the following day . Fans began to arrive at the stadium six and one @-@ half hours early for the 3 : 30 pm game . The game started at 3 : 30 p.m. Weather conditions were reported as clear skies with a temperature around 80 ° . Of the crowd , the Pittsburgh Press wrote , " the ceremonies were witnessed by the largest throng that ever attended an event of this kind in this or any other city in the country ... Forbes Field is so immense — so far beyond anything else in America in the way of a baseball park — that old experts , accustomed to judging crowds at a glance , were at a loss for reasonable figures . " Records show that the first game was attended by a standing @-@ room only crowd of 30 @,@ 338 . Various National League officials and owners were present for the opening pre @-@ game ceremonies , including league president Harry Pulliam , Civil War veteran and manager of Pittsburgh 's first professional baseball team Al Pratt , and American League president Ban Johnson . Pittsburgh Mayor William A. Magee threw out the stadium 's ceremonial first pitch . The Chicago Cubs won the first game , 3 – 2 . Dreyfuss declared , " This is indeed the happiest day of my life . " The stadium was widely considered the best in the league .
It is more accurate to say Mayor Magee threw out the first ball . He was in the second tier and threw the ball to John M. Morin , Director of Public Safety , on the field below . Morin then went to the mound and threw the first pitch to the Pirate catcher .
Pictures depict the flag at Forbes Field at half staff on opening day . This occurred to honor recently deceased presidents of the Philadelphia Phillies and the Boston Doves .
The first batter at Forbes Field was future Hall of Famer Johnny Evers , the Cubs second baseman and lead off batter . He was hit by a pitch and later in the inning scored the first run . The first hit by a Pirate was by catcher George Gibson , who eventually became a Pirate manager .
= = = Playing field = = =
Barney Dreyfuss " hated cheap home runs and vowed he 'd have none in his park " , which led him to design a large playing field for Forbes Field . The original distances to the outfield fence in left , center , and right field were 360 feet ( 110 m ) , 462 feet ( 141 m ) and 376 feet ( 115 m ) , respectively .
In 1925 , the right field grandstand was extended into the corner and into fair territory , reducing the foul line distance from 376 feet ( 115 m ) to 300 feet ( 91 m ) . Due to the reduced distance , Dreyfuss erected a 28 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) high screen to limit home runs .
Even at this long distance from home plate , the wall stood 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in height all around the field , with the right field wall reduced to 9 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) following the 1925 construction ( topped by the screen ) . The backstop was set at 110 feet ( 34 m ) behind home plate , larger than the average of 60 feet ( 18 m ) in most stadiums of the time . Additional seating eventually cut down the plate @-@ to @-@ screen distance to a still larger @-@ than @-@ average 75 feet ( 23 m ) .
With such a large outfield space , triples and inside @-@ the @-@ park home runs were common . The Pirates hit a record eight triples in a single game , on May 30 , 1925 . Conversely , the stadium was one of the most difficult to hit over @-@ the @-@ fence home runs . The closeness of the right field line from 1925 onward was the only area that compromised Dreyfuss ' original design concept . Even at that , the right field wall angled sharply out to 375 feet ( 114 m ) , a typical distance for a major league power alley . The final three home runs of Babe Ruth 's career were hit in Forbes Field on May 25 , 1935 ; the third of these cleared the 89 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) right field roof and was considered the longest home run in the park 's history .
Although Forbes Field developed a reputation as a " pitcher @-@ friendly " ballpark , there was never a no @-@ hitter thrown in the more than 4 @,@ 700 games at the stadium .
The field itself consisted of natural grass grown in Crestline , Ohio .
The batting cage was placed just to the left of the 457 @-@ foot ( 139 m ) center field " Death Valley " marker during games , because it was believed impossible to hit the ball that far . The open part of the cage faced the wall , the back of the cage effectively serving as a convex fence . In right- and left @-@ center fields , light towers stood on the field , and like the batting cage and flagpole in center field , were in @-@ play .
In 1947 , well after Dreyfuss ' death , and upon the arrival of veteran slugger Hank Greenberg , the bullpens were moved from foul territory to the base of the scoreboard in left field and were fenced in , cutting 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) from the left field area , from 365 feet ( 111 m ) to 335 feet ( 102 m ) down the line and 406 feet ( 124 m ) to 376 feet ( 115 m ) in left @-@ center field . These were not abnormal major league outfield distances , but the obvious attempt to take advantage of Greenberg 's bat led the media to dub the area " Greenberg Gardens " . Greenberg retired after the season , but by then Ralph Kiner was an established slugger with the Pirates , and the bullpen was redubbed " Kiner 's Korner " . Kiner was traded after the 1953 season , and the field was restored to its previous configuration in time for the 1954 season .
The final posted dimensions of the ballpark were left field line 365 feet ( 111 m ) , left @-@ center field 406 feet ( 124 m ) , deepest left @-@ center 457 feet ( 139 m ) , deep right @-@ center 436 feet ( 133 m ) , right @-@ center field 375 feet ( 114 m ) , and right field line 300 feet ( 91 m ) . The only marker in exact straightaway center field was the Barney Dreyfuss monument , which sat on the playing field just in front of the wall .
Forbes Field 's ivy @-@ covered walls featured no advertising , except a 32 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) United States Marine Corps billboard during the 1943 season .
The infield developed a " rock @-@ hard " surface throughout the stadium 's history . During the final game of the 1960 World Series , Yankees shortstop Tony Kubek was struck in the neck with a ball that bounced off the hard dirt surface , breaking up a potentially rally @-@ killing double play and causing Kubek to exit the game . Pittsburgh went on to win the game and the championship . Groundskeepers burned gasoline on the mound to dry it off . Because of the bounces , Pirates ' play @-@ by @-@ play announcer Bob Prince nicknamed the ballpark , The House of Thrills .
= = = Seating and tickets = = =
Forbes Field had an original capacity of 25 @,@ 000 , the largest in the league at the time . Seating at the stadium was remodeled numerous times , peaking at a capacity of 41 @,@ 000 in 1925 and closing in 1970 at 35 @,@ 000 seats . On opening day , ticket prices ranged from $ 1 @.@ 25 ( equal to $ 32 @.@ 92 today ) for box seats and $ 1 ( equal to $ 26 @.@ 34 today ) for reserved grand stand sections ; temporary bleachers were set up for the occasion and cost $ 0 @.@ 50 . Ticket prices were considered high for the day and steel pillars supporting the roof occasionally blocked fans ' views of the field . 2 @,@ 000 bleachers were situated along the left field side , tickets were sold for a maximum of $ 1 . When winning streaks would attract high attendance to games , fans were permitted to sit on the grass in right field , provided they would agree to allow a player to catch any ball hit in the area . The lowest season of attendance came in 1914 when 139 @,@ 620 people attended games ; the highest at the stadium came in 1960 , when 1 @,@ 705 @,@ 828 people watched the Pirates play . On September 23 , 1956 , the stadium 's largest crowd , 44 @,@ 932 , gathered to see the home team play the Brooklyn Dodgers . The game was cut short in the top of the ninth inning , after a rain delay forced it past the Pennsylvania Sunday curfew . The Dodgers won the game 8 – 2 the following day . At 200 people , June 10 , 1938 marked the smallest crowd to ever attend a Pirates game . On September 30 , 1962 , a crowd of 40 @,@ 916 people saw the Steelers defeated by the New York Giants , at the Steelers ' highest @-@ attended game at the stadium .
= = = Closing and demolition = = =
Though Forbes Field was praised upon its opening , it began to show its age after 60 years of use . The park was the second oldest baseball field in the league at the time – only Shibe Park in Philadelphia was older ( it too was replaced in 1971 by Veterans Stadium ) . The location of the park , which was initially criticized for not being developed , grew into a " bustling business district " which led to a lack of parking space . One sportswriter wrote that The House of Thrills had become " as joyless as a prison exercise yard " . Following a plan to expand their adjacent campus , the University of Pittsburgh purchased Forbes Field in 1958 , with an agreement to lease the stadium to the Pirates until a replacement could be built . A proposal for a new sports stadium in Pittsburgh was first made in 1948 , but plans did not attract much attention until the late 1950s . Construction began on Three Rivers Stadium on April 25 , 1968 . The Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs played a double @-@ header on June 28 , 1970 . Pittsburgh won the first game 3 – 2 . In the later game Al Oliver hit the last home run in the park , and Matty Alou drove in two runs as the Pirates closed the 62 @-@ year @-@ old stadium with a 4 – 1 victory . The 40 @,@ 918 spectators in attendance stood and cheered as Dave Giusti retired Willie Smith for the final out at the stadium . Pirates Hall of Famer Roberto Clemente played 15 seasons at Forbes Field . He was emotional during the last game saying , " I spent half my life there . " After the game , home plate was dug up and taken by helicopter to Three Rivers Stadium to be installed in the artificial turf .
A community group attempted to rescue the structure from demolition , proposing such things as a stage , apartments and a farmers market for the site and comparing it to the Eiffel Tower in significance .
The abandoned structure suffered two separate fires that damaged the park , on December 24 , 1970 and July 17 , 1971 . 11 days after the second fire , demolition began , and the site was cleared for use by the University of Pittsburgh .
= = = Memorials = = =
In 1955 , a statue of Honus Wagner was dedicated in Schenley Plaza adjacent to Forbes Field . Several thousand fans attended the dedication as well as Wagner himself . His failing health caused him to never leave his open convertible in which he arrived ( Wagner died near the end of that year ) . The 1 @,@ 800 pound statue was moved to Three Rivers Stadium in 1970 . Today , the statue stands at the home plate entrance of PNC Park .
The portion of the left field wall over which Bill Mazeroski hit his walk @-@ off home run to end the 1960 World Series , between the scoreboard and the " 406 FT " sign , no longer stands at its original location . A portion of that wall , including the distance marker , had been sliced off and moved to the Allegheny Club at Three Rivers Stadium . Before the Three Rivers demolition , the section of the wall was salvaged , and in 2009 it was restored and placed on the Riverwalk outside of PNC Park .
Meanwhile , the original location of that wall is outlined by bricks extending from the left @-@ center field wall across Roberto Clemente Drive and into the sidewalk . A plaque embedded in the sidewalk marks the spot where Mazeroski 's home run cleared the wall . The left @-@ center and center field brick wall with " 457 FT " and " 436 FT " painted on it still stands at its original location , along with the stadium 's flagpole , adjacent to the University of Pittsburgh 's Mervis and Posvar Halls . Despite not technically being the correct section of wall where Mazeroski 's famous home run cleared , it is often locally referred to as " Mazeroski 's Wall . " This portion of the wall remained after Forbes Field was torn down , and was refurbished in 2006 in time for the All @-@ Star Game hosted in Pittsburgh . In addition , a wooden replica of an entrance to the stadium , including a ticket window and players entrance , was constructed and placed near the remaining wall in 2006 . The home plate used in the stadium 's final game remains preserved in the University of Pittsburgh 's Posvar Hall . However , its location has been altered ; author John McCollister wrote , " Had architects placed home plate in its precise spot about half of the Pirates fans could not view it . The reason : it would have to be on display in the fifth stall of the ladies ' restroom . " However , the original location of the home plate has been more recently determined by others to be approximately 81 feet away from its current display , just inside the GSPIA / Economics Library , and not in a restroom as has been popularly believed .
A ceremony is held each October 13 at the outfield wall in Oakland to listen to a taped broadcast of the final game of the 1960 World Series . The tradition was started by Squirrel Hill resident Saul Finkelstein , who at 1 : 05 pm on October 13 , 1985 , sat alone at the base of the flagpole and listened to the NBC radio broadcast of Chuck Thompson and Jack Quinlan . Finkelstein continued the tradition for eight more years , until word spread and other people began attending in 1993 . On October 13 , 2000 — the game 's 40th anniversary — over 600 people attended to listen to the broadcast , including Mazeroski himself . For the 50th anniversary , on October 13 , 2010 , a plaque honoring Mazeroski was dedicated and more than 1 @,@ 000 attended the broadcast , including Mazeroski and several other former Pirates .
= = Events = =
= = = Baseball = = =
In 1909 , Forbes Field 's opening season , the Pirates beat the Detroit Tigers in the World Series . It would be the only meeting of eventual Hall of Famers Honus Wagner and Ty Cobb .
On October 2 , 1920 , Forbes Field hosted the last triple @-@ header in MLB history .
On August 5 , 1921 , Forbes Field was the site of the first live radio broadcast of a Major League Baseball game in the United States . Harold W. Arlin announced the play @-@ by @-@ play action between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Philadelphia Phillies over KDKA from a box seat next to the first @-@ base dugout . Regular broadcasts began in 1936 by A. K. ′ ′ Rosey ′ ′ Rowswell , a local humorist and friend of owner Bill Benswanger . Rowswell is quoted as describing his broadcasting with , " It 's not just play @-@ by @
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-@ play that matters . It 's what you say in between the pitches that counts . " His style influenced junior partner Bob Prince , who began broadcasting in 1948 . Rowswell broadcast games at Forbes Field until his death in 1955 .
In 1925 , the Pirates became the first team to come back from a three @-@ game to one deficit to defeat the Washington Senators and win the World Series . Pittsburgh 's third and final World Series championship while they played at Forbes Field came in 1960 . Bill Mazeroski hit the first home run to end a World Series and as of 2015 , the only walk @-@ off home run in World Series Game 7 history .
Two unassisted triple plays were turned at Forbes Field . The first took place on May 7 , 1925 , when Pittsburgh 's Glenn Wright achieved the feat . Two seasons later , in 1927 , Jimmy Cooney — who had been a victim of the first triple play — also acquired three outs by himself .
On May 25 , 1935 , at Forbes Field , Babe Ruth hit the last three home runs of his career as his Boston Braves lost to the Pirates , 11 @-@ 7 . His last home run cleared the right field stands roofline , making him the first player to ever do so .
On October 8 , 1946 , 6 months before his major league debut Jackie Robinson played with his African American all @-@ stars against Honus Wagner 's all @-@ stars .
Most of the game @-@ action scenes from the 1951 film Angels in the Outfield were filmed at the stadium .
On May 28 , 1956 , Dale Long of the Pirates took what one author has stated was the first @-@ ever curtain call in baseball history , after hitting home runs in eight consecutive games caused fans to cheer for five minutes .
The Homestead Grays of the Negro leagues played all home games at Forbes Field from 1922 to 1939 . Grays owner Cumberland Posey became friends with Dreyfuss , who rarely missed a Grays game . In 1930 , Josh Gibson made his premiere for the Grays at Forbes Field . Also in 1930 , the Grays and the Kansas City Monarchs played the first baseball game at night in Pittsburgh on July 18 , 1930 . A crowd of over 15 @,@ 000 was expected . Floodlights were installed the day before the game after they were transported from Cleveland , where the Grays and Monarchs had played on July 16 . Six members of the Grays ' 1936 team have been inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame . Beginning in 1937 , the Grays won nine consecutive Negro National League championships .
The University of Pittsburgh 's baseball team would also often use Forbes Field for home games .
= = = Football = = =
The University of Pittsburgh 's football team moved from Exposition Park into Forbes Field upon its opening in 1909 and played there until 1924 when it moved into the larger Pitt Stadium only a few blocks away . In their first game at Forbes Field on October 16 , 1909 , the Panthers defeated Bucknell University 18 – 6 . In 1910 , Pitt 's second year at Forbes Field , the Panthers went undefeated without allowing a single point . The Panthers had several successful seasons while playing at Forbes Field , including five in which they went undefeated and were awarded national championship titles in 1910 , 1915 , 1916 , 1917 , and 1918 . During their years at Forbes Field , Pitt 's teams were led by Hall of Fame coaches Joe Thompson , Glenn " Pop " Warner and Jock Sutherland . Forbes Field was the site of yet another broadcasting first when on October 8 , 1921 , Harold W. Arlin announced live play @-@ by @-@ play action of the Pitt @-@ West Virginia football game on radio station KDKA , the first live radio broadcast of a college football game in the United States .
Pittsburgh native , Art Rooney founded his NFL team under the name the Pittsburgh Pirates , on July 8 , 1933 , for $ 2 @,@ 500 ( $ 45 @,@ 701 in present @-@ day terms ) . The franchise 's first game , against the New York Giants , was held on September 20 , 1933 , at Forbes Field . The Giants won the game 23 – 2 in front of 25 @,@ 000 people . Rooney wrote of the game , " The Giants won . Our team looks terrible . The fans didn 't get their money 's worth . " The Pirates would rebound to gain their first ever franchise victory a week later at Forbes Field , against the Chicago Cardinals . The NFL 's Pirates were renamed the Steelers in 1940 , and otherwise struggled during much of their three @-@ decades of tenancy at Forbes . The club achieved its first winning record in 1942 ; its tenth season of existence . On November 30 , 1952 , the Steelers met the New York Giants at Forbes Field for a snowy afternoon game . Pittsburgh entered the game with a 3 – 6 record , but went on to set multiple team records , including scoring nine touchdowns , to win the game 63 – 7 . Excited by their team 's play , the 15 @,@ 140 spectators ran onto the field and began to tear the field goal posts out of the ground . The University of Pittsburgh 's acquisition of Forbes Field in 1958 gave the Steelers some options , and they began transferring some of their home games to the much larger Pitt Stadium that year . The Steelers played their final game at Forbes Field on December 1 , 1963 . The franchise would move to Pitt Stadium exclusively the following season .
= = = Boxing and other events = = =
Boxing bouts were held at Forbes Field from the 1910s to the 1950s , attracting crowds of over 15 @,@ 000 people . On June 23 , 1919 , Harry " The Pittsburgh Windmill " Greb — the only boxer to beat Gene Tunney — defeated Mike Gibbons in a ten round bout at Forbes Field . On July 18 , 1951 , the heavyweight boxing championship was held at the stadium . In seven rounds , Ezzard Charles was knocked out by Jersey Joe Walcott . Another bout on September 25 , 1939 , was attended by 17 @,@ 000 people including Art Rooney and Pie Traynor . Pittsburgh native Billy Conn defended his light heavyweight title against Melio Bettina , whom he had beaten months earlier . Conn won the bout by decision in 15 rounds . Two years later , on June 18 , 1941 , Conn fought Joe Louis at New York City 's Polo Grounds , in an attempt to become the world heavyweight champion . The Pirates and the New York Giants , who were playing at Forbes Field , were called into their dugouts while the 24 @,@ 738 fans in attendance listened to the radio broadcast of the hour @-@ long bout . Conn led the bout into the final round , but fought for the knockout and was knocked out himself .
On Sunday , October 17 , 1909 at 3 : 00 p.m. a Communion Service was held at Forbes Field as the culmination of the International Centennial Celebration and Conventions of the Disciples of Christ marking the 100th anniversary of the signing of the " Declaration and Address " by Thomas Campbell in September 1809 . Campbell was a founding father of the American Restoration Movement ( Disciples of Christ , Christian Church , Churches of Christ ) . Delegates and members of churches from all over the world were present .
The Mine Safety and Health Administration hosted a mine rescue and safety demonstration at Forbes on October 30 , 1911 . The event included first @-@ aid and rescue demonstrations . Around 15 @,@ 000 attended the event , including President William H. Taft . Forbes Field also hosted circuses and concerts .
= = Seating capacity = =
The seating capacity for baseball :
23 @,@ 000 ( 1909 – 1914 )
25 @,@ 000 ( 1915 – 1924 )
41 @,@ 000 ( 1925 – 1937 )
40 @,@ 000 ( 1938 )
33 @,@ 537 ( 1939 – 1941 )
33 @,@ 467 ( 1942 – 1946 )
33 @,@ 730 ( 1947 – 1952 )
34 @,@ 249 ( 1953 – 1959 )
35 @,@ 000 ( 1960 – 1970 )
= = Gallery : 1910s Panorama = =
Forbes Field in the early 1910s from the Library of Congress , intended to form a panorama .
= Mark Stimson =
Mark Nicholas Stimson ( born 27 December 1967 ) is an English former footballer and is currently manager of Thurrock . He signed his first professional contract with Tottenham Hotspur in 1985 , but was unable to gain a regular place in the team . In 1989 , he moved on to Newcastle United , where he made over 80 appearances in the Football League . He later played for Portsmouth , Southend United and Leyton Orient before dropping into non @-@ League football .
He was appointed manager of Grays Athletic in 2002 and remained in charge until 2006 when he took over as manager of Stevenage Borough . He led Grays to victory in the Final of the FA Trophy in 2005 and 2006 , and repeated the feat with Stevenage in 2007 . In November 2007 , he became manager of a Football League team for the first time when he took over at one of his former clubs , Gillingham , but he was unable to prevent the club 's relegation from League One at the end of the 2007 – 08 season . He led Gillingham back into League One the following season via the League Two play @-@ off Final , but his contract was terminated after the team were relegated back to League Two the following season . On 1 June 2010 , Stimson was appointed as the new manager of League Two club Barnet , but he was sacked on New Year 's Day 2011 with the club near the bottom of the table . He later had a spell as manager with Conference club Kettering Town .
= = Playing career = =
Born in Plaistow in east London , Stimson played for the Essex county representative football team and was on the books of Queens Park Rangers , before joining Tottenham Hotspur on an apprenticeship in July 1984 . A year later , he signed his first professional contract , at the age of 17 . He made his Football League debut against Everton in May 1987 , but struggled to gain a place in the first team , and was sent to Leyton Orient on loan in March 1988 , where he played ten times . During the following season , he was loaned out again , this time to Gillingham , whose manager , Keith Burkinshaw , had worked with him at Tottenham . Stimson made 18 appearances for the Kent @-@ based club and , although he was unable to help the team avoid relegation from the Third Division , his contribution impressed the fans , who voted him into second place in the club 's player of the year ballot .
At the end of the 1988 – 89 season , Stimson was transferred to Newcastle United , then in the Second Division , for a fee of £ 200 @,@ 000 . He spent four years with the club and finally gained a regular first team place , making over 80 appearances . After Kevin Keegan took over as manager , however , Stimson found himself out of favour and he had a short spell on loan to Portsmouth in December 1992 , which led to a £ 100 @,@ 000 transfer at the end of that season . He made over fifty appearances for Portsmouth but was also loaned out again , this time to Barnet during the early part of the 1995 – 96 season . In March 1996 , he was transferred to Southend United for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 . His first season at the club was affected by a long lay @-@ off due to injury , meaning that he did not play between August and November , but he ultimately made over 50 Football League appearances for the club . During his time at Roots Hall the club suffered two consecutive relegations , dropping from the First Division into the Second Division in 1997 and from there into the Third Division in 1998 . In March 1999 , having not played for Southend since the previous November , he returned to former club Leyton Orient on a free transfer . He played for the club in the semi @-@ finals of the play @-@ offs , but was restricted to an appearance as an unused substitute in the final , which Orient lost .
Prior to the 1999 – 2000 season , Stimson spent a short period on trial at another of his former clubs , Gillingham , but manager Peter Taylor decided against offering him a contract and he instead joined Isthmian League club Canvey Island . He helped the " Gulls " win the FA Trophy in the 2000 – 01 season , setting up the only goal and winning the man of the match award in Canvey 's 1 – 0 defeat of Forest Green Rovers in the final . He was also selected to play for the England National Game XI , the national team for semi @-@ professional players , earning one cap against an equivalent team from the United States . He left Canvey in May 2002 to join Grays Athletic as player @-@ coach .
= = Managerial career = =
In September 2002 , Stimson took over as manager of Grays after the sacking of Craig Edwards , initially as caretaker manager , but after leading the team to its first victory of the season , he was quickly given the job on an ongoing basis . Despite the signing of a number of former top @-@ level players , such as Carl Leaburn and Jason Dozzell , the team escaped relegation by only one point . The following season , however , boosted by a switch to full @-@ time professional status and helped by the goals of Freddy Eastwood , Grays finished in 6th place , sufficient to gain a place in the newly formed Conference South for the 2004 – 05 season . Grays won the Conference South at the first attempt by a margin of 23 points , thus achieving promotion to the Conference National , the top level of non @-@ league football , for the first time in their history . In the same season , Stimson also led Grays to the FA Trophy Final , where the team beat Hucknall Town in a penalty shoot @-@ out . Grays reached the FA Trophy Final again in the following season , and claimed a second successive win after a 2 – 0 victory over Woking at Upton Park . In the Conference , Grays finished in third place and qualified for the play @-@ offs for promotion to the Football League , but lost to Halifax Town in the semi @-@ finals .
Citing his disappointment at failing to gain promotion , Stimson resigned from his post at Grays on 16 May 2006 . He stated that at the time he had received no firm job offers from other clubs , and acknowledged that he was taking a gamble with his career , but said that if he was unable to find a new job as a manager he would move into youth coaching or open his own football school . He was linked with the managerial vacancy at League Two Peterborough United , but eventually took over as manager of Stevenage Borough on 28 May , and led the club to an eighth @-@ place finish in the Conference National in his first season in charge . Stevenage also defeated Stimson 's former club Grays to reach the FA Trophy final , and beat Kidderminster Harriers 3 – 2 at the new Wembley Stadium in the final , giving Stimson a third consecutive Trophy win as a manager .
In the early part of the 2007 – 08 season , speculation began to mount that Stimson would be approached to take over as manager of a Football League club , with Gillingham , Port Vale and Millwall all alleged to be interested in his services . He was offered a new contract by Stevenage on 16 October 2007 , but resigned the following day . On 1 November , he was appointed as the new manager of Gillingham , and quickly moved to sign a number of Stevenage players , including Adam Miller and John Nutter . He was unable to recreate his previous success , however , and at the end of the 2007 – 08 season Gillingham were relegated from League One . He was also criticised by departing player Aaron Brown , who acknowledged that Stimson had strong coaching skills but described his man @-@ management as " shocking " . The following season the Gills finished fifth in League Two and beat Shrewsbury Town 1 – 0 in the play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium to gain promotion , but in the 2009 – 10 season Gillingham were relegated back to League Two , after which Stimson 's contract was terminated " by mutual consent " on 10 May 2010 .
On 1 June , Stimson was appointed as the new manager of League Two club Barnet , but was sacked seven months later on 1 January 2011 due to a bad string of results which left the club near the bottom of the table . Towards the latter stages of the 2010 – 11 season , Stimson accepted a coaching role at Dagenham & Redbridge . After a brief spell at Dagenham , he was appointed manager of Conference National club Kettering Town on 7 September 2011 . On 4 January 2012 , Stimson left Kettering with the team placed in the Conference relegation places . Four months later he was appointed manager of Thurrock following the club 's relegation to the Isthmian League .
= = = Managerial statistics = = =
As of 4 January 2012 .
= = Honours = =
= = = As a player = = =
2000 – 01 : FA Trophy winner – Canvey Island
= = = As a manager = = =
2004 – 05 : Conference South champions – Grays Athletic
2004 – 05 : FA Trophy winners – Grays Athletic
2005 – 06 : FA Trophy winners – Grays Athletic
2006 – 07 : FA Trophy winners – Stevenage Borough
2008 – 09 : League Two play @-@ off winners – Gillingham
= = Personal life = =
Stimson is married , and when he returned to former club Grays Athletic as manager of Stevenage Borough in 2007 , he and his wife were praised for visiting the clubhouse after the game to chat to home supporters . He has three children , including a son , Charlie , who in 2008 joined Gillingham 's youth team , but turned down the offer of a professional contract in 2010 after his father 's dismissal from the manager 's job . In 2000 , Stimson presented his Essex Senior Cup winner 's medal to a disabled Canvey Island fan , saying " it 's easy to forget the fans who come along and support us , often in pouring rain . "
= Steve Fossett =
James Stephen " Steve " Fossett ( April 22 , 1944 – c . September 3 , 2007 ) was an American businessman and a record @-@ setting aviator , sailor , and adventurer . He was the first person to fly solo nonstop around the world in a balloon . He made his fortune in the financial services industry and was best known for many world records , including five nonstop circumnavigations of the Earth : as a long @-@ distance solo balloonist , as a sailor , and as a solo flight fixed @-@ wing aircraft pilot .
A fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and the Explorers Club , Fossett set more than a hundred records in five different sports , sixty of which still stood at the time of his death .
Fossett disappeared on September 3 , 2007 , while flying a light aircraft over the Great Basin Desert , between Nevada and California . Extensive searches proved unsuccessful , and he was declared legally dead in February of the following year .
In September 2008 , a hiker found Fossett 's identification cards in the Sierra Nevada Mountains , California , leading shortly after to the discovery of the plane 's wreckage . Fossett 's only remains , two large bones presumably scattered by wild animals , were found half a mile from the crash site .
= = Early years = =
Fossett was born in Jackson , Tennessee and grew up in Garden Grove , California , where he graduated from Garden Grove High School .
Fossett 's interest in adventure began early . As a Boy Scout , he grew up climbing the mountains of California , beginning with the San Jacinto Mountains . " When I was 12 years old I climbed my first mountain , and I just kept going , taking on more diverse and grander projects . " Fossett said that he did not have a natural gift for athletics or team sports , so he focused on activities that required persistence and endurance . His father , an Eagle Scout , encouraged Fossett to pursue these types of adventures and encouraged him to become involved with the Boy Scouts early . He became an active member of Troop 170 in Orange , California . At age 13 , Fossett earned the Boy Scouts ' highest rank of Eagle Scout . He was a Vigil Honor member of the Order of the Arrow , the Boy Scouts ' honor society , where he served as lodge chief . He also worked as a Ranger at Philmont Scout Ranch in New Mexico during the summer of 1961 . Fossett said in 2006 that Scouting was the most important activity of his youth .
In college at Stanford University , Fossett was already known as an adventurer ; his Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity brothers convinced him to swim to Alcatraz and raise a banner that read " Beat Cal " on the wall of the prison , closed two years previously . He made the swim , but was thwarted by a security guard when he arrived . While at Stanford , Fossett was a student body officer and served as the president of a few clubs . In 1966 , Fossett graduated from Stanford with a degree in economics . Fossett spent the following summer in Europe climbing mountains and swimming the Dardanelles .
= = Business career = =
In 1968 , Fossett received an MBA from the Olin School of Business at Washington University in St. Louis , Missouri , where he was later a longtime member of the Board of Trustees . Fossett 's first job out of business school was with IBM ; he then served as a consultant for Deloitte and Touche , and later accepted a job with Marshall Field 's . Fossett later said , " For the first five years of my business career , I was distracted by being in computer systems , and then I became interested in financial markets . That 's where I thrived . "
Fossett then became a successful commodities salesman in Chicago , first for Merrill Lynch in 1973 , where he proved a highly successful producer of commission revenue for himself and that firm . He began working in 1976 for Drexel Burnham , which assigned him one of its memberships on the Chicago Board of Trade and permitted him to market the services of the firm from a phone on the floor of that exchange . In 1980 , Fossett began the process that eventually produced his enduring prosperity : renting exchange memberships to would @-@ be floor traders , first on the Chicago Board Options Exchange .
After fifteen years of working for other companies , Fossett founded his own firms , Marathon Securities and Lakota Trading , from which he made millions renting exchange memberships . He founded Lakota Trading for that purpose in 1980 . In the early 1980s , he founded Marathon Securities and extended that successful formula to memberships on the New York stock exchanges . He earned millions renting floor trading privileges ( exchange memberships ) to hopeful new floor traders , who would also pay clearing fees to Fossett 's clearing firms in proportion to the trading activity of those renting the memberships . In 1997 , the trading volume of its rented memberships was larger than any other clearing firm on the Chicago exchange . Lakota Trading replicated that same business plan on many exchanges in the United States and also in London . Fossett would later use those revenues to finance his adventures . Fossett said , " As a floor trader , I was very aggressive and worked hard . Those same traits help me in adventure sports . "
Fossett said he did not participate in any of the " interesting things " he had done in college during his time in exchange @-@ related activities : " There was a period of time where I wasn 't doing anything except working for a living . I became very frustrated with that and finally made up my mind to start getting back into things . " He began to take six weeks a year off to spend time on sports and moved to Beaver Creek , Colorado in 1990 . Fossett later sold most of his business interests , although he maintained an office in Chicago until 2006 .
= = Personal life = =
In 1968 Fossett married Peggy Fossett ( née Viehland ) , who was originally from Richmond Heights , Missouri . They had no children . The Fossetts had homes in Beaver Creek , Colorado and Chicago , and a vacation home in Carmel , California .
Fossett became well known in the United Kingdom for his friendship with billionaire Richard Branson , whose Virgin Group sponsored some of Fossett 's adventures .
= = Records = =
= = = Overview = = =
Steve Fossett was well known for his world records and adventures in balloons , sailboats , gliders , and powered aircraft . He was an aviator of exceptional breadth of experience . He wanted to become the first person to achieve a solo balloon flight around the world ( finally succeeding on his sixth attempt , in 2002 , becoming the first person to complete an uninterrupted and unrefueled solo circumnavigation of the world in any kind of aircraft ) . He set , with co @-@ pilot Terry Delore , 10 of the 21 Glider Open records , including the first 2 @,@ 000 km Out @-@ and @-@ Return , the first 1 @,@ 500 km Triangle and the longest Straight Distance flights . His achievements as a jet pilot in a Cessna Citation X include records for U.S. Transcontinental , Australia Transcontinental , and Round @-@ the @-@ World westbound non @-@ supersonic flights . Prior to Fossett 's aviation records , no pilot had held world records in more than one class of aircraft ; Fossett held them in four classes .
In 2005 Fossett made the first solo , nonstop unrefueled circumnavigation of the world in an airplane , in 67 hours in the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer , a single @-@ engine jet aircraft .
In 2006 , he again circumnavigated the globe nonstop and unrefueled in 76 hours , 45 minutes in the GlobalFlyer , setting the record for the longest flight by any aircraft in history with a distance of 25 @,@ 766 statute miles ( 41 @,@ 467 km ) .
He set 91 aviation world records ratified by Fédération Aéronautique Internationale , of which 36 stand , plus 23 sailing world records ratified by the World Sailing Speed Record Council .
On August 29 , 2006 , he set the world altitude record for gliders over El Calafate , Argentina at 15 @,@ 460 metres ( 50 @,@ 720 ft ) .
Management and sponsorship of the majority of his projects was handled by UK based sports marketing agency Project 100 Communications Ltd for whom Fossett had first driven at Le Mans in 1992 .
= = = Balloon pilot = = =
On February 21 , 1995 , Fossett landed in Leader , Saskatchewan , Canada , after taking off from South Korea , becoming the first person to make a solo flight across the Pacific Ocean in a balloon .
In 2002 , he became the first person to fly around the world alone , nonstop in any kind of aircraft . He launched the 10 @-@ story high balloon Spirit of Freedom from Northam , Western Australia on June 19 , 2002 and returned to Australia on July 3 , 2002 , subsequently landing in Queensland . Duration and distance of this solo balloon flight was 13 days , 8 hours , 33 minutes ( 14 days 19 hours 50 minutes to landing ) , 20 @,@ 626 @.@ 48 statute miles ( 33 @,@ 195 @.@ 10 km ) . The balloon dragged him along the ground for 20 minutes at the end of the flight . The control center for the mission was in Brookings Hall at Washington University in St. Louis . Fossett 's top speed during the flight was 186 miles per hour ( 299 km / h ) over the Indian Ocean . Only the capsule survived the landing ; it was taken to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , DC , where it was displayed . The trip set a number of records for ballooning : Fastest ( 200 miles per hour ( 320 km / h ) , breaking his own previous record of 166 miles per hour ( 270 km / h ) ) , Fastest Around the World ( 13 @.@ 5 days ) , Longest Distance Flown Solo in a Balloon ( 20 @,@ 482 @.@ 26 miles ( 32 @,@ 963 @.@ 00 km ) ) , and 24 @-@ Hour Balloon Distance ( 3 @,@ 186 @.@ 80 miles ( 5 @,@ 128 @.@ 66 km ) on July 1 ) .
While Fossett had financed five previous tries himself , his successful record @-@ setting flight was sponsored by Bud Light . In the end , Fossett actually made money on all his balloon flights . He bought a contingency insurance policy for $ 500 @,@ 000 that would pay him $ 3 million if he succeeded in the flight . Along with sponsorship , that payout meant that in the end Fossett did not have to spend any of his money other than for initial expenses .
= = = Sailor = = =
Fossett was one of the world 's most accomplished sailors . Speed sailing was his specialty and from 1993 to 2004 he dominated the record sheets , setting 23 official world records and nine distance race records . He is recognized by the World Sailing Speed Record Council as " the world 's most accomplished speed sailor . "
On the maxi @-@ catamaran Cheyenne ( formerly named PlayStation ) , Fossett twice set the prestigious 24 Hour Record of Sailing . In October 2001 , Fossett and his crew set a transatlantic record of 4 days 17 hours , shattering the previous record by 43 hours 35 minutes — an increase in average speed of nearly seven knots .
In early 2004 , Fossett , as skipper , set the Around the world sailing record of 58 days , 9 hours in Cheyenne with a crew of 13 . In 2007 , Fossett held the world record for crossing the Pacific Ocean in his 125 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) sailboat , the PlayStation , which he accomplished on his fourth try .
At the time of his death , a submarine , DeepFlight Challenger , was under construction to let him be the first solo submariner to reach the Challenger Deep .
= = = Airship pilot = = =
Fossett set the Absolute World Speed Record for airships on October 27 , 2004 . The new record for fastest flight was accomplished with a Zeppelin NT , at a recorded average speed of 62 @.@ 2 knots ( 115 @.@ 2 km / h ; 71 @.@ 6 mph ) . The previous record was 50 @.@ 1 knots ( 92 @.@ 8 km / h ; 57 @.@ 7 mph ) set in 2001 in a Virgin airship . In 2006 , Fossett was one of only 17 pilots in the world licensed to fly the Zeppelin .
= = = Fixed @-@ wing aircraft pilot = = =
= = = = GlobalFlyer = = = =
Fossett made the first solo nonstop unrefueled fixed @-@ wing aircraft flight around the world between February 28 and March 3 , 2005 . He took off from Salina , Kansas , where he was assisted by faculty members and students from Kansas State University , and flew eastbound with the prevailing winds , returning to Salina after 67 hours , 1 minute , 10 seconds , without refueling or making intermediate landings . His average speed of 342 @.@ 2 mph ( 550 @.@ 7 km / h ) was also the absolute world record for " speed around the world , nonstop and non @-@ refueled . " His aircraft , the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer , had a carbon fiber reinforced plastic airframe with a single Williams FJ44 turbofan engine . It was designed and built by Burt Rutan and his company , Scaled Composites , for long @-@ distance solo flight . The fuel fraction , the weight of the fuel divided by the weight of the aircraft at take @-@ off , was 83 percent .
On February 11 , 2006 , Fossett set the absolute world record for " distance without landing " by flying from the Kennedy Space Center , Florida , around the world eastbound , then upon returning to Florida continuing across the Atlantic a second time to land in Bournemouth , England . The official distance was 25 @,@ 766 statute miles ( 41 @,@ 467 km ) and the duration was 76 hours 45 minutes .
The next month , Fossett made a third flight around the world in order to break the absolute record for " Distance over a closed circuit without landing " ( with takeoff and landing at the same airport ) . He took off from Salina , Kansas on March 14 , 2006 and returned on March 17 , 2006 after flying 25 @,@ 262 statute miles ( 40 @,@ 655 km ) .
There are only seven absolute world records for fixed @-@ wing aircraft recognized by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale and Fossett broke three of them in the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer . All three records were previously held by Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager from their flight in the Voyager in 1986 . Fossett contributed the GlobalFlyer to the Smithsonian Institution 's permanent collection . It is on display at the Udvar @-@ Hazy Center of the Smithsonian 's National Air and Space Museum . Fossett flew the plane to the Center and taxied the plane to the front door .
= = = = Transcontinental aircraft records = = = =
Fossett set two U.S. transcontinental fixed @-@ wing aircraft records in the same day . On February 5 , 2003 , Fossett and co @-@ pilot Doug Travis flew his Cessna Citation X jet from San Diego , California to Charleston , South Carolina in 2 hours , 56 minutes , 20 seconds , at an average speed of 726 @.@ 83 mph ( 1 @,@ 169 @.@ 72 km / h ) to smash the transcontinental record for non @-@ supersonic jets .
He returned to San Diego , then flew the same course as co @-@ pilot for fellow adventurer Joe Ritchie in Ritchie 's turboprop Piaggio Avanti . Their time was 3 hours , 51 minutes , 52 seconds , an average speed of 546 @.@ 44 mph ( 879 @.@ 41 km / h ) , which broke the previous turboprop transcontinental record held by Chuck Yeager and Renald Davenport .
Fossett also set the east @-@ to @-@ west transcontinental record for non @-@ supersonic fixed @-@ wing aircraft on September 17 , 2000 . He flew from Jacksonville , Florida to San Diego , California in 3 hours , 29 minutes , at an average speed of 591 @.@ 96 mph ( 952 @.@ 67 km / h ) .
= = = = First trans @-@ Atlantic flight re @-@ enactment = = = =
On July 2 , 2005 , Fossett and co @-@ pilot Mark Rebholz recreated the first nonstop crossing of the Atlantic which was made by the British team of John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown in June 1919 in a Vickers Vimy biplane . Their flight from St. John 's , Newfoundland , Canada to Clifden , County Galway , Ireland in the open cockpit Vickers Vimy replica took 18 hours 25 minutes with 13 hours flown in instrument flight conditions . Because there was no airport in Clifden , Fossett and Rebholz landed on the 8th fairway of the Connemara Golf Links .
= = = = Glider records = = = =
The team of Steve Fossett and Terry Delore ( NZ ) set ten official world records in gliders while flying in three major locations : New Zealand , Argentina , and Nevada , United States . An asterisk ( * ) indicates records subsequently broken by other pilots .
Distance ( Free ) World Record 2 @,@ 192 @.@ 9 km , December 4 , 2004 .
Triangle Distance ( Free ) World Record * 1 @,@ 509 @.@ 7 km , December 13 , 2003 .
Out and Return Distance ( Free ) World Record * 2 @,@ 002 @.@ 44 km , November 14 , 2003 .
1 @,@ 500 Kilometer Triangle World Record 119 @.@ 11 km / h ( 74 @.@ 01 mph ) , December 13 , 2003 .
1 @,@ 250 Kilometer Triangle U.S. National Record 143 @.@ 48 km / h ( 89 @.@ 15 mph ) . Exceeded world record by 0 @.@ 01 km / h , July 30 , 2003 .
750 Kilometer Triangle World Record * 171 @.@ 29
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acknowledge the new paradigm , which led to several significant defeats in the second half of the 20th century . He provides six themes which characterise modern conflicts and proceeds to analyse each in detail , before dedicating his final chapter to his reflections on his command in Bosnia . He concedes that he did not foresee the Srebenica massacre , but criticises UNPROFOR , believing that it was not in a position to act even had the massacre been foreseen and that it had no strategy for effectively intervening in the war . In his conclusion , Smith argues that military force is only part of the solution in modern conflicts , and that it must be combined with political initiatives which together will subdue but not necessarily end the conflict .
The Utility of Force was broadly praised by reviewers on both sides of the Atlantic . It was compared favourably with Carl von Clausewitz 's treatise On War and American reviewers felt that it contained important lessons for the United States military . Smith was criticised for over @-@ emphasising the paradigm shift , with several reviewers observing that conventional wars are still fought and that the threat of such wars still exists , and for drawing too clear a distinction between " war amongst the people " and conventional war , particularly with his opening sentence " war no longer exists " . Reviewers also felt that Smith under @-@ emphasised the extent to which " war amongst the people " has always existed . Nonetheless , reviewers praised Smith 's analysis of modern war and recommended that The Utility of Force ought to be read by politicians and military officers .
= = Background = =
General Sir Rupert Smith is a retired career military officer who served in the British Army for 40 years . At the height of his career , Smith held several significant commands in both conventional conflicts and " wars amongst the people " . As a major general , he commanded the 1st Armoured Division during the first Gulf War ( 1990 – 91 ) . He went on to serve as Assistant Chief of the Defence Staff for operations and security from 1992 to 1995 , during which time he came to the conclusion that military force could only achieve one of four things when used to intervene in a political conflict : " ameliorate , contain , deter or coerce , and destroy " .
Smith 's decision to write The Utility of Force was prompted by his experience in the Balkans . In late January 1995 , Smith was appointed to command the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) , sent to intervene in the Bosnian War . Smith was based in the Bosnian capital , Sarajevo , where he devised a strategy for the multi @-@ national UN force that had been deployed effectively to carry out mainly humanitarian tasks but without a plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion . At the time of Smith 's deployment , Sarajevo was in the middle of a siege , which Smith was instrumental in lifting after arranging for NATO air strikes and an artillery barrage against Serb forces commanded by Ratko Mladic . A ground campaign by Bosnian and Croatian forces eventually led to the Dayton Agreement , which brought the war to an end . It was also during Smith 's command of UNPROFOR that the Srebrenica massacre — recognised by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia as an act of genocide — took place . Historian Niall Ferguson was adamant that Smith bore no responsibility for the events at Srebrenica and was indeed one of the few British officials " to emerge with distinction " from the intervention in Bosnia ; nonetheless , Ferguson believed that the experience illuminates Smith 's theoretical writings .
After UNPROFOR , Smith served as General Officer Commanding Northern Ireland from 1996 to 1998 towards the conclusion of the Troubles . In 1999 , during the Kosovo War , Smith was NATO 's Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe . NATO commenced air strikes against Serb forces led by Slobodan Milošević , again lacking defined objectives , while Smith worked to incorporate the bombing raids into an overall strategy .
= = Narrative = =
= = = Industrial war = = =
The book opens with the statement that " war no longer exists " ; that is , war as " battle in a field between men and machinery " or " a massive deciding event in a dispute in international affairs " is unlikely to happen again . The premise of the book is that the world is experiencing a new paradigm of war in the late 20th and early 21st centuries , which Smith dubs " war amongst the people " , in which nebulous , open @-@ ended conflicts have become the norm . Smith believes that Western , industrialised armies struggle to win in " wars amongst the people " because their opponents are not uniformed armies . He uses the term " rhizomatic " to describe terrorist and guerrilla movements ; he states his belief that such fighters can adapt much more easily than state institutions , and that they exhibit a greater understanding of the utility of force . Rather than being part of a recognisable army , the fighters are part of the civilian population , and their objectives are more political than military — they seek to " win hearts and minds " rather than take or hold territory . As a consequence , wars are no longer confined to a battlefield , but the theatre of operations is fluid , and commanders now operate inside the theatre .
To prove his theory , Smith provides a detailed history of modern warfare , using examples from history to illustrate his contentions . Throughout the book , Smith analyses the use of force in each of the examples , and how it was used to achieve particular aims . The discussion of history begins with Napoleon , who invented the paradigm of industrial warfare . Prior to Napoleon , wars were mostly fought for territory rather than ideology , and did not substantially alter the balance of power between nations . Napoleon 's concept of war involved using the entire resources of the nation with the aim of comprehensively defeating his opponent and replacing the political order ; in order to meet the new challenge , the Prussian Army undertook sweeping reforms . Napoleon 's strategy and the Prussian response influenced Prussian general Carl von Clausewitz in writing his treatise On War ( published posthumously in 1832 ) . Throughout the narrative , Smith analyses how armies applied force in order to achieve their objectives . He also discusses the emergence of guerrilla forces during the Peninsular War , which Smith believes was the first " war amongst the people " — irregular forces with no clear leadership structure conducting hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks on Napoleon 's forces , fighting to preserve the ideology of Spanish independence rather than for a battlefield victory . The concept of industrial war culminated in the early 20th century with the two world wars .
= = = War amongst the people = = =
In the second half of the book , Smith states that the advent of the atomic bomb rendered industrial warfare obsolete , but that governments clung to the concept throughout the Cold War era — the Cold War itself being the last act of the old @-@ style industrial war . The belief in industrial war tactics and institutions continued into the post @-@ Cold War era , and Smith believes that political and military leaders refused to acknowledge the new paradigm of " war amongst the people " , which resulted in significant defeats , such as for France in Algeria , the United States in Vietnam , and the Soviet Union in Afghanistan , and caused problems for NATO operations in the Balkans , and later for the Western coalitions in Iraq and Afghanistan . Smith also notes that , in the new paradigm , soldiers are frequently being asked to undertake new tasks — such as humanitarian operations — while still equipped and trained for old @-@ paradigm conflicts between massed armies .
In the final third of the book , Smith uses six themes to describe the new paradigm of war :
The ends for which we fight are changing from the hard objectives that decide a political outcome to those of establishing conditions in which the outcome may be decided
We fight amongst the people , not on the battlefield
Our conflicts tend to be timeless , even unending
We fight so as to preserve the force rather than risking all to gain the objective
On each occasion new uses are found for old weapons and organizations which are the products of industrial war
The sides are mostly non @-@ state , comprising some form of multinational grouping against some non @-@ state party or parties .
Smith then proceeds to discuss each of the six themes in detail . Smith discusses modern guerrilla and insurgency campaigns , including various civil wars and ethnic conflicts in the Balkans , the Middle East , and Africa . The conflicts he discusses in the second half are almost all " wars amongst the people " and appear intractable to conventional forces . Smith analyses situations in which countries have adapted their tactics in order to respond to " war amongst the people " , such as those used by Israeli forces in response to the Palestinian Intifada , in which the Israelis resorted to targeted searches when superior firepower proved ineffective . He points out that modern wars are rarely fought between individual nations , but the parties often consist of supranational coalitions or sub @-@ state entities , and that Western governments in particular fight in such a way as to keep casualties and material losses to a minimum . Smith is critical of the conduct of the American @-@ led coalition in the Iraq War during the insurgency which followed the initial invasion and occupation of Iraq in 2003 ; he opines that the soldiers undertaking the counter @-@ insurgency operations did not have the proper skills or equipment for the task . He believes that the commanders were working at a tactical rather than a strategic level , and that operations were not sufficiently guided by intelligence — relying too heavily on battlefield strength and assessments of the insurgents ' technical capabilities , rather than their political objectives .
Smith includes various anecdotes and personal reflections from his own career , and the final chapter of the book is dedicated to Smith 's reflections on his command of UNPROFOR in Bosnia . Ferguson describes Smith as " candid " in admitting that he did not foresee the events at Srebenica in the summer of 1995 , but Smith suggests that , even had the genocide been foreseen , UNPROFOR was not in any position to prevent it . He described the force as " reinforced camps of international troops attempting to defend the delivery of humanitarian aid , and often themselves " . Smith 's belief was that none of the governments that contributed soldiers to UNPROFOR had any intention of committing them to fight — that they had decided " to deploy forces with no intention to employ their force " , having been scared into inaction by inaccurate reporting and a lack of understanding of the war .
In his conclusion , Smith states his belief that modern politicians and military leaders use force where it has no utility and commit military forces without fully defined political and strategic objectives . He believes that politicians and generals remain in the mindset of industrial war , which leads them to prepare for a decisive confrontation that never happens , and he condemns them for failing to recognise the shift in the way wars are fought . Discussing humanitarian interventions , such as those in the Balkans , Smith does not argue against intervention , but believes that the intervention must be based on a full understanding of the conflict and a clear strategy with defined objectives . According to Smith , " no act of force will ever be decisive " because the aim of modern conflicts is to win the will of the people , which will not be achieved by battlefield victory alone . He argues that whereas , in the industrial war paradigm , war led to victory and thus to peace , in the modern paradigm confrontation leads to conflict , which then reverts to confrontation . He asserts that force is only part of the solution to modern conflicts ; they require complex political and military solutions , which will subdue but not necessarily permanently end the conflict .
= = Release and critical reception = =
The Utility of Force was published in November 2005 by Allen Lane , an imprint of Penguin Books .
William Grimes , writing in the New York Times , described The Utility of Force as " a closely argued , searching textbook on strategy and the efficient use of military power in the post @-@ Cold War era " . Grimes also described it as a " difficult , challenging book " , saying " you can almost hear the pointer hit the blackboard as he works his way rigorously through each argument and sub @-@ arguments A , B and C , before proceeding to the next step . At times the history lecture becomes a forced march over very familiar terrain , but patient readers will discover that there is indeed a final destination " . In a second review for the New York Times in 2007 , Niall Ferguson , a history professor at Harvard University , described The Utility of Force as an update of Clausewitz 's On War " for our times " . Ferguson went on to criticise Smith for drawing too clear a distinction between " war amongst the people " and " war between peoples " , pointing out that in several conflicts there was no single , homogeneous " people " and that wars amongst the people can easily transform into wars between people , citing Bosnia as an example . Ferguson was underwhelmed by Smith 's recommendations for the future — Smith believes that new equipment and strategies are required in order for armies to be effective in the new paradigm , but does not offer any suggestions . Ferguson 's final criticism was what he described as the book 's " limited historical perspective " ; Smith argues that " war amongst the people " emerged in the second half of the 20th century during the proxy wars and de @-@ colonisation campaigns of the Cold War era , but Ferguson gave examples of similar campaigns which pre @-@ dated the Cold War , including the First Boer War ( 1880 – 81 ) and campaigns fought in Eastern Europe during the Second World War . Nonetheless , Ferguson concludes that The Utility of Force is " an impressive and absorbing work " , and described Smith as " the Clausewitz of low @-@ intensity conflict and peacekeeping operations " .
Academic Eliot A. Cohen , professor of strategic studies at Johns Hopkins University wrote for The Washington Post that the British Army had " a higher quotient of sophisticated leaders who have thought hard about the profession of arms " than was found in other armed forces , including the US military , which he believed explained why it " produces generals who write [ ... ] serious , important books " such as the Utility of Force . Cohen wrote that Smith 's thesis , that the world has entered a new era of conflict , is of " central importance " for the United States military , which Cohen believed would have to undergo significant adaptation if Smith was correct . Cohen criticised the book for its limited historical perspective , noting that conventional wars are still fought ( for example the Kargil War in 1999 ) and that several confrontations in Asia threatened to spill over into conventional warfare . Nevertheless , Cohen concluded " Smith has clearly written one of the most important books on modern warfare in the last decade . We would be better off if the United States had a few more generals like him " .
The Guardian 's Martin Woollacott reviewed the book along with sociologist Martin Shaw 's The New Western Way of War : Risk @-@ Transfer War and its Crisis in Iraq , which he believes makes similar arguments to Smith 's , though the two reach slightly different conclusions — Smith that force should only be used as part of a wider political strategy , Shaw that war should be avoided where at all possible but that use of force is sometimes inevitable . Woollacott described Smith as " a soldier trying to wrest some continuing purpose for his profession " , and described both books as " very worthwhile efforts to map difficult ground " .
Sir Adam Roberts , professor of international relations at the University of Oxford , was more critical in reviewing The Utility of Force for The Independent . Roberts believed that Smith over @-@ stated the transformation into the new paradigm of war by playing down the extent to which there have always been wars amongst the people , over @-@ emphasised the role of technology in the shift from industrial warfare , and downplayed the continuation of industrial war . By way of example , Roberts points to the Iran – Iraq War and the role of precision bombing used by the United States in its campaigns since the end of the 20th century . In conclusion , Roberts states that " it is possible to quibble over many details " , but that " such quibbles miss the essential point of the book : that involvement in today 's crises , in the attempt to stop atrocities and bring wars to an end , requires a capacity for clear thought , a sensitivity to situation , and a talent for acting , that armed forces and their officers have not always possessed – and now badly need " .
Writing in the journal of the Royal United Services Institute ( RUSI ) , Christopher Coker , professor of international relations at London School of Economics , gave a detailed analysis of Smith 's opening sentence , " war no longer exists " . He concluded that war had metastasised , but that war was not over , and that Smith 's " eye @-@ catching quote detracts from the force of his own argument " . Nevertheless , Coker praises Smith for the latter 's criticism of those who failed to recognise the shift in the paradigm of war , and of the lack of strategy in the military campaigns of the late 20th and early 21st centuries . Coker concludes with the statement : " [ Smith 's ] experience , distilled in a book sometimes too controversial for its own good , should become standard reading in every military academy " .
In 2013 , General David Richards , then Chief of the Defence Staff , included The Utility of Force on a list of publications that he recommended to officers wishing to improve their leadership skills .
= Fighter Squadron RAAF =
Fighter Squadron was a flying unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in the early 1930s . It operated Bristol Bulldog single @-@ seat fighters . Along with Seaplane Squadron , Fighter Squadron was a component of No. 1 Flying Training School , based at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria . As well as participating in training exercises , Fighter Squadron was frequently employed for aerobatic displays and flag @-@ waving duties .
= = History = =
Although the first entry in Fighter Squadron records is dated 12 February 1934 , the official history of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) between the wars refers to the unit as having been established for the specific purpose of operating Australia 's eight Bristol Bulldog fighters , which began entering service in May 1930 . Fighter Squadron was one of two formations raised at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , under the auspices of No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , the other being Seaplane Squadron , which operated Supermarine Southamptons among other types . No. 1 FTS had been the first unit to be formed as part of the new Australian Air Force on 31 March 1921 ( the prefix " Royal " was added in August that year ) . The single @-@ seat Bulldogs were procured to give the RAAF a dedicated air defence capability following the retirement of the Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 fighter in 1928 . Although only a " token " combat force according to the official history , the Bulldogs represented the latest technology available and gave Fighter Squadron the aura of an elite formation .
On 15 May 1930 , barely two weeks after delivery , one of the Bulldogs crashed due to structural failure while performing an inverted loop ; the pilot parachuted to safety , the first time an RAAF member had done so in an emergency . In September 1931 , Fighter Squadron began flight testing the prototype Wackett Warrigal general @-@ purpose biplane ; testing was still under way when the aircraft 's undercarriage collapsed during landing , putting off its service trials until the following January .
As well as participating in training exercises , Fighter Squadron was often employed for aerobatic displays and flag @-@ waving duties . The young Air Force was keen to show off its skills and equipment to the public , leading to regular participation in aerial pageants and races as far afield as Western Australia and Tasmania ; this had the added benefit of providing exposure to a variety of conditions on long @-@ distance flights , as pilots were required to fly their aircraft to and from displays in remote areas . The commanding officer of Fighter Squadron , Squadron Leader Johnny Summers , considered that it gave personnel " most useful experience in the handling and maintenance of their aircraft under adverse conditions " . One of No. 1 FTS 's leading instructors during the early 1930s , Flight Lieutenant Frederick Scherger , was also a flight commander in Fighter Squadron . In October 1931 , during a flight to Adelaide to take part in an aero club pageant , Scherger had to land at Nhill , Victoria , in strong winds ; his Bulldog finished up on its nose but the damage was slight , allowing him to complete the journey and win his air race with a top speed of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) .
Fighter Squadron 's public displays often involved mock dogfights and simulated dive bombing , sometimes at night . On 12 February 1934 , Summers , Scherger and another pilot demonstrated night @-@ time combat tactics over the Exhibition Ground in Melbourne , the sky being lit with searchlights . In October and November that year , the Bulldogs took part in several aerial displays in Victoria to commemorate the visit of Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester . The following month , Fighter Squadron aircraft escorted the Duke on his visit to Brisbane aboard HMAS Australia . The Bulldogs were also occasionally detailed for meteorological and photographic survey work . Throughout their existence , Fighter and Seaplane Squadrons remained under the control of No. 1 FTS and were " really little more than flights " , in the words of the official history . Fighter Squadron was dissolved in December 1935 when its six surviving Bulldogs were re @-@ designated as fighter @-@ bombers and transferred from Point Cook to nearby RAAF Laverton , where they joined the Hawker Demons of No. 1 Squadron . During its service with Fighter Squadron , the Bulldog had been the only single @-@ seat fighter in the RAAF 's inventory , and no specialist fighter type took its place for the remainder of the decade .
= One Times Square =
One Times Square , also known as 1475 Broadway , the New York Times Building , the New York Times Tower , or simply as the Times Tower , is a 25 story , 363 @-@ foot ( 111 @-@ metre ) -high skyscraper , designed by Cyrus L. W. Eidlitz ( HLW International ) , located at 42nd Street and Broadway in New York City . The tower was originally built to serve as the headquarters of the local newspaper , The New York Times ( which also gave its name to the area as a whole , known as Times Square ) ; however , the Times stayed in the building for less than 10 years before moving to a new building on 229 West 43rd Street .
Despite the Times leaving the building , One Times Square remained a major focal point of Times Square due to its annual New Year 's Eve " ball drop " festivities ( the ball itself has remained atop the tower year @-@ round since 2009 ) , and the introduction of an electronic news ticker at street @-@ level in 1928 . Following its sale to Lehman Brothers in 1995 , One Times Square was re @-@ purposed as an advertising location to take advantage of its prime location within the square . Most of the building 's interior remains vacant ( aside from its only major tenant , a Walgreens pharmacy which occupies its lower levels ) , while its exterior features a large number of traditional and electronic billboards . Due to the large amount of revenue that its ads pull , One Times Square is considered one of the most valuable advertising locations in the world .
= = Building history = =
The building , on the site of the Pabst Hotel , was originally completed in 1904 to serve as the new headquarters of The New York Times , which officially moved into the building in January 1905 . The paper 's owner , Adolph Ochs , also successfully persuaded the city to rename the surrounding area ( then known as Longacre Square ) after the newspaper , becoming Times Square . To help promote the new headquarters , the Times held a New Year 's Eve event on December 31 , 1903 , welcoming the year of 1904 with a fireworks display set off from the roof of the building at midnight . The event was a success , attracting 200 @,@ 000 spectators , and was continued annually until 1907 . For 1908 , Ochs replaced the display with what he thought would be a more spectacular event — the lowering of a lit ball down the building 's flagpole at midnight , patterned off the use of time balls to indicate a certain time of day ( the " ball drop " is still held on One Times Square to this day , attracting an average of one million spectators yearly ) .
In 1913 , only eight years after it moved to One Times Square , the Times moved its corporate headquarters to 229 West 43rd Street , which served as its home from 1913 to 2007 . The Times has since moved to The New York Times Building on nearby Eighth Avenue . After leaving One Times Square , the Times still maintained ownership of the tower .
On November 6 , 1928 , an electronic news ticker known as the Motograph News Bulletin ( colloquially known as the " zipper " ) was introduced near the base of the building . The zipper originally consisted of 14 @,@ 800 light bulbs , with the display controlled by a chain conveyor system inside the building ; individual letter elements ( a form of movable type ) were loaded into frames to spell out news headlines . As the frames moved along the conveyor , the letters themselves triggered electrical contacts which lit the external bulbs ( the zipper has since been upgraded to use modern LED technology ) . The first headline displayed on the zipper announced Herbert Hoover 's victory in that day 's presidential election . The zipper was used to display other major news headlines of the era , and its content later expanded to include sports and weather updates as well . On the evening of August 14 , 1945 , the zipper was famously used to announce Japan 's surrender from World War II to a packed crowd in Times Square .
The Times sold the building to advertising executive and sign designer Douglas Leigh in 1961 . Leigh then sold the building to Allied Chemical in 1963 . Allied Chemical greatly modified the building 's facade in a $ 10 million renovation , replacing intricate granite and terracotta elements with marble facing . In 1974 , the building was sold to investor Alex Parker for $ 6 @.@ 25 million , and then to the Swiss @-@ based investment group Kemekod . Kemekod later sold the tower to an investment group led by Lawrence I. Linksman in 1982 . Linksman promised further renovations to the building , including the possibility of using its north face for signage displays . Following the sale of the building by the Times , the zipper was operated on an inconsistent basis by various news outlets , and was shut off entirely between 1961 and 1965 , and again from 1977 to 1986 . In 1986 , the ticker was revived by Newsday , which operated it until December 31 , 1994 . The newspaper declined to renew its lease on the ticker , believing that they " [ didn 't ] get very much out of that sign " financially . Publishing company Pearson PLC operated the zipper for a period beginning on December 31 , 1994 , until ceding its role to Dow Jones & Company in June 1995 .
From 1990 to 1996 , Sony operated a Jumbotron on the exterior of the tower . Alongside its use for advertising and news , it was also frequently used by the producers of the late @-@ night talk show Late Show with David Letterman , who could display a live feed from its studio on the screen as well . As a cost @-@ saving measure , Sony declined to renew its lease of the space , leading to the subsequent removal of the Jumbotron in June 1996 . Due to its frequent use by Late Show , its producer Rob Burnett jokingly considered the removal of the Jumbotron to be " a sad , sad day for New York . "
= = Billboards = =
In 1992 , the owners of One Times Square filed for bankruptcy protection . In March 1995 , One Times Square was sold to the financial services firm Lehman Brothers for $ 27 @.@ 5 million . The new owners felt that it would not be cost @-@ effective to house new tenants in the tower due to the cost of the extensive renovation required in order to make it suitable for tenants as compared to the relatively small rental revenue that its limited floor space would have brought in . Instead , they decided to market the tower as a location for advertising to capitalize on its prominent location within the Square . The entire exterior of One Times Square above the ticker was modified to add a grid frame for mounting billboard signs . Throughout 1996 , One Times Square 's first electronic billboards were installed , such as , a Cup Noodles billboard with steam effects was added to the front of the tower , later accompanied by an animated Budweiser sign . In October , a new 55 @-@ foot video screen sponsored by ITT Corporation was introduced to the top of the tower , which would feature video advertisements and community service announcements . In December 1996 , a new Panasonic display operated by NBC known as Astrovision was introduced as a replacement for Sony 's Jumbotron at the base of the tower .
Lehman Brothers sold One Times Square in 1997 to the Jamestown , L.P. for $ 117 million . Filings related to the sale revealed that the billboards on the tower had been generating a net revenue of $ 7 million yearly , representing a 300 % profit . With growing tourism and high traffic in the Times Square area ( with a yearly average of over 100 million pedestrians — alongside its prominence in media coverage of New Year 's festivities , seen by a wide audience yearly ) , annual revenue from the signs grew to over $ 23 million by the year 2012 — rivaling London 's Piccadilly Circus as the most valuable public advertising space in the world .
Despite becoming primarily used for advertising , One Times Square continued to house tenants in its ground @-@ level floors : in the late 1990s , a Warner Bros. retail store filled the first three floors . In early 2006 , the floors were occupied by a J. C. Penney pop @-@ up store known as The J C. Penney Experience . In November 2008 , pharmacy chain Walgreens opened a new flagship store in the space , renting it in a lease valued at $ 4 million yearly . Walgreens also introduced a new digital sign to the building as part of its grand opening : designed by Gilmore Group and constructed by D3 LED , the 17 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 600 m2 ) sign runs diagonally up both sides of the building and contains 12 million LEDs , surpassing the nearby NASDAQ sign as the largest LED sign in Times Square . The former electrical room in the tower 's basement currently serves as a " vault " for the storage of items relating to New Year 's Eve celebrations at Times Square , including the ball itself ( prior to 2009 ) , spare parts , numeral signage and other memorabilia .
= = = Advertisers = = =
From 1996 to 2006 , Nissin Foods operated a Cup Noodles billboard with smoke effects ( an effect that had also been famously used by other Times Square billboards , such as the Camel Cigarettes sign ) . The Cup Noodles billboard was replaced in 2006 by a General Motors billboard featuring a Chevrolet branded clock ; however , as a part of cutbacks resulting from GM 's bankruptcy and re @-@ organization , the Chevrolet Clock was removed in 2009 and eventually replaced by the current Dunkin ' Donuts display .
On August 19 , 1998 , Discover Card replaced ITT Corporation as the operator and sponsor of the top @-@ most screen on One Times Square as part of a ten @-@ year deal . The deal came alongside the announcement that Discover Card would be an official sponsor of Times Square 's New Year 's Eve 2000 festivities .
In 2006 , News Corporation ( now 21st Century Fox ) replaced NBC as the operator and sponsor of the Astrovision screen . In 2010 , Sony returned to One Times Square by replacing the News Corp. Panasonic screen with a new high @-@ definition LED display .
In December 2007 , Toshiba took over sponsorship of the top @-@ most screen of One Times Square from Discover Card in a 10 @-@ year lease . Throughout 2008 , upgrades began to be made to the upper portion of One Times Square ; including the installation of new Toshiba high definition LED displays ( known as ToshibaVision ) , and the redesign of its roof to accommodate a larger New Year 's Eve ball , which became a year @-@ round fixture of the building beginning in 2009 .
As of 2012 , advertising displays on the front of One Times Square currently include an Anheuser @-@ Busch display , a Dunkin ' Donuts display featuring photos posted by users on Facebook and Twitter , a TDK display , and the ToshibaVision screens at the top of the tower . Toshiba 's Contract to display Toshiba Vision in Times Sqaure expires in 2018 .
= USS Henry R. Mallory ( ID @-@ 1280 ) =
USS Henry R. Mallory ( ID @-@ 1280 ) was a transport for the United States Navy during World War I. She was also sometimes referred to as USS H. R. Mallory or as USS Mallory . Before her Navy service she was USAT Henry R. Mallory as a United States Army transport ship . From her 1916 launch , and after her World War I military service , she was known as SS Henry R. Mallory for the Mallory Lines . Pressed into service as a troopship in World War II by the War Shipping Administration , she was torpedoed by the German submarine U @-@ 402 in the North Atlantic ocean and sank with the loss of 272 men — over half of those on board .
= = World War I = =
SS Henry R. Mallory was built by the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Co. of Newport News , Virginia ( yard no . 193 ) , and delivered to the Mallory Steamship Line on 21 October 1916 . Named for Mallory Lines president Henry R. Mallory , she operated on a New Orleans – New York route , carrying passengers and freight .
= = = U.S. Army service = = =
After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , the United States Army , needing transports to get its men and materiel to France , had a select committee of shipping executives pore over registries of American shipping . The committee selected Henry R. Mallory and thirteen other American @-@ flagged ships that were sufficiently fast , could carry enough fuel in their bunkers for transatlantic crossings , and , most importantly , were in port or not far at sea . After Henry R. Mallory discharged her last load of passengers and cargo , she was officially handed over to the Army on 24 May , one of the first three ships acquired .
Before any troop transportation could be undertaken , all of the ships were hastily refitted . Of the fourteen ships , ten , including Henry R. Mallory , were designated to carry human passengers ; the other four were designated as animal ships . The ten ships designated to carry troops had all of their second- and third @-@ class accommodations ripped out and replaced with berths for troops . Cooking and toilet facilities were greatly expanded to handle the large numbers of men aboard . Gun platforms were installed on each ship before docking at the Brooklyn Navy Yard to have the guns themselves installed . All the ships were manned by merchant officers and crews but carried two U.S. Navy officers , Navy gun crews , quartermasters , signalmen , and wireless operators . The senior Navy officer on board would take control if a ship came under attack .
The American convoy carrying the first units of the American Expeditionary Force was broken into four groups ; Henry R. Mallory was in the third group with San Jacinto and Finland , and escorts consisting of cruiser Charleston , armed collier Cyclops , and destroyers Allen , Preston , and McCall . Henry R. Mallory departed with her group on 14 June for Brest , France , steaming at a 13 @-@ knot ( 24 km / h ) pace . A thwarted submarine attack on the first convoy group , and reports of heavy submarine activity off of Brest resulted in a change in the convoy 's destination to Saint @-@ Nazaire .
After her return from France , Henry R. Mallory sailed again in the 5th convoy on 31 July , the 7th convoy on 8 September , and the 12th convoy on 26 November , all of which sailed from the New York embarkation point in Hoboken , New Jersey . In January 1918 , Henry R. Mallory became the first transport to sail from the Newport News embarkation port , when — loaded with eight aero squadrons — she sailed on 17 January . Departing again from Hoboken on 14 March in the 24th convoy , Henry R. Mallory began her last journey under Army charter . After arriving in France on 26 March and landing her troops , Henry R. Mallory began her return to the United States with Army transport Tenadores and Navy transport Mercury . At 11 : 45 on 4 April , a German submarine fired torpedoes at the group . Through evasive maneuvers , none of the ships were hit , and with timely gunfire targeting the sub , no more was seen of the threat . Arriving back in the United States on 13 April , Henry R. Mallory was handed over to the U.S. Navy .
= = = U.S. Navy transport duties = = =
After problems with crew discipline aboard Army transports Antilles and Finland when they were torpedoed , the U.S. Navy , led by the recommendations of Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves , insisted that all troop transports be manned entirely by Navy personnel . This was accomplished soon after so as to avoid the need for what Gleaves called " ignorant and unreliable men " who were " the sweepings of the docks " . Accordingly , Henry R. Mallory was handed over to the Navy on 13 April 1918 and commissioned on 17 April .
Other than the official change command of the vessel , little else change for Henry R. Mallory . She sailed in her first convoy under Navy command on 23 April , and continued carrying troops to France , making five additional trips before the Armistice in November 1918 . In all , Henry R. Mallory carried 9 @,@ 756 troops to France .
With the fighting at an end , the task of bringing home American soldiers began almost immediately . Henry R. Mallory did her part by carrying home 14 @,@ 514 healthy and wounded men in seven roundtrips . Henry R. Mallory returned from her last Navy voyage on 29 August 1919 , and was returned to the Mallory Lines the following day .
= = World War II = =
In the early stages of World War II for the United States , the War Shipping Administration requisitioned Henry R. Mallory for use as a civilian @-@ manned troopship in July 1942 . Remaining under the operation of her owners , Agwilines , Inc . , she began operation on U.S. Army schedules in July 1942 , when she sailed from New York to Belfast . After her return to New York in August , she made way to Boston from whence she sailed to Saint John , Wabana , Newfoundland ; Sydney , Nova Scotia ; and Halifax , before returning to New York in October .
After first sailing to Boston and Newport , Rhode Island , Henry R. Mallory departed New York as a part of Convoy SC @-@ 118 headed for Liverpool via Halifax on 24 January 1943 . The crew on board Henry R. Mallory consisted of 9 officers , 68 crewmen , and 34 Naval Armed Guards ( who manned the 11 guns on deck ) . Also on board were 383 passengers , consisting of 2 civilians , 136 from the U.S. Army , 72 from the U.S. Marine Corps , and 173 from the U.S. Navy . As the convoy , which consisted of 60 ships and 26 escorts , sailed near Iceland , a " wolfpack " of Kriegsmarine U @-@ Boats attacked the convoy repeatedly over a four @-@ day period . Some 20 U @-@ boats participated , ultimately sinking 12 Allied ships , including Henry R. Mallory ; three U @-@ boats were lost .
It was at 06 : 59 on 7 February 1943 when , traveling in station 33 of the convoy , Henry R. Mallory was hit by one torpedo launched from German submarine U @-@ 402 ( 2 ) around 600 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) south @-@ southwest of Iceland . Hit in the number three hold on the starboard side , the ship began settling by the stern and listing to port , and sank at about 07 : 30 . Of Henry R. Mallory 's ten lifeboats , only three were successfully launched , holding 175 men . Many other men jumped overboard for rafts in the water .
None of the other ships in the convoy were aware of the Mallory 's predicament . American destroyer Schenck — searching for survivors from the convoy 's sunken rescue ship , SS Toward , sunk three hours earlier , also by U @-@ 402 — saw lights but was denied permission to investigate . Only when survivors were found by U.S. Coast Guard cutter Bibb some four hours later was the fate of Henry R. Mallory made clear . Bibb rescued 205 men , 3 of whom later died . Another Coast Guard cutter , Ingham , rescued a further 22 , of whom 2 later died . Among the 272 dead was the ship 's master , 48 crewmen , 15 armed guards , and 208 passengers .
= Italian ironclad Francesco Morosini =
Francesco Morosini was an ironclad battleship built in the 1880s and 1890s for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . The ship , named for Francesco Morosini , the 17th @-@ century Doge of Venice , was the second of three ships in the Ruggiero di Lauria class , along with Ruggiero di Lauria and Andrea Doria . She was armed with a main battery of four 17 @-@ inch ( 432 mm ) guns , was protected with 17 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 451 mm ) thick belt armor , and was capable of a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) .
The ship 's construction period was very lengthy , beginning in August 1881 and completing in February 1888 . She was quickly rendered obsolescent by the new pre @-@ dreadnought battleships being laid down , and as a result , her career was limited . She spent her career alternating between the Active and Reserve Squadrons , where she took part in training exercises each year with the rest of the fleet . The ship was stricken from the naval register in August 1909 ; the following month , she was expended as a target ship for experiments with torpedoes .
= = Design = =
Francesco Morosini was 105 @.@ 9 meters ( 347 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 19 @.@ 84 m ( 65 @.@ 1 ft ) and an average draft of 8 @.@ 37 m ( 27 @.@ 5 ft ) . She displaced 9 @,@ 886 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 730 long tons ) normally and up to 11 @,@ 145 t ( 10 @,@ 969 long tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of compound steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eight coal @-@ fired , oval boilers . Her engines produced a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) at 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . She could steam for 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 507 – 509 officers and men .
Francesco Morosini was armed with a main battery of four 17 in ( 432 mm ) 27 @-@ caliber guns , mounted in two pairs en echelon in a central barbette . She carried a secondary battery of two 6 in ( 152 mm ) 32 @-@ cal. guns , one at the bow and the other at the stern , and four 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) 32 @-@ cal. guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried five 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . She was protected by steel armor ; her armored belt was 17 @.@ 75 in ( 451 mm ) thick , and her armored deck was 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick . Her conning tower was armored with 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) of steel plate , and the barbette had 14 @.@ 2 in ( 361 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Francesco Morosini was under construction for nearly eight years . She was laid down at the Venetian Arsenal on 4 December 1881 and launched on 30 July 1885 . She was not completed for another four years , her construction finally being finished on 21 August 1889 . Because of the rapid pace of naval technological development in the late 19th century , her lengthy construction period meant that she was an obsolete design by the time she entered service . The year she entered service , the British began building the Royal Sovereign class ; these ships marked a significant advance over previous types of capital ships and set the standard for future vessels , which became known as pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . In addition , technological progress , particularly in armor production techniques — first Harvey armor and then Krupp armor — rapidly rendered older vessels like Francesco Morosini obsolete .
Francesco Morosini took part in the annual fleet maneuvers of 1894 in 2nd Division of the Active Squadron , along with the protected cruiser Ettore Fieramosca , the torpedo cruiser Tripoli , and four torpedo boats . She remained in the 2nd Division the following year , which now included the protected cruiser Etruria and the torpedo cruisers Euridice and Calatafimi . The Squadron was based at La Spezia at the time . The following year , she cruised off Crete as the flagship of the 2nd Division , under Rear Admiral E. Gaulterio . During that year 's summer maneuvers , held in July , Francesco Morosini continued as Gaulterio 's flagship ; the 2nd Division also included her sister Andrea Doria and the protected cruiser Giovanni Bausan . The 1st and 2nd Divisions of the Active Squadron were tasked with defending against a hostile fleet , simulated by older ships in reserve .
In 1898 , Francesco Morosini was transferred to the Reserve Squadron , along with Ruggiero di Lauria and the ironclad Lepanto and five cruisers . The following year , Francesco Morosini and her two sisters returned to the Active Squadron , which was kept in service for eight months of the year , with the remainder spent with reduced crews . The Squadron also included the ironclads Re Umberto , Sicilia , and Lepanto . In 1900 , Francesco Morosini and her sisters were significantly modified and received a large number of small guns for defense against torpedo boats . These included a pair of 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns , ten 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 40 @-@ caliber guns , twelve 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , five 37 mm revolver cannon , and two machine guns .
In 1905 , Francesco Morosini and her two sisters were joined in the Reserve Squadron by the three Re Umberto @-@ class ironclads and Enrico Dandolo , three cruisers , and sixteen torpedo boats . This squadron only entered active service for two months of the year for training maneuvers , and the rest of the year was spent with reduced crews . In 1908 , the Italian Navy decided to discard Francesco Morosini and her sister Ruggiero di Lauria . She was formally stricken from the naval register in August 1909 , and was thereafter used as a target ship for a torpedo experiment . On 15 September , she was sunk at La Spezia ; the experiment was conducted to test the effect of a torpedo hit in order to develop more a more effective hull design . The explosion tore a 50 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 540 sq ft ) hole in the hull , causing her to list severely and sink on her side . Her wreck was later scrapped .
= Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit =
Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit is a steel roller coaster at Universal Studios Florida in Orlando , Florida . With a height of 167 feet ( 51 m ) , a length of 3 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , and a top speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) , it is the largest X @-@ Coaster ever built by German manufacturer Maurer Söhne . It was announced on March 19 , 2008 and officially opened on August 19 , 2009 though originally planned to open in the spring of that year . Some of the special features are that riders are recorded during the entire 1 minute and 37 second ride and can choose one of thirty songs to listen to during the experience .
= = History = =
During the second week of January 2008 , Universal Parks & Resorts filed a Notice of Commencement with Orange County , Florida indicating that they were to construct a ride system that they had code @-@ named " Project Rumble . " The notice also stated that the contractor was " Maurer Rides GmbH , " located in Munich , Germany .
After months of rumours , the new attraction was announced by Universal officials on March 19 , 2008 . Unlike usual announcements , officials did not reveal the specifications of the entire roller coaster . In the original press release , it stated that the roller coaster 's vertical lift hill would be 167 feet ( 51 m ) tall , and that the trains would reach a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . The press release also mentioned that each train would be equipped with a multi @-@ media package , LED lights , built in video recorders , and the option for riders to choose a song from a list to be played during the course of the ride . The ride would also include six near miss encounters . At the time , the new roller coaster was scheduled to open in Spring 2009 . Also , in the months after the announcement , Universal surveyed guests on what songs they think should be included in the roller coaster . Some of the artists that guests could choose from were : The Black Eyed Peas , Bee Gees , The Beach Boys , and Johnny Cash .
Construction began in May 2008 with preliminary land clearing . The first track pieces were installed during the week of December 7 , 2008 . In February 2009 , Universal launched a website for the attraction , which included a construction blog and photographs chronicling progress of the attraction 's construction . The track layout was completed at the end of April 2009 with the crowning of the lift hill .
In April 2009 , Universal confirmed that the roller coaster would not open as originally planned and said it would open in the summer . Though Universal has never mentioned what the exact problem with the roller coaster was , it is believed by newspapers that issues with the anti @-@ rollback devices on the lift hill that were not working correctly caused the delay .
After the issues with the ride were resolved , Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit began public previews in mid @-@ August 2009 . On August 19 , 2009 , Universal Studios Florida officially opened the attraction .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Queue = = =
Guest first enter into one of two queues ; either the main queue , or the single rider queue . In both queue lines , there are several large screen displays that explain how to pick a song to play during the ride and important safety instructions . In the video , characters called " Video DJ 's " are used as demonstrators to provide a visual explanation .
= = = Ride = = =
The station for the roller coaster is quite different than traditional stations . As the train enters , it slows down but does not stop . There is a moving sidewalk on both sides of the station moving at the same speed as the train so riders can load and unload . Riders have about 45 seconds to take their seat , lower the lap @-@ bar and make their song choice . After the restraints are checked , the train immediately begins to climb the 167 @-@ foot ( 51 m ) vertical chain lift and the song that the rider picked begins to play while the on @-@ ride video recorder begins recording . When the train reaches the top of the lift , it drops back to the ground reaching a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . Following the drop , the train goes through a non @-@ inverting loop ( meaning that the train doesn 't go through an inversion ) , which is nicknamed " The Double Take " . Then the train makes an upward right turn into one of the several mid @-@ course brakes . It then drops back down going through a hole in a wall before entering a left upward helix . This section of the coaster is nicknamed " The Treble Clef " . Next the train enters a quick element nicknamed , " The Jump Cut " which is similar to a non @-@ inverting corkscrew . The train then drops back down before climbing back up into the second mid @-@ course brakes . Following a small drop to the left , it travels straight before making a right turn , followed by a left , and then another right leading into the third set of mid @-@ course brakes . Another drop is followed by the brakes leading into an s @-@ bend / turn . The train then travels into an inclined loop , then the train enters the fourth set of brakes after going back up . Finally , the train drops back down , and goes over a small hill before entering the final brake run where the train enters the station and the riders song ends .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit is 3 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) long in length , and the height of the lift is approximately 167 feet ( 51 m ) . Because the lift hill is vertical , a special evacuation system is used in the event that a train stalls on the lift . Also , the track is filled with sand and gravel to reduce the noise when a train is on the track . Throughout the layout
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of the roller coaster , there are 5 sets of brakes to control the speed of the trains .
= = = Trains = = =
The roller coaster operates with seven stadium @-@ style seating X @-@ Car trains . Each train has two cars that can hold six riders each for a total of twelve riders per train . On the head rest of each seat there are two speakers that play music during the ride . The speakers have been designed so that only the rider 's selected music track will be audible . On the restraint is a small touch screen where riders can choose which song they want to listen to during the ride . Additionally , the trains are equipped with multi @-@ coloured lights that can be seen during the night .
= = Musical selections = =
The initial announcement just said that there would be 5 categories of songs . The full track list was not released until July 6 , 2009 , with Universal Studios Florida unveiling thirty songs ( 6 in each category ) that can be played during the ride .
After riders board the train and lower their restraint , attached to the restraint is a small screen containing the logo of the ride and five categories of songs the rider can pick from . The song that the rider picked begins as the train climbs the vertical lift hill . Depending on the song , it may not begin at the beginning and end early as the total cycle time of the roller coaster is 1 minute and 39 seconds .
= = = Hidden Song Selections = = =
In addition to these 30 songs , Universal Studios Florida also provided additional " hidden " songs that are available to riders , but are not included in the queue video .
To access these songs , after lowering the restraint , on the screen , riders must push and hold the logo of the ride for approximately ten seconds . When they release their finger , a number pad will then show up . Entering a three digit code will allow the rider to listen to the song that the code corresponds to .
= = = Awards = = =
= Doreen Valiente =
Doreen Edith Dominy Valiente ( 4 January 1922 – 1 September 1999 ) was an English Wiccan who was responsible for writing much of the early religious liturgy within the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca . An author and poet , she also published five books dealing with Wicca and related esoteric subjects .
Born to a middle @-@ class family in Surrey , Valiente began practicing magic while a teenager . Working as a translator at Bletchley Park during the Second World War , she also married twice in this period . Developing her interest in occultism after the war , she began practicing ceremonial magic with a friend while living in Bournemouth . Learning of Wicca , in 1953 she was initiated into the Gardnerian tradition by its founder , Gerald Gardner . Soon becoming the High Priestess of Gardner 's Bricket Wood coven , she helped him to produce or adapt many important scriptural texts for Wicca , such as The Witches Rune and the Charge of the Goddess , which were incorporated into the early Gardnerian Book of Shadows . In 1957 , a schism resulted in Valiente and her followers leaving Gardner to form their own short @-@ lived coven . After investigating the Wiccan tradition of Charles Cardell , in 1953 she was initiated into Raymond Howard 's Coven of Atho . In 1964 she then went to work with Robert Cochrane in his coven , the Clan of Tubal Cain , although she later broke from this group .
Eager to promote and defend her religion , she played a leading role in both the Witchcraft Research Association and then the Pagan Front during the 1960s and 1970s . That latter decade also saw her briefly involve herself in far right politics as well as becoming a keen ley hunter and proponent of Earth mysteries . As well as regularly writing articles on esoteric topics for various magazines , from the 1960s onward she authored a number of books on the subject of Wicca , as well as contributing to the publication of works by Wiccan friends Stewart Farrar , Janet Farrar , and Evan John Jones . In these works also she became an early advocate of the idea that anyone could practice Wicca without requiring initiation by a pre @-@ existing Wiccan , while also contributing to and encouraging research into the religion 's early history . Living in Brighton during these years , she worked with both her partner and initiate Ron Cook and was a member of the Silver Malkin coven . In her final years she served as patron of the Sussex @-@ based Centre for Pagan Studies prior to her death from pancreatic cancer .
Valiente 's magical artefacts and papers were bequeathed to her friend John Belham @-@ Payne , who entrusted them to a charitable trust , the Doreen Valiente Foundation , in 2011 . Having had a significant influence in the history of Wicca , she is widely revered in the Wiccan community as " the Mother of Modern Witchcraft " , and has been the subject of two biographies .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1922 – 52 = = =
Valiente was born Doreen Edith Dominy on 4 January 1922 at Colliers Wood in the Southern English town of Mitcham , Surrey . Her father , Harry Dominy , was a civil engineer , and he lived with her mother Edith in Colliers Wood . Harry came from a Methodist background and Edith from a Congregationalist one , however Doreen was never baptised , as was the custom of the time , due to an argument that Edith had had with the local vicar . Doreen later claimed that she had not had a close or affectionate relationship with her parents , whom she characterised as highly conventional and heavily focused on social climbing . During her childhood they moved to Horley in Surrey , and it was there – according to her later account – that she had an early spiritual experience while staring at the moon . From there , her family moved to the West Country and then to the New Forest . In either late 1934 or 1935 , Doreen 's mother left her father and took her to live with maternal relatives in Southampton . Valiente first began practicing magic aged 13 , performing a spell to prevent her mother being harassed by a co @-@ worker ; she came to believe that it had worked . Her early knowledge of magical practices may have derived from books that she found in the local library . Her parents were concerned by this behaviour and sent her to a convent school . She despised the school and left it at the age of 15 , refusing to return . She had wanted to go to art school , but instead gained employment in a factory , before moving on to work as a clerk and typist at the Unemployment Assistance Board .
During the Second World War , she became a Foreign Office Civilian Temporary Senior Assistant Officer , in this capacity working as a translator at Bletchley Park . In relation to this work , she was also sent to South Wales , and it was there , in the town of Barry , that she met Joanis Vlachopolous , a Greek seaman in the Merchant Navy . Entering a relationship , they were married in East Glamorgan on 31 January 1941 . However , in June 1941 he was serving aboard the Pandias when it was sunk by a U @-@ boat off of the West African coast ; he was declared missing in action and presumed deceased . Widowed , during 1942 and 1943 Valiente had a number of short @-@ term jobs in Wales , which were possibly a cover for intelligence work .
After October 1943 she was transferred to the intelligence service 's offices in Berkeley Street in the Mayfair area of London , where she was involved in message decryption . In London she met and entered into a relationship with Casimiro Valiente , a Spaniard who had fled from the Spanish Civil War , where he had fought on the side of the Spanish Republican Army before later joining the French Foreign Legion , where he was wounded at the Battle of Narvik and evacuated to England . They were married on 29 May 1944 at St Pancras Registry Office . The couple moved to Bournemouth – where Doreen 's mother was then living – and here Casimiro worked as a chef . Valiente would later say that both she and her husband suffered racism after the war because of their foreign associations .
Developing an interest in occultism , she began practicing ceremonial magic with a friend , " Zerki " , at his flat . She had obtained the magical regalia and notebooks of a recently deceased doctor , who had been a member of the Alpha et Omega , a splinter group of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , and attempted to learn Hebrew , a language with uses in various forms of ceremonial magic . It was at this point that she selected " Ameth " as her magical name . She was particularly interested by John Symonds ' book The Great Beast , which was a biography of the occultist Aleister Crowley , who had founded the religion of Thelema in 1904 , and following this she avidly read a copy of Crowley 's Magick in Theory and Practice which she found in a local library . Alongside these , she also had some practical experience with the esoteric religions of Spiritualism and Theosophy , having attended the services of a local Christian Spiritualist church in Charminster .
= = = Gerald Gardner and the Bricket Wood Coven : 1952 – 57 = = =
She had also become familiar with the idea of a pre @-@ Christian witch @-@ cult surviving into the modern period through the works of Charles Godfrey Leland , Margaret Murray , and Robert Graves , although believed that the religion was extinct . It was in autumn 1952 that she read an article by the reporter Allen Andrews in Illustrated magazine titled " Witchcraft in Britain " . Discussing the recent opening of the Folklore Centre of Superstition and Witchcraft in Castletown on the Isle of Man , it mentioned the museum 's director , Cecil Williamson , and its " resident witch " , Gerald Gardner .
Intrigued by the article , Valiente wrote a letter to Williamson in 1952 , who in turn put her in contact with Gardner . Valiente and Gardner wrote several letters back @-@ and @-@ forth , with the latter eventually suggesting that she meet him at the home of his friend and fellow Wiccan Edith Woodford @-@ Grimes ( " Dafo " ) , who lived not far from Bournemouth , in the Christchurch area . Before she left the meeting , Gardner gave her a copy of his 1949 novel , High Magic 's Aid , in which he describes a fictionalised account of Wiccan initiates in the Middle Ages ; he allegedly did so in order to gauge her opinion on ritual nudity and scourging , both of which were present in his tradition of Gardnerian Wicca .
On Midsummer 1953 Gardner invited Valiente again to Woodford @-@ Grimes 's house , and it was here that he initiated her into Wicca in a ritual during which they stood before an altar and he read from his Book of Shadows . The three of them then set off to the prehistoric monument of Stonehenge in Wiltshire , where they witnessed the Druids performing a ritual there . Gardner had lent a ritual sword which he owned to the Druids , who placed it within the monument 's Heel Stone during their rite . Valiente told her husband and mother about the visit to Stonehenge , but not about her initiation , of which , she feared , they would not have approved .
Later in the year , Gardner invited Valiente to visit him at his flat in Shepherd 's Bush , West London , and it was there that she met the eight to ten members of his Bricket Wood coven , which met near St. Albans , north of London . She soon rose to become the coven 's High Priestess . The historian Ronald Hutton later commented that in doing so , she formed " the second great creative partnership of [ Gardner 's ] life " after that with Woodford @-@ Grimes . Valiente recognised how much of the material in Gardner 's Book of Shadows was taken not from ancient sources as Gardner had initially claimed , but from the works of Crowley . She confronted Gardner with this , who claimed that the text he had received from the New Forest coven had been fragmentary and he had had to fill much of it using various sources . She took the Book of Shadows , and with Gardner 's permission , rewrote much of it , cutting out a lot of sections that had come from Crowley , fearing that his infamous reputation would sully Wicca . In 1953 she wrote " Queen of the Moon , Queen of the Stars " , an invocation for use in a Yule ritual which was inspired by a Hebridean song found in the Carmina Gadelica . With Gardner she also wrote " The Witches Rune " , a chant for use while dancing in a circle . She rewrote much of the Charge of the Goddess , with Hutton characterising this act as " her greatest single contribution to Wicca " , for her version of the Charge became " the principle expression of Wiccan spirituality " in coming years .
Gardner spent his summers at the Museum of Magic and Witchcraft on the Isle of Man , and thus often relied on Valiente to deal with his affairs in Southern England . He sent her to meet with the occult artist Austin Osman Spare when he wanted some talismans produced by the latter . Spare subsequently described Valiente as " a myopic stalky nymph ... harmless and a little tiresome " in a letter that he wrote to Kenneth Grant . At Gardner 's prompting , she also met with the occultist Gerald Yorke , who was interested in learning about Wicca ; Gardner insisted that she lie to Yorke by informing him that she was from a longstanding family of hereditary Wiccan practitioners . She also aided him in preparing his second non @-@ fiction book about Wicca , The Meaning of Witchcraft , focusing in particular on those sections refuting the sensationalist accusations of the tabloid press .
However Gardner 's increasing desire for publicity , much of it ending up negative , caused conflict with Valiente and other members of his coven like Ned Grove and Derek Boothby . She felt that in repeatedly communicating with the press , he was compromising the coven 's security . She was also not enthusiastic about two young people whom Gardner brought into the coven , Jack L. Bracelin and his girlfriend ' Dayonis ' , stating that " a more qualid pair of spivs it would be hard to find indeed " . Two factions emerged within the coven ; Valiente led a broadly anti @-@ publicity group , while Gardner led a pro @-@ publicity one . In 1957 , Valiente and Grove drew up a list of " Proposed Rules of the Craft " which were partly designed to curtail Gardner 's publicity seeking . From his home in the Isle of Man , he responded that this was not necessary as a series of rules already existed , at which point he produced the Wiccan Laws . These laws limited the control of the High Priestess , which angered Valiente , who later realised that Gardner had simply made them up in response to her own Proposed Laws . In summer 1957 , the coven split . According to Valiente , she and her followers " had had enough of the Gospel according to St. Gerald ; but we still believed that the real traditional witchcraft lived " . According to Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White , " Wicca had experienced its first great schism " .
= = = Robert Cochrane and Where Witchcraft Lives : 1957 – 69 = = =
After breaking from Gardner 's Bricket Wood coven , Valiente formed her own coven with Grove as High Priest , still following the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca , albeit without the Wiccan laws , which she believed to be entirely an invention of Gardner 's . This coven however failed to last , breaking up amid arguments between its founders . In 1956 , Valiente , along with her husband and her mother , moved into a basement flat in Lewes Crescent , Kemptown , in the southern coastal town of Brighton , although in 1968 they moved into a flat nearer to the town centre . She befriended another Kemptown resident , the journalist Leslie Roberts , who shared her interest in the supernatural . He attracted much attention to himself in the local press through his claims that practitioners of black magic were also operating in the area . Valiente remained a good friend to Roberts until his death from heart disease in 1966 . She also got back in touch with Gardner , and mended their friendship , remaining on good terms until his death in 1964 , when he left her £ 200 in his will . During the early 1960s she also developed a correspondence with two Gardnerian initiates in Sheffield , Patricia Crowther and her husband Arnold Crowther , finally meeting them when the latter couple visited Brighton in 1965 .
After her mother 's death in August 1962 , Valiente felt that she could be more open about being a Wiccan herself . Eager to spread information about Wicca throughout Britain , she also began to interact with press , sending a 1962 letter to the Spiritualist newspaper Psychic News , and in 1964 being interviewed for her involvement with Wicca by Brighton 's Evening Argus . During the 1960s , she began producing articles about Wicca and other esoteric subjects on a regular basis , for such esoteric magazines as Light , Fate , and Prediction . In this capacity , she also began to make appearances on television and radio . She also involved herself in the newly formed Witchcraft Research Association ( WRA ) , becoming its second President after the resignation of Sybil Leek . Valiente 's letter of welcome was included in the first issue of the WRA 's newsletter , Pentagram , published in August 1964 , while she also gave a speech at the WRA 's Halloween dinner in October . It was at the speech that Valiente proclaimed the Wiccan Rede ; this was its first public appearance in a recognisable form , with Doyle White arguing that it was Valiente herself who both created and named the Rede . It was through the WRA that Valiente came to communicate with the journalist Justine Glass , who was then conducting research for her book Witchcraft , the Sixth Sense , and Us .
Valiente began visiting local libraries and archives in order to investigate the history of witchcraft in Sussex . On the basis of this research , the esoteric press Aquarian published her first book , Where Witchcraft Lives , in 1962 . Just as Gardner had done in his book Witchcraft Today , here Valiente did not identify as a practicing Wiccan , but as an interested scholar of witchcraft . It contained her own research into the history and folklore of witchcraft in her county of Sussex , which she had collected both from archival research and from the published work of the historian L 'Estrange Ewen . It interpreted this evidence in light of the discredited theories of Margaret Murray , which claimed that a pre @-@ Christian religious movement had survived to the present , when it had emerged as Wicca . Hutton later related that it was " one of the first three books to be published on the subject " of Wicca , and that the " remarkable feature of the book is that it remains , until this date [ 2010 ] , the only one produced by a prominent modern witch that embodies actual original research into the records of the trials of people accused of the crime of witchcraft during the early modern period . " In 1966 , Valiente then produced a manuscript for a book titled I am a Witch ! , a collection of poems with a biographical introduction , however it was never published , with publishers not believing that it would be commercially viable .
Valiente learned of the non @-@ Gardnerian Wiccan Charles Cardell from a 1958 article , and subsequently struck up a correspondence with him . Cardell suggested that they pool their respective traditions together , but Valiente declined the offer , expressing some scepticism regarding Cardell 's motives and conduct . In 1962 , Valiente began a correspondence course run by Raymond Howard , a former associate of Cardell 's ; this course instructed her in a Wiccan tradition known as the Coven of Atho . At Halloween 1963 she was then initiated into the Coven of Atho in a ritual overseen by Howard , entering the lowest rank of the course , that of ' Sarsen ' , and beginning to copy the teachings that she received into notebooks , where she was able to identify many of the sources from which Howard had drawn upon in fashioning his tradition .
In 1964 , Valiente was introduced to the Pagan witch Robert Cochrane by a mutual friend , the ceremonial magician William G. Gray , who had met him at a gathering at Glastonbury Tor held by the Brotherhood of the Essenes . Although sceptical of Cochrane 's claims to have come from a hereditary family of witches , she was impressed by his charisma , his desire to avoid publicity , and his emphasis on working outdoors . Valiente was invited to join Cochrane 's coven , the Clan of Tubal Cain , becoming its sixth member . However , she became dissatisfied with Cochrane , who was openly committing adultery and constantly insulting Gardnerians , even at one point calling for " a Night of the Long Knives of the Gardnerians " , at which point Valiente openly criticised him and then left his Clan . In her own words , she " rose up and challenged him in the presence of the rest of the coven . I told him that I was fed up with listening to all this senseless malice , and that , if a ' Night of the Long Knives ' was what his sick little soul craved , he could get on with it , but he could get on with it alone , because I had better things to do " . Shortly after , Cochrane committed ritual suicide on Midsummer 1966 ; she authored the poem " Elegy for a Dead Witch " in his memory . She remained in contact with his widow and other members of the Clan , as well as with Gray , and proceeded to work on occasion with The Regency , a group founded by former members of the Clan .
= = = The Pagan Front , National Front , and further publications : 1970 – 84 = = =
Living in Brighton , Valiente took up employment in a branch of the Boots pharmacist . In 1971 she appeared on the BBC documentary , Power of the Witch , which was devoted to Wicca and also featured the prominent Wiccan Alex Sanders . That same year , she was involved in the founding of the Pagan Front , a British pressure group that campaigned for the religious rights of Wiccans and other Pagans . In November 1970 she developed a full moon inauguration ritual for local branches of the Front to use and on May Day 1971 she chaired its first national meeting , held at Chiswick , West London . It was she who developed the three principles that came to be central to the Pagan Front 's interpretation of their religion : adherence to the Wiccan Rede , a belief in reincarnation , and a sense of kinship with nature .
In April 1972 her husband Casimiro died ; he had never taken an interest in Wicca or esotericism and Valiente later claimed that theirs had been an unhappy relationship . Newly widowed , she soon had to move as the local council decided that her home was unfit for human habitation ; she was relocated into council accommodation in the mid @-@ 1960s tower block of Tyson Place in Grosvenor Square , Brighton . Her flat was described by visitors as cramped , being filled with thousands of books . It was there that she met Ronald Cooke , a member of the apartment block 's residents ' committee ; they entered into a relationship and she initiated him into Wicca , where he became her working partner . Together they regularly explored the Sussex countryside , and went on several holidays to Glastonbury , further considering moving there . She also joined a coven that was operating in the local area , Silver Malkin , after it was established by the Wiccan High Priestess Sally Griffyn .
During the early 1970s , Valiente became a member of a far right white nationalist political party , the National Front , for about eighteen months , during which she designed a banner for her local branch . Valiente 's biographer Philip Heselton suggested that the party 's nationalistic outlook may have appealed to her strongly patriotic values and that she might have hoped that the Front would serve as a political equivalent to the Pagan movement . At the same time she also became a member of another , more extreme far right group , the Northern League . However , she allowed her membership of the National Front to lapse , sending a letter to her local branch stating that although she respected its leader John Tyndall and had made friends within the group , she was critical of the party 's opposition to women 's liberation , gay rights , and sex education , all of which she lauded as progressive causes . Heselton has also suggested that Valiente may have joined these groups in order to investigate them before reporting back to Britain 's intelligence agencies .
It was also in the early 1970s that she read John Michell 's The View Over Atlantis and was heavily influenced by it , embracing Michell 's view that there were ley lines across the British landscape that channelled earth energies . Inspired , she began searching for ley lines in the area around Brighton . She also began subscribing to The Ley Hunter magazine , for which she authored several articles and book reviews . Valiente came to see the public emergence of Wicca as a sign of the Age of Aquarius , arguing that the religion should ally with the feminist and environmentalist movements in order to establish a better future for the planet .
In 1973 , the publishing company Robert Hale brought out Valiente 's second book , An ABC of Witchcraft , in which she provided an encyclopaedic overview of various topics related to Wicca and esotericism . In 1975 , Hale published Valiente 's Natural Magic , a discussion of what she believed to be the magical usages and associations of the weather , stones , plants , and other elements of the natural world . In 1978 Hale then published Witchcraft for Tomorrow , in which Valiente proclaimed her belief that Wicca was ideal for the dawning Age of Aquarius and espoused James Lovelock 's Gaia hypothesis . It also explained to the reader how they could initiate themselves into Wicca and establish their own coven . In 1978 she offered a book of poetry to Hale , although they declined to publish it , believing that there would not be sufficient market for such a publication . In 1982 she then submitted a book of short stories , The Witch Ball , to Hale , but again they declined to publish it .
In 1978 , Valiente struck up a friendship with the Alexandrian Wiccans Stewart Farrar and Janet Farrar , who were then living in Ireland . With the Farrars , she agreed to publish the original contents of the Gardnerian Book of Shadows , in order to combat the garbled variants that had been released by Cardell and Lady Sheba . The original Gardnerian material appeared in the Farrars ' two books , Eight Sabbats for Witches and The Witches ' Way ( 1984 ) , both published with Hale at Valiente 's recommendation . In these works , Valiente and the Farrars identified differences between early recensions of the Book and identified many of the older sources that it drew upon . Hutton believed that later scholars such as himself had to be " profoundly grateful " to the trio for undertaking this task , while Doyle White opined that these publications , alongside Witchcraft for Tomorrow , helped contribute to " the democratisation of Wicca " by enabling any reader to set themselves up as a Wiccan practitioner . As an appendix to The Witches ' Way she also published the result of her investigations into " Old Dorothy " , the woman whom Gardner had claimed had been involved with the New Forest coven . The academic historian Jeffrey Burton Russell had recently suggested that Gardner invented " Old Dorothy " as an attempt to hide the fact that he had invented Wicca himself . Valiente sought to disprove this , discovering that " Old Dorothy " was a real person : Dorothy Clutterbuck . Valiente biographer Jonathan Tapsell described it as " one of Doreen 's greatest known moments " .
= = = Autobiography and final years : 1985 – 1999 = = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s , Valiente began writing an autobiography in which she focused on her own place within Wiccan history . It would be published by Hale in 1989 as The Rebirth of Witchcraft . In this work she did not dismiss the Murrayite witch @-@ cult theory , but she did undermine the belief that Wicca was the survival of it by highlighting the various false claims made by Gardner , Cochrane , and Sanders , instead emphasising what she perceived as the religion 's value for the modern era . She also provided a foreword for Witchcraft : A Tradition Renewed , a book published in 1990 by Hale . It had been written by Evan John Jones , a former member of the Clan of Tubal Cain who also lived in Brighton . Heselton has expressed the view that Valiente likely did more than this , and that she wrote a number of the chapters herself . As Valiente became better known , she came to correspond with a wide range of people within the Pagan and esoteric communities . Through this , she met the American Wiccan Starhawk – whom she greatly admired – on one of the latter 's visits to Britain . She also communicated with the American Wiccan and scholar of Pagan studies Aidan A. Kelly during his investigations into the early Gardnerian liturgies . She disagreed with Kelly that there had been no New Forest coven and that Gardner had therefore invented Wicca , instead insisting that Gardner had stumbled on a coven of the Murrayite witch @-@ cult .
In 1997 Valiente discovered the Centre for Pagan Studies ( CPS ) , a Pagan organisation based in the Sussex hamlet of Maresfield that had been established in 1995 . Befriending its founders , John Belham @-@ Payne and his wife Julie , she became the Centre 's patron and gave several lectures for the group . In 1997 Cooke died , leaving Valiente grief @-@ stricken . Her final public speech was at the Pagan Federation 's annual conference , held at Croydon 's Fairfield Halls in November 1997 ; here she praised the work of early twentieth @-@ century occultist Dion Fortune and urged the Wiccan community to accept homosexuals . Valiente 's health was deteriorating as she was diagnosed first with diabetes and then terminal pancreatic cancer ; increasingly debilitated , John Belham @-@ Payne and two of her friends became her primary carers . In her last few days she was moved to the Sackville Nursing Home , there requesting that Belham @-@ Payne publish an anthology of her poems after her death . She died on 1 September 1999 , with Belham @-@ Payne at her side .
Valiente 's body was kept at the CPS ' barn in Maresfield , where an all @-@ night vigil was held ; those invited included Ralph Harvey , Janet Farrar , Gavin Bone , and Hutton . After this Pagan rite was completed , her coffin was cremated at Brighton 's Woodvale crematorium , in an intentionally low @-@ key affair with no media publicity . As per her wishes , Valiente 's ashes were scattered in Sussex woodland . Her magical artifacts and manuscripts , including her Book of Shadows , were bequeathed to the Centre , although there was nevertheless public disagreement over her will . Her book of poems was published posthumously in 2000 , followed by an enlarged second edition in 2014 .
= = Personality = =
Hutton characterised Valiente as " a handsome woman of striking , dark @-@ haired , aquiline looks , possessed of a strong , enquiring , candid , and independent personality , and a gift for poetry and ritual " . Belham @-@ Payne noted that Valiente was " very tall , rather reserved and preferred to be in the background " , while Valiente 's friend Ashley Mortimer described her as " sensible , practical , decent , honest and , perhaps most importantly , pragmatic " . The writer Leo Ruickbie described her as " a plain , owlishly bespectacled woman with a slight stoop and a friendly twinkle in her eye " . Throughout her life , Valiente remained a believer in the Murrayite Witch @-@ Cult theory despite the fact that it had been academically discredited by the 1970s .
Valiente had a strong dislike of unexpected visitors , and would often refuse to answer the door to those who knocked unannounced . Valiente was an avid fan of football , and closely followed the World Cup , refusing to open the door to any visitors while she was watching the competition on television . She also enjoyed betting on horse races . Her favourite foods included cucumber sandwiches , cauliflower cheese , and baked potatoes .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Within the occult community , Valiente has become internationally known as the " Mother of Modern Witchcraft " , although she herself disliked this moniker . Heselton believed that Valiente 's influence on Wicca was " profound and far @-@ reaching " , while Ruickbie characterised her as Gardner 's " most gifted acolyte " . In 2016 , Heselton expressed the view that Valiente was best known for her books , which are " still some of the most readable on the subject " of Wicca , further highlighting that they often appeared on Wiccan reading lists . The ritual liturgies that Valiente composed also proved highly influential within the Wiccan religion and constitute a core element of her legacy .
Kelly asserted that Valiente " deserves credit for having helped transform the Craft from being the hobby of a handful of eccentric Brits into being an international religious movement " . Describing her as " a major personality in the development " of Wicca , Hutton also expressed the view that " her enduring greatness lay in the very fact that she was so completely and strong @-@ mindedly dedicated to finding and declaring her own truth , in a world in which the signposts to it were themselves in a state of almost complete confusion " .
= = = Events and organisations = = =
In 2009 , the CPS organised " A Day for Doreen " , an event in central London dedicated to Valiente . Sixteen speakers from within the Wiccan and Pagan community came to talk at the event , which was a sell @-@ out .
Following Valiente 's death , Belham @-@ Payne received offers of substantial amounts of money from buyers seeking to purchase parts of her collection . In 2011 he entrusted the collection of artefacts that he had inherited from Valiente to the newly established Doreen Valiente Foundation . A charitable trust , the Foundation was designed to prevent the collection being broken up and sold , moreover allowing for future Wiccans and researchers to start " delving into it , protecting it , making it accessible and available for people to research , learn from and enjoy . " Belham @-@ Payne became the group 's chairman , while Ashley Mortimer , Brian Botham , and Trish Botham were appointed as trustees .
On 21 June 2013 the CPS unveiled a blue plaque at the Tyson Place tower block , Valiente 's final home . At the ceremony , a speech was given by Denise Cobb , the Mayor of Brighton . It had been preceded by an open solstice ritual in Brighton 's Steine Gardens , led by Ralph Harvey .
= Lung cancer =
Lung cancer , also known as lung carcinoma , is a malignant lung tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung . If left untreated , this growth can spread beyond the lung by the process of metastasis into nearby tissue or other parts of the body . Most cancers that start in the lung , known as primary lung cancers , are carcinomas . The two main types are small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) and non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( NSCLC ) . The most common symptoms are coughing ( including coughing up blood ) , weight loss , shortness of breath , and chest pains .
The vast majority ( 85 % ) of cases of lung cancer are due to long @-@ term tobacco smoking . About 10 – 15 % of cases occur in people who have never smoked . These cases are often caused by a combination of genetic factors and exposure to radon gas , asbestos , second @-@ hand smoke , or other forms of air pollution . Lung cancer may be seen on chest radiographs and computed tomography ( CT ) scans . The diagnosis is confirmed by biopsy which is usually performed by bronchoscopy or CT @-@ guidance .
Prevention is by avoiding risk factors including smoking and air pollution . Treatment and long @-@ term outcomes depend on the type of cancer , the stage ( degree of spread ) , and the person 's overall health . Most cases are not curable . Common treatments include surgery , chemotherapy , and radiotherapy . NSCLC is sometimes treated with surgery , whereas SCLC usually responds better to chemotherapy and radiotherapy .
Worldwide in 2012 , lung cancer occurred in 1 @.@ 8 million people and resulted in 1 @.@ 6 million deaths . This makes it the most common cause of cancer @-@ related death in men and second most common in women after breast cancer . The most common age at diagnosis is 70 years . Overall , 17 @.@ 4 % of people in the United States diagnosed with lung cancer survive five years after the diagnosis , while outcomes on average are worse in the developing world .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Signs and symptoms which may suggest lung cancer include :
Respiratory symptoms : coughing , coughing up blood , wheezing , or shortness of breath
Systemic symptoms : weight loss , weakness , fever , or clubbing of the fingernails
Symptoms due to the cancer mass pressing on adjacent structures : chest pain , bone pain , superior vena cava obstruction , or difficulty swallowing
If the cancer grows in the airways , it may obstruct airflow , causing breathing difficulties . The obstruction can lead to accumulation of secretions behind the blockage , and predispose to pneumonia .
Depending on the type of tumor , paraneoplastic phenomena — symptoms not due to the local presence of cancer — may initially attract attention to the disease . In lung cancer , these phenomena may include hypercalcemia , syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone ( SIADH , abnormally concentrated urine and diluted blood ) , ectopic ACTH production , or Lambert – Eaton myasthenic syndrome ( muscle weakness due to autoantibodies ) . Tumors in the top of the lung , known as Pancoast tumors , may invade the local part of the sympathetic nervous system , leading to Horner 's syndrome ( dropping of the eyelid and a small pupil on that side ) , as well as damage to the brachial plexus .
Many of the symptoms of lung cancer ( poor appetite , weight loss , fever , fatigue ) are not specific . In many people , the cancer has already spread beyond the original site by the time they have symptoms and seek medical attention . Symptoms that suggest the presence of metastatic disease include weight loss , bone pain and neurological symptoms ( headaches , fainting , convulsions , or limb weakness ) . Common sites of spread include the brain , bone , adrenal glands , opposite lung , liver , pericardium , and kidneys . About 10 % of people with lung cancer do not have symptoms at diagnosis ; these cancers are incidentally found on routine chest radiography .
= = Causes = =
Cancer develops following genetic damage to DNA and epigenetic changes . These changes affect the normal functions of the cell , including cell proliferation , programmed cell death ( apoptosis ) and DNA repair . As more damage accumulates , the risk of cancer increases .
= = = Smoking = = =
Smoking , particularly of cigarettes , is by far the main contributor to lung cancer . Cigarette smoke contains at least 73 known carcinogens , including benzo [ a ] pyrene , NNK , 1 @,@ 3 @-@ butadiene and a radioactive isotope of polonium , polonium @-@ 210 . Across the developed world , 90 % of lung cancer deaths in men during the year 2000 were attributed to smoking ( 70 % for women ) . Smoking accounts for about 85 % of lung cancer cases .
Passive smoking — the inhalation of smoke from another 's smoking — is a cause of lung cancer in nonsmokers . A passive smoker can be defined as someone living or working with a smoker . Studies from the US , Europe and the UK have consistently shown a significantly increased risk among those exposed to passive smoke . Those who live with someone who smokes have a 20 – 30 % increase in risk while those who work in an environment with secondhand smoke have a 16 – 19 % increase in risk . Investigations of sidestream smoke suggest it is more dangerous than direct smoke . Passive smoking causes about 3 @,@ 400 deaths from lung cancer each year in the USA .
Marijuana smoke contains many of the same carcinogens as those in tobacco smoke . However , the effect of smoking cannabis on lung cancer risk is not clear . A 2013 review did not find an increased risk from light to moderate use . A 2014 review found that smoking cannabis doubled the risk of lung cancer .
= = = Radon gas = = =
Radon is a colourless and odorless gas generated by the breakdown of radioactive radium , which in turn is the decay product of uranium , found in the Earth 's crust . The radiation decay products ionize genetic material , causing mutations that sometimes turn cancerous . Radon is the second @-@ most common cause of lung cancer in the USA , causing about 21 @,@ 000 deaths each year . The risk increases 8 – 16 % for every 100 Bq / m ³ increase in the radon concentration . Radon gas levels vary by locality and the composition of the underlying soil and rocks . About one in 15 homes in the US has radon levels above the recommended guideline of 4 picocuries per liter ( pCi / l ) ( 148 Bq / m ³ ) .
= = = Asbestos = = =
Asbestos can cause a variety of lung diseases , including lung cancer . Tobacco smoking and asbestos have a synergistic effect on the formation of lung cancer . In smokers who work with asbestos , the risk of lung cancer is increased 45 @-@ fold compared to the general population . Asbestos can also cause cancer of the pleura , called mesothelioma ( which is different from lung cancer ) .
= = = Air pollution = = =
Outdoor air pollution has a small effect on increasing the risk of lung cancer . Fine particulates ( PM2.5 ) and sulfate aerosols , which may be released in traffic exhaust fumes , are associated with slightly increased risk . For nitrogen dioxide , an incremental increase of 10 parts per billion increases the risk of lung cancer by 14 % . Outdoor air pollution is estimated to account for 1 – 2 % of lung cancers .
Tentative evidence supports an increased risk of lung cancer from indoor air pollution related to the burning of wood , charcoal , dung or crop residue for cooking and heating . Women who are exposed to indoor coal smoke have about twice the risk and a number of the by @-@ products of burning biomass are known or suspected carcinogens . This risk affects about 2 @.@ 4 billion people globally , and is believed to account for 1 @.@ 5 % of lung cancer deaths .
= = = Genetics = = =
About 8 % of lung cancer is due to inherited factors . In relatives of people with lung cancer , the risk is doubled . This is likely due to a combination of genes . Polymorphisms on chromosomes 5 , 6 and 15 are known to affect the risk of lung cancer .
= = = Other causes = = =
Numerous other substances , occupations , and environmental exposures have been linked to lung cancer . The International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC ) states there is " sufficient evidence " to show the following are carcinogenic in the lungs :
Some metals ( aluminum production , cadmium and cadmium compounds , chromium ( VI ) compounds , beryllium and beryllium compounds , iron and steel founding , nickel compounds , arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds , underground hematite mining )
Some products of combustion ( incomplete combustion , coal ( indoor emissions from household coal burning ) , coal gasification , coal @-@ tar pitch , coke production , soot , diesel engine exhaust )
Ionizing radiation ( X @-@ radiation , gamma radiation , plutonium )
Some toxic gases ( methyl ether ( technical grade ) , Bis- ( chloromethyl ) ether , sulfur mustard , MOPP ( vincristine @-@ prednisone @-@ nitrogen mustard @-@ procarbazine mixture ) , fumes from painting )
Rubber production and crystalline silica dust
= = Pathogenesis = =
Similar to many other cancers , lung cancer is initiated by activation of oncogenes or inactivation of tumor suppressor genes . Carcinogens cause mutations in these genes which induce the development of cancer .
Mutations in the K @-@ ras proto @-@ oncogene are responsible for 10 – 30 % of lung adenocarcinomas . About 4 % of non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinomas involve an EML4 @-@ ALK tyrosine kinase fusion gene .
Epigenetic changes — such as alteration of DNA methylation , histone tail modification , or microRNA regulation — may lead to inactivation of tumor suppressor genes .
The epidermal growth factor receptor ( EGFR ) regulates cell proliferation , apoptosis , angiogenesis , and tumor invasion . Mutations and amplification of EGFR are common in non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma and provide the basis for treatment with EGFR @-@ inhibitors . Her2 / neu is affected less frequently . Other genes that are often mutated or amplified are c @-@ MET , NKX2 @-@ 1 , LKB1 , PIK3CA , and BRAF .
The cell lines of origin are not fully understood . The mechanism may involve abnormal activation of stem cells . In the proximal airways , stem cells that express keratin 5 are more likely to be affected , typically leading to squamous @-@ cell lung carcinoma . In the middle airways , implicated stem cells include club cells and neuroepithelial cells that express club cell secretory protein . Small @-@ cell lung carcinoma may be derived from these cell lines or neuroendocrine cells , and may express CD44 .
Metastasis of lung cancer requires transition from epithelial to mesenchymal cell type . This may occur through activation of signaling pathways such as Akt / GSK3Beta , MEK @-@ ERK , Fas , and Par6 .
= = Diagnosis = =
Performing a chest radiograph is one of the first investigative steps if a person reports symptoms that may suggest lung cancer . This may reveal an obvious mass , widening of the mediastinum ( suggestive of spread to lymph nodes there ) , atelectasis ( collapse ) , consolidation ( pneumonia ) or pleural effusion . CT imaging is typically used to provide more information about the type and extent of disease . Bronchoscopy or CT @-@ guided biopsy is often used to sample the tumor for histopathology .
Lung cancer often appears as a solitary pulmonary nodule on a chest radiograph . However , the differential diagnosis is wide . Many other diseases can also give this appearance , including metastatic cancer , hamartomas , and infectious granulomas such as tuberculosis , histoplasmosis and coccidioidomycosis . Lung cancer can also be an incidental finding , as a solitary pulmonary nodule on a chest radiograph or CT scan done for an unrelated reason . The definitive diagnosis of lung cancer is based on histological examination of the suspicious tissue in the context of the clinical and radiological features .
Clinical practice guidelines recommend frequencies for pulmonary nodule surveillance . CT imaging should not be used for longer or more frequently than indicated as extended surveillance exposes people to increased radiation .
= = = Classification = = =
Lung cancers are classified according to histological type . This classification is important for determining management and predicting outcomes of the disease . Lung cancers are carcinomas — malignancies that arise from epithelial cells . Lung carcinomas are categorized by the size and appearance of the malignant cells seen by a histopathologist under a microscope . For therapeutic purposes , two broad classes are distinguished : non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma and small @-@ cell lung carcinoma .
= = = = Non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma = = = =
The three main subtypes of NSCLC are adenocarcinoma , squamous @-@ cell carcinoma and large @-@ cell carcinoma .
Nearly 40 % of lung cancers are adenocarcinoma , which usually originates in peripheral lung tissue . Although most cases of adenocarcinoma are associated with smoking , adenocarcinoma is also the most common form of lung cancer among people who have smoked fewer than 100 cigarettes in their lifetimes ( " never @-@ smokers " ) and ex @-@ smokers with a modest smoking history . A subtype of adenocarcinoma , the bronchioloalveolar carcinoma , is more common in female never @-@ smokers , and may have a better long @-@ term survival .
Squamous @-@ cell carcinoma accounts for about 30 % of lung cancers . They typically occur close to large airways . A hollow cavity and associated cell death are commonly found at the centre of the tumor . About 9 % of lung cancers are large @-@ cell carcinoma . These are so named because the cancer cells are large , with excess cytoplasm , large nuclei and conspicuous nucleoli .
= = = = Small @-@ cell lung carcinoma = = = =
In small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) , the cells contain dense neurosecretory granules ( vesicles containing neuroendocrine hormones ) , which give this tumor an endocrine / paraneoplastic syndrome association . Most cases arise in the larger airways ( primary and secondary bronchi ) . Sixty to seventy percent have extensive disease ( which cannot be targeted within a single radiation therapy field ) at presentation .
= = = = Others = = = =
Four main histological subtypes are recognised , although some cancers may contain a combination of different subtypes , such as adenosquamous carcinoma . Rare subtypes include carcinoid tumors , bronchial gland carcinomas and sarcomatoid carcinomas .
= = = Metastasis = = =
The lung is a common place for the spread of tumors from other parts of the body . Secondary cancers are classified by the site of origin ; e.g. , breast cancer that has spread to the lung is called metastatic breast cancer . Metastases often have a characteristic round appearance on chest radiograph .
Primary lung cancers themselves most commonly metastasize to the brain , bones , liver and adrenal glands . Immunostaining of a biopsy is often helpful to determine the original source . The presence of Napsin @-@ A , TTF @-@ 1 , CK7 and CK20 are helpful in confirming the subtype of lung carcinoma . SCLC derived from neuroendocrine cells may express CD56 , neural cell adhesion molecule , synaptophysin or chromogranin .
= = = Staging = = =
Lung cancer staging is an assessment of the degree of spread of the cancer from its original source . It is one of the factors affecting the prognosis and potential treatment of lung cancer .
The evaluation of non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( NSCLC ) staging uses the TNM classification . This is based on the size of the primary tumor , lymph node involvement , and distant metastasis .
Using the TNM descriptors , a group is assigned , ranging from occult cancer , through stages 0 , IA ( one @-@ A ) , IB , IIA , IIB , IIIA , IIIB and IV ( four ) . This stage group assists with the choice of treatment and estimation of prognosis .
Small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) has traditionally been classified as " limited stage " ( confined to one half of the chest and within the scope of a single tolerable radiotherapy field ) or " extensive stage " ( more widespread disease ) . However , the TNM classification and grouping are useful in estimating prognosis .
For both NSCLC and SCLC , the two general types of staging evaluations are clinical staging and surgical staging . Clinical staging is performed prior to definitive surgery . It is based on the results of imaging studies ( such as CT scans and PET scans ) and biopsy results . Surgical staging is evaluated either during or after the operation , and is based on the combined results of surgical and clinical findings , including surgical sampling of thoracic lymph nodes .
Diagrams of main features of staging
= = Prevention = =
Smoking prevention and smoking cessation are effective ways of preventing the development of lung cancer .
= = = Smoking ban = = =
While in most countries industrial and domestic carcinogens have been identified and banned , tobacco smoking is still widespread . Eliminating tobacco smoking is a primary goal in the prevention of lung cancer , and smoking cessation is an important preventive tool in this process .
Policy interventions to decrease passive smoking in public areas
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pathways in lung cancer are available , especially for the treatment of advanced disease . Erlotinib , gefitinib and afatinib inhibit tyrosine kinase at the epidermal growth factor receptor . Denosumab is a monoclonal antibody directed against receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa @-@ B ligand . It may be useful in the treatment of bone metastases .
= = = Bronchoscopy = = =
Several treatments can be administered via bronchoscopy for the management of airway obstruction or bleeding . If an airway becomes obstructed by cancer growth , options include rigid bronchoscopy , balloon bronchoplasty , stenting , and microdebridement . Laser photosection involves the delivery of laser light inside the airway via a bronchoscope to remove the obstructing tumor .
= = = Palliative care = = =
Palliative care when added to usual cancer care benefits people even when they are still receiving chemotherapy . These approaches allow additional discussion of treatment options and provide opportunities to arrive at well @-@ considered decisions . Palliative care may avoid unhelpful but expensive care not only at the end of life , but also throughout the course of the illness . For individuals who have more advanced disease , hospice care may also be appropriate .
= = Prognosis = =
Of all people with lung cancer in the US , 16 @.@ 8 % survive for at least five years after diagnosis . In England , between 2005 and 2009 , overall five @-@ year survival for lung cancer was less than 10 % . Outcomes are generally worse in the developing world . Stage is often advanced at the time of diagnosis . At presentation , 30 – 40 % of cases of NSCLC are stage IV , and 60 % of SCLC are stage IV . Survival for lung cancer falls as the stage at diagnosis becomes more advanced : the English data suggest that around 70 % of patients survive at least a year when diagnosed at the earliest stage , but this falls to just 14 % for those diagnosed with the most advanced disease .
Prognostic factors in NSCLC include presence of pulmonary symptoms , large tumor size ( > 3 cm ) , nonsquamous cell type ( histology ) , degree of spread ( stage ) and metastases to multiple lymph nodes , and vascular invasion . For people with inoperable disease , outcomes are worse in those with poor performance status and weight loss of more than 10 % . Prognostic factors in small cell lung cancer include performance status , gender , stage of disease , and involvement of the central nervous system or liver at the time of diagnosis .
For NSCLC , the best prognosis is achieved with complete surgical resection of stage IA disease , with up to 70 % five @-@ year survival . People with extensive @-@ stage SCLC have an average five @-@ year survival rate of less than 1 % . The average survival time for limited @-@ stage disease is 20 months , with a five @-@ year survival rate of 20 % .
According to data provided by the National Cancer Institute , the median age at diagnosis of lung cancer in the United States is 70 years , and the median age at death is 72 years . In the US , people with medical insurance are more likely to have a better outcome .
= = Epidemiology = =
Worldwide , lung cancer is the most common cancer among men in terms of both incidence and mortality , and among women has the third highest incidence , and is second after breast cancer in mortality . In 2012 , there were 1 @.@ 82 million new cases globally , and 1 @.@ 56 million deaths due to lung cancer , representing 19 @.@ 4 % of all deaths from cancer . The highest rates are in North America , Europe and East Asia , with over a third of new cases in 2012 in China . Rates in Africa and South Asia are much lower .
The population segment most likely to develop lung cancer is people aged over 50 who have a history of smoking . In contrast to the mortality rate in men , which began declining more than 20 years ago , women 's lung cancer mortality rates have been rising over the last decades , and are just recently beginning to stabilize . In the USA , the lifetime risk of developing lung cancer is 8 % in men and 6 % in women .
For every 3 – 4 million cigarettes smoked , one lung cancer death occurs . The influence of " Big Tobacco " plays a significant role in the smoking culture . Young nonsmokers who see tobacco advertisements are more likely to take up smoking . The role of passive smoking is increasingly being recognized as a risk factor for lung cancer , leading to policy interventions to decrease undesired exposure of nonsmokers to others ' tobacco smoke . Emissions from automobiles , factories , and power plants also pose potential risks .
In the United States , black men and women have a higher incidence . Lung cancer rates are currently lower in developing countries . With increased smoking in developing countries , the rates are expected to increase in the next few years , notably in China and India .
In the United States military veterans have a 25 @-@ 50 % higher rate of lung cancer primarily due to higher rates of smoking . During World War Two and the Korean War asbestos also played a part and Agent Orange may have caused some problems during the Vietnam War .
Lung cancer is the second most common cancer in the UK ( around 43 @,@ 500 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011 ) , and it is the most common cause of cancer death ( around 35 @,@ 400 people died in 2012 ) .
From the 1960s , the rates of lung adenocarcinoma started to rise relative to other types of lung cancer . This is partly due to the introduction of filter cigarettes . The use of filters removes larger particles from tobacco smoke , thus reducing deposition in larger airways . However , the smoker has to inhale more deeply to receive the same amount of nicotine , increasing particle deposition in small airways where adenocarcinoma tends to arise . The incidence of lung adenocarcinoma continues to rise .
= = History = =
Lung cancer was uncommon before the advent of cigarette smoking ; it was not even recognized as a distinct disease until 1761 . Different aspects of lung cancer were described further in 1810 . Malignant lung tumors made up only 1 % of all cancers seen at autopsy in 1878 , but had risen to 10 – 15 % by the early 1900s . Case reports in the medical literature numbered only 374 worldwide in 1912 , but a review of autopsies showed the incidence of lung cancer had increased from 0 @.@ 3 % in 1852 to 5 @.@ 66 % in 1952 . In Germany in 1929 , physician Fritz Lickint recognized the link between smoking and lung cancer , which led to an aggressive antismoking campaign . The British Doctors ' Study , published in the 1950s , was the first solid epidemiological evidence of the link between lung cancer and smoking . As a result , in 1964 the Surgeon General of the United States recommended smokers should stop smoking .
The connection with radon gas was first recognized among miners in the Ore Mountains near Schneeberg , Saxony . Silver has been mined there since 1470 , and these mines are rich in uranium , with its accompanying radium and radon gas . Miners developed a disproportionate amount of lung disease , eventually recognized as lung cancer in the 1870s . Despite this discovery , mining continued into the 1950s , due to the USSR 's demand for uranium . Radon was confirmed as a cause of lung cancer in the 1960s .
The first successful pneumonectomy for lung cancer was performed in 1933 . Palliative radiotherapy has been used since the 1940s . Radical radiotherapy , initially used in the 1950s , was an attempt to use larger radiation doses in patients with relatively early @-@ stage lung cancer , but who were otherwise unfit for surgery . In 1997 , continuous hyperfractionated accelerated radiotherapy was seen as an improvement over conventional radical radiotherapy . With small @-@ cell lung carcinoma , initial attempts in the 1960s at surgical resection and radical radiotherapy were unsuccessful . In the 1970s , successful chemotherapy regimens were developed .
= = Research directions = =
Current research directions for lung cancer treatment include immunotherapy , which encourages the body 's immune system to attack the tumor cells , epigenetics , and new combinations of chemotherapy and radiotherapy , both on their own and together . Many of these new treatments work through immune checkpoint blockade , disrupting cancer 's ability to evade the immune system .
Ipilimumab blocks signaling through a receptor on T cells known as CTLA @-@ 4 which dampens down the immune system . It has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) for treatment of melanoma and is undergoing clinical trials for both non @-@ small cell lung cancer ( NSCLC ) and small cell lung cancer ( SCLC ) .
Other immunotherapy treatments interfere with the binding of programmed cell death 1 ( PD @-@ 1 ) protein with its ligand PD @-@ 1 ligand 1 ( PD @-@ L1 ) . Signaling through PD @-@ 1 inactivates T cells . Some cancer cells appear to exploit this by expressing PD @-@ L1 in order to switch off T cells that might recognise them as a threat . Monoclonal antibodies targeting both PD @-@ 1 and PD @-@ L1 , such as pembrolizumab and nivolumab are currently in clinical trials for treatment for lung cancer .
Epigenetics is the study of small , usually heritable , molecular modifications — or " tags " — that bind DNA and modify gene expression levels . Targeting these tags with drugs can kill cancer cells . Early @-@ stage research in NSCLC using drugs aimed at epigenetic modifications shows that blocking more than one of these tags can kill cancer cells with fewer side effects . Studies also show that giving patients these drugs before standard treatment can improve its effectiveness . Clinical trials are underway to evaluate how well these drugs kill lung cancer cells in humans . Several drugs that target epigenetic mechanisms are in development . Histone deacetylase inhibitors in development include valproic acid , vorinostat , belinostat , panobinostat , entinostat , and romidepsin . DNA methyltransferase inhibitors in development include decitabine , azacytidine , and hydralazine .
The TRACERx project is looking at how NSCLC develops and evolves , and how these tumors become resistant to treatment . The project will look at tumor samples from 850 NSCLC patients at various stages including diagnosis , after first treatment , post @-@ treatment , and relapse . By studying samples at different points of tumor development , the researchers hope to identify the changes that drive tumor growth and resistance to treatment . The results of this project will help scientists and doctors gain a better understanding of NSCLC and potentially lead to the development of new treatments against the disease .
For lung cancer cases that develop resistance to epidermal growth factor receptor ( EGFR ) and anaplastic lymphoma kinase ( ALK ) tyrosine kinase inhibitors , new drugs are in development . New EGFR inhibitors include afatinib and dacomitinib . An alternative signaling pathway , c @-@ Met , can be inhibited by tivantinib and onartuzumab . New ALK inhibitors include crizotinib and ceritinib .
= Canadians =
Canadians ( French : Canadiens ) are the people who are identified with the country of Canada . This connection may be residential , legal , historical , or cultural . For most Canadians , several ( or all ) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being Canadian .
Canada is a bilingual and multicultural society home to people of many different ethnic , religious and national origins , with the majority of the population made up of Old World immigrants and their descendants . Following the initial period of French and then the much larger British colonization , different waves ( or peaks ) of immigration and settlement of non @-@ aboriginal peoples took place over the course of nearly two centuries and continue today . Elements of Aboriginal , French , British and more recent immigrant customs , languages and religions have combined to form the culture of Canada and thus a Canadian identity . Canada has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic , geographic and economic neighbour , the United States .
Canadian independence from Britain grew gradually over the course of many years since the formation of the Canadian Confederation in 1867 . World War I and World War II in particular gave rise to a desire among Canadians to have their country recognized as a fully @-@ fledged sovereign state with a distinct citizenship . Legislative independence was established with the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931 , the Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 took effect on January 1 , 1947 , and full sovereignty was achieved with the patriation of the constitution in 1982 . Canada 's nationality law closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom . Legislation since the mid 20th century represents Canadians ' commitment to multilateralism and socioeconomic development .
= = Population = =
As of 2010 , Canadians make up 0 @.@ 5 % of the world 's total population , having relied upon immigration for population growth and social development . Approximately 41 % of current Canadians are first- or second @-@ generation immigrants , and 20 percent of Canadian residents in the 2000s were not born in the country . Statistics Canada projects that , by 2031 , nearly one @-@ half of Canadians above the age of 15 will be foreign @-@ born or have one foreign @-@ born parent . Aboriginal peoples , according to the 2011 Canadian Census , numbered at 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 685 or 4 @.@ 3 % of the country 's 33 @,@ 476 @,@ 688 population .
= = = Immigration = = =
The French originally settled New France , in present @-@ day Quebec and Ontario ; and Acadia , in present @-@ day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick , during the early part of the 17th century . Approximately 100 Irish @-@ born families would settle the Saint Lawrence Valley by 1700 , assimilating into the Canadien population and culture . During the 18th and 19th century ; immigration westward ( to the area known as Rupert 's Land ) was carried out by " Voyageurs " ; French settlers working for the North West Company ; and by British settlers ( English and Scottish ) representing the Hudson 's Bay Company , coupled with independent entrepreneurial woodsman called " Coureur des bois " . This arrival of newcomers led to the creation of the Métis , an ethnic group of mixed European and First Nations parentage .
The British conquest of New France was preceded by a small number of Germans and Swedes who settled alongside the Scottish in Port Royal , Nova Scotia , while some Irish immigrated to the Colony of Newfoundland . In the wake of the 1775 invasion of Canada by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War , approximately 60 @,@ 000 United Empire Loyalist fled to British North America , a large portion of whom migrated to New Brunswick . After the War of 1812 , British ( including British army regulars ) , Scottish and Irish immigration was encouraged throughout Rupert 's Land , Upper Canada and Lower Canada .
Between 1815 and 1850 , some 800 @,@ 000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America , mainly from the British Isles as part of the great migration of Canada . These new arrivals included some Gaelic @-@ speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia . The Irish Potato Famine of the 1840s significantly increased the pace of Irish immigration to Prince Edward Island and the Province of Canada , with over 35 @,@ 000 distressed individuals landing in Toronto in 1847 and 1848 . Beginning in the late 1850s , the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia peaked with the onset of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush . The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 eventually placed a head tax on all Chinese immigrants , in hopes of discouraging Chinese immigration after completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway .
The population of Canada has consistently risen , doubling approximately every 40 years , since the establishment of the Canadian Confederation in 1867 . From the mid- to late 19th century , Canada had a policy of assisting immigrants from Europe , including an estimated 100 @,@ 000 unwanted " Home Children " from Britain . Block settlement communities were established throughout western Canada between the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Some were planned and others were spontaneously created by the settlers themselves . Canada was now receiving a large number of European immigrants , predominantly Italians , Germans , Scandinavians , Dutch , Poles , and Ukrainians . Legislative restrictions on immigration ( such as the Continuous journey regulation and Chinese Immigration Act ) that had favoured British and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s , opening the doors to immigrants from all parts of the world . While the 1950s had still seen high levels of immigration by Europeans , by the 1970s , immigrants were increasingly Chinese , Indian , Vietnamese , Jamaican and Haitian . During the late 1960s and early 1970s , Canada received many American Vietnam War draft dissenters . Throughout the late 1980s and 1990s , Canada 's growing Pacific trade brought with it a large influx of South Asians , who tended to settle in British Columbia . Immigrants of all backgrounds tend to settle in the major urban centres . The Canadian public as @-@ well as the major political parties support immigration .
The majority of illegal immigrants come from the southern provinces of the People 's Republic of China , with Asia as a whole , Eastern Europe , Caribbean , Africa and the Middle East all contributing to the illegal population . Estimates of numbers of illegal immigrants range between 35 @,@ 000 and 120 @,@ 000 . A 2008 report by the Auditor General of Canada Sheila Fraser stated that Canada has lost track of approximately 41 @,@ 000 illegal immigrants whose visas have expired .
= = = Citizenship and diaspora = = =
Canadian citizenship is typically obtained by birth in Canada or by birth or adoption abroad when at least one biological parent or adoptive parent is a Canadian citizen who was born in Canada or naturalized in Canada ( and did not receive citizenship by being born outside of Canada to a Canadian citizen ) . It can also be granted to a permanent resident who lives in Canada for three out of four years and meets specific requirements . Canada established its own nationality law in 1946 with the enactment of the Canadian Citizenship Act which took effect on January 1 , 1947 . The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act , was passed by the Parliament of Canada in 2001 as Bill C @-@ 11 , which replaced the Immigration Act of 1976 as the primary federal legislation regulating immigration . Prior to the conferring of legal status on Canadian citizenship , Canada 's naturalization laws consisted of a multitude of Acts beginning with the Immigration Act of 1910 .
According to Citizenship and Immigration Canada , there are three main classifications for immigrants : Family class ( persons closely related to Canadian residents ) , Economic class ( admitted on the basis of a point system that accounts for age , health and labour @-@ market skills required for cost effectively inducting the immigrants into Canada 's labour market ) and Refugee class ( those seeking protection by applying to remain in the country by way of the Canadian immigration and refugee law ) . In 2008 , there were 65 @,@ 567 immigrants in the family class , 21 @,@ 860 refugees , and 149 @,@ 072 economic immigrants amongst the 247 @,@ 243 total immigrants to the country . Canada resettles over one in 10 of the world ’ s refugees and has one of the highest per @-@ capita immigration rates in the world .
As of a 2010 report by the Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada , there were 2 @.@ 8 million Canadian citizens abroad . This represents about 8 % of the total Canadian population . Of those living abroad , the United States , Hong Kong , the United Kingdom , Taiwan , China , Lebanon , United Arab Emirates and Australia have the largest Canadian diaspora . Canadians in the United States constitute the greatest single expatriate community at over 1 million in 2009 , representing 35 @.@ 8 % of all Canadians abroad . Under current Canadian law , Canada does not restrict dual citizenship but Passport Canada encourages its citizens to travel abroad on their Canadian passport , so they can access Canadian consular services .
= = = Ethnic ancestry = = =
Canada has 34 ethnic groups with at least 100 @,@ 000 members each , of which 11 have over 1 million people and numerous others are represented in smaller amounts . According to the 2006 census , the largest self @-@ reported ethnic origin is " Canadian " ( 32 % ) , followed by English ( 21 % ) , French ( 15 @.@ 8 % ) , Scottish ( 15 @.@ 1 % ) , Irish ( 13 @.@ 9 % ) , German ( 10 @.@ 2 % ) , Italian ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) , Chinese ( 4 @.@ 3 % ) , North American Indian ( 4 @.@ 0 % ) , Ukrainian ( 3 @.@ 9 % ) , and Dutch ( Netherlands ) ( 3 @.@ 3 % ) . In the 2006 census , over five million Canadians identified themselves as a member of a visible minority . Together , they make up 16 @.@ 2 % of the total population : most numerous among these are South Asian ( 4 @.@ 0 % ) , Black ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) , and Filipino ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) . Aboriginal peoples are not considered a visible minority under the Employment Equity Act , and this is the definition that Statistics Canada also uses .
For a complete list see : Canadian ethnic groups
= = Culture = =
Canada 's culture is a product of its ethnicities , languages , religions , political and legal system ( s ) . Canada has been shaped by waves of migration that have combined to form a unique blend of art , cuisine , literature , humour and music . Today , Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather than cultural assimilation . In Quebec , cultural identity is strong , and many French @-@ speaking commentators speak of a Quebec culture distinct from English Canadian culture . However , as a whole , Canada is a cultural mosaic : a collection of several regional , aboriginal , and ethnic subcultures .
Canadian government policies such as official bilingualism ; publicly funded health care ; higher and more progressive taxation ; outlawing capital punishment ; strong efforts to eliminate poverty ; strict gun control ; leniency in regard to drug use , and , most recently , legalizing same @-@ sex marriage are social indicators of Canada 's political and cultural values . American media and entertainment are popular , if not dominant , in English Canada ; conversely , many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide . The Government of Canada has also influenced culture with programs , laws and institutions . It has created Crown corporations to promote Canadian culture through media and has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content .
Canadian culture has historically been influenced by Aboriginal , French and British cultures and traditions . Most of Canada 's territory was inhabited and developed later than other European colonies in the Americas , with the result that themes and symbols of pioneers , trappers , and traders were important in the early development of the Canadian identity . First Nations played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada , particularly for their role in assisting exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade . The British conquest of New France in the mid @-@ 1700s brought a large Francophone population under British Imperial rule , creating a need for compromise and accommodation . The new British rulers left alone much of the religious , political , and social culture of the French @-@ speaking habitants , guaranteeing through the Quebec Act of 1774 the right of the Canadiens to practise the Catholic faith and to use French civil law ( now Quebec law ) .
The Constitution Act of 1867 was designed to meet the growing calls of Canadians for autonomy from British rule , while avoiding the overly strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United States . The compromises made by the Fathers of Confederation set Canadians on a path to bilingualism , and this in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity .
The Canadian Forces and overall civilian participation in the First World War and Second World War helped to foster Canadian nationalism , however in 1917 and 1944 conscription crisis ' highlighted the considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones . As a result of the First and Second World Wars , the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority . With the gradual loosening of political ties to the United Kingdom and the modernization of Canadian immigration policies , 20th @-@ century immigrants with African , Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture . The multiple @-@ origins immigration pattern continues today with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants from non @-@ British or non @-@ French backgrounds .
Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the government during the premiership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau in the 1970s and 1980s . The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration . Multiculturalism is administered by the Department of Citizenship and Immigration and reflected in the law through the Canadian Multiculturalism Act and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms .
= = = Religion = = =
Canada as a nation is religiously diverse , encompassing a wide range of groups , beliefs and customs . The preamble to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms references " God " , and the monarch carries the title of " Defender of the Faith " . However Canada has no official religion , and support for religious pluralism ( Freedom of religion in Canada ) is an important part of Canada 's political culture . With the role of Christianity in decline , having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life ; commentators have suggested that Canada has come to enter a post @-@ Christian period in a secular state , with irreligion in Canada on the rise . The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives , but still believe in God . The practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter throughout society and within the state .
The 2011 Canadian census reported that 67 @.@ 3 % of Canadians identify as being Christians ; of this number , Catholics make up the largest group , accounting for 38 @.@ 7 percent of the population . The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada ( accounting for 6 @.@ 1 % of Canadians ) ; followed by Anglicans ( 5 @.@ 0 % ) , and Baptists ( 1 @.@ 9 % ) . About 23 @.@ 9 % of Canadians declare no religious affiliation , including agnostics , atheists , humanists , and other groups . The remaining are affiliated with non @-@ Christian religions , the largest of which is Islam ( 3 @.@ 2 % ) , followed by Hinduism ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) , Sikhism ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) , Buddhism ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) , and Judaism ( 1 @.@ 0 % ) .
Before the arrival of European colonists and explorers , First Nations followed a wide array of mostly animistic religions . During the colonial period , the French settled along the shores of the Saint Lawrence River , specifically Latin Rite Roman Catholics , including a number of Jesuits dedicated to converting Aboriginals ; an effort that eventually proved successful . The first large Protestant communities were formed in the Maritimes after the British conquest of New France , followed by American Protestant settlers displaced by the American Revolution . The late nineteenth century saw the beginning of a substantive shift in Canadian immigration patterns . Large numbers of Irish and Southern Europeans immigrants were creating new Roman Catholic communities in English Canada . The settlement of the west brought significant Eastern Orthodox immigrants from Eastern Europe and Mormon and Pentecostal immigrants from the United States .
The earliest documentation of Jewish presence in Canada occurs in the 1754 British Army records from the French and Indian War . In 1760 , General Jeffrey Amherst , 1st Baron Amherst attacked and won Montreal for the British . In his regiment there were several Jews , including four among his officer corps , most notably Lieutenant Aaron Hart who is considered the father of Canadian Jewry . The Islamic , Jains , Sikh , Hindu and Buddhist communities , although small , are as old as the nation itself . The 1871 Canadian Census ( first " Canadian " national census ) indicated thirteen Muslims among the populace , with approximately 5000 Sikh by 1908 . The first Canadian mosque was constructed in Edmonton , in 1938 , when there were approximately 700 Muslims in Canada . Buddhism first arrived in Canada when Japanese immigrated during the late 19th century . The first Japanese Buddhist temple in Canada was built in Vancouver in 1905 . The influx of immigrants in the late 20th century , with Sri Lankan , Japanese , Indian and Southeast Asian customs , has contributed to the recent expansion of the Jain , Sikh , Hindu and Buddhist communities .
= = = Languages = = =
A multitude of languages are used by 35 million Canadians , with English and French ( the official languages ) being the mother tongues of approximately 60 % and 20 % of Canadians respectively . In 2011 , nearly 6 @.@ 8 million Canadians listed a non @-@ official language as their mother tongue . Some of the most common non @-@ official first languages include Chinese ( mainly Cantonese ; 1 @,@ 072 @,@ 555 first @-@ language speakers ) , Punjabi ( 430 @,@ 705 ) , Spanish ( 410 @,@ 670 ) , German ( 409 @,@ 200 ) , and Italian ( 407 @,@ 490 ) . Less than one percent of Canadians ( just over 250 @,@ 000 individuals ) can speak an aboriginal language . About half this number ( 129 @,@ 865 ) reported using an aboriginal language on a daily basis . Additionally , Canadians speak several sign languages ; it is unknown the number of speakers of the most spoken languages , ASL and LSQ , nor of Maritime Sign Language or of Plains Sign Talk . There are only 47 speakers of the Inuit language Inuiuuk .
English and French are recognized by the Constitution of Canada as official languages . Thus all federal government laws are enacted in both English and French with government services available in both languages . Two of Canada 's territories give official status to indigenous languages . In Nunavut , Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun are official languages alongside the national languages of English and French , and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in territorial government . In the Northwest Territories , the Official Languages Act declares that there are eleven different languages : Chipewyan , Cree , English , French , Gwich ’ in , Inuinnaqtun , Inuktitut , Inuvialuktun , North Slavey , South Slavey and Tłįchǫ . Multicultural media are widely accessible across the county and offer specialty television channels , newspapers and other publications in many minority languages .
In Canada , as elsewhere in the world of European colonies , the frontier of European exploration and settlement tended to be a linguistically diverse and fluid place , as cultures using different languages met and interacted . The need for a common means of communication between the indigenous inhabitants and new arrivals for the purposes of trade , and ( in some cases ) intermarriage , led to the development of Mixed languages . Languages like Michif , Chinook Jargon and Bungi creole tended to be highly localized and were often spoken by only a small number of individuals who were frequently capable of speaking another language . Reaching across Canada , the United States and into Mexico existed Plains Sign Talk which functioned originally as a trade language used to communicate internationally and across linguistic borders .
= SMS Prinzregent Luitpold =
SMS Prinzregent Luitpold was the fifth and final vessel of the Kaiser class of battleships of the Imperial German Navy . Prinzregent Luitpold 's keel was laid in October 1910 at the Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel . She was launched on 17 February 1912 and was commissioned into the navy on 19 August 1913 . The ship was equipped with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets , and had a top speed of 21 @.@ 7 knots ( 40 @.@ 2 km / h ; 25 @.@ 0 mph ) .
Prinzregent Luitpold was assigned to the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career ; in December 1916 , she was transferred to the IV Battle Squadron . Along with her four sister ships , Kaiser , Friedrich der Grosse , Kaiserin , and König Albert , Prinzregent Luitpold participated in all of the major fleet operations of World War I , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . The ship was also involved in Operation Albion , an amphibious assault on the Russian @-@ held islands in the Gulf of Riga , in late 1917 .
After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Prinzregent Luitpold and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Prinzregent Luitpold was raised in July 1931 and subsequently broken up for scrap in 1933 .
= = Construction = =
Prinzregent Luitpold was 172 @.@ 4 m ( 565 ft 7 in ) long overall and displaced a maximum of 27 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 26 @,@ 570 long tons ) . She had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 1 m ( 29 ft 10 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 8 m ( 28 ft 10 in ) aft . She had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ 043 enlisted men . Prinzregent Luitpold was powered by two sets of Parsons steam turbines , supplied with steam by 14 coal @-@ fired boilers . Unlike her four sisters , the ship was intended to use a diesel engine on the center shaft , but this was not ready by the time work on the ship was completed . The engine was never installed , and so Prinzregent Luitpold was slightly slower than her sisters , which were equipped with a third turbine on the center shaft . The powerplant produced a top speed of 21 @.@ 7 knots ( 40 @.@ 2 km / h ; 25 @.@ 0 mph ) . She carried 3 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 540 long tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of 7 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 630 km ; 9 @,@ 090 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
Prinzregent Luitpold was armed with a main battery of ten 30 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 50 guns in five twin turrets . The ship dispensed with the inefficient hexagonal turret arrangement of previous German battleships ; instead , three of the five turrets were mounted on the centerline , one forward and two of them arranged in a superfiring pair aft . The other two turrets were placed en echelon amidships , such that both could fire on the broadside . The ship was also armed with fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates amidships , eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates and four 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship 's armament was rounded out by five 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted in the hull ; one was in the bow , and the other four were on the broadside .
= = Service history = =
Ordered under the contract name Ersatz Odin as a replacement for the obsolete coastal defense ship Odin , Prinzregent Luitpold was laid down at the Howaldtswerke dockyard in Kiel in October 1910 . She was launched on 17 February 1912 and christened by Princess Theresa of Bavaria ; Ludwig III , the last king of Bavaria and the son of the ship 's namesake , Luitpold , Prince Regent of Bavaria , gave a speech . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 19 August 1913 . Prinzregent Luitpold was equipped with facilities for a squadron commander , and became the flagship of the III Battle Squadron upon commissioning .
Directly after commissioning , Prinzregent Luitpold took part in the annual autumn maneuvers , which followed the fleet cruise to Norway . The exercises lasted from 31 August to 9 September . Unit drills and individual ship training were conducted in October and November . In early 1914 , Prinzregent Luitpold participated in additional ship and unit training . The annual spring maneuvers were conducted in the North Sea at the end of March . Further fleet exercises followed in April and May in the Baltic and North Seas . The ship went to Kiel Week that year . Despite the rising international tensions following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June , the High Seas Fleet began its summer cruise to Norway on 13 July . During the last peacetime cruise of the Imperial Navy , the fleet conducted drills off Skagen before proceeding to the Norwegian fjords on 25 July . The following day the fleet began to steam back to Germany , as a result of Austria @-@ Hungary 's ultimatum to Serbia . On the 27th , the entire fleet assembled off Cape Skadenes before returning to port , where they remained at a heightened state of readiness . War between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia broke out the following day , and in the span of a week all of the major European powers had joined the conflict .
Prinzregent Luitpold was present during the first sortie by the German fleet into the North Sea , which took place on 2 – 3 November 1914 . No British forces were encountered during the operation . A second operation followed on 15 – 16 December . This sortie was the initiation of a strategy adopted by Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet . He intended to use the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group to raid British coastal towns to lure out portions of the British Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet . Early on 15 December the fleet left port to raid the towns of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby . That evening , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts — including Prinzregent Luitpold and her four sisters — and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced von Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battle fleet back toward Germany .
Prinzregent Luitpold went into the Baltic for squadron training from 23 to 29 January 1916 . While on the maneuvers , the newer battleship König became the III Squadron flagship . Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the commander of III Squadron , lowered his flag on 24 January and transferred it to König . The Kaiser removed von Ingenohl from his post on 2 February , following the loss of the armored cruiser SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank the month before . Admiral Hugo von Pohl succeeded him as the commander of the fleet . Pohl continued the policy of sweeps into the North Sea to destroy isolated British formations . On 24 April , Prinzregent Luitpold ran aground in the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal , though she was freed without causing significant damage . A series of advances into the North Sea were conducted throughout the rest of 1915 ; Prinzregent Luitpold was present for the sweeps on 17 – 18 May , 29 – 30 May , 10 August , 11 – 12 September , and 23 – 24 October . The III Squadron completed the year with another round of unit training in the Baltic on 5 – 20 December .
Pohl 's tenure as fleet commander was brief ; by January 1916 hepatic cancer had weakened him to the point where he was no longer able to carry out his duties . He was replaced by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer in January . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the Hoofden . Prinzregent Luitpold was also present during an advance to the Amrun Bank on 2 – 3 April . Another sortie was conducted on 21 – 22 April .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Prinzregent Luitpold was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . During the operation , Prinzregent Luitpold was the third ship in the VI Division of III Squadron and the seventh ship in the line , directly astern of Kaiserin and ahead of Friedrich der Grosse . The VI Division was behind only the V Division , consisting of the four König @-@ class battleships . The eight Helgoland- and Nassau @-@ class battleships of the I and II Divisions in I Squadron followed the VI Division . The six elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the III and IV Divisions in II Battle Squadron formed the rear of the formation .
Shortly before 16 : 00 , the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Vice Admiral David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , the crew of the leading German battleship , König , spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
Prinzregent Luitpold engaged the nearest target her gunners could make out , one of the Lion @-@ class battlecruisers , at a range of some 22 @,@ 300 yd ( 20 @,@ 400 m ) , though her shots fell short . Beatty 's ships increased speed and at 17 : 51 veered away to further increase the distance to the III Squadron battleships . At 18 : 08 , Prinzregent Luitpold shifted her fire to the battleship Malaya at a range of 19 @,@ 100 yd ( 17 @,@ 500 m ) , though without any success . By 18 : 38 , Malaya disappeared in the haze and Prinzregent Luitpold was forced to cease fire . The British destroyers Nestor and Nomad , which had been disabled earlier in the engagement , lay directly in the path of the advancing High Seas Fleet . Prinzregent Luitpold and her three sisters destroyed Nomad with their secondary guns while the I Squadron battleships dispatched Nestor . At around 19 : 00 , the German battle line came into contact with the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron ; Prinzregent Luitpold fired two salvos from her main battery at an unidentified four @-@ funneled cruiser at 19 : 03 but made no hits .
Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible ; Rear Admiral Paul Behncke in König attempted to maneuver the III Squadron to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . The eight III Squadron battleships fired on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive off the British cruisers . The armored cruisers Defence , Warrior , and Black Prince joined in the attack on the crippled Wiesbaden . Between 19 : 14 and 19 : 17 , several German battleships and battlecruisers opened fire on Defence and Warrior . Instead of joining the fire on the much closer cruisers , Prinzregent Luitpold engaged the leading battleships of the British line , firing a total of 21 salvos . The gunners reported ranges of 17 @,@ 500 to 18 @,@ 800 yd ( 16 @,@ 000 to 17 @,@ 200 m ) , though this was an overestimation that caused the ship 's salvos to fall past their intended target .
By 20 : 00 , the German line was ordered to complete a 180 @-@ degree turn eastward to disengage from the British fleet . The maneuver , conducted under heavy fire , caused disorganization in the German fleet . Kaiserin had come too close to Prinzregent Luitpold and was forced to haul out of line to starboard to avoid a collision . Prinzregent Luitpold came up alongside Kaiserin at high speed , which forced Kaiserin to remain out of line temporarily . The turn reversed the order of the German line ; Prinzregent Luitpold was now the eighth ship from the rear of the German line , leading the III Squadron . At around 23 : 30 , the German fleet reorganized into the night @-@ cruising formation . Kaiserin was the eleventh ship , in the center of the 24 @-@ ship line .
After a series of night engagements between the leading battleships and British destroyers , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British light forces and reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . The German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later ; the I Squadron battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead , and Prinzregent Luitpold , Kaiserin , Kaiser , and Kronprinz stood ready just outside the entrance to Wilhelmshaven . The remainder of the battleships and battlecruisers entered Wilhelmshaven , where those that were still in fighting condition replenished their stocks of coal and ammunition . In the course of the battle , Prinzregent Luitpold fired one @-@ hundred and sixty @-@ nine 30 @.@ 5 cm shells and one @-@ hundred and six 15 cm rounds . She and her crew emerged from the battle completely unscathed .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
In early August , Prinzregent Luitpold and the rest of the operational III Squadron units conducted divisional training in the Baltic . On 18 August , Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the 31 May operation ; the two serviceable German battlecruisers — Moltke and Von der Tann — supported by three dreadnoughts , were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . The rest of the fleet , including Prinzregent Luitpold , would trail behind and provide cover . During the operation , Prinzregent Luitpold carried the Commander of U @-@ boats . On the approach to the English coast , Scheer turned north after receiving a false report from a zeppelin about a British unit in the area . As a result , the bombardment was not carried out , and by 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and so turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Another fleet advance followed on 18 – 20 October , though it ended without encountering any British units . Two weeks later , on 4 November , Prinzregent Luitpold took part in an expedition to the western coast of Denmark to assist two U @-@ boats — U @-@ 20 and U @-@ 30 — that had become stranded there . The fleet was reorganized on 1 December ; the four König @-@ class battleships remained in III Squadron , along with the newly commissioned Bayern , while the five Kaiser @-@ class ships , including Prinzregent Luitpold , were transferred to IV Squadron . Prinzregent Luitpold became the flagship of the new squadron . In the Wilhelmshaven Roads on 20 January 1917 , the ship struck a steel hawser that became entangled in the ship 's starboard propeller . In March , Friedrich der Grosse was replaced as the fleet flagship by the newly commissioned battleship Baden . Friedrich der Grosse in turn replaced Prinzregent Luitpold as the flagship of IV Squadron . Steadily decreasing morale and discontent with rations provoked a series of small mutinies in the fleet . On 6 June and 19 July , stokers protested the low quality of the food they were given , and on 2 August , some 800 men went on a hunger strike . The ship 's officers relented and agreed to form a Menagekommission , a council that gave the enlisted men a voice in their ration selection and preparation . One of the ringleaders of the protests , however , was arrested and executed on 5 September .
= = = Operation Albion = = =
In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands
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the 12th century , Southampton was an important trading port with trade routes to Normandy , the Levant and Gascony . Both the town and castle played an important role in this trade , in part forming a warehouse for the king 's imports , this process being managed by a Crown Bailiff . The former castle hall was turned into a subterranean vault in the 13th century , probably for storing wine . Stone houses , often combining accommodation and storage facilities , began to be built in Southampton by the wealthiest merchants , particularly in the prosperous western and southern parts of the town , but these properties could not be easily defended against attack .
The English Channel was contested militarily between England and France during the 13th century , and Southampton was both an important base for naval operations and a tempting target for raiders . At the start of the 13th century additional work was therefore conducted to improve the town 's defences ; the king granted £ 100 in 1202 and again in 1203 to help develop the earth banks around the town . By 1217 East Gate had been built , probably of stone . In 1260 a murage grant was given to Southampton by Edward I , allowing the town to tax selected imports to build and maintain new stone walls ; these initial murage grants ran from 1260 to 1275 and were then renewed between 1282 and 1285 and from 1286 to 1291 . By the end of this work , many of the earth banks in the north and east of the town had been converted to stone . There appears to have been little interest in defending the west and south quays , however , probably because doing so would have hampered Southampton 's merchants when they moved their trading goods in and out of the town .
= = = 14th century = = =
By 1300 , Southampton was a major port and a large provincial town , with a population of around 5 @,@ 000 . The raising of money through murage grants began again in 1321 , possibly paying for the stone towers of the Bargate and some of the semi @-@ circular wall towers . Work also appears to have begun on some stone walling to the south and west of the town , construction may have begun at the South Gate and a wooden barbican was constructed near the western docks . Later investigations by the Crown would suggest that some of the monies raised in these murage grants had been misspent , however , contributing to the poor standard of town defences , which included large gaps in the walled circuit .
In 1338 there was a successful French attack on Southampton : the town 's defences , particularly in the west , proved quite inadequate and the French succeeded in burning numerous buildings down , particularly along the western quays , and damaging the castle . Edward III responded to the raid by taking immediate steps to shore up Southampton 's defences and ordering the town to be fully enclosed by stone walls . In 1339 the sheriff conscripted workmen and specialists to improve the defences , and money to pay for the building materials was raised by commuting the prison sentence of a senior official in Southampton to a fine . Murage grants were reinstated in 1345 , but the economy of Southampton had been temporarily devastated by the raids and indeed never fully recovered . The king 's instructions to fully enclose the town with walls could not be carried out . Nonetheless , by the 1350s , Southampton had mounted mangonel and springald siege engines on the existing walls .
In 1360 the king conducted an inquiry into Southampton 's defences and in 1363 he established a wider commission to examine how best to improve them . The commission came to a number of conclusions : the town walls should be better maintained and kept clear of housing and other obstructions ; the number of gateways in the walls should be reduced ; and a water @-@ filled ditch should be built to further reinforce the walls on the west . The enquiry also concluded that the outer doors and ground floor windows of properties facing the sea should be filled in to form a more defensible line .
The resulting work on Southampton 's defences resulted in considerable improvements : by the late 14th century , the town was completely encircled by 2 km ( 1 @.@ 25 miles ) of stone walls . Some existing buildings , including a dovecote , were reinforced and pressed into service as part of the defences . South Gate was built to protect the southern quays , with a wide archway , complete with parapets and machicolations . The building work proved very expensive , however , and despite the mayor and bailiffs enforcing contributions and assistance from the citizens , Parliament had to be asked several times in the 1370s to assist by remitting arrears of taxes owed by Southampton .
In 1370 the French made a successful attack on Portsmouth , commencing a new sequence of raids along the English coast . In due course first Edward , then Richard II , responded by improving the defences in the south of England . Part of this involved improving the condition of Southampton Castle , where , owing in part to the theft of building materials , including stone and lead , by the citizens of the town , the defences were in a poor condition . Henry Yevele , who oversaw the improvements to the castle , probably also constructed the Arcades along the western walls in 1380 : this involved adopting the 1360 proposal to block up the properties along the western quay to form a solid wall , and adding three towers and gunports . Sir John Sondes and John Polymond were appointed by the king in 1386 to further improve the town walls , working with Sir John Arundel , the castle governor – Polymond and Arundel Towers were probably named after these men around this time .
One of the major changes from the 1370s onwards was the adaptation of the town walls to mount gunpowder weapons . At this time cannon were still unreliable , only capable of reaching relatively short ranges and required the construction of specialist gunports . Cannons fired stone cannonballs , which did relatively little damage to stronger stone walls , and so were primarily used in defence of fortifications rather than as an offensive weapon by besiegers . The first gunports in Britain were installed in the 1360s on the Isle of Wight , but Southampton was not far behind . Around 1378 to 1379 the ongoing French threat led to gunports for handguns being built into the western Arcade wall , and by 1382 the town bought its own gun . God 's House Tower was built to defend the southern quays around 1417 and the sluices that controlled the level of the town 's moats , and equipped with numerous gunports rooftop firing points , and by 1439 Catchcold tower had also been constructed , again designed to accommodate gunpowder weapons .
Another change in the 1370s was the formalisation of the process of guarding and maintaining the walls . During the invasion scare of 1377 , Edward instructed the mayor to review these processes ; it appears that the four wards of the town were surveyed , and each property was assigned a piece of the wall to maintain , varying according to the size of the property . For these purposes , the walls were measured out in units called loupes , or embrasures . The four wards were also responsible for the security and policing of the town .
= = = 15th – 16th centuries = = =
The threat of French attack continued throughout the 15th century . Instead of relying on murage grants , more funds for the town walls were directly granted by the king in 1400 , including an ongoing annual grant of £ 100 . Concerns increased significantly after the invasion scare of 1457 , when French troops successfully attacked the town of Sandwich on the south coast . Indeed , the guns on Southampton 's walls were fired at French raiding ships the same year . The walls continued to be maintained for the rest of the century , with £ 40 being allocated annually between 1478 and 1485 for this purpose . By contrast , the castle fell into a rapid decline and its inner bailey became used first as a rubbish tip , then for small @-@ scale agriculture .
Nonetheless , a report on the quality of the walls around 1460 noted that on the north and east sides of Southampton , the walls were still too thin to block a cannon shot or for a man to stand on them ; a wood and earth wall @-@ walk had been built behind the walls , but this was proving very expensive to maintain . This contemporary assessment of the weakness of the eastern walls has been confirmed by modern archaeological excavation – in places it was only 0 @.@ 76 m ( 2 @.@ 49 feet ) thick , compared to a typical thickness in other English town walls of around 1 m ( 3 @.@ 28 feet ) .
A survey in 1454 , undertaken against the background of another French invasion scare , shows that the 1377 system for maintaining the walls was still in operation . A town gunner had also been appointed by the 15th century , earning the highest salary of any local official and was responsible for maintaining the guns and manufacturing gunpowder . As late as the mid @-@ 16th century , additional improved rectangular gunports , similar to those on the Device Forts along the Channel , were added to the West Gate by the quays .
Several of the gatehouses played an important part in the administration of the town in the 15th century . South Gate formed the main administrative centre for the port during the period , housing the Clerk of the King 's Ships and collecting customs revenue . It was expanded in the 1430s and 1440s , but was in poor condition again by the 1480s , resulting in fresh construction work around the site . Bargate was partially used as a prison from the 15th century , in a similar fashion to many other towns . The first floor of the building had been used as the town 's guildhall from at least 1441 onwards , and the treasury was kept in one of the towers . Elaborate feasts were served there on special occasions .
= = = 17th – 20th centuries = = =
The town walls became less important for defence in the 17th century , although in 1633 , a footpath was built around the inside of the wall to help the watch and other law officers better pursue vagrants and criminals . The walls fared better than Southampton Castle , which was sold off to property speculators in 1618 , but they played no part in the English Civil War . Some of the masonry from the castle was reused to strengthen the town walls in 1650 during the Third English Civil War .
In the 18th century onwards the town walls were often adapted for new uses or simply demolished . As early as 1641 , the chapel above East Gate had been leased out to private tenants . By 1707 , part of God 's House tower was being used as a prison ; from 1786 it became the official town gaol . As the century progressed , East Gate was demolished in 1774 , South Gate was mostly demolished in 1803 and Biddles Gate shortly afterwards , along with large sections of adjacent wall .
As the 19th century progressed , the destruction and remodelling of the town walls continued . The upper stories of Polymond Tower were demolished in the 1820s , to be rebuilt by 1846 as a shorter , two @-@ storey tower . The remains of the South Gate were turned into a hotel . God 's House tower continued to be used as a gaol , but was criticised by inspectors . An 1823 report described it as an " old and very awkward " facility , containing around a dozen prisoners in damp conditions , and where it was hard to separate the male and female prisoners in an appropriate fashion . In 1855 its role as a gaol was concluded , and the building fell into disuse .
In other areas , civic improvements were attempted . In 1853 the " Forty Steps " were built down the side of the west walls to make access to the town easier . Parts of the Arcades were blocked up to prevent homeless people from sleeping under the arches and disturbing the neighbourhood . The Bargate ceased to be used as the guildhall in 1888 and was heavily restored by the town in what was felt to be a more consistent medieval style .
The urban growth of Southampton , as in many English walled towns and cities , put considerable pressure on the older fortifications . In 1898 to 1899 , for example , parts of the wall west of Biddles Gate , including a square tower , were demolished to create the Western Esplanade road . By the second half of the century , the Bargate and the surrounding walls were creating serious traffic congestion ; various options were considered to relieve this including demolition , but it was not until the 1930s that the decision was made to retain the gatehouse , but to destroy the walls on either side .
Some parts of the Southampton walls were used to mount searchlights and machineguns on during the Second World War ; the walls escaped damage , unlike many other areas of the medieval city . In the post @-@ war period the historic importance of the town walls was recognised and considerable conservation work has been conducted on the walls , including reversing the Victorian alterations to the Arcades . The town walls became seen as an important part of Southampton 's tourist industry ; health and safety concerns , however , prohibit tourists walking along most of the circuit . God 's House tower reopened in 1961 opened as Southampton 's Museum of Archaeology . Today the walls are protected as grade I listed buildings and as a scheduled monument .
= = Architecture = =
Around half the length of the 2 km ( 1 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ) long medieval town walls still survives in the 21st century , mainly on the north and west sides of Southampton , together with 13 of the 29 defensive towers and six out of the eight gates . The towers are a combination of circular and square designs , with many showing an " open @-@ gorged " design , similar to those built in North Wales , that could be isolated from the rest of the walls by removing small wooden bridges . In general the town walls at Southampton were poorly built in a somewhat chaotic fashion over several years . By contrast , the surviving gatehouses are sophisticated and well designed , probably as a result of their civic importance . Historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham describe the surviving walls as " extremely well preserved " and containing " unique survivals in a British context " .
In the south @-@ east corner of the walls is God 's House tower . This is architecturally important as it was one of the first urban buildings to be built to hold gunpowder artillery – in this respect , it closely resembles Cow Tower in Norwich . The tower was built alongside God 's House Gate and is three storeys high . The gunports designed for handcannon can be seen on the outside , and the roof was designed to hold larger cannon . Adjacent to the tower is God 's House Gate , a two @-@ storey building also equipped with a gun @-@ port .
Little remains of the eastern walls , but in the north @-@ east corner several towers still remain largely intact , including Polymond tower , a powerful drum tower largely reconstructed during the Victorian period . Further west is the Bargate ; this was originally a simple archway but was expanded with drum towers and arrow slits in the early 14th century , and then expanded again in the early 15th century with battlements and parapets , before being heavily restored in the 19th century . The Bargate remains an elaborate building , taking military symbolism and combining it with rich civic heraldry and decoration above the gateway .
At the north @-@ west corner of the walls stands Arundel tower , another large drum tower that originally overlooked a small cliff . South of this is Catchcold tower . Catchcold tower was designed to be defended with guns and has three gunports ; the need to support cannon leaves it much heavier in appearance than the other circular towers on the walls . The remains of machine gun mountings fitted to the tower in 1941 can still be seen . The Arcades form part of the surviving west walls and are a unique feature in England ; their closest architectural equivalent are in Rouen , France . The West Gate still stands three storeys high and was originally defended by two portcullises ; the windows on the west side of the gate are the original medieval designs . Along the south side of the walls one of the twin towers protecting the South Gate still stands , largely intact .
= Peter 's Two Dads =
" Peter 's Two Dads " is the tenth episode of the fifth season of Family Guy . The episode originally aired on Fox on February 11 , 2007 . The plot follows Peter traveling to Ireland to find his biological father , after he accidentally kills his stepfather at his daughter 's birthday party . Meanwhile , Stewie undergoes a phase of selfishness , believing everything belongs to him . This results in Lois spanking him , which makes him realize he is a masochist . Also , Meg turns 17 in the episode .
The episode was written by Danny Smith and directed by Cyndi Tang , with Greg Lovell as co @-@ director . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 97 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Dan Conroy , Phyllis Diller , Charles Durning and Fred Tatasciore . It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics , for the episode 's song entitled " Drunken Irish Dad " , at the 59th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards .
= = Plot = =
Meg asks Lois and Peter if she can have a birthday party , preferably a teenager @-@ type party with a band playing at her house . Unfortunately , Peter and Lois don 't even know how old Meg is going to be . They have bought sixteen candles , but Meg overreacts when telling them that she is turning seventeen years old , and calls them jerks . Meg notices that her birthday party is kiddie @-@ type , with games such as Pin the Tail on the Donkey . At the party , Peter dresses up as " Pee Pants the Inebriated Hobo Clown " , " an adorable tramp who wears found clothing and eats out of your garbage can " . Peter then tells Meg that he got her a scarf for her birthday . Meg declines , while Peter then says he got her " a dozen scarves " which Peter then proceeds to regurgitate as one long scarf , as he has actually tied and swallowed them ( which Lois says he was not supposed to do ) . This causes him to cough and vomit . Peter hands Meg the long scarf from his tongue , but Meg refuses to hold it . Peter then urges Meg to hold them , and then asks if his long johns are tied to the end of them . When Meg says they are not , Peter then says " Oh , god " and regurgitates them as well , and then crouches in pain following the ordeal . Meg asks Lois if she can open her gifts , and Meg notices Stewie opening most of them . Peter gets drunk , and attempts to ride a unicycle down the steps , but falls off and crushes his father , Francis , who later dies in the hospital from the accident . Just before Francis dies , he calls Peter " a fat stinking drunk " .
Peter is disappointed since Francis did not care about him – so he gives up drinking and does crack instead . Brian notices this , and tells Peter that crack is not a good substitute for drinking . As a result , Peter sees a hypnotherapist , who helps him discover that Francis was not his biological father . When Peter goes to his mom , Thelma Griffin , about it , she reveals that she had an affair with Irish man named Mickey McFinnigan and that Mickey is Peter 's biological father .
Brian and Peter travel to a village in Ireland to find Mickey , who they discover is the town drunk . At first horrified , Peter finds out it is considered an honorable position in Ireland by the locals . Mickey refuses to believe that Peter is his son and mocks him . When Peter sees the ghosts of Yoda , Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi , Francis and Hayden Christensen , the first three call him a " fat stinking drunk " , Francis ' last words to Peter , which gives him an idea . In an attempt to persuade him , Peter challenges Mickey to a drinking contest , which Peter wins . During the contest , Peter and Mickey talk about American looks and diet in a drunk language . After the contest Mickey finally believes that Peter is his son , feeling that nobody but a member of his own family could beat him in something like a drinking contest . Although Peter 's excited to have formed a bond with his real father , Brian points out that while Francis may not have been Peter 's real father ( and obviously wasn 't the nicest person ever ) , he did raise Peter like he was his own son , showing that deep down , Francis really did love Peter . After Mickey says " So what ? " to Peter 's statement , " You knocked up my mom and never called her again . " Peter says " So what ? So let 's dance ! " . Peter , Mickey and the Irish crowd enter dancing and singing to " Drunken Irish Dad . " During the last few seconds of the dance , Mickey states that the Irish do not tan well .
= = = Subplot = = =
Lois spanks Stewie while going through his " it 's mine " phase , claiming everything in the house as his own . At first he is traumatized by the ordeal , but he soon comes to realize that he likes the adrenaline rush that he gets from them , and starts deliberately misbehaving in the hope that Lois will hurt him again , but fails yet realizing he has a problem .
= = Production = =
This episode marks the third appearance of Francis Griffin . As of now , episode writer and series co @-@ executive producer Danny Smith has written all Family Guy episodes to date to feature Francis when he was alive . Show creator Seth MacFarlane comments that the episode came together and played great from start to finish . Prior to the making of the episode , there had been several different ideas and disagreements for Peter 's father 's appearance . MacFarlane comments that he had always pictured Peter 's father to be a fat , drunk leprechaun . The negativity of Francis was becoming " dull to write for " , hence the storyline of Peter finding his biological father . MacFarlane also mentions not having ideas to write for Kevin , Joe Swanson 's son , who was mentioned in a later episode that he died in the war of Iraq ( Stew @-@ Roids ) . A deleted scene showed Peter pretending to quit drinking , but continuing quietly was one of several scenes that was removed from airing as it and the others were described by the producers to be " not going anywhere . "
The scene with Peter in the hypnotherapist 's office was censored from television , as Peter discusses his genitals and reproductive organs . When Peter comes to the realization that Francis is not his real father and when Stewie dreams about being tortured by Lois , a harp sound can be heard ; MacFarlane comments that even small things like that take a lot of work to produce . The alcohol bottles being pushed by the airplane that Peter and Brian are traveling on were animated by computer , as is the taxi driving along the street . On the DVD commentary , MacFarlane notes that the scene would not have looked good without computer aid . He said it makes the animations seem more realistic than without a computer . The two men circling each other for fifty years and waiting for the other to throw the first punch was not broadcast for television .
In addition to the regular cast , actor Dan Conroy , actress Phyllis Diller , actor Charles Durning , and voice actor Fred Tatasciore guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Alex Breckenridge , Chris Cox , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
Stewie draws a picture of David Tua on the wall to try to get Lois to hit him . It also mocks the main character 's decisions in Pet Sematary when Peter buried Francis ' body at the same cemetery to resurrect him , but decided against it after Francis , as a zombie , jumped out of the grave in a jump scare , remarking " Okay , maybe I 'll bury him in a regular cemetery . " Peter briefly transforms into Wonder Woman after discovering his biological father is not Francis : this is a reference to Wonder Woman , and although the show could not receive rights to reproduce the original music , the scene was still broadcast . Before Peter and Brian leave to Ireland , Meg tells Peter she loves him , in which he replies , " That 'll do pig , that 'll do " , which is a reference to the film Babe . When Francis showed up as a ghost along with Yoda and Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi , Hayden Christensen said " And I 'm Hayden Christensen " , as a reference to the ending of Return of the Jedi in the remastered DVD . The song Chris and Herbert sing at the party and up in a tree is " Friends and Lovers " by Gloria Loring and Carl Anderson .
= = Reception = =
In a significant decrease from the previous week , the episode was viewed in 7 @.@ 97 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 2 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , being slightly edged out by The Simpsons , while still winning over American Dad ! .
A reviewer from Boxxet commented that " when I checked the schedule and saw the title of this episode was ' Peter 's Two Dads ' , I was a little torn . First , the Peter @-@ centric episodes generally have a much higher chance of going off the rails , " following on to comment that " the episode that we did see still left me with something of a mixed reaction . " concluding with a positive comment that the episode " was well constructed . "
IGN 's Ahsan Haque noted that " despite a couple of underdeveloped plotlines and an overabundance of offensive and uncomfortable jokes , this week 's episode of Family Guy somehow manages to succeed with just enough truly hilarious moments and actual story elements . " MacFarlane has said that this is one of his favorite episodes , alongside " PTV " and " Road to Rhode Island . "
= Black mamba =
The black mamba ( Dendroaspis polylepis ) is a large and extremely venomous snake endemic to parts of sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Specimens vary in color from grey to dark brown , but not black . Juvenile black mambas tend to be lighter in color than adults and darken with age . It is the longest species of venomous snake indigenous to the African continent ; mature specimens generally exceed 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and commonly attain 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Specimens of 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 14 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 8 ft ) have been reported .
Although most mamba species are tree @-@ dwelling snakes , the black mamba is not generally arboreal , preferring lairs in terrestrial habitats in a range of terrains . These include savannah , woodlands , rocky slopes and in some regions dense forest . It is diurnal and chiefly an ambush predator , known to prey on hyrax , bushbabies and other small mammals as well as birds . It is also a pursuit predator ; in this it resembles some other long , speedy , highly @-@ venomous species with well @-@ developed vision . Over suitable surfaces it is possibly the speediest species of snake , capable of at least 11 km / h ( 6 @.@ 8 mph ) over short distances . Adult mambas have few natural predators .
In a threat display , the mamba usually opens its inky black mouth , spreads its narrow neck @-@ flap and sometimes hisses . It is capable of striking at considerable range and occasionally may deliver a series of bites in rapid succession . Its venom is primarily composed of potent neurotoxins which may cause fast onset of symptoms . Despite its reputation for being formidable and highly aggressive , like most snakes , it usually attempts to flee from humans unless threatened or cornered . Not being proximal to humans , bites from the black mamba are not frequent .
= = Taxonomy = =
The black mamba is the species Dendroaspis polylepis in the genus Dendroaspis of the family Elapidae . The first formal description was by Albert Günther in 1864 . Although it had been known previously to missionaries and residents by the name " mamba " . Which was already established in the vernacular , presumably borrowed from the Zulu language . In 1873 , Wilhelm Peters described two subspecies : the nominotypical D.polylepis polylepis and also D.polylepis antinorii . However , these are no longer held to be distinct . In 1896 , Boulenger combined the species ( Dendroaspis polylepis ) as a whole with the eastern green mamba ( Dendroaspis angusticeps ) , a lumping diagnosis that remained in force until 1946 , when FitzSimons split them into separate species again .
The generic name , Dendroaspis , derives from Ancient Greek dendro ( δένδρο ) , meaning " tree " , and aspis ( ασπίς ) , which is understood to mean " shield " , but also denotes " cobra " or simply " snake " , in particular " snake with hood ( shield ) " . Via Latin aspis , it is the source of the English word " asp " . In ancient texts , aspis or asp often referred to the Egyptian cobra ( Naja haje ) , in reference to its shield @-@ like hood . Thus , " Dendroaspis " literally means tree asp , reflecting the arboreal nature of most of the species within the genus .
The specific epithet polylepis is derived from the Ancient Greek poly meaning " many " and lepis meaning " scale " . It apparently refers to the scale count of this species , which is higher than some other species in the genus .
= = Description = =
Dendroaspis polylepis is a large , round @-@ bodied , slender , but powerful snake . It tapers smoothly towards the tail , but is of markedly more robust build than its distinctly gracile congeners Dendroaspis angusticeps and Dendroaspis viridis . The head is often said to be " coffin @-@ shaped " with a somewhat pronounced brow ridge and a medium @-@ sized eye . It is a highly proteroglyphous snake , with fangs up to 6 @.@ 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 26 in ) in length located at the front of the maxilla . The adult snake 's length ranges from 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) to 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) routinely but , according to some sources , specimens have grown to lengths of 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 14 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 8 ft ) . Black mambas weigh about 1 @.@ 6 kilograms ( 3 @.@ 5 lb ) on average . A specimen of 1 @.@ 41 meters ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) was found to have weighed 651 @.@ 7 g ( 1 @.@ 437 lb ) . Dendroaspis polylepis is the second longest venomous snake species , exceeded in length only by the king cobra .
In spite of its common name , the black mamba is not actually black ; in fact the interior of the snake 's mouth is its only conspicuously black feature . Specimens vary considerably in color ; some are olive @-@ brown to khaki , many are grey , and some individuals display dark mottling towards the posterior . Such mottling may appear in the form of oblique bars . The underbody is often pale yellow or cream colored and the eyes are dark brown to black with a silver or pale yellow corona surrounding the pupil . Juvenile snakes are lighter in color than adults , typically grey or olive green in appearance , and they darken with age .
The " black " mamba has been said to take its name from the color of the inside of its mouth , but this claim is an urban legend , a factoid that lacks objective or historical support . In particular , it was referred to as the " black mamba " decades before knowledge of the color of its oral mucosa was in common circulation . Common names for mambas are to be taken no more seriously than any other common names , and we find for example that attempts to impose the more logical common name " common mamba " for the " black mamba " , which after all is not black , have been abandoned in favor of applying " common mamba " to the Eastern green mamba , Dendroaspis angusticeps . In the mean time , since the late twentieth century , some authors have unquestioningly copied the claim that the name derived from the color of its open mouth .
= = = Scalation = = =
Like most Elapidae , the scales of the black mamba are smooth and flat , without keels . Most specimens feature 23 – 25 rows of scales , but rarely as few as 21 .
The head , body and tail scalation of the black mamba :
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The black mamba has a wide and fragmented range within sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Specifically , it has been observed in : north east Democratic Republic of the Congo , south western Sudan to Ethiopia , Eritrea , Somalia , Kenya , eastern Uganda , Tanzania , Burundi , Rwanda , southwards to Mozambique , Swaziland , Malawi , Zambia , Zimbabwe and Botswana to KwaZulu @-@ Natal in South Africa , and Namibia ; then north easterly through Angola to south eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo . The black mamba 's distribution contains gaps within the Central African Republic , Chad , Nigeria and Mali . These gaps may lead physicians to misidentify black mamba bites and administer an inappropriate antivenom .
The black mamba was also recorded in 1954 in West Africa , in the Dakar region of Senegal . However , this observation , and a subsequent observation that identified a second specimen in the region in 1956 , has not been confirmed and thus the snake 's distribution in this area is inconclusive . The black mamba is not commonly found at altitudes above 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , although its distribution does reach 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in Kenya and 1 @,@ 650 metres ( 5 @,@ 410 ft ) in Zambia .
The black mamba is primarily terrestrial , but occasionally arboreal , especially where it occurs in forest . Typically it inhabits neglected areas of scrub , termite mounds , abandoned burrows and rock crevices . It is adapted to terrain ranging from savannah and woodland to rocky slopes and dense forests . The black mamba prefers moderately dry environments such as light woodland and scrub , rocky outcrops , and semi @-@ arid dry savannah , to dense forest or arid desert .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
The black mamba is graceful but skittish and often unpredictable . It is agile and can move quickly . It is shy and secretive by nature and , like most snakes , avoids threats . In the wild , a black mamba seldom tolerates humans approaching more closely than about 40 meters . When confronted it can display great truculence and is likely to gape in a threat display , exposing its black mouth and flicking its tongue . It also is likely to form a hood by spreading its neck @-@ flap as cobras do . The mamba 's hood however , is narrower than that of a typical cobra . The threat display may be accompanied by audible hissing .
During the threat display , any sudden movement by the intruder may provoke the mamba into a series of rapid strikes leading to severe envenomation . Also , the size of the black mamba , plus its ability to raise its head well off the ground , enable it to launch as much as 40 % of its body length upwards , so that mamba bites in humans quite often are on the upper body , and correspondingly are likely to be difficult to treat . This behaviour also permits the snake to land a strike at unexpectedly long range . The black mamba 's reputed readiness to attack is often much exaggerated and usually is provoked by perceived threats , such as blocking its intended retreat , accidentally or otherwise .
= = = Speed = = =
For its slender body , the black mamba is deceptively powerful ; it is the fastest moving snake indigenous to Africa , and perhaps the fastest anywhere . It does however , move rather clumsily over soft sand , a surface to which it is not adapted . There have been many unrealistic stories concerning the black mamba 's speed , perhaps partly because the slender body exaggerates the impression of speed . These stories include the myth that it can outrun a galloping horse or a running human . On 23 April 1906 , on the Serengeti Plains , an intentionally provoked black mamba was recorded at a speed of 11 km / h ( 6 @.@ 8 mph ) , over a distance of 43 m ( 141 ft ) . A black mamba would almost certainly not be able to exceed 16 km / h ( 9 @.@ 9 mph ) , and like most reptiles it can maintain such relatively high speeds only for short distances .
= = = Diet = = =
The black mamba is diurnal and chiefly an ambush predator , though it has been recorded as hunting partly by pursuit , such as catching pigeons at a watering hole before they can gain sufficient height to escape . It usually goes hunting from a permanent lair , to which it will regularly return to providing that the hunting is good and it is not disturbed . It hunts mainly by sight and in doing so it commonly will raise much of its length well off the ground . The black mamba does not typically hold onto prey after biting , instead releasing its quarry and waiting for it to succumb to paralysis and die . This however depends on the type of prey ; for example , it typically will hold onto a bird till it stops struggling to escape . If prey attempts to escape or defend itself , the black mamba often may follow up its initial bite with a rapid series of strikes to incapacitate and quickly kill its prey . The snake has been known to prey on hyrax and rock hyrax , bushbabies , and bats . The black mamba has a potent digestive system and has been observed to digest prey fully within eight to ten hours .
= = = Predators = = =
Not many predators challenge an adult black mamba although it does face a few threats such as birds of prey , particularly snake eagles . Although all species of snake eagle commonly prey on snakes , there are two species in particular that do so with high frequency , including preying on black mambas . These are the black @-@ chested snake eagle ( Circaetus pectoralis ) and the brown snake eagle ( Circaetus cinereus ) . The Cape file snake ( Mehelya capensis ) , which is apparently immune to all African snake venoms and preys on other snakes including venomous ones , is a common predator of black mambas ( limited only by the size it can swallow ) . Mongooses which also are partially immune to venom , and are often quick enough to evade a bite , will sometimes tackle a black mamba for prey . Humans do not usually consume black mambas , but they often kill them out of fear .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Black mambas breed annually and mating occurs in the early spring , when male mambas locate a female by following her scent trail . After finding a potential mate the male will inspect the female by flicking his tongue over her entire body . As in other species of snakes and many other reptiles , fertilization is internal and the intromittent organs of the males are in the form of hemipenes . Females lay clutches of eggs with an incubation period of some 80 to 90 days . Like most snakes female mambas are both oviparous and iteroparous . Egg @-@ laying typically occurs during the middle of summer and egg clutches range from 6 to 17 eggs .
During the mating season rival males may compete by wrestling , not by biting . Opponents attempt to subdue each other by intertwining their bodies and raising their heads high off the ground . Observers have on occasion mistaken such wrestling for mating .
Black mambas are generally solitary , but not strictly so ; as a rule they interact very little except in male rivalry during the mating season . However , black mambas are well known to share retreats occasionally , either with other mambas , or sometimes with other species of snakes .
In hatching , mambas break though the egg shell with an egg tooth and are born with fully developed venom glands ; capable of inflicting a potentially lethal bite minutes after birth . The body of the newly hatched snake contains the residues of the egg yolk , and assimilates them to sustain the young snake until it finds its first prey .
= = = Lifespan = = =
There is little information available concerning the lifespan of wild black mambas , but the longest surviving captive example had a recorded lifespan of 11 years . It is possible that wild snakes may live significantly longer than this .
= = Venom = =
The venom of the black mamba is extremely toxic , commonly causing collapse in humans within 45 minutes or less from a single bite . Without effective antivenom therapy , death typically occurs in 7 – 15 hours . The venom is chiefly composed of neurotoxins , specifically dendrotoxin . The black mamba is capable of striking at considerable range and occasionally may deliver a series of bites in rapid succession . Despite its reputation for being highly aggressive , like most snakes , it usually attempts to flee from humans unless threatened or cornered .
The black mamba 's venom is composed of neurotoxins ( dendrotoxin ) and cardiotoxins as well as other toxins such as fasciculins . In an experiment , the most abundant toxin found in black mamba venom was observed to be able to kill a mouse in as little as 4 @.@ 5 minutes . Based on the murine median lethal dose ( LD50 ) values , the black mamba 's toxicity from all published sources is as follows :
( SC ) subcutaneous ( most applicable to real bites ) : 0 @.@ 32 mg / kg , 0 @.@ 28 mg / kg .
( IV ) intravenous : 0 @.@ 25 mg / kg , 0 @.@ 011 mg / kg .
( IP ) intraperitoneal : 0 @.@ 30 mg / kg ( average ) , 0 @.@ 941 mg / kg . 0 @.@ 05 mg / kg ( the last quote doesn 't make it clear if is either intravenous or intraperitoneal ) .
Its bites can deliver about 100 – 120 mg of venom on average and the maximum dose recorded is 400 mg . It is reported that before antivenom was widely available , the mortality rate from a bite was nearly 100 % . The bite of a black mamba can potentially cause collapse in humans within 45 minutes , or less . Without effective antivenom therapy , death typically occurs in 7 – 15 hours . Presently , there is a polyvalent antivenom produced by the South African Institute for Medical Research to treat black mamba bites from many localities .
A bite from a black mamba causes initial neurological and neuromuscular symptoms which may commonly include headache and a metallic taste in the mouth , which may be accompanied by a triad of paresthesias , profuse perspiration and salivation . Other symptoms may include ptosis and gradual bulbar palsy . Localised pain or numbness around the bite site is common but not typically severe ; therefore , application of a tourniquet proximal to the bite site is feasible and may assist in slowing the onset of prominent neurotoxicity . Without appropriate treatment , symptoms typically progress to more severe reactions such as tachydysrhythmias and neurogenic shock , leading to death by asphyxiation , cardiovascular collapse , or respiratory failure .
= = Attacks on humans = =
The black mamba is popularly regarded as the most dangerous and feared snake in Africa ; to South African locals the black mamba 's bite is known as the " kiss of death " . However , attacks on humans by black mambas are rare , as they usually try to avoid confrontation , and their occurrence in highly populated areas is not very common compared with some other species . Additionally , the ocellated carpet viper is responsible for more human fatalities due to snakebite than all other African species combined . A survey of snakebites in South Africa from 1957 to 1963 recorded over 900 venomous snakebites , but only seven of these were confirmed black mamba bites , at a time when effective antivenom was not widely available . Out of more than 900 bites , only 21 ended in fatalities , including all seven black mamba bites .
= = = Reported bite cases = = =
In 1998 , Danie Pienaar , now head of South African National Parks Scientific Services , survived the bite of a black mamba without antivenom . Although no antivenom was administered , Pienaar was in serious condition , despite the fact the hospital physicians declared it a " moderate " black mamba envenomation . At one point , Pienaar lapsed into a coma and his prognosis was declared " poor " . Upon arrival at hospital Pienaar was immediately intubated , given supportive drug therapy , put on mechanical ventilation and was placed on life support for three days , until the toxins were flushed out of his system . He was released from hospital on the fifth day . Pienaar believes he survived for a number of reasons . In an article in Kruger Park Times he said : " Firstly , it was not my time to go . " The article went on to state , " The fact that he stayed calmed and moved slowly definitely helped . The tourniquet was also essential . "
In another case , 28 @-@ year @-@ old British student Nathan Layton was bitten by a black mamba and died of a heart attack in less than an hour in March 2008 . The black mamba had been found near a classroom at the Southern African Wildlife College in Hoedspruit , where Layton was training to be a safari guide . Layton was bitten by the snake on his index finger while it was being put into a jar , but he didn 't realize he 'd been bitten . He thought the snake had only brushed his hand . Approximately 30 minutes after being bitten Layton complained of blurred vision . He collapsed and died of a heart attack , nearly an hour after being bitten . Attempts to revive him failed , and he was pronounced dead at the scene .
In 2013 , in a rare case of survival without treatment , American professional photographer Mark Laita was bitten on the leg by a black mamba during a photo @-@ shoot of a black mamba at a facility in Central America . The bite ruptured an artery in his calf , and he was gushing blood profusely . Laita did not go to the doctor or the hospital , and except for the swollen fang marks giving him intense pain during the night , he was not affected and was fine physically . This led him to believe that the snake either gave him a " dry bite " ( meaning without injecting venom ) or that the heavy bleeding pushed the venom out . Some commenters to the story suggested that it was a venomoid snake ( in which the venom glands are surgically removed ) . Laita responded that it was not the case . Only later , Laita found that he had captured the snake biting his leg in a photograph .
= Civil War token =
Civil War tokens are token coins that were privately minted and distributed in the United States between 1861 and 1864 . They were used mainly in the Northeast and Midwest . The widespread use of the tokens was a result of the scarcity of government @-@ issued cents during the Civil War .
Civil War tokens became illegal after the United States Congress passed a law on April 22 , 1864 prohibiting the issue of any one or two @-@ cent coins , tokens or devices for use as currency . On June 8 , 1864 an additional law was passed that forbade all private coinage .
Civil War tokens are divided into three types — store cards , patriotic tokens , and sutler tokens . All three types were utilized as currency , and are differentiated by their designs . The collectible value of the tokens is determined chiefly by their rarity .
= = History = =
By 1862 , the second year of the Civil War , government @-@ issued coinage began vanishing from circulation . American citizens hoarded all coins with gold and silver , and eventually began hoarding copper @-@ nickel cents as well . This made it extremely difficult for businesses to conduct transactions . In response , many merchants turned to private minters to fill the void left by the hoarded coins . The first of these privately minted tokens appeared in the autumn of 1862 , by H. A. Ratterman , in Cincinnati , Ohio . New York issues followed in the spring of 1863 , first with Lindenmueller currency store card tokens issued by New York barkeep Gustavus Lindenmueller and then with Knickerbocker currency patriotic tokens issued by William H. Bridgens . It is estimated that by 1864 , there were 25 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Civil War tokens ( nearly all redeemable for one cent ) in circulation , consisting of approximately 7 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 varieties .
Lindenmueller currency , or " Lindenmueller tokens , " are one of the best @-@ known and commonly struck types were store cards . Lindenmueller had more than one million of his one @-@ cent tokens struck and placed into circulation in 1863 . One of the common uses for the token was for streetcar fare . The Third Avenue Railroad company of New York , which had willingly accepted a large quantity of the Lindenmueller tokens in lieu of actual currency , asked Lindenmueller to redeem them . He refused , and the railroad had no legal recourse . Incidents such as these eventually forced the government to intervene .
On April 22 , 1864 , Congress enacted the Coinage Act of 1864 . While the act is most remembered for the introduction of the phrase " In God We Trust " on the newly created two @-@ cent piece , it also effectively ended the usage of Civil War tokens . In addition to authorizing the minting of the two @-@ cent piece , the act changed the composition of the one @-@ cent piece from a copper @-@ nickel alloy ( weighing 4 @.@ 67 grams ) to a lighter , less thick piece composed of 95 % copper ( weighing 3 @.@ 11 grams ) . The new one @-@ cent piece was much closer in weight to the Civil War tokens , and found greater acceptance among the public .
While the Coinage Act made Civil War tokens impractical , the issue of their legality was decided on June 8 , 1864 , when Congress enacted 18 U.S.C. § 486 , which made the minting and usage of non @-@ government issued coins punishable by a fine of up to $ 2 @,@ 000 , a prison term of up to five years , or both . ( Chapter 25 of Title 18 deals specifically with counterfeit and forgery ) . It did not make it illegal to own Civil War tokens , however , and evidence exists that the tokens were viewed as collectibles as early as 1863 , when the first known listings of Civil War tokens were published .
= = Types = =
= = = Patriotic tokens = = =
Patriotic Civil War tokens typically displayed a patriotic slogan or image on one or both sides . Since the majority of these tokens were minted in Union states , the slogans and images were decidedly pro @-@ Union . Some common examples of slogans found on patriotic tokens are " The Union Must and Shall Be Preserved , " " Union For Ever , " and " Old Glory " . Some of the images found on patriotic tokens were the flag of the United States , a 19th @-@ century cannon , and the USS Monitor .
Among the best @-@ known varieties of patriotic tokens are the so @-@ called " Dix tokens . " They are named for John Adams Dix , who served as Secretary of the Treasury in 1861 . In a letter from Dix to a revenue cutter captain , Lieutenant Caldwell , he orders Caldwell to relieve another cutter captain of his command for refusing an order to transfer from New Orleans to New York . The letter ends with the following sentence : " If any one attempts to haul down the American flag , shoot him on the spot . " The quote found its way to a number of patriotic tokens , albeit with a slightly modified wording ( " haul down " is usually replaced by " tear it down " ) .
= = = Store cards = = =
Civil War store cards differ from patriotic tokens in that one or both sides displays the name and / or location of a privately owned business . Businesses that could afford it had two custom dies made , with both advertising the business . Otherwise , only one side displayed the business 's information .
= = = Sutler tokens = = =
Sutler tokens are similar to store cards . Rather than listing the name of a private business , however , these tokens bore the name of a particular army unit ( usually a regiment ) and the name of the sutler who conducted transactions with the regiment . Of the three types of Civil War tokens , sutler tokens are by far the rarest .
= = Collectible value = =
There are several factors that determine the collectible value of Civil War tokens . The main factor is rarity , which is measured on a scale from 1 to 10 ( 1 being the most common type ) . The scale was developed by noted numismatic dealer and writer George Fuld .
The material used to mint Civil War tokens can also affect collectibility . Civil war tokens were minted using a variety of materials , copper being a common choice ( often actually bronze ) . Other materials used for minting were nickel , tin , German silver , white metal , and silver . Examples of tokens minted using rubber are also known to exist .
= = = Fuld rarity scale = = =
R @-@ 1 : Greater than 5 @,@ 000
R @-@ 2 : Between 2 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000
R @-@ 3 : Between 500 and 2 @,@ 000
R @-@ 4 : Between 200 and 500
R @-@ 5 : Between 76 and 200
R @-@ 6 : Between 21 and 75
R @-@ 7 : Between 11 and 20
R @-@ 8 : Between 5 and 10
R @-@ 9 : Between 2 and 4
R @-@ 10 : Unique ( one known example )
= Gulf Oil =
Gulf Oil was a major global oil company from the 1900s to the 1980s . The eighth @-@ largest American manufacturing company in 1941 and the ninth @-@ largest in 1979 , Gulf Oil was one of the so @-@ called Seven Sisters oil companies . Prior to its merger with Standard Oil of California , Gulf was one of the chief instruments of the Mellon family fortune ; both Gulf and Mellon Financial had their headquarters in Pittsburgh .
Gulf 's former headquarters , originally referred to as " the Gulf Building " ( now the Gulf Tower office condos ) , is an art @-@ deco skyscraper . The tallest building in Pittsburgh until 1970 , when it was eclipsed by the U.S. Steel Tower , it is capped by a step pyramid structure several stories high . Until the late 1970s , the entire top was illuminated , changing color with changes in barometric pressure to provide a weather indicator that could be seen for many miles .
Gulf Oil Corporation ( GOC ) ceased to exist as an independent company in 1985 , when it merged with Standard Oil of California ( SOCAL ) , with both re @-@ branding as Chevron in the United States . Gulf Canada , Gulf 's main Canadian subsidiary , was sold the same year with retail outlets to Ultramar and Petro Canada and what became Gulf Canada Resources to Olympia & York . However , the Gulf brand name and a number of the constituent business divisions of GOC survived . Gulf has experienced a significant revival since 1990 , emerging as a flexible network of allied business interests based on partnerships , franchises and agencies .
Gulf , in its present incarnation , is a " new economy " business . It employs very few people directly and its assets are mainly in the form of intellectual property : brands , product specifications and scientific expertise . The rights to the brand in the United States are owned by Gulf Oil Limited Partnership ( GOLC ) , which operates over 2 @,@ 100 service stations and several petroleum terminals ; it is headquartered in Framingham , Massachusetts . The corporate vehicle at the center of the Gulf network outside the United States , Spain and Portugal is Gulf Oil International , a company owned by the Hinduja Group . The company 's focus is primarily in the provision of downstream products and services to a mass market through joint ventures , strategic alliances , licensing agreements , and distribution arrangements . Gulf Oil International has its head office in the City of Westminster , London .
= = History = =
= = = 1901 – 82 = = =
The business that became Gulf Oil started in 1901 with the discovery of oil at Spindletop near Beaumont , Texas . A group of investors came together to promote the development of a modern refinery at nearby Port Arthur to process the oil . The largest investor was William Larimer Mellon of the Pittsburgh Mellon banking family . Other investors included many of Mellon 's Pennsylvania clients as well as some Texas wildcatters . Mellon Bank and Gulf Oil remained closely associated thereafter . The Gulf Oil Corporation itself was formed in 1907 through the amalgamation of a number of oil businesses , principally the J.M. Guffey Petroleum and Gulf Refining companies of Texas . The name of the company refers to the Gulf of Mexico where Beaumont lies .
Output from Spindletop peaked at around 100 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 16 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) just after it was discovered and then started to decline . Later discoveries made 1927 the peak year of Spindletop production , but Spindletop 's early decline forced Gulf to seek alternative sources of supply to sustain its substantial investment in refining capacity . This was achieved by constructing the 400 @-@ mile ( 640 @-@ km ) Glenn Pool pipeline connecting oilfields in Oklahoma with Gulf 's refinery at Port Arthur . The pipeline opened in September 1907 . Gulf later built a network of pipelines and refineries in the eastern and southern United States , requiring heavy capital investment . Thus , Gulf Oil provided Mellon Bank with a secure vehicle for investing in the oil sector .
Gulf promoted the concept of branded product sales by selling gasoline in containers and from pumps marked with a distinctive orange disc logo . A customer buying Gulf @-@ branded gasoline could be assured of its quality and consistent standard . ( In the early 20th century , non @-@ branded gasoline in the United States was often contaminated or of unreliable quality ) .
Gulf Oil grew steadily in the inter @-@ war years , with its activities mainly confined to the United States . The company was characterized by its vertically integrated business activities , and was active across the whole spectrum of the oil industry : exploration , production , transport , refining and marketing . It also involved itself in associated industries such as petrochemicals and automobile component manufacturing . It introduced significant commercial and technical innovations , including the first drive @-@ in service station ( 1913 ) , complimentary road maps , drilling over water at Ferry Lake , and the catalytic cracking refining process ( Gulf installed the world 's first commercial catalytic cracking unit at its Port Arthur , Texas , refinery complex in 1951 ) . Gulf also established the model for the integrated , international " oil major , " which refers to one of a group of very large companies that assumed influential and sensitive positions in the countries in which they operated .
In Colombia , Gulf purchased the Barco oil concession in 1926 . The government of Colombia revoked the concession the same year , but after much negotiation Gulf won it back in 1931 . However , during a period of over @-@ capacity , Gulf was more interested in holding the reserve than developing it . In 1936 Gulf sold Barco to the Texas Corporation , now Texaco .
Gulf had extensive exploration and production operations in the Gulf of Mexico , Canada , and Kuwait . The company played a major role in the early development of oil production in Kuwait , and through the 1950s and ' 60s apparently enjoyed a " special relationship " with the Kuwaiti government . This special relationship attracted unfavourable attention since it was associated with " political contributions " ( see below ) and support for anti @-@ democratic politics , as evidenced by papers taken from the body of a Gulf executive killed in the crash of a TWA aircraft at Cairo in 1950 .
In 1934 , the Kuwait Oil Company ( KOC ) was formed as a joint venture by British Petroleum and Gulf . Both British Petroleum and Gulf held equal shares in the venture . KOC pioneered the exploration for oil in Kuwait during the late 1930s . Oil was discovered at Burgan in 1938 but it was not until 1946 that the first crude oil was shipped . Oil production started from Rawdhatain in 1955 and Minagish in 1959 . KOC started gas production in 1964 . It was the cheap oil and gas being shipped from Kuwait that formed the economic basis for Gulf 's diverse petroleum sector operations in Europe , the Mediterranean , Africa , and the Indian subcontinent . These last operations were coordinated by Gulf Oil Company , Eastern Hemisphere Ltd ( GOCEH ) from their offices at 2 Portman Street in London W1 .
Gulf expanded on a worldwide basis from the end of the Second World War . The company leveraged its international drilling experience to other areas of the world , and by mid @-@ 1943 had established a presence in the oil fields of Venezuela as Mene Grande Oil Company . Much of the company 's retail sales expansion was through the acquisition of privately owned chains of filling stations in various countries , allowing Gulf outlets to sell product ( sometimes through ' matching ' arrangements ) from the oil that it was " lifting " in Canada , the Gulf of Mexico , Kuwait , and Venezuela . Some of these acquisitions were to prove less than resilient in the face of economic and political developments from the 1970s on . Gulf invested heavily in product technology and developed many speciality products , particularly for application in the maritime and aviation engineering sectors . It was particularly noted for its range of lubricants and greases .
Gulf Oil reached the peak of its development around 1970 . In that year , the company processed 1 @.@ 3 million barrels ( 210 @,@ 000 m3 ) of crude daily , held assets worth $ 6 @.@ 5 billion ( $ 39 @.@ 61 billion today ) , employed 58 @,@ 000 employees worldwide , and was owned by 163 @,@ 000 shareholders . In addition to its petroleum marketing interests , Gulf was a major producer of petrochemicals , plastics , and agricultural chemicals . Through its subsidiary , Gulf General Atomic Inc . , it was also active in the nuclear energy sector . Gulf abandoned its involvement in the nuclear sector after a failed deal to build atomic power plants in Romania in the mid @-@ 1970s .
In 1974 , the Kuwait National Assembly took a 60 percent stake in the equity of KOC with the remaining 40 percent divided equally between BP and Gulf . The Kuwaitis took over the rest of the equity in 1975 , giving them full ownership of KOC . This meant that Gulf ( EH ) had to start supplying its downstream operations in Europe with crude bought on the world market at commercial prices . The whole GOC ( EH ) edifice now became highly marginal in an economic sense . Many of the marketing companies that Gulf had established in Europe were never truly viable on a stand @-@ alone basis .
Gulf was at the forefront of various projects in the late 1960s intended to adjust the world oil industry to developments of the time including closure of the Suez Canal after the 1967 war . In particular , Gulf undertook the construction of deep water terminals at Bantry Bay in Ireland and Okinawa in Japan capable of handling Ultra Large Crude Carrier ( ULCC ) vessels serving the European and Asian markets respectively . In 1968 , the Universe Ireland was added to Gulf 's tanker fleet . At 312 @,@ 000 long tons deadweight ( DWT ) , this was the largest vessel in the world and incapable of berthing at most normal ports .
Gulf also participated in a partnership with other majors , including Texaco , to build the Pembroke Catalytic Cracker refinery at Milford Haven and the associated Mainline Pipelines fuel distribution network . The eventual reopening of the Suez canal and upgrading of the older European oil terminals ( Europoort and Marchwood ) meant that the financial return from these projects was not all that had been hoped for . The Bantry terminal was devastated by the explosion of a Total tanker , the Betelgeuse , in January 1979 ( Whiddy Island Disaster ) and it was never fully reopened . The Irish government took over ownership of the terminal in 1986 and held its strategic oil reserve there .
In the 1970s , Gulf participated in the development of new oilfields in the UK North Sea and in Cabinda , although these were high @-@ cost operations that never compensated for the loss of Gulf 's interest in Kuwait . A mercenary army had to be raised to protect the oil installations in Cabinda during the Angolan civil war . The Angolan connection was another " special relationship " that attracted comment . In the late 1970s , Gulf was effectively funding a Soviet bloc regime in Africa while the US government was attempting to overthrow that regime by supporting the UNITA rebels led by Jonas Savimbi .
In 1975 , several senior Gulf executives , including chairman Bob Dorsey , were implicated in the making of illegal " political contributions " and were forced to step down from their positions . This loss of senior personnel at a critical time in Gulf 's fortunes may have had a bearing on the events that followed .
Gulf 's operations worldwide were struggling financially in the recession of the early 1980s , so Gulf 's management devised the " Big Jobber " strategic realignment in 1981 ( along with a program of selective divestments ) to maintain viability . The Big Jobber strategy recognized that the day of the integrated , multi @-@ national oil major might be over , since it involved concentrating on those parts of the supply chain where Gulf had a competitive advantage .
= = = Marketing and promotions = = =
In the late 1930s , Gulf 's aviation manager , Maj. Alford J. Williams , had the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation construct two modified biplanes , cleaned @-@ up versions of the Grumman F3F Navy fighter , for promotional use by the company . Wearing Gulf Oil company colors and logos , the Grumman G @-@ 22 " Gulfhawk II " , registered NR1050 , was delivered in December 1936 , and in 1938 Maj. Williams flew it on a tour of Europe . A second scavenger pump and five drain lines were added to the engine installation that allowed the aircraft to be flown inverted for up to thirty minutes . This aircraft is now preserved in the National Air and Space Museum in Washington , D.C. A second airplane , the Grumman G @-@ 32 " Gulfhawk III " , registered NC1051 , was delivered on May 6 , 1938 . Impressed by the Army Air Force in November 1942 for use as a VIP transport and designated a UC @-@ 103 , it crashed in the southern Florida Everglades in early 1943 .
Gulf Oil was the primary sponsor for NBC News special events coverage in the 1960s , notably for coverage of the U.S. space program . The company used the connection to its advantage by offering giveaway or promotional items at its stations , including sticker sheets of space mission logos , a paper punch @-@ out lunar module model kit , and a book titled " We Came in Peace , " containing pictures of the Apollo 11 moon landing . Gulf was also a major sponsor of Walt Disney 's Wonderful World of Color , which also aired on NBC . Disney magazines and activity books were often given away with a gas fill @-@ up . Gulf was also noted for its " Tourgide " road maps .
One particularly memorable Gulf advertisement carried by NBC during their coverage of the Apollo missions showed aerial and onboard views of the Universe Ireland with Tommy Makem and the Clancy Brothers singing " Bringin ' Home the Oil " – a tribute to the opening of Gulf 's operations in Bantry Bay .
Gulf Oil was most synonymous for its association with auto racing , as it famously sponsored the John Wyer Automotive team in the 1960s and early ' 70s . The signature light blue and orange color scheme associated with its Ford GT40 and Porsche 917 is one of the most famous corporate racing colors and has been replicated by other racing teams sponsored by Gulf . Much of its popularity is attributed to the fact that in the 1971 film Le Mans , Steve McQueen 's character , Michael Delaney , drives for the Gulf team . As a result of McQueen 's increasing popularity following his death and the increasing popularity of the Heuer Monaco which he wore in the film , TAG Heuer released a limited edition of the watch with the Gulf logo and trademark color scheme . In the same era , Gulf Oil also sponsored Team McLaren during the Bruce McLaren days , which used a papaya orange color scheme with Gulf blue for lettering .
From 1963 to 1980 , Gulf Oil had a formal agreement with Holiday Inn , the world 's largest lodging chain , for which Holiday Inns in the U.S. and Canada would accept Gulf credit cards for food and lodging . In return , Gulf placed service stations on the premises of many Holiday Inn properties along major U.S. highways to provide one @-@ stop availability for gasoline , auto service , food and lodging . Many older Holiday Inns still have those original Gulf stations on their properties , some in operation and some closed , but few operate today as Gulf stations .
Gulf No @-@ Nox gasoline was promoted with a bucking horse leaving an imprint of two horseshoes . Several promotions centered on the two horseshoes . In 1966 bright orange 3 @-@ D plastic self @-@ adhesive horseshoes for car bumpers were given away . Another popular giveaway was during the 1968 election season , gold horseshoe lapel pins featuring either a Democratic donkey or a Republican elephant .
= = Demise = =
By 1980 , Gulf exhibited many of the characteristics of a giant corporation that had lost its way . It had a huge but poorly performing asset portfolio , associated with a depressed share price . The stock market value of Gulf started to drop below the break @-@ up value of its assets . Such a situation was bound to attract the interest of corporate raiders , although a corporation in the top 100 of the Fortune 500 was in the early 1980s thought immune to takeover risk .
Its undoing as an independent company began in 1982 when T. Boone Pickens , an Amarillo , Texas oilman and corporate raider ( or greenmailer ) , and owner of Mesa Petroleum , made an offer for the comparatively larger ( but still considered " non @-@ major " oil company ) Cities Service Company ( more generally known by the name Citgo ) from Tulsa , Oklahoma , which was then trading in the low 2
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0s . Pickens first privately offered $ 45 a share for a friendly takeover and then later made a $ 50 a share public offer when Cities ' CEO rejected the friendly offer . Gulf forestalled Mesa 's takeover attempt by offering $ 63 a share in a friendly offer which Cities ( by then trading at $ 37 ) accepted . Cities then bought out Pickens for $ 55 a share . Once Pickens was gone , Gulf reneged on its buyout offer , supposedly over a dispute regarding accuracy of Cities Service 's reserves , and the stock price of Cities plunged , triggering stockholder lawsuits as well as distrust for Gulf 's management on Wall Street and among financing investment banks who bet big in assisting Gulf to defeat Mesa only to be left broke when Gulf backed out . Cities Service was ultimately sold to Occidental Petroleum , and the retail operations were resold to Southland Corporation , the operators of 7 @-@ Eleven stores . Gulf 's termination of the Cities Service acquisition resulted in more than 15 years of shareholder litigation against Gulf ( and later Chevron ) .
With declining margins in the industry and left without Citgo 's reserves , Mesa and its investor partners kept hunting for a takeover target , only to discover while fighting Gulf for Citgo how increasingly top @-@ heavy its portfolio and declining reserves were undervaluing its overall assets . They subtly but quickly acquired 4 @.@ 9 percent of Gulf Oil 's stock by early fall 1983 , just shy of having to declare themselves and their intent at 5 percent to the SEC . In the ten days allowed to prepare the SEC filing , Mesa and its investor partners accelerated buying to 11 percent of the company 's stock , larger than the founding Mellon family 's share , by October 1983 . Gulf responded to Mesa 's interest by calling a shareholders ' meeting for late November 1983 and subsequently engaged in a proxy war on changing the corporation 's by @-@ laws to minimize arbitrage . Pickens made loud criticisms of the existing Gulf management and offered an alternative business plan intended to release shareholder value through a royalty trust that management argued would " slim down " Gulf 's market share . Pickens had acquired the reputation of being a corporate raider whose skill lay in making profits out of bidding for companies but without actually acquiring them . During the early 1980s alone , he made failed bids for Cities Service , General American Oil , Gulf , Phillips Petroleum and Unocal . The process of making such bids would promote a frenzy of asset divestiture and debt reduction in the target companies . This is a standard defensive tactic calculated to boost the current share price , although possibly at the expense of long @-@ term strategic advantage . The target shares would rise sharply in price , at which point Pickens would dispose of his interest at a substantial profit .
Gulf management and directors took the view that the Mesa bid represented an undervaluation of the Gulf business as a long @-@ term going concern and that it was not in the interest of Gulf shareholders . James Lee , Gulf 's CEO and chairman , even claimed during the November 1983 shareholders meeting to address the Mesa ownership that Pickens ' royalty trust idea was nothing more than a " get @-@ rich @-@ quick scheme " that would undermine the corporation 's profit potential in the coming decades . Gulf , therefore , sought to resist Pickens by various means , including refiling as a Delaware corporation , voiding the ability of shareholders to cumulatively vote ( fearing that Pickens would use his shares to gain control of the board ) and listening to offers from Ashland Oil ( which would double Gulf 's price from its pre @-@ Mesa level ) , General Electric ( two years before it took over the media company NBC / RKO ) and finally Chevron to act as its white knight in late 1984 . Gulf divested many of its worldwide operating subsidiaries and then merged with Chevron by the spring of 1985 . The Mesa group of investors was reported to have made a profit of $ 760 million ( $ 1 @,@ 672 @.@ 1 million today ) when it assigned its Gulf shares to Chevron . Pickens has claimed that after realizing a more than doubling of stock appreciation for Gulf shareholders ( as well as its management that fought him at every turn ) , Mesa 's shares were the last to be paid out by Chevron .
The forced merger of Gulf and Chevron was controversial , with the U.S. Senate considering legislation to freeze oil industry mergers for a year — before the Reagan administration made it known it opposed government intervention in the matter and would veto any bill . However , Pickens and Lee ( Gulf 's CEO ) were summoned to testify before the Senate months before the merger was hammered out and the matter was referred to the Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) . The FTC only approved the deal subject to strict conditions . Never before had a " small operator " successfully taken apart a Fortune 500 corporation , or in Gulf 's case a " Fortune 10 " corporation . The merger sent even deeper shock waves through the long @-@ time exclusive " Seven Sisters " club of major integrated oil companies that defined themselves as elevated from the " non @-@ major independents " . A board member of Exxon even admitted in the mid @-@ 1980s that " mostly all we talk about in board meetings anymore is T. Boone Pickens " . Chevron , to settle with the government antitrust requirements , sold some Gulf stations and a refinery in the eastern United States to British Petroleum ( BP ) and Cumberland Farms in 1985 as well as some of the international operations .
The effect on the Pittsburgh area was severe as close to 900 PhD and research jobs and 600 headquarters ( accounting , law , clerical ) jobs were transferred to California or cut , a payroll of $ 54 million ( $ 123 million today ) and corporate charity to 50 Western Pennsylvania organizations worth $ 2 million / year ( $ 4 @.@ 6 million / year today ) . These losses were mitigated some with the donation of Gulf Labs in suburban north Pittsburgh to the University of Pittsburgh to be used as a research business incubator along with $ 5 million ( $ 11 million today ) in maintenance and seed money . The " Gulf Labs " research complex consisted of 55 multi @-@ story buildings with 800 @,@ 000 square feet ( 74 @,@ 000 m2 ) on 85 acres ( 34 ha ) and including several chemical labs , petroleum production and refining areas and even a nuclear laboratory complete with reactor in 1985 and employed close to 2 @,@ 000 engineers and scientists operating with a $ 100 million budget ( $ 227 @.@ 8 million today ) from Gulf / Chevron . After its donation , it was renamed the University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center or U @-@ PARC and opened to small technology , computer and engineering firms as well as graduate level research .
= = Aftermath = =
BP , Chevron , Cumberland Farms and other companies that acquired former Gulf operations continued to use the Gulf name through the early 1990s . This caused consumer confusion in the US retail market as the parent companies would not accept each other 's credit cards . All former Gulf stations franchised by BP and Chevron in the United States have since been converted to those names . Gulf Oil Limited Partnership ( GOLP ) , based in Framingham , Massachusetts , has bought a license for North American rights to the Gulf brand from Chevron . Chevron still owned the Gulf brand , but was making almost no direct use of it . In January 2010 , GOLP bought the entire brand from Chevron and began a nationwide expansion campaign . GOLP operates a distribution network reaching from Maine to Ohio . Most Gulf @-@ branded filling stations in North America are owned by Cumberland Farms of Framingham , which owns a two @-@ thirds interest in GOLP . In addition there are some independently owned franchises still operating under the Gulf brand within North America , such as the American Refining Group , which is licensed by Chevron to blend and distribute Gulf @-@ branded lubricants .
Gulf Oil International ( GOI ) : [ 1 ] owns the rights to the Gulf brand outside the United States , Spain & Portugal . It is now owned by the Hinduja Group . After they acquired a large share from the Taher family , a major Saudi Arabian family lead by Dr. Abdulhadi H. Taher ( former governor of the Saudi Petroleum and Mineral organization and board member of Aramco ) . GOI trades mainly in lubricants , oils , and greases . GOI is also involved in franchising the Gulf brand to operators in the petroleum and automotive sectors ; Gulf @-@ branded filling stations can be found in several countries including the UK , Belgium , Germany , Ireland , the Slovak & Czech Republics , the Netherlands , Jordan , Finland and Turkey . GOI has direct and indirect interests in a number of businesses that use the Gulf brand under license .
The Canadian exploration , production , and distribution arm of Gulf Oil was sold to Olympia and York in 1985 . From 1992 it continued as an independent oil company ( Gulf Canada Resources ) until its acquisition by Conoco in 2002 .
Most Gulf downstream operations in Europe were sold to the Kuwait Petroleum Corporation in early 1983 . The associated Gulf filling stations were converted to trade under the Q8 brand by 1988 . However , attempts to sell Gulf Oil ( Great Britain ) to KPC failed because of irrevocable GOC guarantees given earlier in regard to bonds issued to finance the construction of refinery facilities in the UK . GO ( GB ) was taken over by Chevron and its stations continued to use the Gulf brand name and insignia until 1997 when the network was sold to Shell , although by this stage a fairly large proportion of Gulf stations were supplied by jobbers rather than Gulf Oil ( GB ) . Gulf completely withdrew from the UK in 1997 . This represented the end of the last major " downstream " use of the Gulf brand by Chevron .
= = Revival = =
GOI and GOLP continue to sell Gulf @-@ branded lubricants worldwide through a network of official licensed companies , joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiary companies . Many of these official Gulf distributors carry out local marketing and sponsorship which help to raise the profile of the brand . Of these wholly owned subsidiaries Gulf Oil Corporation India has raised the market profile of the Gulf brand in the Middle East . GOCL have emerged as one of leading lubricants brands in India and run many marketing sponsorships targeted at the ever @-@ growing youth sector in the country .
GOI licenses the Gulf brand and logo in the UK to the Bayford group , one of the largest independent fuel distributors . Starting in 2001 , a new Gulf network of independent stations is slowly reappearing across the UK . At present , many of these stations are notable for offering genuine leaded four @-@ star petrol , for which Bayford has a special dispensation to sell . At the same time , Gulf Lubricants ( UK ) Ltd was set up to market Gulf products ( mostly manufactured by the Gulf Netherlands operation ) in the UK . This return by Gulf to the UK after a four @-@ year absence used the slogan " The Return of the Legend . " The post @-@ 2001 Gulf presence in the UK is a wholly network @-@ based operation . It involves almost no direct Gulf investment in fixed assets , corporate infrastructure , or manufacturing capability . This is a complete contrast to the pre @-@ 1997 presence .
In January 2010 , after using the name since 1986 , GOLP acquired all right , title and interest in the Gulf brand name in the United States and announced plans to expand the use of the Gulf brand beyond its parent company 's Northeastern United States base . Its promotions have included sponsorship of major sporting events in the area with advertisements for Gulf in New York City , Boston , Philadelphia , and Pittsburgh . To take one case as an illustrative example of the Gulf revival , after Texaco 's 2001 merger with Chevron , many former Texaco stations in Pittsburgh switched to Gulf since Chevron does not service the Greater Pittsburgh area . As a result , the Texaco brand name disappeared from the area in June 2004 when the nonexclusive rights agreement with Shell expired , with Shell itself expanding in the area by means other than Texaco but , on June 2006 Chevron gave exclusive rights to the Texaco brand name in the U.S. and sold some BP gas stations in the southeast which were Gulf gas stations . In New England , former Exxon stations have been rebranded as Gulf , in accordance with the consent decree that allowed the merger of Exxon and Mobil . Many of the former Exxon stations feature a rectangular logo that fit into the existing sign standards used by Exxon . Gulf refers to the look as its " sunrise " imaging .
The Gulf logo is still used around the world by various businesses . GOI uses it for their marketing activities to focus on the sponsorship of Le Mans race teams ( with the current team being Aston Martin Racing team ) This sponsorship is used across the world by Gulf distributors , alongside local activity demonstrating the GOI company ethos of " your local global brand " . In 2009 , the clothing store chain Old Navy began selling T @-@ shirts bearing the old Gulf logo , along with the former logos of Standard Oil and Chevron .
Between 1980 and 2000 , Gulf moved from being a monolithic , vertically integrated multinational corporation to being more of a network of allied business interests . This has given the entire Gulf enterprise a high degree of strategic and operational flexibility . It is a move that reflects fundamental change in the economics of international business .
Alliances represent yet another shift in the organization of economic transactions from organizational hierarchies to networks ; from mass to flexible production ; from large , vertically integrated organizations to disintegration and horizontal networks of economic units ; from " Fordist " to " post @-@ Fordist " companies .
In March 2016 Gulf MX Announced that will put their own Filling Stations in Mexico , its planned to begin operations on July of the Same Year to Compete with the Local company ( PEMEX ) ( as a Result of the Recent changes in the local laws in matter of Energy and Oil resources ) As said by Sergio De La Vega ( CEO of Gulf Mexico ) in order to improve a better service Gulf will make fidelity programs and dedicated Smartphone Apps. for customers ( improving fuel payment into the same , Fuel Administration and better experience with fidelity programs as another additional benefits benefits ) adding to modern Service Stations with more quality added services .
Adding to that , Gulf will offer franchises to the existing filling station owners to convert them into Gulf Trademark .
= = Case studies in current use of the Gulf brand = =
= = = Independent filling stations in the UK = = =
In 1970 , there were nearly 25 @,@ 000 filling stations in the UK , of which 10 @,@ 000 were ' independents ' ( typically , privately owned and supplied by a major or jobber while using a brand under license ) . By the end of 1999 , the number of filling stations had dropped to 13 @,@ 700 and to 9 @,@ 700 at the end of 2005 . In recent years , filling stations have been closing at a rate of 50 per month . Many of the smaller and independent stations have succumbed to competition from out @-@ of @-@ town supermarkets that undercut local enterprises through sheer volume of sales and shared overheads .
The Gulf brand in the UK is licensed by GOI to the Bayford group which specializes in operating service stations on minor trunk roads in rural areas . Bayford supplies about 185 Gulf @-@ branded filling stations in the UK , all of which are independently owned . The Gulf filling stations provide outlets for Gulf @-@ branded oils and lubricants .
The illustration shows a typical Bayford / Gulf filling station in the UK , still associated with a service garage , restaurant and retailing facilities . It is in an isolated location , five miles ( 8 km ) south of Wooler in the Cheviot Hills , catering to both local residents and passing tourist traffic . It is not vulnerable to competition from supermarkets and provides something of a local community center .
= = = Pennsylvania Turnpike = = =
For decades , Gulf operated filling stations on the Pennsylvania Turnpike toll highway system alongside the Howard Johnson 's restaurants at the Turnpike 's travel plazas ( which correspond to European motorway service areas ) . This began in 1950 with the opening of the Philadelphia Extension , and Gulf added more filling stations as the system was extended . The Standard Oil Company of Pennsylvania ( now part of Exxon ) had exclusive rights to provide filling station services on the sections of the system that opened prior to 1950 , principally the Irwin @-@ to @-@ Carlisle section .
In the 1980s , Sunoco was awarded the franchise to operate the filling stations at the Sideling Hill and now @-@ closed Hempfield travel plazas . This led to a bidding war among three of Pennsylvania 's most recognizable gasoline brands each time a travel plaza franchise came up for renewal .
Gulf had the opportunity to become the exclusive provider of filling stations at travel plazas along the Pennsylvania Turnpike after Exxon withdrew from the Turnpike in 1990 . Cumberland Farms ( owner of the Gulf brand in the northeastern U.S. ) was awarded a new contract with the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission , but the contract was sold to Sunoco two years later as part of the company 's bankruptcy proceedings . In June 1992 , all of the former Gulf filling stations on the Turnpike ( as with the Exxon ones before it ) converted to Sunoco . All of the travel plazas continue to sell Sunoco fuel today .
= = Gulf products = =
Most filling stations in Europe sell three types of fuel : unleaded , LRP , and diesel . Although these products lack any real brand differentiation , this has not always been the case . Until well into the 1970s , Gulf ( in common with other oil companies ) sold distinctive brands of petrol / gasoline including subregular Gulftane , Good Gulf regular , Gulf No @-@ Nox premium , and Gulf Super Unleaded ( aka Gulfcrest ) . Gulf petrol was sold using the slogans " Good Gulf Gasoline , " and " Gulf – the Gas with Guts . " Gulf service stations often supplied customers with pens and key rings bearing these slogans . For a few years , beginning in 1966 , Gulf stations in the U.S. gave away orange plastic " Extra Kick Horseshoes " to customers who filled their tanks with Gulf 's No @-@ Nox premium gasoline ( the novelty items were commonly mounted on bumpers ) .
GOI still produces and sells a wide range of branded oil based products including lubricants and greases of all kinds . These include products for a variety of applications ranging from metal working oils to refrigeration oils . Car engine oils include the Gulf Formula , Gulf MAX , and Gulf TEC ranges . Heavy duty diesel engine lubricants include the Gulf Supreme and Gulf Superfleet ranges .
In the Summer of 2013 , Gulf Oil licensed the " Gulf " name for racing fuels in a return to the American racing scene for the 2014 competition season . [ 2 ] The fuels were announced at the Performance Racing Industry Show in Indianapolis , Indiana in December 2013 . The racing fuels support the World Racing League and the Formula Atlantic Championship in the United States .
= = CEOs = =
S.A. Swensrud 1953 ?
Robert Rawls Dorsey 1969 ? -January 14 , 1976 ( resigned with 3 years on his contract )
Jerry McAfee January 14 , 1976 – December 1 , 1981
James E. Lee December 1 , 1981 – 1985
Sahibzada Muhammad Farooq Nizami December 21 , 2014 – present ( Yanbu , KSA )
= ILoo =
The iLoo ( short for Internet loo ) was a cancelled Microsoft project to develop a Wi @-@ Fi Internet @-@ enabled portable toilet . The iLoo , which was to debut at British summer festivals , was described as being a portable toilet with wireless broadband Internet , an adjustable plasma screen , a membrane wireless keyboard , a six @-@ channel speaker system , and toilet paper embossed with popular web site addresses . The iLoo was also to have an extra screen and keyboard on the outside , and was to be guarded . It was intended as the next in a series of successful initiatives by MSN UK which sought to introduce the internet in unusual locations , including MSN Street , MSN Park Bench and MSN Deckchair .
The project was announced by MSN UK on April 30 , 2003 , and was widely ridiculed before being declared a hoax by Microsoft on May 12 . On May 13 , another Microsoft press release stated that although the project had not been a hoax , it had been cancelled because it would do little to promote the MSN brand . There has since been speculation as to whether the project was cancelled for fear of being sued by Andrew Cubitt , who had invented the similarly named product " i @-@ Loo " . The iLoo was described as a public relations " debacle " by Online Journalism Review .
= = Description = =
The iLoo was designed to be a Wi @-@ Fi Internet @-@ enabled portable toilet that would allow users to surf the internet while using the loo . Internally , the facility would have a broadband connection via wireless 802.11b , a wireless waterproof keyboard , a swivel plasma screen running Windows XP Professional , a 6 @-@ channel surround @-@ sound system beneath the sink , toilet paper embossed with popular URLs , and a suction toilet . Externally , the facility would feature an MSN logo and have a " Hotmail station " with an additional plasma screen and keyboard for waiting consumers . A security guard was to be stationed near the unit to ensure that it was being properly used and to prevent the unit from being stolen . The iLoo was to debut " at a majority of the summer season festivals " . The iLoo was to be deployed only in Britain .
= = Public relations timeline = =
The project was announced on April 30 , 2003 in press release by MSN UK , MSN 's British subsidiary , as part of a " series of MSN.co.uk initiatives which look at the changing nature of how we use the web as it constantly evolves " . The press release stated that :
The UK ’ s most popular website msn.co.uk is creating the world ’ s first ‘ Internet Loo ’ . The iLoo will be mobile and is part of MSN ’ s mission to allow instant logging on ‘ anytime and any place ’ . In time for the summer festival season , MSN is in the process of converting a portable loo to create a unique experience for surfers looking for an alternative to the bog @-@ standard festival loo experience . Users will be able to sit down , undock a wireless keyboard and conveniently access the first ever WWW.C.
The press release also stated that " MSN is also in talks with toilet paper manufacturers to produce special web paper for those in need of URL inspiration " .
News of the iLoo was widely circulated amongst mainstream media . The story became the most @-@ emailed story on Yahoo ! News on May 1 , 2003 , being emailed over 4000 times . The iLoo was widely derided and press coverage subjected MSN and Microsoft to heavy criticism . On May 10 , The Inquirer published a story in which Andrew Cubitt alleged that " Microsoft stole his iLoo idea " from his i @-@ Loo invention . On May 12 , Microsoft announced that the iLoo was a " hoax perpetrated by its British division " calling it an " April Fool 's joke " and issued an apology for the confusion . The Associated Press , however , stated that they had previously received confirmation of the project from two of Microsoft 's PR firms : Waggener Edstrom Worldwide and Red Consultancy . The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer also stated that it received confirmation from Waggener Edstrom and was even provided with a schematic drawing . Furthermore , April Fools was almost a month before , and Microsoft had never before released a fake press release .
On May 13 , 2003 , Microsoft retracted the denial , stating that the iLoo had been a legitimate demonstration project that was to be released in Britain for summer music festivals , but had been terminated by Microsoft executives in Redmond , Washington who believed the iLoo was inappropriate with the final decision made by MSN senior vice president David Cole . MSN product manager Lisa Gurry stated that the project " didn 't really map to our global branding objectives " . Microsoft again apologized for the miscommunication stating " the confusion over the legitimacy of this effort was caused by people moving too quickly and who misspoke before gathering all of the relevant information " . Prior to the cancellation , an iLoo prototype was in the " early stages of construction " . MSN allows regional units to design their own marketing campaigns , and the UK division had developed a reputation for innovative campaigns , in this case involving British toilet humour . The iLoo which was designed for the UK as part of a " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek marketing initiative " was " intended to be the next in line of a number of clever initiatives in the UK involving introducing the internet in interesting locations , including MSN Street , MSN Park Bench and MSN Deckchair " . The previous initiatives were well received . Microsoft stated that no employees were disciplined as a result of the debacle , although the company stated that it would conduct " internal discussions " .
= = Reaction = =
Although the product was not publicly released , many questioned whether " Microsoft had lost its senses " and the product was widely derided . Critics contended that the product was a waste of money and doomed to fail . Concerns were raised about how the iLoo would serve to extend waiting lines , how hygienic it would be to share keyboards in a public loo , and what would happen if the keyboard were to be urinated upon . Critics also questioned whether users would spend enough time in the loo to make use of the internet facilities , noting that " most port @-@ a @-@ potty users stay only long enough to relieve themselves without having to inhale . "
The iLoo , given its toiletry @-@ related nature , subjected MSN and Microsoft to puns and jokes especially since Microsoft 's marketing slogan at the time was " where do you want to go today ? " with the PC being dubbed Pee @-@ C. The Herald Sun wrote that the " iLoo is , unquestionably , very good news – mainly to journalists with a bottomless pit of laboured bum jokes " while the Seattle Times wrote " now the company has a credibility problem as well as a red face . " Other newspapers issued humorous headlines : Microsoft technology headed for toilet from the San Francisco Chronicle , Toilet mixes zeroes with ones and twos from the Washington Post , and Microsoft 's Gone Potty from The Daily Mirror .
The product has since been studied as an example of a public relations disaster and an example of an internet hoax . Microsoft 's public relations response to the debacle is also considered to be one of the poorest in the company 's history , given Microsoft 's reputation for micro @-@ managing news releases , interviews and promotional events .
The iLoo 's negative publicity drowned out the launch of MSN Radio Plus on May 12 , 2003 . It has since inspired a number of spoofs .
= = i @-@ Loo controversy = =
After reading an article about the iLoo , Andrew Cubitt , inventor of the similarly named i @-@ Loo , wrote to The Inquirer stating that iLoo " sounds remarkably similar ... it now seems that the clever people at Microsoft have cottoned onto the idea and even call it the i @-@ Loo , the same as mine ! " Cubitt went on to say that " mine did everything that the Microsoft one is meant to do , but additionally printed information on toilet paper and didn 't use a keyboard for the interface due to hygiene reasons " . The i @-@ Loo was prototyped by Cubitt as part of his thesis for his 2001 university degree in Product Design and Engineering at Brunel University . In an interview with The Inquirer , he noted " As it was designed at the university , they own the partial rights to the product so they will be watching the Microsoft ' invention ' very closely . "
Microsoft never formally commented on Cubitt 's allegations and instead initially stated the iLoo was an April 's fool joke . As a result , Cubitt questioned whether this was " a very calculated ploy to destroy competition in its early stages , or is admitting they don 't even know what time of the month it is less embarrassing and ridding them of a potentially expensive situation ! " Cubitt went on to state that " as they have now discredited my idea as a joke , I will never be able to produce the idea " and as such was " consulting my law books now on defamatory statements " . Neither Cubitt , nor Brunel University have taken public legal action against Microsoft pertaining to the i @-@ Loo .
The i @-@ Loo was described as :
The i @-@ Loo internet toilet roll browser is a novel and unique product designed to make best use of the time you spend on the loo ! The product allows you to search the internet whilst sitting on the toilet and print out any web pages you are interested in on your toilet paper. i @-@ Loo brings a whole new meaning to the word downloading . The unit is fixed in front of a toilet on the cubical [ sic ] wall . The product provides up to date information about new products , daily news and lottery results through an easy to navigate software package . Normal operation of the toilet and paper dispenser is evident .
The i @-@ Loo internet toilet roll browser was featured at the 2003 Daily Mail Ideal Home Show as part of the Future Concepts exhibition in Earls Court , London , where it was nominated for the MFI Bright Sparks 2003 awards . The i @-@ Loo , which was sponsored by Epson Printers , received significant press coverage , and was featured on GMTV as well as various radio shows .
= = Annotations = =
= William C. Chase =
Major General William Curtis Chase ( 9 March 1895 – 21 August 1986 ) was an American soldier and General in the first half of the 20th century . He is best known for his service in the South West Pacific Area during World War II and in the Occupation of Japan .
A graduate of Brown University , Chase enlisted in the Rhode Island National Guard in 1913 and served on the Mexican Border . Commissioned as a second lieutenant in the cavalry in January 1917 , he served on the Western Front in World War I and in the Occupation of the Rhineland . Between the wars , he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , later returning as an instructor .
Chase was promoted to Brigadier General in March 1943 on assuming command of the 1st Brigade , 1st Cavalry Division . He was chosen to lead the assault on the Admiralty Islands in February 1944 . He resisted the temptation to swiftly overrun the island , and thereby overextend his forces , and formed a defensive perimeter that made good use of the terrain . From this position , he was able to defeat a series of counterattacks by the numerically superior Japanese garrison .
In February 1945 , Chase 's columns pushed into the northern outskirts of Manila , liberating some 3 @,@ 700 internees at the University of Santo Tomas which had been turned into an internment camp . He took over command of the 38th Infantry Division , which was confronted by enemy fortifications at Zig @-@ Zag Pass on the Bataan Peninsula that took a week of hard fighting to reduce . Chase assumed command of the 1st Cavalry Division on 1 August 1945 . He remained with it in the Occupation of Japan until he returned to the United States in January 1949 . Later , he was chief of staff of the Third Army at Fort McPherson and head of the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Taiwan . Retiring from the Army , he earned a Master of Arts degree in history from Trinity University and taught political science at the University of Houston .
= = Education and early life = =
William Curtis Chase was born in Providence , Rhode Island , on 9 March 1896 , the son of William Beecher Chase and his wife , Doris Evelyn née Curtis . He attended Brown University , graduating with a Bachelor of Arts with a Phi Beta Kappa Society key in 1916 . While at Brown , Chase enlisted in Battery A , 1st Rhode Island Volunteer Artillery of the Rhode Island National Guard ( later Battery A , 103rd Field Artillery ) in 1913 .
= = World War I = =
On the afternoon of his graduation from Brown in 1916 , Chase , now a sergeant , joined A Battery at Quonset Point , Rhode Island , where it was mobilised for duty on the Mexican Border . The unit remained in the El Paso , Texas , area for a time , but saw no action . While there , Chase passed an examination for commissions in Regular Army . Chase was posted to Fort Leavenworth in January 1917 for a three month course for newly commissioned officers before being commissioned as a second lieutenant in the cavalry .
Chase was assigned to the 3rd Cavalry , then based at Fort Sam Houston . Shortly after the United States declared war on Germany , he was promoted to first lieutenant and posted to the 6th Cavalry on the Mexican frontier .
Chase attended a machine gun course at Fort Sill , after which he was posted to the 11th Machine Gun Battalion , part of the 4th Division , in April 1918 . He served on the Western Front with the 4th Division , participating in the Battle of Saint @-@ Mihiel , but came down with jaundice and missed all but the last days of the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive . He participated in the Occupation of the Rhineland before the 4th Division returned to the United States in July 1919 .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
On return , Chase was posted to the 16th Cavalry , then in the Rio Grande Valley , although it soon returned to Fort Sam Houston . In 1921 he was posted to Michigan State College for duty with the Reserve Officers ' Training Corps . There he met Dorothea Marie Wetherbee . They were married in 1921 . They never had children .
Chase attended the United States Army Cavalry School and United States Army Infantry School , followed by duty with the 14th Cavalry at Fort Sheridan , Illinois , from 1927 to 1929 . He then attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth . From 1931 to 1934 he served overseas with the 26th Cavalry ( Philippine Scouts ) at Fort Stotsenburg in the Philippines . Returning to the United States , he was posted as an Instructor in Tactics , first at the Cavalry School at Fort Riley and then , from 1938 to 1940 , at the Command and General Staff College .
= = World War II = =
In 1941 Chase , now a lieutenant colonel , was posted to VIII Corps , then commanded by Major General Walter Krueger . As such , he participated in the Louisiana Maneuvers . In December 1941 , he was posted to the Amphibious Force , Atlantic Fleet , then under the command of Major General Holland Smith . Based at Marine Corps Base Quantico , the Amphibious Force practiced Amphibious warfare tactics on Chesapeake Bay .
In 1942 , Chase assumed command of the 113th Cavalry , an Iowa National Guard unit . Initially a horse @-@ mechanized unit , the 113th Cavalry soon became fully mechanized . It moved from its original station at Fort Clark , Texas , to Camp Bowie and then to Fort Hood , where it provided school troops for the Tank Destroyer Center .
Chase was promoted to Brigadier General in March 1943 on assuming command of the 1st Brigade , 1st Cavalry Division . The division was then stationed at Fort Bliss but was already preparing to move to the South West Pacific . The 1st Cavalry Division had therefore been dismounted , but the division and brigade commanders and their staffs were still on horseback . The 1st Cavalry Division staged at Camp Stoneman . Chase departed from San Francisco on 3 July on the transport USAT George Washington .
The 1st Cavalry Division arrived in Australia and continued its training at Strathpine , Queensland . Training there was more vigorous than at Fort Bliss , and Chase broke his heel bone in a training accident . In December 1943 , the 1st Cavalry Division sailed for Oro Bay , where it staged for its next operation , the Admiralty Islands campaign . Chase was chosen to lead the assault . Here , his tactical expertise came to the fore . He resisted the temptation to overrun the island of Los Negros , and thereby overextend his forces , and instead formed a defensive perimeter that made good use of the terrain . From this position , he was able to defeat a series of counterattacks by the numerically superior Japanese garrison . The crisis passed , Chase 's force was reinforced by the rest of the division , and the 1st Cavalry Division was then able to overrun the islands . Chase was awarded the Bronze Star for his role in the campaign .
The 1st Cavalry Division remained in the Admiralty Islands until October , when it boarded ships there for the invasion of Leyte , which it assaulted on 20 October 1944 . Chase 's 1st Brigade 's initial mission was to reconnoiter the hills on the west side of the Tacloban Valley and establish observation posts from which it could command the entrances to the valley . In November , he was ordered to cover the flank of X Corps ' advance up the Leyte Valley , and later into the Ormoc Valley . Chase had to move his brigade across mountainous , roadless , uncharted jungle in frequently appalling wet weather . The advance made slow progress against Japanese troops that fought tenaciously all the way .
The 1st Cavalry Division was down to half strength when it was withdrawn from the front line on Leyte for a brief rest in January 1945 , but few reinforcements arrived before it was ordered to move to Luzon , where it disembarked over the beaches at San Fabian on 27 January 1945 . General of the Army Douglas MacArthur ordered the 1st Cavalry Division 's commander , Major General Vern D. Mudge , to conduct a rapid advance on Manila . For this , Mudge formed three flying columns . Initially , Chase 's 1st Brigade 's mission was to follow one of the columns but on 1 February he was relieved of responsibility for the main body of the 1st Brigade and placed in command of all three flying columns .
On 3 February , Chase 's columns pushed into the northern outskirts of Manila and seized a vital bridge over the Tuliahan River , which separated them from the city proper . Chase , controlling his columns by radio , suffered slight burns to his hands when a Japanese truck exploded . A squadron of the 8th Cavalry , guided by two Filipino guerrillas reached the sprawling campus of the University of Santo Tomas which had been turned into an internment camp , liberating some 3 @,@ 700 internees .
A Japanese raiding party destroyed the bridge over Tuliahan River ; Chase 's security was not good enough . This prevented the main body of the 1st Cavalry Division from linking up with Chase 's force in Manila . Supplies were dispatched through the 37th Infantry Division 's zone until engineers could build a new bridge . For his advance on Manila , Chase was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . He was also awarded the Purple Heart for the burns to his hands .
On 7 February 1945 , Chase took over command of the 38th Infantry Division , which was then confronted by enemy fortifications at Zig @-@ Zag Pass on the Bataan Peninsula . It took Chase a week of hard fighting to reduce this position . A battalion of the 151st Infantry under Chase 's personal command landed at Mariveles on the southern tip of Bataan on 14 February . The 38th Infantry Division participated in the final actions on Corregidor . Units of the 38th Infantry Division assaulted and captured Caballo Island on 27 March , Fort Drum on El Fraile Island on 13 April , and Carabao Island on 16 April . Meanwhile , other elements of the 38th Infantry Division engaged enemy forces in the mountainous Fort Stotsenburg area . In the midst of these operations , Chase was promoted to Major General in March .
In late April 1945 , the 38th Infantry Division moved to the area east of Manila where it relieved the 6th Infantry Division . On 1 May , it began a series of probing attacks prior to an attack on 4 May aimed at capturing the Wawa Dam , an important part of Manila 's water supply . Chase had to reduce a series of strongly held Japanese positions . By the end of the month , the dam was secure and the Japanese Kobayashi Force was broken .
Chase assumed command of the 1st Cavalry Division on 1 August 1945 . At this time , the division was in the Lucena City area but slated for Operation Downfall , in which it would assault Ariake , Kagoshima . The end of the war precluded this . Instead , the 1st Cavalry Division participated in the Occupation of Japan . It embarked from Batangas on 25 August and disembarked in Tokyo Bay on 2 September , becoming the first US division in Tokyo .
= = Later life = =
Chase remained with the 1st Cavalry Division on occupation duties until December 1948 , when he temporarily assumed command of IX Corps . He finally returned to the United States in January 1949 , and became chief of staff of the Third Army at Fort McPherson in April 1949 . From 1951 to 1955 he headed the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Taiwan . He retired from the Army on 31 July 1955 .
Chase earned a Master of Arts degree in history from Trinity University . From 1957 to 1965 , he taught political science at the University of Houston . His wife Dorothea died in 1957 . In 1961 he married Mrs Hallie Barlow Olcott . Chase retired in 1965 , having reached the state of Texas ' mandatory retirement age . In 1974 , Chase joined a party of retired generals associated with General MacArthur on a visit to Australia as guests of Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring and Dame Mary Herring . In addition to Chase , Leif J. Sverdrup , Hugh John Casey , and LeGrande A. Diller and their wives also made the trip . Chase published his memoirs , entitled Front Line General : The Commands of Maj. Gen. Wm . C. Chase , in 1975 . He died on 21 August 1986 and was buried at Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery .
= Tracheobronchial injury =
Tracheobronchial injury ( TBI ) is damage to the tracheobronchial tree ( the airway structure involving the trachea and bronchi ) . It can result from blunt or penetrating trauma to the neck or chest , inhalation of harmful fumes or smoke , or aspiration of liquids or objects .
Though rare , TBI is a serious condition ; it may cause obstruction of the airway with resulting life @-@ threatening respiratory insufficiency . Other injuries accompany TBI in about half of cases . Of those people with TBI who die , most do so before receiving emergency care , either from airway obstruction , exsanguination , or from injuries to other vital organs . Of those who do reach a hospital , the mortality rate may be as high as 30 % .
TBI is frequently difficult to diagnose and treat . Early diagnosis is important to prevent complications , which include stenosis ( narrowing ) of the airway , respiratory tract infection , and damage to the lung tissue . Diagnosis involves procedures such as bronchoscopy , radiography , and x @-@ ray computed tomography to visualize the tracheobronchial tree . Signs and symptoms vary based on the location and severity of the injury ; they commonly include dyspnea ( difficulty breathing ) , dysphonia ( a condition where the voice can be hoarse , weak , or excessively breathy ) , coughing , and abnormal breath sounds . In the emergency setting , tracheal intubation can be used to ensure that the airway remains open . In severe cases , surgery may be necessary to repair a TBI .
= = Anatomy = =
The trachea and bronchi form the tracheobronchial tree . The trachea is situated between the lower end of the larynx and the center of the chest , where it splits into the two bronchi at a ridge called the carina . The trachea is stabilized and kept open by rings made of cartilage that surround the front and sides of the structure ; these rings are not closed and do not surround the back , which is made of membrane . The bronchi split into smaller branches and then to bronchioles that supply air to the alveoli , the tiny air @-@ filled sacs in the lungs responsible for absorbing oxygen . An arbitrary division can be made between the intrathoracic and cervical trachea at the thoracic inlet , an opening at the top of the thoracic cavity . Anatomical structures that surround and protect the tracheobronchial tree include the lungs , the esophagus , large blood vessels , the rib cage , the thoracic spine , and the sternum . Children have softer tracheas and a more elastic tracheobronchial trees than adults ; this elasticity , which helps protect the structures from injury when they are compressed , may contribute to the lower incidence of TBI in children .
= = Classification = =
Lesions can be transverse , occurring between the rings of the trachea , longitudinal or spiral . They may occur along the membranous part of the trachea , the main bronchi , or both . In 8 % of ruptures , lesions are complex , occurring in more than one location , with more than one type of lesion , or on both of the main bronchi and the trachea . Transverse tears are more common than longitudinal or complex ones . The laceration may completely transect the airway or it may go only partway around . Partial tears that do not go all the way around the circumference of the airway do not allow a lacerated airway to become completely detached ; tears that encircle the whole airway can allow separation to occur . Lacerations may also be classified as complete or incomplete . In an incomplete lesion , a layer of tissue surrounding the bronchus remains intact and can keep the air in the airway , preventing it from leaking into the areas surrounding the airways . Incomplete lacerations may require closer scrutiny to detect and may not be diagnosed right away .
Bronchial injuries are divided into those that are accompanied by a disruption of the pleura and those that are not ; in the former , air can leak from the hole in the airway and a pneumothorax can form . The latter type is associated with more minor signs ; pneumothorax is small if it occurs at all , and although function is lost in the part of the lung supplied by the injured bronchus , unaffected parts of the lungs may be able to compensate .
Most TBI that results from blunt trauma occurs within the chest . The most common tracheal injury is a tear near the carina or in the membranous wall of the trachea . In blunt chest trauma , TBI occurs within 2 @.@ 5 cm of the carina 40 – 80 % of the time . The injury is more common in the right main bronchus than the left , possibly because the former is near vertebrae , which may injure it . Also , the aorta and other tissues in the mid chest that surround the left main bronchus may protect it . Another possibility is that people with left main bronchus injuries are more likely to also have other deadly injuries and therefore die before reaching hospital , making them less likely to be included in studies that determine rates of injuries .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Signs and symptoms vary depending on what part of the tracheobronchial tree is injured and how severely it is damaged . There are no direct signs of TBI , but certain signs suggest the injury and raise a clinician 's suspicion that it has occurred . Many of the signs and symptoms are also present in injuries with similar injury mechanisms such as pneumothorax . Dyspnea and respiratory distress are found in 76 – 100 % of people with TBI , and coughing up blood has been found in up to 25 % . However , isolated TBI does not usually cause profuse bleeding ; if such bleeding is observed it is likely to be due to another injury such as a ruptured large blood vessel . The patient may exhibit dysphonia or have diminished breath sounds , and rapid breathing is common . Coughing may be present , and stridor , an abnormal , high @-@ pitched breath sound indicating obstruction of the upper airway can also occur .
Damage to the airways can cause subcutaneous emphysema ( air trapped in the subcutaneous tissue of the skin ) in the abdomen , chest , neck , and head . Subcutaneous emphysema , present in up to 85 % of people with TBI , is particularly indicative of the injury when it is only in the neck . Air is trapped in the chest cavity outside the lungs ( pneumothorax ) in about 70 % of TBI . Especially strong evidence that TBI has occurred is failure of a pneumothorax to resolve even when a chest tube is placed to rid the chest cavity of the air ; it shows that air is continually leaking into the chest cavity from the site of the tear . Air can also be trapped in the mediastinum , the center of the chest cavity ( pneumomediastinum ) . If air escapes from a penetrating injury to the neck , a definite diagnosis of TBI can be made . Hamman 's sign , a sound of crackling that occurs in time with the heartbeat , may also accompany TBI .
= = Causes = =
Injuries to the tracheobronchial tree within the chest may occur due to penetrating forces such as gunshot wounds , but are more often the result of blunt trauma . TBI due blunt forces usually results from high @-@ energy impacts such as falls from height and motor vehicle accidents ; the injury is rare in low @-@ impact mechanisms . Injuries of the trachea cause about 1 % of traffic @-@ related deaths . Other potential causes are falls from high places and injuries in which the chest is crushed . Explosions are another cause .
Gunshot wounds are the commonest form of penetrating trauma that cause TBI . Less commonly , knife wounds and shrapnel from motor vehicle accidents can also penetrate the airways . Most injuries to the trachea occur in the neck , because the airways within the chest are deep and therefore well protected ; however , up to a quarter of TBI resulting from penetrating trauma occurs within the chest . Injury to the cervical trachea usually affects the anterior ( front ) part of the trachea .
Certain medical procedures can also injure the airways ; these include tracheal intubation , bronchoscopy , and tracheotomy . The back of the trachea may be damaged during tracheotomy . TBI resulting from tracheal intubation ( insertion of a tube into the trachea ) is rare , and the mechanism by which it occurs is unclear . However , one likely mechanism involves an endotracheal tube catching in a fold of membrane and tearing it as it is advanced downward through the airway . When an endotracheal tube tears the trachea , it typically does so at the posterior ( back ) membranous wall . Unlike TBI that results from blunt trauma , most iatrogenic injuries to the airway involve longitudinal tears to the back of the trachea or tears on the side that pull the membranous part of the trachea away from the cartilage . Excessive pressure from the cuff of an endotracheal tube can reduce blood supply to the tissues of the trachea , leading to ischemia and potentially causing it to become ulcerated , infected , and , later , narrowed .
The mucosal lining of the trachea may also be injured by inhalation of hot gases or harmful fumes such as chlorine gas . This can lead to edema ( swelling ) , necrosis ( death of the tissue ) , scar formation , and ultimately stenosis . However , TBI due to inhalation , foreign body aspiration , and medical procedures is uncommon .
= = Mechanism = =
The structures in the tracheobronchial tree are well protected , so it normally takes a large amount of force to injure them . In blunt trauma , TBI is usually the result of violent compression of the chest . Rapid hyperextension of the neck , usually resulting from vehicle crashes , can also injure the trachea , and trauma to the neck can crush the trachea against the vertebrae . A crush injury of the larynx or cervical trachea can occur in head @-@ on collisions when the neck is hyperextended and strikes the steering wheel or dashboard ; this has been called a " dashboard injury " . The larynx and cervical trachea may also be injured in front @-@ on collisions by the seat belt .
Although the mechanism is not well understood , TBI due to blunt trauma is widely thought to be caused by any combination of three possible mechanisms : an increase in pressure within the airways , shearing , and pulling apart . The first type of injury , sometimes called an " explosive rupture " , may occur when the chest is violently compressed , for example when a driver strikes the steering wheel in a vehicle accident or when the chest is crushed . The pressure in the airways , especially the larger airways ( the trachea and bronchi ) , quickly rises as a result of the compression , because the glottis reflexively closes off the airways . When this pressure exceeds the elasticity of the tissues , they burst ; thus the membranous part of the trachea is more commonly affected by this mechanism of injury than cartilaginous portions .
The second mechanism may occur when the chest is suddenly decelerated , as occurs in vehicle accidents , producing a shearing force . The lungs are mobile in the chest cavity but their movement is more restricted near the hilum . Areas near the cricoid cartilage and carina are fixed to the thyroid cartilage and the pericardium respectively ; thus if the airways move , they can tear at these points of fixation .
The third mechanism occurs when the chest is compressed from front to back , causing it to widen from side to side . The lungs adhere to the chest wall because of the negative pressure between them and the pleural membranes lining the inside of the chest cavity ; thus when the chest widens , they are pulled apart . This creates tension at the carina ; the airway tears if this tensile force exceeds its elasticity . This mechanism may be the cause of injury when the chest is crushed . Most TBI are probably due to a combination of these three mechanisms .
When airways are damaged , air can escape from them and be trapped in the surrounding tissues in the neck ( subcutaneous emphysema ) and mediastinum ( pneumomediastinum ) ; if it builds up to high enough pressures there , it can compress the airways . Massive air leaks from a ruptured airway can also compromise the circulation by preventing blood from returning to the heart from the head and lower body ; this causes a potentially deadly reduction in the amount of blood the heart is able to pump out . Blood and other fluids can build up in the airways , and the injury can interfere with the patency of the airway and interfere with its continuity . However , even if the trachea is completely transected , the tissues surrounding it may hold it together enough for adequate air exchange to occur , at least at first .
= = Diagnosis = =
Rapid diagnosis and treatment are important in the care of TBI ; if the injury is not diagnosed shortly after the injury , the risk of complications is higher . Bronchoscopy is the most effective method to diagnose , locate , and determine the severity of TBI , and it is usually the only method that allows a definitive diagnosis . Diagnosis with a flexible bronchoscope , which allows the injury to be visualized directly , is the fastest and most reliable technique . In people with TBI , bronchoscopy may reveal that the airway is torn , or that the airways are blocked by blood , or that a bronchus has collapsed , obscuring more distal ( lower ) bronchi from view .
Chest x @-@ ray is the initial imaging technique used to diagnose TBI . The film may not have any signs in an otherwise asymptomatic patient . Indications of TBI seen on radiographs include deformity in the trachea or a defect in the tracheal wall . Radiography may also show cervical emphysema , air in the tissues of the neck . X @-@ rays may also show accompanying injuries and signs such as fractures and subcutaneous emphysema . If subcutaneous emphysema occurs and the hyoid bone appears in an X @-@ ray to be sitting unusually high in the throat , it may be an indication that the trachea has been severed . TBI is also suspected if an endotracheal tube appears in an X @-@ ray to be out of place , or if its cuff appears to be more full than normal or to protrude through a tear in the airway . If a bronchus is torn all the way around , the lung may collapse outward toward the chest wall ( rather than inward , as it usually does in pneumothorax ) because it loses the attachment to the bronchus which normally holds it toward the center . In a person lying face @-@ up , the lung collapses toward the diaphragm and the back . This sign , described in 1969 , is called fallen lung sign and is pathognomonic of TBI ( that is , it is diagnostic for TBI because it does not occur in other conditions ) ; however it occurs only rarely . In as many as one in five cases , people with blunt trauma and TBI have no signs of the injury on chest X @-@ ray . CT scanning detects over 90 % of TBI resulting from blunt trauma , but neither X @-@ ray nor CT are a replacement for bronchoscopy .
At least 30 % of TBI are not discovered at first ; this number may be as high as 50 % . In about 10 % of cases , TBI has no specific signs either clinically or on chest radiography , and its detection may be further complicated by concurrent injuries , since TBI tends to occur after high @-@ energy accidents . Weeks or months may go by before the injury is diagnosed , even though the injury is better known than it was in the past .
= = Prevention = =
Vehicle occupants who wear seat belts have a lower incidence of TBI after a motor vehicle accident . However , if the strap is situated across the front of the neck ( instead of the chest ) , this increases the risk of tracheal injury . Design of medical instruments can be modified to prevent iatrogenic TBI , and medical practitioners can use techniques that reduce the risk of injury with procedures such as tracheotomy .
= = Treatment = =
Treatment of TBI varies based on the location and severity of injury and whether the patient is stable or having trouble breathing , but ensuring that the airway is patent so that the patient can breathe is always of paramount importance . Ensuring an open airway and adequate ventilation may be difficult in people with TBI . Intubation , one method to secure the airway , may be used to bypass a disruption in the airway in order to send air to the lungs . If necessary , a tube can be placed into the uninjured bronchus , and a single lung can be ventilated . If there is a penetrating injury to the neck through which air is escaping , the trachea may be intubated through the wound . Multiple unsuccessful attempts at conventional ( direct ) laryngoscopy may threaten the airway , so alternative techniques to visualize the airway , such as fiberoptic or video laryngoscopy , may be employed to facilitate tracheal intubation . If the upper trachea is injured , an incision can be made in the trachea ( tracheotomy ) or the cricothyroid membrane ( cricothyrotomy , or cricothyroidotomy ) in order to ensure an open airway . However , cricothyrotomy may not be useful if the trachea is lacerated below the site of the artificial airway . Tracheotomy is used sparingly because it can cause complications such as infections and narrowing of the trachea and larynx . When it is impossible to establish a sufficient airway , or when complicated surgery must be performed , cardiopulmonary bypass may be used — blood is pumped out of the body , oxygenated by a machine , and pumped back in . If a pneumothorax occurs , a chest tube may be inserted into the pleural cavity to remove the air .
People with TBI are provided with supplemental oxygen and may need mechanical ventilation . Employment of certain measures such as Positive end @-@ expiratory pressure ( PEEP ) and ventilation at higher @-@ than @-@ normal pressures may be helpful in maintaining adequate oxygenation . However , such measures can also increase leakage of air through a tear , and can stress the sutures in a tear that has been surgically repaired ; therefore the lowest possible airway pressures that still maintain oxygenation are typically used . Mechanical ventilation can also cause pulmonary barotrauma when high pressure is required to ventilate the lungs . Techniques such as pulmonary toilet ( removal of secretions ) , fluid management , and treatment of pneumonia are employed to improve pulmonary compliance ( the elasticity of the lungs ) .
While TBI may be managed without surgery , surgical repair of the tear is considered standard in the treatment of most TBI . It is required if a tear interferes with ventilation ; if mediastinitis ( inflammation of the tissues in the mid @-@ chest ) occurs ; or if subcutaneous or mediastinal emphysema progresses rapidly ; or if air leak or large pneumothorax is persistent despite chest tube placement . Other indications for surgery are a tear more than one third the circumference of the airway , tears with loss of tissue , and a need for positive pressure ventilation . Damaged tissue around a rupture ( e.g. torn or scarred tissue ) may be removed in order to obtain clean edges that can be surgically repaired . Debridement of damaged tissue can shorten the trachea by as much as 50 % . Repair of extensive tears can include sewing a flap of tissue taken from the membranes surrounding the heart or lungs ( the pericardium and pleura , respectively ) over the sutures to protect them . When lung tissue is destroyed as a result of TBI complications , pneumonectomy or lobectomy ( removal of a lung or of one lobe , respectively ) may be required . Pneumonectomy is avoided whenever possible due to the high rate of death associated with the procedure . Surgery to repair a tear in the tracheobronchial tree can be successful even when it is performed months after the trauma , as can occur if the diagnosis of TBI is delayed . When airway stenosis results after delayed diagnosis , surgery is similar to that performed after early diagnosis : the stenotic section is removed and the cut airway is repaired .
= = Prognosis and complications = =
Most people with TBI who die do so within minutes of the injury , due to complications such as pneumothorax and insufficient airway and to other injuries that occurred at the same time . Most late deaths that occur in TBI are attributed to sepsis or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome ( MODS ) . If the condition is not recognized and treated early , serious complications are more likely to occur ; for example , pneumonia and bronchiectasis may occur as late complications . Years can pass before the condition is recognized . Some TBI are so small that they do not have significant clinical manifestations ; they may never be noticed or diagnosed and may heal without intervention .
If granulation tissue grows over the injured site , it can cause stenosis of the airway , after a week to a month . The granulation tissue must be surgically excised . Delayed diagnosis of a bronchial rupture increases risk of infection and lengthens hospital stay . People with a narrowed airway may suffer dyspnea , coughing , wheezing , respiratory tract infection , and difficulty with clearing secretions . If the bronchiole is completely obstructed , atelectasis occurs : the alveoli of the lung collapse . Lung tissue distal to a completely obstructed bronchiole often does not become infected . Because it is filled with mucus , this tissue remains functional . When the secretions are removed , the affected portion of the lung is commonly able to function almost normally . However , infection is common in lungs distal to a partially obstructed bronchiole . Infected lung tissue distal to a stricture can be damaged , and wheezing and coughing may develop due to the narrowing . In addition to pneumonia , the stenosis may cause bronchiectasis , in which bronchi are dilated , to develop . Even after an airway with a stricture is restored to normal , the resulting loss of lung function may be permanent .
Complications may also occur with treatment ; for example a granuloma can form at the suture site . Also , the sutured wound can tear again , as occurs when there is excessive pressure in the airways from ventilation . However , for people who do receive surgery soon after the injury to repair the lesion , outcome is usually good ; the long @-@ term outcome is good for over 90 % of people who have TBI surgically repaired early in treatment . Even when surgery is performed years after the injury , the outlook is good , with low rates of death and disability and good chances of preserving lung function .
= = Epidemiology = =
Rupture of the trachea or bronchus is the most common type of blunt injury to the airway . It is difficult to determine the incidence of TBI : in as many as 30 – 80 % of cases , death occurs before the person reaches a hospital , and these people may not be included in studies . On the other hand , some TBI are so small that they do not cause significant symptoms and are therefore never noticed . In addition , the injury sometimes is not associated with symptoms until complications develop later , further hindering estimation of the true incidence . However , autopsy studies have revealed TBI in 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 2 % of people who died after trauma . Of all neck and chest traumas , including people that died immediately , TBI is estimated to occur in 0 @.@ 5 – 2 % . An estimated 0 @.@ 5 % of polytrauma patients treated in trauma centers have TBI . The incidence is estimated at 2 % in blunt chest and neck trauma and 1 – 2 % in penetrating chest trauma . Laryngotracheal injuries occur in 8 % of patients with penetrating injury to the neck , and TBI occurs in 2 @.@ 8 % of blunt chest trauma deaths . In people with blunt trauma who do reach a hospital alive , reports have found incidences of 2 @.@ 1 % and 5 @.@ 3 % . Another study of blunt chest trauma revealed an incidence of only 0 @.@ 3 % , but a mortality rate of 67 % ( possibly due in part to associated injuries ) . The incidence of iatrogenic TBI ( that caused by medical procedures ) is rising , and the risk may be higher for women and the elderly . TBI results about once every 20 @,@ 000 times someone is intubated through the mouth , but when intubation is performed emergently , the incidence may be as high as 15 % .
The mortality rate for people who reach a hospital alive was estimated at 30 % in 1966 ; more recent estimates place this number at 9 % . The number of people reaching a hospital alive has increased , perhaps due to improved prehospital care or specialized treatment centers . Of those who reach the hospital alive but then die , most do so within the first two hours of arrival . The sooner a TBI is diagnosed , the higher the mortality rate ; this is likely due to other accompanying injuries that prove fatal .
Accompanying injuries often play a key role in the outcome . Injuries that may accompany TBI include pulmonary contusion and laceration ; and fractures of the sternum , ribs and clavicles . Spinal cord injury , facial trauma , traumatic aortic rupture , injuries to the abdomen , lung , and head are present in 40 – 100 % . The most common accompanying injury is esophageal perforation or rupture ( known as Boerhaave syndrome ) , which occurs in as many as 43 % of the penetrating injuries to the neck that cause tracheal injury .
= = History = =
Throughout most of history the mortality rate of TBI was thought to be 100 % . However , in 1871 a healed TBI was noted in a duck that had been killed by a hunter , thus demonstrating that the injury could be survived , at least in the general sense . This report , made by Winslow , was the first record in the medical literature of a bronchus injury . In 1873 , Seuvre made one of the earliest reports of TBI in the medical literature : a 74 @-@ year @-@ old woman whose chest was crushed by a wagon wheel was found on autopsy to have an avulsion of the right bronchus . Long @-@ term survival of the injury was unknown in humans until a report was made of a person who survived in 1927 . In 1931 , a report made by Nissen described successful removal of a lung in a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl who had had narrowing of the bronchus due to the injury . Repair of TBI was probably first attempted in 1945 , when the first documented case of a successful suturing of a lacerated bronchus was made . Prior to 1950 , the mortality rate was 36 % ; it had fallen to 9 % by 2001 ; this improvement was likely due to improvements in treatments and surgical techniques , including those for injuries commonly associated with TBI .
= Word of God Speak =
" Word of God Speak " is a song by Christian rock band MercyMe . Written by Bart Millard and Pete Kipley , " Word of God Speak " uses sparse instrumentation , featuring only piano and strings to accompany Millard 's vocals . The lyrics to " Word of God Speak " reflect on the idea that it is impossible to speak of an infinite God with a limited vocabulary .
Released as the second single from MercyMe 's 2002 album Spoken For , Billboard magazine ranked the song at the top spot on their 2000s decade @-@ end Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts . " Word of God Speak " spent 23 weeks atop the Billboard Christian Songs chart , a record for that chart ; it spent a total of 76 weeks on that chart altogether . It also topped the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart and the Radio & Records Christian AC and INSPO charts , and peaked at No. 25 on the Christian CHR chart . " Word of God Speak " also won the Dove Awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Song of the Year at the 35th GMA Dove Awards .
= = Background = =
MercyMe 's lead singer Bart Millard wrote " Word of God Speak " while touring in support of their single " I Can Only Imagine " . The travel was exhausting , and Millard commented in an interview that , on one of the nights on tour , he " went to bed just really frustrated ... It started feeling like everything I was saying was the same . I just thought , I have nothing else to say . So I went to bed with that on my mind " . After falling asleep , Millard woke up early in the morning and wrote several lines to the song in his journal before going back to sleep . Several weeks later , he was searching through his journal and found the notes again ; when he went to the band 's studio , he showed the notes to his producer , Pete Kipley . The two finished the lyrics to the song in less than thirty minutes , and recorded the piano track the same night ; they also brought in someone to compose a string track for the song . Millard wanted " Word of God Speak " to contain only piano , avoiding the big production that could assure the song success on the radio , as he felt the simple production would mirror the lyrics .
" Word of God Speak " was written by Bart Millard and Pete Kipley ; it was also produced by Kipley . It was recorded at several locations ; Luminous Sound in Dallas , Texas , The Sound Kitchen in Franklin , Tennessee , Indigo Room in Franklin , Tennessee , HydeAway Sound Lab in Jeckyll Island , Georgia , The Scwoodio in Greenville , Texas , Mountain View Recorders in Glorieta , New Mexico ,
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commanded the volunteer forces until an illness left him bedridden . Bowie died with the other Alamo defenders on March 6 . Despite conflicting accounts of the manner of his death , the " most popular , and probably the most accurate " accounts maintain that he died in his bed after emptying his pistols into several Mexican soldiers .
= = Early years = =
According to his older brother John , James Bowie was born in Logan County , Kentucky , on March 10 , 1796 ( Historical marker : 36 ° 46 ' 25 " N 86 ° 42 ' 10 " W ) . Historian Raymond Thorp gave his birth date as April 10 , but Thorp did not provide any documentation for that date . Bowie 's surname was pronounced to rhyme with the French " Louis " ( / ˈbuːiː / BOO @-@ ee ) . ( Although some works refer to the alternate pronunciation / ˈboʊ.i / BO @-@ ee . )
Bowie was the ninth of ten children born to Elve Ap @-@ Catesby Jones and John Bowie . His father had been wounded while fighting in the American Revolution , and in 1782 married the young woman who had nursed him back to health . The Bowies moved frequently , first settling in Georgia , before moving to Kentucky . At the time of Bowie 's birth , his father owned eight slaves , eleven head of cattle , seven horses , and one stud horse . The following year the family acquired 200 acres ( 80 ha ) along the Red River . They sold that property in 1800 and relocated to Missouri , before moving to Spanish Louisiana in 1802 , where they settled on Bushley Bayou in Rapides Parish .
The family moved again in 1809 , settling on Bayou Teche in Louisiana before finding a permanent home in Opelousas in 1812 . The Bowie children were raised on the frontier and even as small children were expected to help clear the land and plant crops . All the children learned to read and write in English , but James and his elder brother Rezin could also read , write , and speak Spanish and French fluently . The children learned to survive on the frontier and how to fish and run a farm and plantation . James Bowie became proficient with pistol , rifle , and knife , and had a reputation for fearlessness . When he was a boy , one of his Indian friends even taught him to rope alligators .
In response to Andrew Jackson 's plea for volunteers to fight the British in the War of 1812 , James and Rezin enlisted in the Louisiana militia in late 1814 . The Bowie brothers arrived in New Orleans too late to participate in the fighting . After mustering out of the militia , Bowie settled in Rapides Parish , where he supported himself by sawing planks and lumber and floating them down the bayou for sale . In June 1819 , he joined the Long expedition , an effort to liberate Texas from Spanish rule . The group encountered little resistance and , after capturing Nacogdoches , declared Texas an independent republic . The extent of Bowie 's participation is unclear , but he returned to Louisiana before the invasion was repelled by Spanish troops .
= = Land speculator = =
Shortly before the senior Bowie died in 1818 or 1819 , he gave ten slaves as well as horses and cattle to both James and Rezin . For the next seven years , the brothers worked together to develop several large estates in Lafourche Parish and Opelousas . Louisiana 's population was growing rapidly , and the brothers hoped to take advantage of its rising land prices through speculation . Without the capital required to buy large tracts , they entered into a partnership with pirate Jean Lafitte in 1818 to raise money . By then , the United States had outlawed the importation of slaves , and most southern states allowed anyone who informed on a slave trader to receive half of what the imported slaves would earn at auction as a reward . Bowie made three trips to Lafitte 's compound on Galveston Island . On each occasion , he bought smuggled slaves and took them directly to a customhouse to inform on his own actions . When the customs officers offered the slaves for auction , Bowie purchased them and received back half the price he had paid , as allowed by the state laws . He then could legally transport the slaves and resell them at a greater market value in New Orleans or areas farther up the Mississippi River . Using this scheme , the brothers collected $ 65 @,@ 000 to be used for their land speculation .
In 1825 , the two brothers joined with their younger brother Stephen to buy Acadia , a plantation near Alexandria . Within two years , they had established the first steam mill in Louisiana to be used for grinding sugar cane . The plantation became known as a model estate , but on February 12 , 1831 , they sold it and 65 slaves for $ 90 @,@ 000 . With their profits , James and Rezin bought a plantation in Arkansas .
Bowie and his brother John were involved in a major court case in the late 1820s over land speculation . When the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory in 1803 , it promised to honor all former land grant claims , and for the next 20 years efforts were made to establish who owned what land . In May 1824 , Congress authorized the superior courts of each territory to hear suits from those who claimed they had been overlooked . The Arkansas Superior Court received 126 claims in late 1827 from residents who claimed to have purchased land in former Spanish grants from the Bowie brothers . Although the Superior Court originally confirmed most of those claims , the decisions were reversed in February 1831 after further research showed that the land had never belonged to the Bowies and that the original land grant documentation had been forged . The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the reversal in 1833 . When the disgruntled purchasers considered suing the Bowies , they discovered that the documents in the case had been removed from the court ; left without evidence , they declined to pursue a case .
= = Bowie knife = =
Bowie became internationally famous as a result of a feud with Norris Wright , the sheriff of Rapides Parish . Bowie had supported Wright 's opponent in the race for sheriff , and Wright , a bank director , had been instrumental in turning down a Bowie loan application . After a confrontation in Alexandria one afternoon , Wright fired a shot at Bowie , after which Bowie resolved to carry his hunting knife at all times . The knife he carried had a blade that was 9 @.@ 25 inches ( 23 @.@ 5 cm ) long and 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 cm ) wide .
The following year , on September 19 , 1827 , Bowie and Wright attended a duel on a sandbar outside of Natchez , Mississippi . Bowie supported duellist Samuel Levi Wells III , while Wright supported Wells 's opponent , Dr. Thomas Harris Maddox . The duellists each fired two shots and , as neither man had been injured , resolved their duel with a handshake . Other members of the groups , who had various reasons for disliking each other , began fighting . Bowie was shot in the hip ; after regaining his feet he drew a knife , described as a butcher knife , and charged his attacker , who hit Bowie over the head with his empty pistol , breaking the pistol and knocking Bowie to the ground . Wright shot at and missed the prone Bowie , who returned fire and possibly hit Wright . Wright then drew his sword cane and impaled Bowie . When Wright attempted to retrieve his blade by placing his foot on Bowie 's chest and tugging , Bowie pulled him down and disemboweled Wright with his large knife . Wright died instantly , and Bowie , with Wright 's sword still protruding from his chest , was shot again and stabbed by another member of the group . The doctors who had been present for the duel removed the bullets and patched Bowie 's other wounds .
Newspapers picked up the story , which became known as the Sandbar Fight , and described in detail Bowie 's fighting prowess and his unusual knife . Witness accounts agreed that Bowie did not attack first , and the others had focused their attack on Bowie because " they considered him the most dangerous man among their opposition . " The incident cemented Bowie 's reputation across the South as a superb knife fighter .
There is disagreement among scholars as to whether the knife used in this fight was the same as what is now known as a Bowie knife , also called an Arkansas Toothpick . Multiple accounts exist of who designed and built the first Bowie knife . Some claim that Bowie designed it , while others attribute the design to noted knife makers of the time . In a letter to The Planter 's Advocate , Rezin Bowie claimed to have invented the knife , however , and many Bowie family members as well as " most authorities on the Bowie knife tend to believe it was invented by " Rezin . Rezin Bowie 's grandchildren , however , claimed that Rezin merely supervised his blacksmith , who was the creator of the knife .
After the Sandbar Fight and subsequent battles in which Bowie used his knife to defend himself , the Bowie knife became very popular . Many craftsmen and manufacturers made their own versions , and major cities of the Old Southwest had " Bowie knife schools " that taught " the art of cut , thrust , and parry . " His fame , and that of his knife , spread to England , and by the early 1830s many British manufacturers were producing Bowie knives for shipment to the United States . The design of the knife continued to evolve , but today a Bowie knife generally is considered to have a blade 8 @.@ 25 inches ( 21 @.@ 0 cm ) long and 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 3 @.@ 2 cm ) wide , with a curved point , a " sharp false edge cut from both sides " , and a cross @-@ guard to protect the user 's hands .
= = Establishment in Texas = =
In 1828 , after recovering from wounds suffered in the Sandbar Fight , Bowie decided to move to Coahuila y Texas , at that time a state in the Mexican federation . The 1824 Constitution of Mexico banned religions other than Roman Catholicism and gave preference to Mexican citizens in receiving land . Bowie was baptized into the Roman Catholic faith in San Antonio on April 28 , 1828 , sponsored by the alcalde ( chief administrator ) of the town , Juan Martín de Veramendi , and the wife of the administrator , Josefa Navarro . For the next 18 months , Bowie traveled through Louisiana and Mississippi . In 1829 , he became engaged to Cecilia Wells , who died in Alexandria , on September 29 , two weeks before they were to be married .
On January 1 , 1830 , Bowie left Louisiana for permanent residency in Texas . He stopped at Nacogdoches , at Jared E. Groce 's farm on the Brazos River , and in San Felipe , where Bowie presented a letter of introduction to Stephen F. Austin from Thomas F. McKinney , one of the Old Three Hundred colonists . On February 20 , Bowie took an oath of allegiance to Mexico and then proceeded to San Antonio de Bexar . At the time , the city was known as Bexar and had a population of 2500 , mostly of Mexican descent , and Bowie 's fluency in Spanish helped him establish himself in the area . Bowie was elected a commander , with the rank of colonel , of the Texas Rangers later that year . Although the Rangers would not be organized officially until 1835 , Stephen F. Austin had founded the group by employing 30 men to keep the peace and protect the colonists from attacks by hostile Indians . Other areas assembled similar volunteer militias , and Bowie commanded a group of the volunteers .
Bowie renounced his American citizenship and became a Mexican citizen on September 30 , 1830 , after promising to establish textile mills in the state of Coahuila y Tejas . To fulfill his promise , Bowie entered into partnership with Veramendi to build cotton and wool mills in Saltillo . With his citizenship assured , Bowie now had the right to buy up to 11 leagues of public land . He convinced 14 or 15 other citizens to apply for land in order to turn it over to him , giving him 700 @,@ 000 acres ( 280 @,@ 000 ha ) for speculation . Bowie may have been the first to induce settlers to apply for empresario grants , which could then be sold in bulk to speculators as Bowie had . The Mexican government passed laws in 1834 and 1835 that stopped much of the land speculation .
On April 25 , 1831 , Bowie married nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Maria Ursula de Veramendi , the daughter of his business partner , who had become the vice governor of the province . Several days before the ceremony , he signed a dowry contract promising to pay his new bride 15 @,@ 000 pesos ( approximately $ 15 @,@ 000 then , or $ 333 @,@ 000 today ) in cash or property within two years of the marriage . At the time , Bowie claimed to have a net worth of $ 223 @,@ 000 ( $ 4 @,@ 960 @,@ 000 today ) , mostly in land of questionable title . Bowie also lied about his age , claiming to be 30 rather than 35 . The couple built a house in San Antonio on land Veramendi had given them near the San José Mission . After a short time , however , they moved into the Veramendi Palace , living with Ursula 's parents , who supplied them with spending money . The couple had two children , Marie Elve ( b . March 20 , 1832 ) and James Veramendi ( b . July 18 , 1833 ) .
Maria Ursula , her parents , and both children died in September 1833 from cholera .
= = Los Almagres Mine = =
Shortly after his marriage Bowie became fascinated with the story of the " lost " Los Almagres Mine ( also known as the lost San Saba Mine and the lost Bowie Mine ) , said to be northwest of San Antonio near the ruin of the Spanish Mission Santa Cruz de San Saba . According to legend , the mine had been operated by local Indians before being seized by the Spanish . After Mexico won independence from Spain , government interest in the mining potential waned . A number of native groups roamed the area , including Comanche , Lipan Apache , Tawakoni , and Tonkawa . Without government troops to keep hostile natives at bay , mining and mineral exploration were impossible . Some believed that after the Mexican citizens left the area , the Lipan took over the mine .
After obtaining permission from the Mexican government to mount an expedition into Indian territory to search for the legendary silver mine , Bowie , his brother Rezin , and ten others set out for San Saba on November 2 , 1831 . Six miles ( 10 km ) from their goal , the group stopped to negotiate with a large raiding party of Indians — reportedly more than 120 Tawakoni and Waco , plus another 40 Caddo . The attempts at parley failed and Bowie and his group fought for their lives for the next 13 hours . When the Indians finally retreated , Bowie reportedly had lost only one man , while more than 40 Indians had been killed and 30 were wounded . In the meantime , a party of friendly Comanche rode into San Antonio bringing word of the raiding party , which outnumbered the Bowie expedition by 14 to 1 . The citizens of San Antonio believed the members of the Bowie expedition must have perished , and Ursula Bowie began wearing widow 's weeds .
To the surprise of the town , the surviving members of the group returned to San Antonio on December 6 . Bowie 's report of the expedition , written in Spanish , was printed in several newspapers , further establishing his reputation . He set out again with a larger force the following month , but returned home empty @-@ handed after two and a half months of searching .
Bowie never talked of his exploits despite his increasing fame . Captain William Y. Lacey , who spent eight months living in the wilderness with Bowie , described him as a humble man who never used profanity or vulgarities .
= = Texas Revolution = =
= = = Texan rumblings = = =
Between 1830 and 1832 the Mexican Congress passed a series of laws that seemed to discriminate against Anglo colonists in the province of Coahuila y Tejas , increasing tension between the Anglo citizenry and Mexican officials . In response to the rumblings , Mexican troops established military posts in several locations within the province , including San Antonio de Béxar . Although much of the military supported the administration of President Anastasio Bustamante , Antonio López de Santa Anna led an insurrection against him in 1832 . Anglo colonists in Texas supported Santa Anna and General José Antonio Mexía , who led soldiers into Texas to oust commanders loyal to Bustamante .
After hearing that the Mexican army commander in Nacogdoches , José de las Piedras , had demanded that all residents in his area surrender their arms , Bowie cut short a visit to Natchez in July 1832 to return to Texas . On August 2 , 1832 , he joined a group of other Texans and marched into Nacogdoches to " present their demands " to Piedras . Before the group reached the building housing the town officials , they were attacked by a force of 100 Mexican cavalry . The Texans returned fire and the Battle of Nacogdoches began . After the cavalry retreated , they initiated a siege of the garrison . After a second battle , in which Piedras lost 33 men , the Mexican army evacuated during the night . Bowie and 18 companions ambushed the fleeing army and , after Piedras fled , marched the soldiers back to Nacogdoches . Bowie later served as a delegate to the Convention of 1833 , which formally requested that Texas become its own state within the Mexican federation .
Several months later , a cholera epidemic struck Texas . Fearing the disease would reach San Antonio , Bowie sent his pregnant wife and their daughter to the family estate in Monclova in the company of her parents and brother . The cholera epidemic instead struck Monclova , and between September 6 and September 14 , Ursula , their children , her brother , and her parents all died of the disease . Bowie , on business in Natchez , heard of his family 's deaths in November . From then on , he drank heavily and became " careless in his dress . "
The following year , the Mexican government passed new laws allowing land sale in Texas , and Bowie returned to land speculation . He was appointed a land commissioner and tasked with promoting settlement in the area purchased by John T. Mason . His appointment ended in May 1835 when President Antonio López de Santa Anna abolished the Coahuila y Tejas government and ordered the arrest of all Texans ( including Bowie ) doing business in Monclova . Bowie was forced to flee Monclova and return to the Anglo areas of Texas .
The Anglos in Texas began agitating for war against Santa Anna , and Bowie worked with William B. Travis , the leader of the War Party , to gain support . Bowie visited several Indian villages in East Texas in an attempt to persuade the reluctant tribes to fight against the Mexican government . Santa Anna responded to the rumblings by ordering large numbers of Mexican troops to Texas .
= = = Battle of Concepción = = =
The Texas Revolution began on October 2 , 1835 , with the Battle of Gonzales . Stephen F. Austin formed an army of 500 men to march on the Mexican forces in San Antonio with the cannon that had precipitated the fight . The name " Texian Army " sometimes is applied to this militia . On October 22 , Austin asked Bowie , now a colonel in the volunteer militia , and James W. Fannin to scout the area around the missions of San Francisco de la Espada and San José y San Miguel de Aguayo to find supplies for the volunteer forces . The scouting party left with 92 men , many of them members of the New Orleans Grays who had just arrived in Texas . After discovering a good defensive position near Mission Concepción , the group requested that Austin 's army join them .
On the foggy morning of October 28 , Mexican General Domingo Ugartechea led a force of 300 infantry and cavalry soldiers and two small cannons against the Texian forces . Although the Mexican army was able to get within 200 yards ( 183 m ) , the Texian defensive position protected them from fire . As the Mexicans stopped to reload their cannon , the Texians climbed a bluff and picked off some of the soldiers . The stalemate ended shortly after Bowie led a charge to seize one of the Mexican cannons , at that time only 80 yards ( 73 m ) away . Ugartechea retreated with his troops , ending the Battle of Concepción . One Texian and ten Mexican troops had been killed . One of the men under Bowie 's command during the battle later praised him " as a born leader , never needlessly spending a bullet or imperiling a life , who repeatedly admonished ... Keep under cover boys , and reserve your fire ; we haven 't a man to spare . "
= = = Grass Fight and commission difficulties = = =
An hour after the battle ended , Austin arrived with the rest of the Texian army to begin a siege of San Antonio de Béxar , where General Martín Perfecto de Cós , the overall commander of Mexican forces in Texas , and his troops were garrisoned . Two days later , Bowie resigned from Austin 's army because he did not have an official commission in the army , and he disliked the " minor tasks of scouting and spying " .
On November 3 , 1835 , Texas declared itself an independent state , and a provisional government was formed with Henry Smith of Brazoria elected provisional governor . Austin requested to be relieved of his command of the army , and Sam Houston was named army chief . Edward Burleson was chosen as temporary commander of the troops in San Antonio . Bowie appeared before the council at some point and spoke for an hour , asking for a commission . The council refused Bowie 's request , likely because of lingering animosity over his land dealings .
Houston offered Bowie a commission as an officer on his staff , but Bowie rejected the opportunity , explaining that he wanted to be in the midst of the fighting . Instead , Bowie enlisted in the army as a private under Fannin . He distinguished himself again in the Grass Fight on November 26 . Cós had sent approximately 187 men to cut grass for his horses . As they returned to San Antonio , Bowie took 60 mounted men to intercept the party , which they believed carried valuable cargo . The Mexican troops quickened their pace in the hopes of reaching the safety of the city , but Bowie and his cavalry chased them . At the end of the fight , the Texians had two wounded men , but had captured many horses and mules .
Shortly after Bowie left San Antonio , Ben Milam led an assault on the city . In the ensuing fighting , the Texians suffered only a few casualties , while the Mexican army lost many troops to death and desertion . Cós surrendered and returned to Mexico , taking with him the last Mexican troops in Texas . Believing the war was over , many of the Texian volunteers left the army and returned to their families . In early January 1836 , Bowie went to San Felipe and asked the council to allow him to recruit a regiment . He again was turned down as he " was not an officer of the government nor army . "
= = = Battle at the Alamo = = =
After Houston received word that Santa Anna was leading a large force to San Antonio , Bowie offered to lead volunteers to defend the Alamo from the expected attack . He arrived with 30 men on January 19 , where they found a force of 104 men with a few weapons and a few cannons , but not many supplies and little gunpowder . Houston knew that there were not enough men to hold the fort in an attack and had given Bowie authority to remove the artillery and blow up the fortification . Bowie and the Alamo commander , James C. Neill , decided they did not have enough oxen to move the artillery , and they did not want to destroy the fortress . On January 26 , one of Bowie 's men , James Bonham , organized a rally which passed a resolution in favor of holding the Alamo . Bonham signed the resolution first , with Bowie 's signature second .
Through Bowie 's connections because of his marriage and his fluency in Spanish , the predominantly Mexican population of San Antonio often furnished him with information about the movements of the Mexican army . After learning that Santa Anna had 4 @,@ 500 troops and was heading for the city , Bowie wrote several letters to the provisional government asking for help in defending the Alamo , especially " men , money , rifles , and cannon powder " . In another letter , to Governor Smith , he reiterated his view that " the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Béxar out of the hands of the enemy . It serves as the frontier picquet guard , and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna , there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march toward the Sabine . " The letter to Smith ended , " Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy . "
On February 3 , Davy Crockett appeared with thirty Tennesseans . Neill went on furlough on February 11 to visit his sick family , leaving Travis , a member of the regular army , in command . Bowie was older than Travis with a better reputation and considered himself a colonel , thus outranking Travis , a lieutenant colonel . He refused to answer to Travis , who called an election for the men to choose their own commander . They chose Bowie , infuriating Travis . Bowie celebrated his appointment by getting very drunk and causing havoc in San Antonio , releasing all prisoners in the local jails and harassing citizens . Travis was disgusted , but two days later the men agreed to a joint command ; Bowie would command the volunteers , and Travis would command the regular army and the volunteer cavalry .
On February 23 , the bells of San Fernando sounded the alarm of the approach of the Mexicans . Travis ordered all the Texan forces into the Alamo . James Bowie hurried to gather provisions and herd cattle into the Alamo compound . Fearing for the safety of his wife 's relatives in San Antonio , Bowie invited her cousins Getrudis Navarro and Juana Navarro Alsbury , as well as Alsbury 's 18 @-@ month @-@ old son , Alijo Perez Jr . , to stay inside the walls of the Alamo . Bowie also brought several black servants , some of whom worked at the Veramendi Palace , into the security of the Alamo fortress . Bowie had been ill , and two doctors , including the fort surgeon , were unable to diagnose his illness . Travis became the sole commander of the forces when Bowie was confined to bed . Santa Anna and his army began a siege of the Alamo on February 24 . The Mexican army raised a red flag to warn the defenders that no quarter would be given .
Bowie and Travis began sending out couriers with pleas for provisions and assistance . Travis sent Juan Seguin on Bowie 's horse , to recruit reinforcements on February 25 , and 32 additional men arrived . On February 26 , David Crockett reported that Bowie , though suffering from his affliction , continued to crawl from his bed around noon every day and presented himself to the Alamo 's inhabitants , which much boosted the morale of his comrades . Thirty @-@ five years after the Alamo fell , a reporter identified Louis " Moses " Rose as the only man to have " deserted " the Texian forces at the Alamo . According to the reporter 's version of Rose 's account , when Travis realized that the Mexican army would likely prevail , he drew a line in the sand and asked those willing to die for the cause to cross the line . At Bowie 's request Crockett and several others carried the cot over the line , leaving Rose alone on the other side . After its publication , several other eyewitnesses confirmed the account , but as Rose was deceased the story can only be authenticated by the word of the reporter , who admitted to embellishing other articles , " and thus many historians refuse to believe it . "
Bowie perished with the rest of the Alamo defenders on March 6 , when the Mexicans attacked . Most of the noncombatants in the fort , including Bowie 's relatives , survived . Santa Anna ordered the alcalde of San Antonio , Francisco Antonio Ruiz , to confirm the identities of Bowie , Travis , and Crockett . After first ordering that Bowie be buried , as he was too brave a man to be burned like a dog , Santa Anna later had Bowie 's body placed with those of the other Texians on the funeral pyre .
When Bowie 's mother was informed of his death , she calmly stated , " I 'll wager no wounds were found in his back . " Various eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of Bowie 's death . A newspaper article claimed that a Mexican soldier saw Bowie carried from his room on his cot , alive , after the conclusion of the battle . The soldier maintained that Bowie verbally castigated a Mexican officer in fluent Spanish , and the officer ordered Bowie 's tongue cut out and his still @-@ breathing body thrown onto the funeral pyre . This account has been disputed by numerous other witnesses , and it is thought to have been invented by the reporter . Other witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie 's room , bayonet him , and carry him , alive , from the room . Various other stories circulated , with some witnesses claiming that Bowie shot himself and others saying he was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head . Alcalde Ruiz said that Bowie was found " dead in his bed . " According to Wallace O Chariton , The " most popular , and probably the most accurate " version is that Bowie died on his cot , " back braced against the wall , and using his pistols and his famous knife . " One year after the battle , Juan Seguin returned to the Alamo and gathered the remaining ashes from the funeral pyre . He placed these in a coffin inscribed with the names of Bowie , Travis , and Crockett . The ashes were interred at the Cathedral of San Fernando .
= = Legacy = =
Despite his continual pronouncements of wealth , Bowie 's estate was found to be very small . His possessions were auctioned for only $ 99 @.@ 50 . His larger legacy is his position as " one of the legendary characters of the American frontier . " Bowie left a " frustratingly sparse paper trail " of his life , and for many " where history failed , the legends prevailed . " Although Bowie 's name and knife were well known during his lifetime , his legend grew after October 1852 , when DeBow 's Review published an article written by his brother John Jones Bowie called , " Early Life in the Southwest — The Bowies . " The article focused primarily on the exploits of Jim Bowie . Beginning with that article , " romanticized stories " about Bowie began appearing in national press . In many cases , " these stories were pure melodrama , with Bowie rescuing some naïve planter 's son or damsel in distress . "
Jim Bowie was inducted posthumously into the Blade Magazine Cutlery Hall of Fame at the 1988 Blade Show in Atlanta , Georgia , in recognition of the impact that his eponymous design made upon generations of knife makers and cutlery companies .
A number of films have depicted the events of the Battle of the Alamo , and Bowie has appeared as a character in each .
From 1956 to 1958 , Bowie was the subject of a CBS television series , The Adventures of Jim Bowie , which was primarily set in 1830s Louisiana , although later episodes ventured into the Mexican province of Texas . The show , which starred Scott Forbes as Jim Bowie , was based on the 1946 novel Tempered Blade .
Bowie also is the namesake of rock star David Bowie , who was born David Robert Hayward @-@ Jones . Jones changed his name in the 1960s because he feared his name was too similar to Davy Jones , a member of the already famous The Monkees . He chose the surname Bowie because he admired James Bowie and the Bowie knife , although his pronunciation uses the BO @-@ ee ( / ˈboʊ.i / ) variant .
Bowie County in northeast Texas , and the city of Bowie in Montague County , Texas , were both named in honor of James Bowie .
= Hygrophorus agathosmus =
Hygrophorus agathosmus , commonly known as the gray almond waxy cap or the almond woodwax , is a species of fungus in the Hygrophoraceae family . It was first described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1815 ; Fries gave it its current name in 1838 . A widespread species , it is distributed in the United States , Europe , Africa , and India , and can be found growing under spruce and pine in mixed forests . The fruit bodies are characterized by a light grayish cap that measures up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , waxy gills , a dry stem , and the distinct odor of bitter almonds . An edible but bland @-@ tasting mushroom , extracts of the fruit bodies have been shown in laboratory tests to have antimicrobial activity against various bacteria that are pathogenic to humans .
= = Taxonomy , classification , and naming = =
The species was originally named Agaricus agathosmus by Swedish mycologist Elias Fries in 1815 ; he later moved it into the genus Hygrophorus in 1838 . In the interim , English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley named the species Agaricus cerasinus in 1836 , although he too would later transfer the species to Hygrophorus in 1860 . In 1948 , Richard Dennis examined the type material , and concluded that the two names referred to the same species . Additional historical synonyms include Limacium pustulatum var. agathosmum ( Kummer , 1871 ) , and Limacium agathosmum ( Wünsch , 1877 ) .
In their 1963 monograph of the Hygrophorus of North America , American mycologists Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith classified H. agathosmus in the subsection Camarophylli , a grouping of related species characterized by a dry stem , and the absence of a gelatinous outer veil .
The specific epithet agathosmus is derived from the Greek word agathos meaning “ good ” , and osme meaning “ scent ” . Hygrophorus agathosmus is commonly known as the gray almond waxy cap , or the almond woodwax .
= = Description = =
The cap is 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , and initially convex with the edges rolled inwards . As it ages and the cap expands , it becomes flat , sometimes with the center slightly depressed , or sometimes with a slight central elevation . The color is a dull ashy gray , and when moist , the cap surface is sticky or tacky to the touch . It is smooth , although the edges can have a layer of minute , soft hairs . The flesh is soft , and whitish or watery gray . Hygrophorus agathosmus has a pronounced fragrant odor resembling cherry pits or bitter almonds ( occasionally the odor is weak ) .
The gills have an adnate attachment to the stem , but in maturity the attachment becomes adnate @-@ decurrent , meaning the gills start to extend down the length of the stem . The gills are white , but become grayish in maturity , close to distant ( 40 – 50 reach the stem ) , moderately narrow , rather thin . The stem is 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) long by 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , whitish at first , and colored pale ashy in age . It is the same thickness throughout or somewhat narrowed toward the base . It is solid , dry or moist but has no gelatinous universal veil present . When young , the stem surface is evenly covered with tiny fibrils and a fine whitish powder ; over time it loses the hairs and the powder and becomes smooth .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
When viewed in mass , such as with a spore print , the spores appear to be white . Viewed with a light microscope , the basidiospores are 8 – 10 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm , ellipsoid , smooth , and yellowish in Melzer 's reagent . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are four @-@ spored and measure 48 – 65 long by 6 – 8 µm thick . Pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia ( specialized cystidia found on the gill faces and edges , respectively ) are absent in this species . The pileipellis ( cap cuticle ) is made of a broad ( 175 – 350 µm ) gelatinous zone , composed of loosely interwoven , slender ( 1 @.@ 5 – 4 µm ) hyphae ; the surface hyphae are a fuscous — a dark brownish @-@ gray color . This hyphal arrangement is called an ixocutis , in which the hyphal walls swell up and gelatinize , giving a translucence to the layer that stands out in contrast to the underlying flesh . The layer of gelatizined hyphae is tenacious , and may be peeled off the cap as a film . Although clamp connections are found on the hyphae that make up the flesh of the gill , none are found in the cap flesh nor in the pileipellis .
= = = Edibility and antimicrobial activity = = =
Hygrophorus agathosmus is edible , but considered bland . A study of the antioxidant capacity of the mushroom was composed of at least five organic acids : oxalic , citric , malic , quinic , and fumaric acids . Using a standard laboratory test to determine antimicrobial activity , Hygrophorus agathosmus was shown to inhibit the growth of various pathogenic bacteria , including Escherichia coli , Enterobacter aerogenes , Salmonella typhimurium , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Staphylococcus aureus , Staphylococcus epidermidis , and Bacillus subtilis ; it also inhibits the growth of the yeast Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Hygrophorus pustulatus resembles H. agathosmus and has a similar almond odor . However , the fruit bodies of H. pustulatus are smaller , and it produces larger spores ( 11 – 14 µm long ) . Hygrophorus occidentalis , which grows under conifers or oak , has a sticky stem and less pronounced almond odor . Hygrophorus marzuolus is also similar in appearance , but it lacks a distinctive odor , and has smaller spores than H. agathamosus .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Hygrophorus agathosmus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus , and it has been isolated , cultivated , and maintained as pure cultures of vegetative fungal inocula for artificial mycorrhization of planting stock in forest nurseries . Fruiting bodies are found scattered under spruce and pine and in mixed woods in the United States . The fungus is also found in Europe ( Czech Republic , Poland , Russia , Turkey , and the United Kingdom ) , Africa , and India .
= Could 've Been You =
" Could 've Been You " is a rock song first performed by American rock singer Bob Halligan and later popularized by American singer @-@ actress Cher . The song was written by Halligan and Arnie Roman for Halligan 's 1991 album , Window In The Wall . Cher 's cover version was produced by Peter Asher and released exclusively for the European market in early 1992 as the fourth single from Cher 's twenty @-@ first studio album , Love Hurts . Lyrically , " Could 've Been You " is a message from the song 's protagonist to his or her ex .
Cher 's version of " Could 've Been You " received positive reviews from critics and peaked at number thirty @-@ one on the UK Singles Chart . Cher promoted the song through appearances at Top of the Pops and Aspel and Company .
= = Background = =
In 1991 , Bob Halligan released his album Window In The Wall under Atco Records . The only single released from the album was its lead track , " Could 've Been You " , which Halligan had co @-@ written with Arnie Roman . According to Halligan , Atco Records had been going through a " political upheaval " that year and his record " was one of several recordings that was allowed to slip gently into the night " . Halligan " dryly notes , ' [ " Could 've Been You " ] lasted three weeks at radio . It came out to the sound of one hand clapping ' " .
Later the same year , Cher covered " Could 've Been You " for her album Love Hurts . Her version was produced by Peter Asher , who had previously worked with Cher on her 1991 UK number one hit " The Shoop Shoop Song ( It 's in His Kiss ) " . The B @-@ side of the first UK 7 " single release was " One Small Step " , a duet with American singer @-@ songwriter Richard Page , while the B @-@ side of the second UK 7 " single was " Love and Understanding " . The second UK 7 " single and the Germany Maxi @-@ single were both released with the same cover , an image of Cher in a baby doll dress , while the first UK 7 " was released with the same photo cut to show only Cher 's legs . The whole photo was later reused for the cover of the Love Hurts tourbook . The UK 12 " single was the last released ; its cover has a transparent vinyl and shows Cher in a long , smooth black wig . In 1993 , " Could 've Been You " was rereleased as the B @-@ side of Cher 's " Whenever You 're Near " UK 7 " single .
Cher promoted " Could 've Been You " with a live performance on Top of the Pops on April 9 , 1992 , six days before the beginning of her first European tour , the Love Hurts Tour in Berlin , Germany . For the performance Cher wore a curly red wig and a suit with the jacket open to show a leather bra . On April 11 , 1992 , Cher appeared on the Aspel and Company show to perform the song and be interviewed by Michael Aspel .
= = Critical reception = =
" Could 've Been You " received positive reviews from critics . Rock critic Jim Farber of Entertainment Weekly said of the album that " [ i ] t 's that much more fun in numbers like ' Could 've Been You ' , in which , seeking revenge , she gets to reach between the jerk 's legs and squeeze . " David Wild of the Guilford County , North Carolina News & Record called " Love and Understanding " , " Save Up All Your Tears " and " Could 've Been You " " strong tracks " that " show that she is still an effective pop singer " . The review of the Worcester , Massachusetts Telegram & Gazette newspaper noted " Cher attempts to display her sexual prowess on the song , ... a great vehicle for her , an ' in @-@ your @-@ face ' song directed to a former lover " .
= = Chart performance = =
The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number thirty @-@ two on the week of April 18 , 1992 . In its second week it peaked at number thirty @-@ one , dropping the next week to number forty @-@ three and then to number sixty in its fourth and final week on the chart . The song also entered the German Singles Chart in late May 1992 , spending seven weeks on the chart and peaked at number seventy @-@ five .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Artwork – Kevin Reagan
Management – Bill Sammeth , John Kalodner
Photography – Herb Ritts
Producer – Peter Asher
Recorded and mixed by – Frank Wolf
= = Charts = =
= Battle of Kalavrye =
The Battle of Kalavrye ( also Kalavryai or Kalavryta ) was fought in 1078 between the Byzantine imperial forces of general ( and future emperor ) Alexios Komnenos and the rebellious governor of Dyrrhachium , Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder . Bryennios had rebelled against Michael VII Doukas ( r . 1071 – 78 ) and had won over the allegiance of the Byzantine army 's regular regiments in the Balkans . Even after Doukas 's overthrow by Nikephoros III Botaneiates ( r . 1078 – 81 ) , Bryennios continued his revolt , and threatened Constantinople . After failed negotiations , Botaneiates sent the young general Alexios Komnenos with whatever forces he could gather to confront him .
The two armies clashed at Kalavrye on the Halmyros river in what is now European Turkey . Alexios Komnenos , whose army was considerably smaller and far less experienced , tried to ambush Bryennios 's army . The ambush failed , and the wings of his own army were driven back by the rebels . Alexios barely managed to break through with his personal retinue , but succeeded in regrouping his scattered men . At the same time , and despite having seemingly won the battle , Bryennios 's army fell into disorder after its own Pecheneg allies attacked its camp . Reinforced by Turkish mercenaries , Alexios lured the troops of Bryennios into another ambush through a feigned retreat . The rebel army broke and Bryennios was captured .
The battle is known through two detailed accounts , Anna Komnene 's Alexiad , and her husband Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger 's Material for History , on which Anna 's own account relies to a large degree . It is one of the few Byzantine battles described in detail , and hence a valuable source for studying the tactics of the Byzantine army of the late 11th century .
= = Background = =
After the defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 against the Seljuk Turks and the overthrow of Romanos IV Diogenes ( r . 1068 – 71 ) , the Byzantine Empire experienced a decade of near @-@ continuous internal turmoil and rebellions . The constant warfare depleted the Empire 's armies , devastated Asia Minor and left it defenceless against the increasing encroachment of the Turks . In the Balkans , invasions by the Pechenegs and the Cumans devastated Bulgaria , and the Serbian princes renounced their allegiance to the Empire .
The government of Michael VII Doukas ( r . 1071 – 78 ) failed to deal with the situation effectively , and rapidly lost support among the military aristocracy . In late 1077 , two of the Empire 's leading generals , Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder , the doux of Dyrrhachium in the western Balkans , and Nikephoros Botaneiates , the strategos of the Anatolic Theme in central Asia Minor , were proclaimed emperors by their troops . Bryennios set out from Dyrrhachium towards the imperial capital Constantinople , winning widespread support along the way and the loyalty of most of the Empire 's Balkan field army . He preferred to negotiate at first , but his offers were rebuffed by Michael VII . Bryennios then sent his brother John to lay siege to Constantinople . Unable to overcome its fortifications , the rebel forces soon retired . This failure led the capital 's nobility to turn to Botaneiates instead : in March 1078 Michael VII was forced to abdicate and retire as a monk , and Nikephoros Botaneiates was accepted into the city as emperor .
At first , Botaneiates lacked enough troops to oppose Bryennios , who in the meantime had consolidated his control over his native Thrace , effectively isolating the capital from the remaining imperial territory in the Balkans . Botaneiates sent an embassy under the proedros Constantine Choirosphaktes , a veteran diplomat , to conduct negotiations with Bryennios . At the same time he appointed the young Alexios Komnenos as his Domestic of the Schools ( commander @-@ in @-@ chief ) , and sought aid from the Seljuk Sultan Suleyman , who sent 2 @,@ 000 warriors and promised even more . In his message to Bryennios , the aged Botaneiates ( 76 years old at his accession ) offered him the rank of Caesar and his nomination as heir to the throne . Bryennios agreed in principle , but added a few conditions of his own , and sent the ambassadors back to Constantinople for confirmation . Botaneiates , who likely had initiated negotiations only to gain time , rejected Bryennios 's conditions , and ordered Alexios Komnenos to campaign against the rebel .
= = Prelude = =
Bryennios had camped at the plain of Kedoktos ( a name deriving from the Latin aquaeductus ) on the road to Constantinople . His army comprised 12 @,@ 000 mostly seasoned men from the regiments ( tagmata ) of Thessaly , Macedonia and Thrace , as well as Frankish mercenaries and the elite tagma of the Hetaireia . Alexios 's forces included 2 @,@ 000 Turkish horse @-@ archers , 2 @,@ 000 Chomatenoi from Asia Minor , a few hundred Frankish knights from Italy , and the newly raised regiment of the Immortals , which had been created by Michael VII 's chief minister Nikephoritzes and was intended to form the nucleus of a new army . Estimates of Alexios 's total force vary from 5 @,@ 500 – 6 @,@ 500 ( Haldon ) to some 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 ( Birkenmeier ) , but it is clear that he was at a considerable disadvantage against Bryennios ; not only was his force considerably smaller , but also far less experienced than Bryennios 's veterans .
Alexios 's forces set forth from Constantinople and camped on the shore of the river Halmyros — a small stream between Herakleia ( modern Marmara Ereğlisi ) and Selymbria ( modern Silivri ) , modern Kalivri Dere — near the fort of Kalavrye ( Greek : Καλαβρύη , modern Yolçatı ) . Curiously , and against established practice , he did not fortify his camp , perhaps so as not to fatigue or dishearten his men with an implicit admission of weakness . He then sent his Turkish allies to scout out Bryennios 's disposition , strength and intentions . Alexios 's spies easily accomplished their tasks , but on the eve of the battle some were captured and Bryennios too was informed of Alexios 's strength .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial dispositions and plans = = =
Bryennios arranged his army in the typical three divisions , each in two lines , as prescribed by the Byzantine military manuals . The right wing , under his brother John , was 5 @,@ 000 strong and comprised his Frankish mercenaries , Thessalian cavalry , the Hetaireia , and the Maniakatai regiment ( descendants of the veterans of George Maniakes 's campaign in Sicily and Italy ) . His left wing , 3 @,@ 000 men from Thrace and Macedonia , was placed under Katakalon Tarchaneiotes , and the centre , under Bryennios himself , comprised 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 men from Thessaly , Thrace and Macedonia . Again , according to standard doctrine , on his far left , about half a kilometer ( " two stadia " ) from the main force , he had stationed an outflanking detachment ( hyperkerastai ) of Pechenegs .
Alexios deployed his smaller army in waiting near Bryennios 's camp , and divided it in two commands . The left , which confronted Bryennios 's strongest division , was commanded by himself and contained the Frankish knights to the right and the Immortals to the Franks ' left . The right command was under Constantine Katakalon , and comprised the Chomatenoi and the Turks . The latter , according to the Alexiad , were given the role of flank guard ( plagiophylakes ) and tasked with observing and countering the Pechenegs . Conversely , on the extreme left Alexios formed his own flanking detachment ( apparently drawn from among the Immortals ) , concealed from enemy view inside a hollow . Given his inferiority , Alexios was forced to remain on the defensive . His only chance at success was that his out @-@ flankers , concealed by the broken terrain , would surprise and create enough confusion among Bryennios 's men for him and his strong left wing to break through their lines .
= = = Alexios 's army collapses = = =
As the rebel forces advanced towards his enemy 's line , Alexios 's flankers sprung their ambush . Their attack did indeed cause some initial confusion , but Bryennios ( or , according to the Alexiad , his brother John , who commanded the right wing ) rallied his men and led forth the second line . This counter @-@ attack broke Alexios 's flankers ; as they retreated in panic , they fell upon the Immortals , who also panicked and fled , abandoning their posts . Although they suffered some casualties from Bryennios 's pursuing men , most managed to escape well to the rear of Alexios 's army .
Alexios , who was fighting with his retinue alongside the Franks , did not immediately realize that his left wing had collapsed . In the meantime , on his right wing , the Chomatenoi , engaged with Tarchaneiotes 's men , were outflanked and attacked in the rear by the Pechenegs , who had somehow evaded Alexios 's Turkish flank @-@ guards . The Chomatenoi too broke and fled , and Alexios 's fate seemed sealed . At this point the Pechenegs failed to follow up their success , and instead turned back and began looting Bryennios 's own camp . After gathering what plunder they could , they left the battle and made for their homes .
Nevertheless , Bryennios 's victory seemed certain , for his wings began to envelop Alexios 's Franks in the centre . Realizing his position and despairing in the face of defeat ( and , as Bryennios the Younger records , because he had disobeyed imperial orders to wait for more Turkish reinforcements and feared punishment from Botaneiates ) , Alexios at first resolved to attempt an all @-@ or @-@ nothing attack on Bryennios himself to decapitate the enemy army , but was dissuaded by his servant . With only six of his men around him , he then managed to break through the surrounding enemy soldiers . Confusion reigned behind their lines as a result of the Pecheneg attack on the rebel camp , and in this tumult Alexios saw Bryennios 's imperial parade horse , with his two swords of state , being driven away to safety . Alexios and his men charged the escort , seized the horse , and rode away with it from the battlefield .
Having reached a hill behind his army 's original position , Alexios began to regroup his army from the units that had broken . He sent out messengers to rally his scattered men with news that Bryennios had been killed , showing his parade horse as evidence . At the same time , the promised Turkish reinforcements began arriving at the scene , lifting his men 's morale . All the while , on the battlefield , Bryennios 's army had closed around Alexios 's Franks , who dismounted and offered to surrender . In the process the rebel army had become totally disordered , with units mixed and their formations disordered . Bryennios 's reserves had been thrown in confusion by the Pecheneg attack , while his front lines relaxed , thinking that the battle was over .
= = = Alexios 's counter @-@ attack = = =
Having restored his surviving forces to order , and aware of the confusion in Bryennios 's forces , Alexios decided to counter @-@ attack . The plan he laid out made far greater use of the particular skills of his Turkish horse @-@ archers . He divided his force into three commands , of which two were left behind in ambush . The other , formed from the Immortals and the Chomatenoi under Alexios 's own command , was not arrayed in one continuous line , but broken up in small groups , intermingled with other groups of Turkish horse @-@ archers . This command would advance on the rebels , attack them , then feign retreat and draw them into the ambush .
The attack of Alexios 's division initially caught Bryennios 's men off guard , but , being veteran troops , they soon recovered and once again began to push it back . Retreating , Alexios 's troops , and especially the Turks , employed skirmishing tactics , attacking the enemy line and then withdrawing swiftly , thus keeping their opponents at bay and weakening the coherence of their line . Some among Alexios 's men chose to attack Bryennios , and the rebel general had to defend against several attacks himself .
When the battle reached the place of the ambush , Alexios 's wings , likened in the Alexiad to a " swarm of wasps " , attacked the rebel army on the flanks firing arrows and shouting loudly , spreading panic and confusion among Bryennios 's men . Despite the attempts of Bryennios and his brother John to rally them , their army broke and fled , and other units , which were following behind , did likewise . The two brothers tried to put up a rear @-@ guard defence , but they were overcome and captured .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle marked the end of Bryennios 's revolt , although Nikephoros Basilakes gathered up much of Bryennios 's defeated army and attempted to claim the throne for himself . He too was defeated by Alexios Komnenos , who then proceeded to expel the Pechenegs from Thrace . The elder Bryennios was blinded on Botaneiates 's orders , but the emperor later took pity on him and restored him his titles and his fortune . After Alexios Komnenos seized the throne himself in 1081 , Bryennios was further honoured with high dignities . He even held command during Alexios 's campaigns against the Pechenegs , and defended Adrianople from a rebel attack in 1095 . His son or grandson , Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger , was married to Alexios 's daughter Anna Komnene . He became a prominent general of Alexios 's reign , eventually raised to the rank of Caesar , and a historian .
= Down to Earth ( Justin Bieber song ) =
" Down to Earth " is a song by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber , included as a track on his debut release , My World , released on November 17 , 2009 . It was written by Bieber , who was assisted by Carlos and Steven Battey of The Jackie Boyz , as well as the song 's producers , Mason " MdL " Levy , and Kevin Risto and Waynne Nugent of Midi Mafia . " Down to Earth " is a teen pop song , with lyrics that were inspired by the divorce of Bieber 's parents . It also contains lyrical content about growing up . The song received positive reviews from critics , who embraced the song as a shift in the puppy love content of the album . After the release of My World , due to digital sales , the song charted in the lower regions of charts in the United States , Canada , and the United Kingdom .
= = Background and composition = =
" Down to Earth " was written by Bieber , Mason " MdL " Levy , Carlos and Steven Battey of The Jackie Boyz , and Kevin Risto and Waynne Nugent of Midi Mafia . It was recorded at Icon Studios in Atlanta , Georgia , and it was mixed at Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood , California . The track was one of three songs on the standard edition of My World that Bieber co @-@ wrote . In an interview in the November 14 , 2009 issue of Billboard , Bieber explained the meaning behind the song stating ,
" It 's a ballad about the feelings I had when my parents split up and how I helped my family get through it . I think a lot of kids have had their parents split up , and they should know that it wasn 't because of something they did . I hope people can relate to it . "
" Down to Earth " is a down @-@ tempo pop song with a length of four minutes and five seconds , which includes influences of teen pop . Written in common time , with a tempo of 80 beats per minute , the song is composed in the key of D major . Bieber 's vocals span from the low note of B3 to the high note of D5 . It follows a simple chord progression of G @-@ D @-@ A @-@ Bm . Monica Herrera of Billboard noted that lines such as " So we fight through the hurt , and we cry and cry and cry and cry / Then we live and we learn , and we try " revealed a " deeper side " to the singer . Bieber performed the song while accompanying Taylor Swift on the United Kingdom leg of the Fearless Tour , as well as his own My World Tour . During the latter performance , Bieber sits on a stool , accompanied by only a piano background .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Mark Hirsh of The Boston Globe noted " Down to Earth " was the essential track from My World . Allison Stewart of the Washington Post listed the song was one of her recommended tracks from the album . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that " Down to Earth " and " One Less Lonely Girl " were " uncomplicately beautiful and earnest . " Although Ashante Infantry of Toronto Star said a turn @-@ off of the song was the " Mafia " tag by the production team , Midi Mafia , at the beginning of the song , she called " Down to Earth " one of the best tracks on the album . After praising Bieber 's delivery of " poignant lines " in the song , Monica Herrera of Billboard said " it 's hardly a stretch to imagine Bieber racking up more hits in the next decade to come . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week ending December 5 , 2009 , due to digital sales after the release of My World , " Down to Earth " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 . The song debuted at number forty @-@ three on the Hot Digital Songs chart in the US , and therefore consecutively appeared at number seventy @-@ nine on the Hot 100 . In Canada , it debuted at number sixty @-@ one . It dropped off both charts the following week . In both territories it was also the highest non @-@ previously released song from My World to appear on the charts . In the United Kingdom , after the release of My World , " Down to Earth " appeared at number 149 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Justin Bieber , Kevin Risto , Waynne Nugent , Mason Levy , Carlos Battey , Steven Battey
Production - Midi Mafia , MdL
Vocal recording - Chris Krauss
Vocal production - Kevin Risto
Guitar - Tim Stewart
Mixing - Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler and Dave Pensado , assisted by Giancarlo Lino .
Source
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
= Paddy Moran ( ice hockey ) =
Patrick Joseph Alexander " Paddy " Moran ( March 11 , 1877 – January 14 , 1966 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender . Moran played all but one of his 16 seasons for the Quebec Hockey Club , from 1901 to 1917 ; in the 1909 – 10 season , Moran played for the All @-@ Montreal and the Haileybury Comets . Moran was noted for protecting the area in front of his net by aggressively using his stick , and expectorating at opposing players while chewing tobacco . He won two Stanley Cups with Quebec in 1912 and 1913 . Moran was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1958 .
= = Early life = =
Moran began playing ice hockey at the age of 15 , with a local Quebec team . At age 17 , Moran changed schools as his school was one of the few in Quebec City not to have an ice hockey team . At the age of 19 , Moran helped his new club , the Crescents , win the Intermediate Championship .
= = Playing career = =
Moran began his playing career with the Quebec Hockey Club in the Canadian Amateur Hockey League ( CAHL ) . Over four seasons , Moran appeared in 30 games , winning 19 of them . For the 1905 – 06 season , the Quebec Hockey Club joined the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) . Over the next four years , Moran appeared in 38 games , but won only 11 of them , while his lowest goals @-@ against average in a season during that span was 6 @.@ 79 . In the 1909 – 10 season , Moran joined the Montreal All @-@ Stars from the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) and as the league folded , he then joined the Haileybury Comets of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) . In his only season with the Comets , Moran posted a 3 – 8 record over 11 games , letting in 79 goals .
For the 1910 – 11 season , Moran rejoined Quebec . That year , Quebec finished last in the league , winning only four games , and letting in 97 goals against . In the 1911 – 12 season , Moran went 10 – 8 over 18 games , with a 4 @.@ 26 goals @-@ against average . They won the O 'Brien Cup and the Stanley Cup after finishing with the best record in the league . In the Stanley Cup challenge against the Moncton Victorias of the Maritime Professional Hockey League ( MPHL ) , Quebec won the first game 9 – 3 , and the second game 8 – 0 . Moran finished with a 1 @.@ 50 goals @-@ against average , while Jack McDonald and Joe Malone combined for 14 out of the 17 Quebec goals as Quebec won the Stanley Cup .
The next season , Moran went 16 – 4 in the regular season in 20 games , with one shutout and a 3 @.@ 70 goals @-@ against average . Quebec repeated as O 'Brien Cup winners , and had a Stanley Cup challenge once more , playing against the Sydney Miners of the MPHL . Quebec repeated as champions , winning the three @-@ game series 2 – 0 . In the first game , Quebec won 14 – 3 , as Malone scored nine goals , while in the second one , Quebec emerged with a slimmer margin of victory , winning 6 – 2 .
Moran finished his career with the Bulldogs , retiring after the NHA 's last season . He played four more seasons , during which he played 69 games , winning 34 of them . Over his career , Moran 's teams often had losing records
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ca in northern Spain in 1995 . Psilocybe hispanica is classified in the section Semilanceata of the genus Psilocybe because of its thick @-@ walled spores and fruit body that bruises blue with handling . The specific epithet hispanica is Latin for " Spanish " .
= = Description = =
The cap ranges in shape from somewhat conical to convex , and reaches diameters of 5 to 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) . Its surface is smooth , somewhat sticky to dry , and brown to brownish @-@ yellow . The gills are somewhat adnate , and brown @-@ violaceous with whitish edges . The stem is 16 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 to 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 to 0 @.@ 04 in ) thick , cylindrical , and slightly bulbous at the base . It is whitish @-@ yellow , with vinaceous or blue @-@ green to blackish tones towards the base . Mature specimens do not have a veil on the stem . The flesh is whitish , but like most psilocybin @-@ containing species , stains blue when injured .
The spores are ellipsoid and measure 12 – 14 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 5 – 8 μm . They have a brownish @-@ yellow wall greater than 1 μm thick and a broad apical germ pore with an acute hilar appendix at the base ( a region where the spore was once attached to the sterigma ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are four @-@ spored , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 32 – 44 by 8 – 12 μm . The cap cuticle is made of a layer 130 – 150 μm thick , with hyaline , thin @-@ walled gelatinized hyphae measuring 1 @.@ 5 – 4 μm broad . The hypodermium ( the tissue layer directly under the pileipellis ) is made of thin @-@ walled , hyaline hyphae , 2 @.@ 5 – 8 μm broad , with a brownish incrusting pigment . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Psilocybe semilanceata is roughly similar in appearance to P. hispanica , but may distinguished by its mycenoid ( Mycena @-@ like ) appearance and acute umbonate cap . Although the grassland habitat of the two species is similar , P. semilanceata does not grow directly on dung ; rather , it is a saprobic species that grows on decaying grass roots . P. fimetaria also resembles P. hispanica , but it also has a mycenoid appearance and has a ring on the stem . In terms of microscopic characteristics , P. fimetaria has larger cheilocystidia that measure 20 – 32 by 4 – 8 μm . P. hispanica differs from P. liniformans var. liniformans in that it lacks a gelatinous gill edge . P. liniformans var. americana has larger cheilocystidia , measuring 22 – 33 by 5 @.@ 5 – 9 μm , and it is known to grow only on soil around herbs , in the Northwest and Northeast USA and Chile . Deconica coprophila ( formerly known as Psilocybe coprophila ) is a small brownish mushroom that also grows on dung , but it does not contain psilocybin and does not have a bluing stem .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Psilocybe hispanica is a coprophilous fungus ( dung @-@ loving ) , and produces fruit bodies that grow solitarily or in dense groups on horse dung ; sometimes more than 25 fruit bodies can arise from the same dung . In Guzmán 's original report , they were found in a Pyrenean meadow in Aragon , at an elevation of 2 @,@ 300 metres ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) . In 2003 , the species was reported from Tramacastillo de Tena , a small village in the Pyrenees ; it was also reported to have " penetrated the French part of the Pyrenees " . Within its restricted range , the mushroom is " very common " at altitudes of 1 @,@ 700 to 2 @,@ 300 m ( 5 @,@ 600 to 7 @,@ 500 ft ) .
= = Uses = =
The mushroom is consumed recreationally by Spanish youths for its mind @-@ altering effects ; other mushrooms used recreationally in Spain include P. semilanceata and P. gallaeciae . Guzmán and Castro report that a 17th @-@ century medallion found in Tena Valley in the southern Pyrenees had images of a devil and mushrooms carved on it . The mushrooms — possibly either P. semilanceata or P. hispanica , according to Guzmán and Castro — were used in witchcraft , a common practice in the valley during the Middle Ages .
It has been argued that prehistoric rock art at a site known as Selva Pascuala near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo offers evidence that P. hispanica was used in religious rituals 6 @,@ 000 years ago . The rock shelter at Selva Pascuala was discovered in the early 20th century ; in the early 21st century it was noticed that objects in one of the murals , which previously had been described as " mushrooms " , matched the general morphology of P. hispanica : the mural depicts a row of 13 mushroom @-@ like objects with convex to conical caps , and ringless stems that vary from straight to sinuous ( wavy ) . Additionally , the mural shows a bull , which suggests an association with the coprophilic P. hispanica . Although the hallucinogenic species P. semilanceata is also widespread in the area where the mural was found , its differing shape ( narrowly conical and acutely papillate ) and its habitat on soil instead of dung suggests it is not the species represented in the mural . If the interpretation is correct , the mural represents the oldest evidence of psychedelic fungi use in Europe , and the third reported instance of rock art suggesting prehistoric usage of neurotropic fungi . The only older example is from Tassili n 'Ajjer , in the Sahara desert in southeast Algeria . In 1992 , the Italian ethnobotanist Giorgio Samorini reported finding a painted mural dated 7000 to 9000 BCE portraying mushrooms , later tentatively identified as Psilocybe mairei , a species known from Algeria and Morocco .
= Valhalla =
In Norse mythology , Valhalla ( from Old Norse Valhöll " hall of the slain " ) is a majestic , enormous hall located in Asgard , ruled over by the god Odin . Chosen by Odin , half of those who die in combat travel to Valhalla upon death , led by valkyries , while the other half go to the goddess Freyja 's field Fólkvangr . In Valhalla , the dead join the masses of those who have died in combat known as Einherjar , as well as various legendary Germanic heroes and kings , as they prepare to aid Odin during the events of Ragnarök . Before the hall stands the golden tree Glasir , and the hall 's ceiling is thatched with golden shields . Various creatures live around Valhalla , such as the stag Eikþyrnir and the goat Heiðrún , both described as standing atop Valhalla and consuming the foliage of the tree Læraðr .
Valhalla is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , Heimskringla , also written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , and in stanzas of an anonymous 10th century poem commemorating the death of Eric Bloodaxe known as Eiríksmál as compiled in Fagrskinna . Valhalla has inspired various works of art , publication titles , popular culture references , and has become a term synonymous with a martial ( or otherwise ) hall of the chosen dead .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
Valhalla is referenced at length in the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál , and Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , while Valhalla receives lesser direct references in stanza 33 of the Völuspá , where the god Baldr 's death is referred to as the " woe of Valhalla " , and in stanzas 1 to 3 of Hyndluljóð , where the goddess Freyja states her intention of riding to Valhalla with Hyndla , in an effort to help Óttar , as well as in stanzas 6 through 7 , where Valhalla is mentioned again during a dispute between the two .
= = = = Grímnismál = = = =
In stanzas 8 to 10 of Grímnismál , the god Odin ( in the guise of Grímnir ) states that Valhalla is located in the realm of Glaðsheimr . Odin describes Valhalla as shining and golden , and that it " rises peacefully " when seen from afar . From Valhalla , every day Odin chooses from those who have died in combat . Valhalla has spear @-@ shafts for rafters , a roof thatched with shields , coats of mail are strewn over its benches , a wolf hangs in front of its west doors , and an eagle hovers above it .
From stanzas 22 to 24 , more details are given by Odin about Valhalla : the holy doors of the ancient gate Valgrind stand before Valhalla , Valhalla has five hundred and forty doors that eight hundred men can exit from at once ( from which the einherjar will flow forth to engage the wolf Fenrir at Ragnarök ) . Within Valhalla exists Thor 's hall Bilskirnir , and within it exist five hundred and forty rooms , and of all the halls within Valhalla , Odin states that he thinks his son 's may be greatest . In stanzas 25 through 26 , Odin states that the goat Heiðrún and the hart Eikþyrnir stand on top of Valhalla and graze on the branches of the tree Læraðr . Heiðrún produces vats of mead that liquor cannot be compared to , and from Eikþyrnir 's antlers drip liquid into the spring Hvergelmir from which flows forth all waters .
= = = = Helgakviða Hundingsbana II = = = =
In stanza 38 of the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , the hero Helgi Hundingsbane dies and goes to Valhalla . In stanza 38 , Helgi 's glory there is described :
So was Helgi beside the chieftains
like the bright @-@ growing ash beside the thorn @-@ bush
and the young stag , drenched in dew ,
who surpasses all other animals
and whose horns glow against the sky itself .
Prose follows after this stanza , stating that a burial @-@ mound was made for Helgi , and that when Helgi arrived in Valhalla , he was asked by Odin to manage things with him . In stanza 39 , Helgi , now in Valhalla , has his former enemy Hunding — also in Valhalla — do menial tasks ; fetching foot @-@ baths for all of the men there , kindling fire , tying dogs , keeping watch of horses , and feeding the pigs before he can get any sleep . In stanzas 40 to 42 , Helgi has returned to Midgard from Valhalla with a host of men . An unnamed maid of Sigrún , Helgi 's valkyrie wife , sees Helgi and his large host of men riding into the mound . The maid asks if she is experiencing a delusion , if Ragnarök has begun , or if Helgi and his men have been allowed to return .
In the stanzas that follow , Helgi responds that none of these things have occurred , and so Sigrún 's maid goes home to Sigrún . The maid tells Sigrún that the burial mound has opened up , and that Sigrún should go to Helgi there , as Helgi has asked her to come and tend his wounds , which have opened up and are bleeding . Sigrún goes into the mound , and finds that Helgi is drenched in gore , his hair is thick with frost . Filled with joy at the reunion , Sigrún kisses him before he can remove his coat of mail , and asks how she can heal him . Sigrún makes a bed there , and the two sleep together in the enclosed burial mound . Helgi awakens , stating that he must " ride along the blood @-@ red roads , to set the pale horse to tread the path of the sky , " and return before the rooster Salgófnir crows . Helgi and the host of men ride away , and Sigrún and her servant go back to their house . Sigrún has her maid wait for him by the mound the next night , but when she arrives at dawn , she finds that he has not returned . The prose narrative at the end of the poem relates that Sigrún dies of sadness , but that the two are thought to have been reborn as Helgi Haddingjaskati and the valkyrie Kára .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
Valhalla is referenced in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál .
= = = = Gylfaginning = = = =
Valhalla is first mentioned in chapter 2 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , where it is described partially in euhemerized form . In the chapter , King Gylfi sets out to Asgard in the guise of an old man going by the name of Gangleri to find the source of the power of the gods . The narrative states that the Æsir foresaw his arrival and had prepared grand illusions for him , so that when Gangerli enters the fortress , he sees a hall of such a height that he has trouble seeing over it , and notices that the roof of the hall is covered in golden shields , as if they were shingles . Snorri then quotes a stanza by the skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir ( c . 900 ) . As he continues , Gangleri sees a man in the doorway of the hall juggling short swords , and keeping seven in the air at once . Among other things , the man says that the hall belongs to his king , and adds that he can take Gangleri to the king . Gangleri follows him , and the door closes behind him . All around him he sees many living areas , and throngs of people , some of which are playing games , some are drinking , and others are fighting with weapons . Gangleri sees three thrones , and three figures sitting upon them : High sitting on the lowest throne , Just @-@ As @-@ High sitting on the next highest throne , and Third sitting on the highest . The man guiding Gangleri tells him that High is the king of the hall .
In chapter 20 , Third states that Odin mans Valhalla with the Einherjar : the dead who fall in battle and become Odin 's adopted sons . In chapter 36 , High states that valkyries serve drinks and see to the tables in Valhalla , and Grímnismál stanzas 40 to 41 are then quoted in reference to this . High continues that the valkyries are sent by Odin to every battle , where they choose who is to die , and determine victory .
In chapter 38 , Gangleri says : " You say that all men who have fallen in battle from the beginning of the world are now with Odin in Valhalla . With what does he feed them ? I should think the crowd there is large . " High responds that this is indeed true , that a huge amount are already in Valhalla , but yet this amount will seem to be too few when " the wolf comes . " High describes that there are never too many to feed in Valhalla , for they feast from Sæhrímnir ( here described as a boar ) , and that this beast is cooked every day and is again whole every night . Grímnismál stanza 18 is then recounted . Gangleri asks if Odin himself eats the same food as the Einherjar , and High responds that Odin needs nothing to eat — Odin only consumes wine — and he gives his food to his wolves Geri and Freki . Grímnismál stanza 19 is then recounted . High additionally states that at sunrise , Odin sends his ravens Huginn and Muninn from Valhalla to fly throughout the entire world , and they return in time for the first meal there .
In chapter 39 , Gangleri asks about the food and drinks the Einherjar consume , and asks if only water is available there . High replies that , of course , Valhalla has food and drinks fit for kings and jarls , for the mead consumed in Valhalla is produced from the udders of the goat Heiðrún , who in turn feeds on the leaves of the " famous tree " Læraðr . The goat produces so much mead in a day that it fills a massive vat large enough for all of the Einherjar in Valhalla to satisfy their thirst from it . High further states that the stag Eikþyrnir stands atop Valhalla and chews on the branches of Læraðr . So much moisture drips from his horns that it falls down to the well Hvelgelmir , resulting in numerous rivers .
In chapter 40 , Gangleri muses that Valhalla must be quite crowded , to which High responds by stating that Valhalla is massive and remains roomy despite the large amount of inhabitants , and then quotes Grímnismál stanza 23 . In chapter 41 , Gangleri says that Odin seems to be quite a powerful lord , as he controls quite a big army , but he yet wonders how the Einherjar keep themselves busy when they are not drinking . High replies that daily , after they 've dressed and put on their war gear , they go out to the courtyard and battle one another in one @-@ on @-@ one combat for sport . Then , when mealtime comes , they ride home to Valhalla and drink . High then quotes Vafþrúðnismál stanza 41 . In chapter 42 , High describes that , " right at the beginning , when the gods were settling " they had established Asgard and then built Valhalla . The death of the god Baldr is recounted in chapter 49 , where the mistletoe that is used to kill Baldr is described as growing west of Valhalla .
= = = = Skáldskaparmál = = = =
At the beginning of Skáldskaparmál , a partially euhemerized account is given of Ægir visiting the gods in Asgard and shimmering swords are brought out and used as their sole source of light as they drink . There , numerous gods feast , they have plenty of strong mead , and the hall has wall @-@ panels covered with attractive shields . This location is confirmed as Valhalla in chapter 33 .
In chapter 2 , a quote from the anonymous 10th century poem Eiríksmál is provided ( see the Fagrskinna section below for more detail and another translation from another source ) :
What sort of dream is that , Odin ? I dreamed I rose up before dawn to clear up Val @-@ hall for slain people . I aroused the Einheriar , bade them get up to strew the benches , clean the beer @-@ cups , the valkyries to serve wine for the arrival of a prince .
In chapter 17 of Skáldskaparmál , the jötunn Hrungnir is in a rage and , while attempting to catch up and attack Odin on his steed Sleipnir , ends up at the doors to Valhalla . There , the Æsir invite him in for a drink . Hrungnir goes in , demands a drink , and becomes drunk and belligerent , stating that he will remove Valhalla and take it to the land of the jötunn , Jötunheimr , among various other things . Eventually , the gods tire of his boasting and invoke Thor , who arrives . Hrungnir states that Thor is under their protection , and subsequently he can 't be harmed while in Valhalla . After an exchange of words , Hrungnir challenges Thor to a duel at the location of Griotunagardar , resulting in Hrungnir 's death .
In chapter 34 , the tree Glasir is stated as located in front of the doors of Valhalla . The tree is described as having foliage of red gold and being the most beautiful tree among both gods and men . A quote from a work by the 9th century skald Bragi Boddason is presented that confirms the description .
= = = Heimskringla = = =
Valhalla is mentioned in euhemerized form and as an element of remaining Norse pagan belief in Heimskringla . In chapter 8 of Ynglinga saga , the " historical " Odin is described as ordaining burial laws over his country . These laws include that all the dead are to be burned on a pyre on a burial mound with their possessions , and their ashes are to be brought out to sea or buried in the earth . The dead would then arrive in Valhalla with everything that one had on their pyre , and whatever one had hidden in the ground . Valhalla is additionally referenced in the phrase " visiting Odin " in a work by the 10th century skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir describing that , upon his death , King Vanlandi went to Valhalla .
In chapter 32 of Hákonar saga Góða , Haakon I of Norway is given a pagan burial , which is described as sending him on his way to Valhalla . Verses from Hákonarmál are then quoted in support , themselves containing references to Valhalla .
= = = Fagrskinna = = =
In chapter 8 of Fagrskinna , a prose narrative states that , after the death of her husband Eric Bloodaxe , Gunnhild Mother of Kings had a poem composed about him . The composition is by an anonymous author from the 10th century and is referred to as Eiríksmál , and describes Eric Bloodaxe and five other kings arriving in Valhalla after their death . The poem begins with comments by Odin ( as Old Norse Óðinn ) :
'What kind of a dream is it , ' said Óðinn ,
in which just before daybreak ,
I thought I cleared Valhǫll ,
for coming of slain men ?
I waked the Einherjar ,
bade valkyries rise up ,
to strew the bench ,
and scour the beakers ,
wine to carry ,
as for a king 's coming ,
here to me I expect
heroes ' coming from the world ,
certain great ones ,
so glad is my heart .
The god Bragi asks where a thundering sound is coming from , and says that the benches of Valhalla are creaking — as if the god Baldr had returned to Valhalla — and that it sounds like the movement of a thousand . Odin responds that Bragi knows well that the sounds are for Eric Bloodaxe , who will soon arrive in Valhalla . Odin tells the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli to rise to greet Eric and invite him into the hall , if it is indeed he .
Sigmund asks Odin why he would expect Eric more than any other king , to which Odin responds that Eric has reddened his gore @-@ drenched sword with many other lands . Eric arrives , and Sigmund greets him , tells him that he is welcome to come into the hall , and asks him what other lords he has brought with him to Valhalla . Eric says that with him are five kings , that he will tell them the name of them all , and that he , himself , is the sixth .
= = Locations = =
Multiple places have been named after Valhalla . These include :
the Walhalla temple built by Leo von Klenze for Ludwig I of Bavaria between 1830 – 1847 near Regensburg , Germany , and
the Tresco Abbey Gardens Valhalla museum built by August Smith around 1830 to house ship figureheads from shipwrecks that occurred at the Isles of Scilly , England , where the museum is located .
A crater , Valhalla , located on the planet Jupiter 's moon Callisto , is named after the hall .
Valhalla Borgen in Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen , Denmark
Valhalla in Pleasure Beach Blackpool in Blackpool , England
Locations named after Valhalla also exist :
North America :
Valhalla , New York
Valhalla Centre , Alberta
Valhalla Golf Club in Louisville , Kentucky
Lake Valhalla in Washington
Mt . Valhalla in Chequamegon @-@ Nicolet National Forest , Bayfield County , Wisconsin
Walhalla , Michigan
Walhalla , North Dakota
Walhalla , South Carolina
and Walhalla , Texas
Walhalla , Victoria
Valhalla , Pretoria
= NSB Di 3 =
NSB Di 3 is a class of 35 diesel @-@ electric locomotives built by NOHAB for the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) . The class was built between 1954 and 1969 , and delivered in two series , Di 3a and Di 3b . They are based on the Electro @-@ Motive Division F7 and are equipped with EMD 567 engines . They have a distinct bulldog nose and were numbered 602 – 633 ( a @-@ series ) and 641 – 643 ( b @-@ series ) . The locomotives had a prime mover that gives a power output of 1 @,@ 305 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 750 hp ) . The a @-@ series has a Co 'Co ' wheel arrangement , while the b @-@ series has ( A1A ) ' ( A1A ) ' . The b @-@ series has higher top speed , but lower tractive effort .
The class was the dominant locomotive on NSB 's unelectrified lines . It was ordered as part of the company 's dieselization of services during the 1950s and 1960s , and was initially used on the three mainline routes of the Bergen , Dovre and Nordland Lines . In the 1960s the Bergen and Dovre Lines were electrified and the Di 3 units transferred to smaller lines , such as the Meråker , Valdres , Røros , Solør and Rauma Lines . They remained in service with NSB until 2001 , five years later than planned due to NSB returning their successor , the Di 6 . The units are still in use by the private operator Ofotbanen , the Kosovo Railways , an operator in Sicily , and the Norwegian Railway Museum . The class is similar to the DSB Class MY and MÁV M61 .
= = Construction = =
The first diesel locomotive used by NSB was a single Di 1 unit delivered in 1942 . It was more cost @-@ efficient than the steam locomotives used on the non @-@ electrified lines , and in 1945 , NSB decided that it would not order more steam locomotives . General Motors ' Electro Motive Division ( EMD ) made a bid to deliver twelve units based on their F7 , and NSB agreed to lease a single unit for trial . The body and mechanical components were built by NOHAB , the motors by ASEA and prime mover by EMD . While under production in 1954 , GM shipped a G12 for trial in Norway and Sweden . It was tested on the express train on the Dovre Line on 7 August , but proved to have insufficient power , causing the train to be 20 minutes late .
The trial unit from NOHAB was delivered on 17 September 1954 . The first test runs in scheduled service were on the Nordland Line between Trondheim and Mo i Rana in October . There were no technical faults until 22 December , when a grounding error caused the locomotive to be grounded until 17 January . In March the unit was sent back to NOHAB and went on a marketing tour that would eventually reach Ankara , Turkey in 1955 .
The locomotive returned to Norway on 1 July 1955 , where it was numbered 602 and put into service on the Nordland Line . The trials were successful , with much higher regularity than the steam locomotives . The Di 3 was used eight days in a row , and then spent a single day in the depot . NSB signed an agreement with NOHAB for delivery of five further locomotives . This caused a public debate , because the domestic supplier Thune had offered to build a similar locomotive in cooperation with American Locomotive Company . The first delivery was made on 25 April 1957 , and the order completed by July . In March 1957 NSB received permission to buy another eight locomotives . Delivery started in October and was completed on 1 June 1958 . The order was supplemented with another six trains , with delivery in 1958 .
The Finnish State Railways ( VR ) ordered five units in 1959 , but these were cancelled for political reasons . The units were offered to NSB for a reduced price . Three were designated Di 3b because they had a slight specification variation , with a ( A1A ) ' ( A1A ) ' wheel arrangement and higher top speed . Two units had come short enough in the production process that they could be given the same specifications as the other Di 3a units , but received a slightly longer body . The Di 3b were given the numbers 641 – 643 . For part of 1960 , no . 623 was leased by NOHAB and sent on a demonstration tour in Eastern Europe . This resulted in an order from the Hungarian State Railways , where it became the MAV M61 . The Røros Line was upgraded and the Bergen Line units transferred to Trondheim in 1960 , but increased need for hauling forced NSB to not use the units on the Røros Line until the delivery of the next batch of six units in 1965 . The final delivery , of four units , was made in 1969 .
= = Operation = =
The initial use for the Di 3 was to operate the three non @-@ electrified long @-@ distance lines of NSB : the Bergen Line , the Dovre Line and the Nordland Line . Following the delivery of the first batch in 1957 , they were from 2 June used on the Dovre Line , north of Otta to Trondheim , and further north along the Nordland Line to Mo i Rana . The stock was sufficient to replace all steam locomotives on the Nordland Line , and reduced travel time by one hour . From Hamar to Otta , the track did not have sufficient permitted axle load . From the second batch of eight units , five were put into service on the Bergen Line , the rest on the Dovre and Nordland Lines . Necessary upgrades of the permitted axle load had been made to the Dovre Line and Nordland Line , and the locomotives were in use from Hamar to Saltdal . On 30 November , the Nordland Line was completed to Fauske , and the full length operated with Di 3 .
The first section of the Bergen Line , the Gjøvik Line and the Roa – Hønefoss Line , was electrified in February 1961 . This allowed diesel and electric locomotives to haul all trains from Oslo to Bergen . In 1962 the Nordland Line was completed to Bodø , but the increased need for locomotives was more than compensated by the electrification of the Bergen Line being extended to Ål . The first Di 3 ran on the Røros Line in 1964 , that had previously been denied due to bridges with insufficient axle load permits . In 1965 , the Bergen Line was electrified , and all but one Di 3 was transferred to Trondheim . A single unit , usually no . 610 , was stationed at Finse Station as a snowplow . Along with additional deliveries , there were sufficient Di 3 units to terminate most steam operations .
After the Bergen Line was electrified , the work continued on the Dovre Line . The section from Hamar to Otta was finished in 1967 , and the following year to Dombås . This allowed the locomotives to be transferred to secondary lines . With the final delivery of the last units in 1969 and the completion of the electrification of the Dovre Line in 1970 , the final steam locomotive was taken out of service . During the last half of the 1960s , the Di 3 was put into service on the Rauma Line , the Røros Line , the Solør Line , the Valdres Line and the Meråker Line .
In November 1970 , the Dovre Line was electrified , and the last steam locomotives were retired . A long @-@ term plan to electrify half the lines was finished , and for two decades , NSB 's operations were very stable with no major investments to infrastructure or closing of lines . NSB had slightly less diesel locomotives than they needed , but plans to order additional Di 3 was never fulfilled . In 1981 , NSB took delivery of five Di 4 to supplement the older units . They were mainly used on the Nordland Line , and Di 3 units were predominantly used on the other lines , although they continued to operate som trains on the Nordland Line . On 1 April 1987 , a Di 3 612 caught on fire ; the damage was small enough that it could have been repaired , but NSB instead decided to put aside the unit . At the time NSB planned to order additional Di 4 , but these plans were put on hold . In 1988 , the Valdres Line was closed ; this was the only time a line with Di 3 in regular service was closed .
During the 1980s , NSB started leasing SJ T44 @-@ locomotives from Sweden to supplement the Di 3 . In 1992 , the decision was made to order 12 Di 6 and 20 Di 8 to replace the Di 3 . The former was based on the Di 4 and had twice the power of the Di 3 . The Di 8 was slightly more powerful than the Di 3 , and were intended for freight trains . Both series were put into service in 1996 , but the Di 6 proved to have so many technical problems that they were returned to Siemens in 1998 . The Di 3 units had been set aside and some had been scrapped , but the return of the Di 6 forced NSB to put the units back into service .
During the mid @-@ 1990s , NSB had initiated a program to replace the traditional locomotive and carriage trains with new , tilting multiple units . This had led to the order of sixteen Class 73 four @-@ car units for the three mainline routes on the Bergen Line , Dovre Line and Sørland Line . To supplement this , the board of NSB decided on 14 November 1996 to purchase seven tilting diesel multiple units for the Røros and Rauma Lines . The choice fell on Class 93 , with fifteen units eventually delivered . This allowed all passenger trains on diselized lines to either be operated with Class 93 be hauled by the Di 4 . The last Di 3 @-@ hauled train ran on 7 January 2001 .
= = = Post @-@ NSB = = =
With the delivery of Class 93 , NSB started to retire or sell the Di 3 . In November 2001 , five units were sold for NOK 250 @,@ 000 each — well under market price — to the new private operator Ofotbanen . The purchase raised controversy , because the potential operator Banetransport had offered full market price for the trains . One year after delivery , six of eleven Class 93 @-@ locomotives were out of order . To solve the problem , NSB had to rent back used Di 3 locomotives from Ofotbanen . NSB had chosen to sell the old locomotives for less than market price , but Ofotbanen demanded that NSB pay the entire purchase price for the short @-@ term rental back .
Four units ( 619 , 633 , 641 and 643 ) were sold to the United Nations and was put into service in Kosovo , in what has since become the Kosovo Railways . Four units ( 622 , 626 , 630 and 631 ) were sold to an operator in Sicily , Italy . The Norwegian National Rail Administration bought one unit ( 628 ) for maintenance , and has painted it yellow . The Norwegian Railway Museum in Hamar has preserved three units , of which two ( 602 and 616 ) were operated by GM @-@ Gruppen and one ( 615 ) is kept for spare parts . NSB has kept one unit as reserve at Ål Station . The remaining units have been scrapped , put aside or sold as spare part units .
= = Specifications = =
The Di 3 was built by Nydquist och Holm of Trollhätten , Sweden , as part of a series of GM EMD AA16 locomotives in Europe . They are technically similar to the DSB Class MY of Denmark and the MAV M61 of Hungary . The locomotives are powered by a 16 @-@ cylinder EMD 16 @.@ 567 C or E engine that has a power output of 1 @,@ 305 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 750 horsepower ) at 835 revolutions per minute ( rpm ) . The engines power an EMD D32 or D12 generator that feeds six ASEA LJB76 or LJB84 motors on a Di 3a . The Di 3b is equipped with four EMD D40 or D77B motors . This gives a tractive effort of 265 kilonewtons ( 60 @,@ 000 lbf ) for the a @-@ series and 176 @.@ 5 kilonewtons ( 39 @,@ 700 pounds @-@ force ) for the b @-@ series . The motors have a power output of 1 @,@ 100 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 500 horsepower ) . The maximum speed is 105 kilometres per hour ( 65 mph ) for the a @-@ series and 143 kilometres per hour ( 89 miles per hour ) for the b @-@ series .
The steel bodies are 18 @.@ 60 or 18 @.@ 90 metres ( 61 @.@ 0 or 62 @.@ 0 ft ) long . The longer length is for the three b @-@ series units and the two a @-@ series locomotives that were made in the batch , originally intended for VR . The a @-@ series has a Co 'Co ' wheel arrangement , while the b @-@ series has a ( A1A ) ' ( A1A ) ' arrangement , where the center of the three axles on each bogie is unpowered . The wheels have a 1 @,@ 016 millimetres ( 3 ft 4 @.@ 0 in ) wheel diameter and the locomotives have a weight of 102 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 100 @.@ 4 long tons ; 112 @.@ 4 short tons ) for the a @-@ series and 103 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 101 @.@ 4 long tons ; 113 @.@ 5 short tons ) for the b @-@ series . The trains can be run in multiple with the Di 4 , Di 6 and Di 8 . All the Di 3 engines featured a bulldog nose , the only locomotive type in Norway to do so . The locomotives were at first delivered in a dark green livery , but during the 1960s this was changed to red , and the last delivered units never had a green scheme .
= Queen Vic Fire Week =
" Queen Vic Fire Week " is a group of four episodes of the BBC soap opera EastEnders , broadcast between 6 and 10 September 2010 on BBC One . The episodes included a fire at The Queen Victoria public house , also known as The Queen Vic or The Vic , and the departure of the character Peggy Mitchell , portrayed by Barbara Windsor , who left the series after sixteen years in the role . During the episodes , Peggy — the pub landlady — has her crack cocaine @-@ addicted son Phil ( Steve McFadden ) imprisoned in The Queen Victoria , forcing him to go cold turkey . She later learns that her deceased husband Archie ( Larry Lamb ) was murdered by local resident Stacey Branning ( Lacey Turner ) . Before she can report Stacey to the police , Phil escapes and sets the pub on fire . Stacey and her infant daughter Lily are trapped inside , but are rescued by Ryan Malloy ( Neil McDermott ) , prompting Stacey to reveal to him that he is Lily 's father . The pub destroyed , Peggy decides against reporting Stacey for Lily 's sake . She plans to make a fresh start , bidding her family goodbye and leaving Walford .
The episodes were directed by Lee Salisbury and produced by Bryan Kirkwood . The first was written by Daran Little and the remainder by Simon Ashdown . Kirkwood intended to give Windsor an " epic and poignant " departure , as befitting her status as the ultimate EastEnders matriarch . The fire storyline was created for her exit , and to facilitate a refurbishment of The Queen Victoria set for the transition to high @-@ definition television broadcasting . The episodes were filmed over seventeen days , more than twice the series ' typical filming duration , with the interior set rebuilt on the George Lucas Stage in Elstree for the fire . A special version of the theme tune , called " Peggy 's Theme " , was created for Windsor 's final episode . It was released as an EP , available for download following the episode , and features as the lead track on composer Simon May 's album The Simon May Collection . The episodes were accompanied by two documentaries on BBC Three , one following the filming of the fire , and the other examining ten of Peggy 's most iconic moments in EastEnders .
Viewership ranged from 8 @.@ 60 – 10 @.@ 09 million , with no episode watched by less than a third of the total viewing audience . They were the most watched programmes on BBC One in the week of broadcast , and the Friday episode was the second @-@ most watched show across all channels . The episodes received a mixed response from critics . Several highlighted inaccuracies and implausibilities in the storyline , including the lack of fire alarms and sprinklers in the pub . Others focussed on Peggy 's departure , with James McCarthy of the Western Mail writing that it would " doubtless remain the stuff of EastEnders ' legend for years to come , " and Jim Shelley calling it " a good way to go . " In contrast , the Daily Mirror 's Polly Hudson found Peggy 's exit a nonsensical " non event " , and Gareth McLean of The Guardian deemed it " suitably sentimental " , but several years overdue . The fire was nominated in the " Best Stunt " category at the 2011 All About Soap Bubble Awards .
= = Plot = =
= = = 6 September 2010 = = =
Peggy Mitchell ( Barbara Windsor ) , who has just regained her status as landlady of The Queen Victoria public house , decides to throw a wedding reception for Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) and Ryan Malloy ( Neil McDermott ) to let everyone know the pub is hers again . Peggy 's friend Pat Evans ( Pam St. Clement ) arranges a hen party for Janine at the R & R nightclub , but Janine feels betrayed by Pat when Peggy reveals that she said Janine 's marriage would not last . Janine meets a man named Richard Monroe ( Andrew Hall ) , who settles her bill . Impressed by his car , Janine leaves with him . Worried about her son Phil ( Steve McFadden ) because of his addiction to the drug crack cocaine , Peggy enlists the help of Minty Peterson ( Cliff Parisi ) and Billy Mitchell ( Perry Fenwick ) to abduct him from the flat he is living in . They bring him back to The Queen Victoria , locking him in the living room upstairs , where the windows have been boarded up to stop him from escaping . Stacey Branning ( Lacey Turner ) reveals to Dot Branning ( June Brown ) that her deceased husband Bradley ( Charlie Clements ) is not the father of her baby Lily .
= = = 7 September 2010 = = =
Stacey explains to Dot that Bradley knew he was not Lily 's father . Dot informs Bradley 's father Max ( Jake Wood ) , who tells her he already knows . Concerned by Stacey telling people her secrets , he wonders if she has ceased taking medication for her bipolar disorder . He tells her that she needs to keep the truth about Lily 's father and the fact that she killed Peggy 's husband Archie ( Larry Lamb ) several months previously to herself . Phil tries to convince various people to let him out as he is suffering withdrawal symptoms , but nobody will . Janine awakens in Richard 's flat and gets dressed , though they did not have sex . She returns home and tells Pat that she feels guilty , and Pat tells her not to inform Ryan . Janine fears that she is not good enough for Ryan , but he reassures her and they marry . Stacey attends their wedding reception in The Queen Victoria , leaving Lily in a bedroom upstairs . She is surprised by a photograph of Peggy and Archie , and is frightened to hear Phil making noises in the living room . Stacey tells Peggy that she thinks Archie is alive and locked upstairs . Peggy assures Stacey that Archie is dead , telling her that Bradley killed him , as he was posthumously found guilty of the murder . Stacey then confesses that she killed Archie .
= = = 9 September 2010 = = =
Peggy demands that Stacey leave the pub and Stacey pleads with her not to call the police for Lily 's sake . She attempts to tell Ryan that he is Lily 's father , but is interrupted by Pat , who thinks Stacey is trying to seduce him and slaps her . Phil smashes through the door using a crowbar that was left in the room . He starts taking cash and drinking alcohol , and interrupts Peggy before she can call the police about Stacey . They argue , with Phil accusing Peggy of loving the pub more than she loves him and throwing a match to the alcohol @-@ soaked floor to start a fire . It spreads quickly , causing an explosion . The customers flee the pub , Syed Masood ( Marc Elliott ) is knocked to the ground and trampled in the process but is rescued by his father Masood Ahmed ( Nitin Ganatra ) and brother Tamwar ( Himesh Patel ) .
Peggy tries in vain to extinguish the flames , but is forced out by her friends and family . Stacey , unaware of the events , heads upstairs to Lily and becomes trapped . She uses the crowbar to smash a boarded @-@ up window and hands Lily over to Ryan , who has climbed a ladder . Peggy realises Phil is still inside and returns to the building with Billy . They find him trapped beneath a wooden beam , and are able to drag him out to safety . Ryan goes back up the ladder and carries an unconscious Stacey out . Stacey regains consciousness and sees that Lily is safe , and tells Ryan that Lily is his daughter . Peggy stares at the pub as it is completely destroyed .
= = = 10 September 2010 = = =
The next day , Peggy visits Stacey in hospital and asks her to confess to burning the pub , as a sentence for arson would be less than one for murder , but Stacey refuses . Peggy realises that Stacey needs to look after her daughter so she leaves . Ryan confronts Stacey at the hospital , shocked with her confession , refuses to acknowledge his daughter , and goes on his honeymoon with Janine . Peggy goes into the pub and looks around as she remembers events from her time there . She then tells Billy she wants to take Phil away to make a fresh start and to protect him . Her niece Ronnie ( Samantha Womack ) tells Peggy she is five months pregnant and asks Peggy not to leave as she is like a mother to her . Peggy tells Ronnie to give her real mother , Glenda ( Glynis Barber ) , another chance . Peggy 's daughter Sam ( Danniella Westbrook ) does not want her to leave as Peggy promised to look after Sam 's baby Richard for her , however , Peggy says she is old now and the baby needs a strong mother . Peggy gives her jewellery to Sam to sell so she has some money . Peggy speaks to Phil , accepting responsibility for making him the way he is and offering to help him get off the drugs . He says she needs him more than he needs her and that she suffocates him . Realising that he is right , Peggy asks the rest of her family to look after him , saying emotional goodbyes . Though Phil claims not to have meant what he said , Peggy says she has to leave for his sake . As she leaves the house , Phil begins to follow her , but she sends him back inside . She looks at the pub and walks out of Walford .
= = Background = =
In October 2009 , actress Barbara Windsor 's decision to leave EastEnders after sixteen years of portraying the character Peggy Mitchell was announced . The show 's executive producer , Bryan Kirkwood , said it was a massive honour for him to be responsible for the character 's exit , but explained that as she has become the " quintessential matriarch of the show " , they had to get the exit storyline right , which he said would be " both epic and poignant " . Windsor gave one year 's notice of leaving , giving the production team time to come up with a storyline , and was asked to keep her decision a secret until the announcement was made . Kirkwood looked at Windsor 's first episode and decided her exit should be about Peggy and her son Phil , as Peggy 's arrival came at a time when Phil needed her most , and since then , she had believed that Phil still needed her . Peggy 's exit came when she realised his mother was not what Phil needed . Windsor did not want to know in advance how her character would leave , but hoped she would not be killed off . She commented : " My exit was beautifully written and I really couldn ’ t have asked for a better send @-@ off for Peggy . "
In June 2010 , it was announced that The Queen Victoria would be destroyed in a fire to tie in with EastEnders ' transition to high definition so the set could be completely refurbished . It was reported that the fire could tie in with the departure of Peggy or one of the several other characters whose departure had previously been announced . Director Lee Salisbury said the fire , as well as Peggy 's departure , would have a huge effect on several characters , especially the Mitchell family , of which Peggy is the matriarch . Kirkwood said the fire was " one of the most spectacular stunts that EastEnders has ever seen , and it 's very exciting . "
= = Production = =
= = = Filming = = =
All four episodes were directed by Lee Salisbury , who learned three weeks before filming that he would be working on the episodes , and said he was " a bit dumbstruck " to discover he would be directing the fire episodes and Windsor 's departure , but that he was proud to do so . He said his main aim for the fire was to show the fear , panic and pandemonium that comes when a fire starts and quickly spreads . He wanted the story to be character @-@ led rather than led by the fire , saying that the fire " almost becomes a backdrop " . Salisbury said it was hard to make the fire look real because " you can 't actually set fire to stuff " . As the fire lasted for some time , characters ' scenes could be divided up into small sections . Salisbury commented : " Bryan Kirkwood , the writer [ Ashdown ] and myself also wanted it to be an episode where things kept happening and the audience would keep thinking , ' Wow , that must have been the explosion ' or ' That must have been the stunt ' . But more things keep happening and happening , and I think that 's what people will find really shocking . " The production team had several production meetings for the weeks ' worth of episodes , whereas there is usually just one .
The episodes took seventeen days to film , where normally crew are given eight days to film a week 's worth of episodes . Between forty and forty @-@ five members of crew were required for filming the fire episode , including assistant directors , a design department , cameras , lighting , sound , make up , costume , visual effects , fire safety officers and a stunt team consisting of a stunt co @-@ ordinator and stunt doubles . Filming was done with four television cameras , a steadicam and a dolly . The exterior fire scenes were filmed first , in five night shoots lasting until 4 a.m. , and the real exterior set was burnt . Safety was the top priority for the fire scenes , and fire safety advisors ensured all cast and crew were protected . Stunt doubles wore flame @-@ proof gel on their faces and for the scene where Ryan and Stacey fall from the ladder , several layers of cardboard boxes were stacked on the ground for the stunt doubles to fall onto . For filming the final explosion scene , all the actors whose characters were involved were filmed separately for their reactions . The explosion had to be delayed due to a power failure at Elstree Studios , two minutes before the explosion was due to be set off , which also affected a live broadcast of Big Brother . The power cut lasted two hours and filming was further delayed due to rain . The explosion was completed in a third take . Despite the delay , the scenes were completed on schedule . Salisbury noted that the demise of such an iconic set as The Queen Victoria left several cast members in tears .
The interior set of The Queen Victoria pub was taken apart and rebuilt exactly to scale on the George Lucas Stage , a fire stage at Elstree Film Studios , for interior scenes , filmed over four days . The interior set took seven weeks to build and two weeks to get into the studio . Controlled gas pipes were used to shoot jets of flames and a header was specially built to collapse on Phil . Salisbury had to ensure that the fire for the interior scenes matched that of the already @-@ filmed exterior scenes . Producers decided to extend the 10 September episode featuring Peggy 's departure by ten minutes , meaning it would clash with rival soap opera Coronation Street .
In 2016 , Windsor said that the Queen Vic fire was her favourite stunt to film since joining the cast in 1994 . She called it her " Joan of Arc moment " and revealed that when the explosion happened , she " was actually blown off my feet and landed on Steve McFadden who ended up with bruised ribs " .
= = = Theme music = = =
Windsor 's final episode on 10 September 2010 did not end with the usual EastEnders theme tune . Instead the occasionally used " Julia 's Theme " , a piano version of the theme , was reworked specially for the broadcast , and given the name " Peggy 's Theme " . The theme was created by the original theme tune composer , Simon May , who was reportedly thrilled to write the theme tune for Windsor . He added more piano to the theme and gave it a " more melancholy feel " . May composed the theme not knowing what would happen on screen , but when Kirkwood brought a rough edit of the episode , May noted that the music fitted perfectly first time , saying it was " remarkable and very moving . " The theme features as the lead track on the album The Simon May Collection and was also released as an EP available to download immediately after the episode . He revealed : " All the actors and crew had made a really special couple of shows . My main purpose was to bring something to the table , and I didn 't think it would be a single . [ ... ] But when everybody heard the track they said ' you 've got to release that as the single because it 's something special ' . "
= = = Related media = = =
A number of trailers were released to television in August 2010 to promote Peggy 's departure from the series , and a section on the official EastEnders website was dedicated to the character , allowing fans to " heart Peggy " . The 10 September episode was followed by a twenty @-@ minute episode of documentary programme EastEnders Revealed titled " Peggy Mitchell : Queen of the Vic " . Narrated by Shane Richie , the documentary looked at ten moments from Peggy 's time in the show that made her a British icon . According to overnight figures , it received ratings of 4 @.@ 49 million viewers . Official ratings raised the figure to 4 @.@ 62 million . A documentary looking at the filming of the fire was broadcast on 24 September 2010 on BBC Three . It received 800 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The 6 September episode , featuring Janine 's hen party , attracted 9 @.@ 54 million viewers on BBC One . It was watched by 36 @.@ 1 % of television viewers during its original broadcast . The later BBC Three repeat was viewed by 840 @,@ 000 people , attaining a 3 @.@ 9 % share of the audience during broadcast . The 7 September episode , in which Stacey confessed to Peggy that she killed Archie , was viewed by 8 @.@ 60 million people on BBC One and 990 @,@ 000 on BBC Three , with audience shares of 34 @.@ 9 % and 4 @.@ 7 % respectively . The fire episode on 9 September received 9 @.@ 40 million viewers and a 41 % share of the audience , and the BBC Three repeat saw 1 @.@ 59 million viewers ( 7 @.@ 4 % ) tuning in . Peggy 's departure on 10 September received 10 @.@ 09 million viewers for BBC One , a 38 @.@ 1 % share during broadcast , and the later BBC Three repeat was watched by 1 @.@ 16 million viewers , attaining a 5 @.@ 3 % share . Additionally , the four episodes were the most @-@ watched programmes on BBC One that week and the Friday episode was the second most @-@ watched on all channels .
= = = Critical response = = =
The fire and Peggy 's exit episodes garnered a mixed reception by critics . Liam Tucker , founder of website Watch With Mothers , compared the fire episode to the film The Texas Chain Saw Massacre and admired the special effects and performances of the episode , but said that it seemed unlikely that everyone would have escaped safely , especially Stacey and her baby . Roz Laws from the Sunday Mercury wondered if the fire episode was inaccurate due to the lack of fire alarms , sprinklers and emergency lighting in the pub , but noted that the episode 's use of the song " Murder on the Dancefloor " , featuring the line " Gonna burn this god damn house right down " , was " clever " . A writer for Heat said " We knew the Vic fire was coming , but actually seeing it was quite another thing , and knowing that it also marked the end of an era with the departure of Barbra [ sic ] Windsor made it that much more emotional . " A reporter for the Nottingham Evening Post wrote " Never in the history of soap fires , of which there have of course been legion , have so many hilariously overindulgent explosions been captured on camera . " The Mail on Sunday picked the fire episode as the " Soap of the Day " , while The People deemed the lack of deaths " a wasted opportunity . " Ally Ross wrote in his column in The Sun that the fire episode was " twenty minutes of shouting " , questioned why one character was seen flouting the smoking ban and Phil was boarded up behind an inward @-@ opening door , and opined that he was glad to see Peggy leave as she had become " increasingly psychotic " and " vile " .
Writing for entertainment news website Digital Spy , Daniel Kilkelly said Peggy 's final episode featured " plenty of poignant moments [ ... ] — not least the scene which saw Peggy standing in the destroyed Queen Vic and appearing completely devastated . " Gareth McLean from The Guardian said the use of " Peggy 's Theme " was a " suitably sentimental sendoff " for the character , but said that " in hindsight , Peggy should have left Walford three or four years ago , her character trapped in a cycle of increasingly samey stories that reduced her to a parody of her former self " , describing her efforts to put out the flames as " like a very sooty clockwork mouse " . James McCarthy of Welsh newspaper Western Mail said Windsor 's " final emotional scene will doubtless remain the stuff of EastEnders ' legend for years to come , " and Jim Shelley from the Daily Mirror said " It was a good way to go . " However , Shelley 's colleague Polly Hudson said Peggy 's exit was a " non event " , as " Peggy just left , nonsensically and at complete odds with everything we 've learnt about her character over the last 15 years . "
In February 2011 , the fire was nominated for ' Best Stunt ' at the 2011 All About Soap Bubble Awards . In May , it was nominated for ' Spectacular Scene of the Year ' at the 2011 British Soap Awards . In 2015 , Inside Soap listed the Queen Vic fire as their 9th favourite soap opera stunt of all time , saying it was " just smoke and mirrors — we wanted proper carnage ! "
= = = Impact = = =
The London Fire Brigade used the " dramatic and distressing " events of EastEnders to publicly highlight the devastation a real fire can cause , urging viewers to be more aware of how to protect themselves .
= Cyclone Kate ( 2006 ) =
Tropical Cyclone Kate was a short @-@ lived Category 2 cyclone that remained nearly stationary for its entire existence in the northwestern Coral Sea in February 2006 . Forming out of a monsoonal trough on 22 February , Kate rapidly intensified throughout the day . By 23 February , the system attained its peak intensity with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 985 hPa ( mbar ) . Shortly thereafter , increasing wind shear caused the storm to quickly weaken . By 24 February , the system dissipated over open waters near Queensland , Australia . Although Kate did not directly affect land , large swells produced by the storm impaced beaches in Papua New Guinea and Queensland . The waves injured six people in Australia , although no property damage was reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Kate originated from an area of low pressure that was first identified on 22 February 2006 , within a monsoonal trough . The system rapidly intensified throughout the day , with the Australian Bureau of Meteorology issuing their first advisory on the system that evening . Upon being classified , the system was immediately declared Tropical Cyclone Kate , skipping tropical low status . At the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also began issuing advisories on the system , designating it as Tropical Cyclone 13P . The storm had developed well @-@ defined , upper @-@ level outflow enhanced by diffluence over the system .
The system remained nearly stationary over the northwestern Coral Sea . Early on 23 February , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 985 hPa ( mbar ) . However , the JTWC assessed the system to have been slightly weaker , attaining peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Further intensification was anticipated as Kate slowly tracked towards Queensland , Australia . However , Kate stalled shortly thereafter and began to weaken due to increasing wind shear . Rapid weakening took place throughout the day , and JTWC declared the system dissipated early on 24 February . The Bureau of Meteorology downgraded Kate to a tropical low around the same time , although they continued to monitor the storm for several more hours before reporting that it had dissipated over open waters .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Upon the cyclone 's formation , the Bureau of Meteorology warned vessels to avoid the storm in anticipation of rough seas and winds gusting to 125 km / h ( 78 mph ) . Although the storm did not pose much of a threat to Queensland , officials urged residents to ensure their disaster kits were ready and that preparations for a moderate storm , such as storing lose outdoor objects and clearing gutters , had been completed .
While the storm had no direct impact on land , large swells affected most of the Queensland coastline . In the Shire of Noosa , six surfers sustained serious injuries after wading into turbulent waters . Waves up to 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) tossed the six surfers , leaving them with injuries ranging from broken noses and fractured ankles to head wounds from surfboards . The waves also caused additional beach erosion to parts of Papua New Guinea previously impacted by Cyclone Ingrid in March 2005 .
= Metal Gear Solid =
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to hunt down the heroes of the piece .
= = = Stage adaptations = = =
McNeile and Gerald du Maurier adapted the first novel , Bulldog Drummond for the stage , where it was shown at Wyndham 's Theatre during the 1921 – 22 season. du Maurier played the title role in a run of 428 performances . Du Maurier again played the role on 8 November 1932 in a special charity performance at the Royal Adelphi Theatre attended by King George VI . The play also ran in New York during the same season , with A. E. Matthews as Drummond . McNeile also wrote The Way Out , which was staged at the Comedy Theatre , London in January 1930 with Ian Hunter as Drummond . A third Drummond play , Bulldog Drummond Hits Out , was co @-@ written by McNeile and Fairlie . It went on a tour of the UK in 1937 with Henry Edwards as Drummond , and opened on 21 December 1937 at the Savoy Theatre , London , where it had a short run . Fairlie later turned the storyline into the novel Bulldog Drummond on Dartmoor , published in 1938 .
In 1974 the play Bullshot Crummond , by Ron House , was staged with Alan Shearman as Crummond . The play was subsequently made into the 1983 film Bullshot .
= = = Short stories by McNeile = = =
= = = Films = = =
In 1933 Alfred Hitchcock was set to direct a Bulldog Drummond film with a screenplay by Charles Bennett entitled Bulldog Drummond 's Baby . The rights to the character of Drummond were then held by British International Pictures who would not sell the rights to use the character 's for Bennett 's screenplay . Bennett and Hitchcock turned the film into The Man Who Knew Too Much without Drummond .
= = = Radio and television = = =
A Bulldog Drummond radio series ran on the Mutual Broadcasting System from 13 April 1941 to 12 January 1949 . An attempt was made at a revival between 3 January and 28 March 1954 . Drummond was initially portrayed by George Coulouris , before being taken over by Santos Ortega and Ned Wever after 1942 ; Cedric Hardwicke took over in 1954 . A 30 @-@ minute episode of Douglas Fairbanks , Jr . , Presents featured Drummond in " The Ludlow Affair " , first broadcast on UK television on 16 December 1956 . Drummond was played by Robert Beatty ; he was aided by Kelly , played by Michael Ripper . A 1973 BBC documentary Omnibus , " The British Hero " , featured Christopher Cazenove playing Drummond , as well as a number of other such heroic characters , including Richard Hannay , Beau Geste and James Bond .
= Lydford Castle =
Lydford Castle is a medieval castle in the town of Lydford , Devon , England . The first castle in Lydford , sometimes termed the Norman fort , was a small ringwork built in a corner of the Anglo @-@ Saxon fortified burh in the years after the Norman conquest of England . It was intended to help control Devon following the widespread revolt against Norman rule in 1068 . The Norman fort was abandoned by the middle of the 12th century .
The second castle in Lydford was constructed in 1195 following a wave of law and order problems across England . It included a stone tower with a surrounding bailey , and rapidly became used as a prison and court to administer the laws in the Forest of Dartmoor and the Devon stannaries . The tower was rebuilt in the middle of the 13th century , probably in the 1260s by Richard , the Earl of Cornwall . It was redesigned to resemble a motte and bailey castle , an antiquated design for the period but one that was heavily symbolic of authority and power . In 1342 the castle , still being used as a prison and courtroom , passed to the Duchy of Cornwall , who owned it until the 20th century .
The condition of the castle varied considerably over time , and was repeatedly renovated and then left to deteriorate once again . Nonetheless , other than a period during the English Civil War and the Restoration in the 17th century , Lydford Castle played an important part in stannary and forest administration until the 19th century . The castle acquired a bad reputation for injustice in the 14th century , and complaints about " Lydford Law " persisted for centuries . In the early 19th century , however , Dartmoor Prison was constructed , and Lydford ceased to be the centre for legal administration . The castle fell into ruin by the middle of the century .
In 1932 , Lydford Castle passed into the hands of the state , and in the 21st century is run by English Heritage as a tourist attraction . Historian Andrew Saunders has described the castle as architecturally significant , being " the earliest example of a purpose @-@ built gaol " in England . The earthworks of the Norman fort are owned by the National Trust and are also open to the public .
= = History = =
= = = 1066 – 1150 = = =
The first castle at Lydford was built in the aftermath of the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . In 1068 William the Conqueror intervened in South @-@ West England to put down widespread Anglo @-@ Saxon revolts against Norman rule and set about pacifying the region . William had been responsible for building urban castles across England in the former centres of Anglo @-@ Saxon power and in Devon he constructed new urban castles at Exeter , Totnes , possibly Barnstaple and in the town of Lydford .
Lydford , then called Hlidan , was a type of fortified Anglo @-@ Saxon town called a burh . The castle , in the 21st century called the " Norman fort " , was built on the isolated south @-@ west corner of the burh , soon after 1068 . It had a ringwork design and was only 55 metres ( 180 ft ) by 60 metres ( 200 ft ) in size , protected in part by the existing defences of the burh . A similar pattern of castle building within existing Anglo @-@ Saxon burhs can be seen at Wallingford and Bedford castles . Most of the interior of the castle was used to store grain in large timber and earth buildings . It is uncertain whether these storage facilities were intended for supplying Norman troops or storing grain for wider economic purposes .
This first castle was used only briefly and seems to have been abandoned by the middle of the 12th century . The grain stores were destroyed by fire , but the reason for this is uncertain . By this period , the town of Lydford as a whole was also in serious economic decline .
= = = 1150 – 1239 = = =
= = = = Construction = = = =
In the late 12th century Richard I 's government attempted to promote the growth of Lydford , including revitalising trade in the town . Then , in 1195 , there were widespread problems with law and order across England , including the South @-@ West , and on the basis of this Richard 's government decided to build a fortification for holding royal prisoners in Lydford , further along the west side of the town from the old castle , in a prestigious location next to the town 's church . This fortification is referred to in contemporary documents variously as a firme domus and castelli de Lideford , a " strong house " and " Lydford Castle " respectively .
It is unclear why the decision was taken to build the new castle in a different location within the town . Lydford 's case is not unique , as a similar shift occurred at Canterbury and Gloucester ; generally , such changes in castle location are associated with the destruction of the older defence or changes in political leadership . Archaeologist Andrew Saunders suggests that the new site was chosen because the earlier castle at Lydford was not owned by the Crown in 1195 and was , in any case , in disrepair . £ 74 was spent on the construction of the castle , paid for by Crown revenues from both Devon and Cornwall .
The castle took the form of a stone tower with a surrounding bailey . The bailey was rectangular and in the 21st century measures 180 feet ( 55 m ) by 130 feet ( 40 m ) . The bailey was protected by ramparts and deep ditches on the south @-@ west and north @-@ east sides , with the north @-@ west side protected by the ramparts and valley of the original burh fortifications . The south @-@ east side of the bailey probably formed a small courtyard in front of the tower , in a space now occupied by part of the 13th century earthworks , and was probably the entrance to the original castle .
The tower was a square , free @-@ standing building , 52 feet ( 16 m ) by 52 feet ( 16 m ) and at least two storeys tall ; in the 12th century the tower sat on flat ground with no mound around it . The walls were roughly built from slate and granite , up to 11 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) thick , and pierced by arrow slits . The tower had a spine wall along the middle of the building , dividing each floor into two rooms . The entrance was probably on the first floor of the building . An internal water supply was installed , of which a decorated spout still survives .
= = = = Role in stannary and forest law = = = =
Lydford Castle does not seem to be primarily designed to have a military function , although in 1199 when King John succeeded to the throne he had the castle garrisoned and expensively equipped to prevent any potential unrest breaking out in the region . The castle lacked the usual military features of the time , such as external gatehouses , and its design seems to have been intended to evoke the authority of a traditional defensive fortification rather than to resist an actual attack . Instead , as well as helping to deal with the wider problems in 1195 , the castle appears to have been built with the intention of enforcing the stannary and forest law in Devon . It is possible that the Crown originally intended that the castle took over the stannary law across the whole of Cornwall and Devon , although in practice its role only extended only to governing the Devon stannaries .
Stannary law was a medieval English legal system for governing the tin industry . South @-@ West England , and in particular Devon , was a major producer of tin in the 12th century , produced by independent miners who worked the alluvial deposits across the region . The industry was regulated by the Crown , who taxed mining output and raised revenue from any fines imposed on those who broke the stannary laws . The laws also helped to manage the relationship between the miners and other local people , whose economic interests were often at odds . The output of tin increased from the end of the 12th century onwards , encouraging the Crown to extend its regulation and generate more revenue . In 1198 , William of Wrotham , who controlled Lydford Castle at the start of John 's reign , was appointed as the Warden of the Stannaries , a new office intended to provide additional rigour to the administration of the mining industry . Stannary courts were established in Devon , backed by a team of officials , and , with the creation of the Duchy of Cornwall in the 14th century , the administration of stannary law was delegated to the duchy . From 1198 onwards , Lydford Castle was designated as the prison for supporting the court and its processes .
Forests were special areas of land in medieval England , owned by the Crown and subject to forest law . They were often selected because of their natural resources , and were expected to provide the Crown with a flow of money or raw materials . In 1195 , the Forest of Dartmoor extended across all of Devon , but in 1204 John curtailed the extent of the royal forest , removing much of Devon from Forest Law and leaving the area known in the modern period as Dartmoor . This reduced forest was still subject to the Forest Laws , involving a specialised group of legal officials who met at Lydford Castle to impose fines and other punishments . Probably both Lydford Castle and the forest was given to the Sheriff of Devon , William Brewer , in 1216 . The arrangement changed under Henry III , when the estates were given to Richard , the Earl of Cornwall in 1239 . Legally , this meant that the Forest of Dartmoor was converted to a chase , although the Earls of Cornwall continued to hold law courts at Lydford Castle , enforcing chase laws that closely resembled the former Forest Laws .
= = = 1239 – 1278 = = =
Richard , Edward II 's second son , took possession of Lydford Castle in 1239 as the Earl of Cornwall . Richard took a close interest in developing the town of Lydford , creating an additional market and introducing a new fair in the 1260s . Around this time , the main tower at Lydford Castle was demolished and rebuilt , probably by Richard , possibly following a serious fire in the building . Richard was a wealthy politician and rebuilding the castle in this way would have provided him with an important status symbol in the region .
The previous tower was stripped back , the existing walls levelled off around 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) from the ground and the ground floor arrow slits filled in . Two more storeys were then built on top of the older walls , better executed with a higher proportion of granite stone and thinner , typically around 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) thick . Although the structure remained essentially the same , the new tower was slightly smaller , measuring around 48 feet ( 15 m ) by 47 feet ( 14 m ) . The first floor was only basically designed , with a sequence of rooms of different levels of comfort , and intended to function as the prison , and the second floor was better finished , with a hall and a chamber , and probably operated as the courtroom and provided accommodation for the keeper of the castle .
As part of the work , an earth mound , or motte , 17 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) high , was piled up around the base of the tower . The original ground floor of the castle was now an underground cellar , probably used as a puteus , or pit , for detaining low status prisoners and reached by ladder from the first floor . Some infilling of the ground floor occurred in order to equalise the pressure on the walls from the mound . It is uncertain how many other towers or keeps have similar mounds , as excavation is usually required before the foundations can be examined , but Totnes and Farnham castles are known to have mottes build against the walls of the keep . The reason for building the mound is uncertain , but it was almost certainly not designed as a serious defensive feature . It was instead probably intended as to superficially imitate older motte and bailey designs , with the completed castle echoing these former symbols of power and reinforcing the current political status of its owner .
= = = 1278 – 1642 = = =
Richard 's son , Edmund took over the earldom in 1278 but had little interest in Lydford , preferring Restormel and Lostwithiel ; by his death in 1299 the castle had been left to decay and was in ruins . It reverted to the Crown , and when Edward II made his royal favourite , Piers Gaveston , the Earl of Cornwall in 1307 , Lydford Castle was passed to him . The castle was repaired at the start of the century and was in use once again as a prison . Edward II and Gaveston fell from power in 1327 and Thomas le Ercedekne was temporarily entrusted with the castle and Dartmoor by the new regime . In 1329 the castle was valued at a little over £ 11 . Piers Gaveston 's widow , Margaret de Clare , leased the property to Tavistock Abbey , and it continued to operate as a prison .
Edward , the Black Prince became Duke of Cornwall in 1337 and he acquired Lydford Castle on Margaret 's death in 1342 . Extensive repairs took place over the next three years , and the castle was considered to be well roofed and decorated inside . Over the next two centuries the condition of the castle fluctuated . Around 1390 the castle roof was stripped for its lead , to be used on castles in Cornwall . The castle well was possibly dug during the 15th century . After 1425 , the Crown let it to a range of individuals , including Sir Walter Hungerford and Sir Philip Courteney .
Lydford remained the centre of the forest administration through the 14th and 15th centuries . Despite complaints from non @-@ miners at the start of the 14th century that the prison regime at Lydford Castle was overly lax , by the end of the century the prison had a reputation for poor , grim conditions . The first known rhymes complaining about " Lydford Law " date from 1399 , and continued to be popular for several centuries . In 1510 , Richard Strode , a Member of Parliament campaigning for reform of the Stannary laws , was infamously arrested by Stannary officials and imprisoned in Lydford Castle . He later described how he was kept in an underground room in the keep , fed only bread and water , and encumbered with legcuffs until he paid the keeper to release him from the irons .
After 1485 , the Duchy took the castle back into direct control , and by 1546 it was in poor repair . Renovation work was carried out under Elizabeth I , but a report of 1618 suggested that the castle was unable to function as a prison because of its poor condition , and fresh repair work was carried out in the 1620s and 1630s under Charles I.
= = = 1642 – 1900 = = =
Lydford Castle was involved in the English Civil War that broke out in 1642 between the Royalist supporters of Charles I and Parliament . The castle was used by the Royalist commander Sir Richard Grenville as his main military prison in the region . It had a terrible reputation amongst Parliamentarians , who complained that it was used to summarily execute military prisoners and to extort money from innocent civilians , on fear of imprisonment . At the end of the civil war , the Lydford estate appears to have been sold off by Parliament The castle was assessed by their surveyors to be " almost totally ruined " in 1650 : the roof of the tower was still mostly intact , but the floors and their beams were collapsing , and the whole site , including the bailey , was only worth around £ 80 .
With the Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 the castle and the forest were taken back to the ownership of the Duchy . Sir John Granville was made the Rider and Master Forester of Dartmoor and the Lydford Castle courts continued to be held to regulate the Forest . Repairs to the dilapidated building do not appear to have been carried out , however , and in 1704 a report was drawn up for the government , noting that the Stannary laws could not be enforced without a working prison .
Work was carried out between 1616 and 1733 , bringing the castle back into good order . As part of this , the spine wall was rebuilt properly , and the second floor windows enlarged . The courtroom featured a chair for the Stannary court judge , additional seating for the court officials and a railed , public section around the outside of the room . The courtroom also doubled as a hall for village dances and feasts . At the start of the 19th century , however , Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt , the Lord Warden of the Stannaries , began the construction of Dartmoor Prison at Princetown . Dartmoor Prison and Princetown grew increasingly important and courts began to be held there instead of Lydford Castle .
The castle declined once again , the courtroom became unsafe to use and by 1833 , the remaining judicial fittings had been stripped out . In the middle of the 19th century the Duchy of Cornwall rejected proposals to repair the castle in order to bring it back into service as being too expensive , but the castle site was enclosed to prevent injuries to children who might be tempted to play on the stonework . By the 1870s , the town of Lydford was vastly reduced in importance from the medieval period and the castle 's roofs and floors had either collapsed or been removed .
= = = 20th @-@ 21st centuries = = =
The Duchy of Cornwall continued to own Lydford Castle into the 20th century . Albert Richardson , the architect to the Duchy estate , proposed converting the property into a private house in 1912 , but the duchy turned down the project . In 1932 the Duchy gave the castle to the Office of Works . Repairs were carried out in the 1930s and the 1950s , and archaeological investigations were undertaken in the 1960s . In the 21st century , the castle is controlled by English Heritage and operated as a tourist attraction . Historian Andrew Saunders has described the castle as architecturally significant , being " the earliest example of a purpose @-@ built gaol " in England . The earthworks of the Norman fort are owned by the National Trust and are also open to the public . Both castle sites are protected under law as ancient monuments .
= Typhoon Cimaron ( 2006 ) =
Typhoon Cimaron , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Paeng , was the most intense tropical cyclone to strike the Philippine island of Luzon since Typhoon Zeb in 1998 . Originating from a tropical depression on October 25 , Cimaron developed within an environment strongly favoring tropical cyclogenesis east of the Philippines . On October 28 , the system underwent rapid intensification , culminating in attaining its peak strength with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Estimates from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ranked the system as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon with one @-@ minute sustained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , though this is argued to have underrepresented the typhoon 's strength . The system moved ashore near Casiguran , Aurora in northern Luzon at peak strength . Crossing the island , Cimaron emerged over the South China Sea where conditions allowed for temporary reorganization . After becoming nearly stationary on November 1 , the typhoon executed a tight anti @-@ cyclonic loop and rapidly weakened . The storm degraded to a tropical depression on November 4 before dissipating three days later off the coast of Vietnam .
Prior to impacting the Philippines , Public Storm Warning Signals # 3 and # 4 , the two highest levels , were raised for several provinces in Luzon . Thousands of residents were urged to evacuate while local authorities prepared services for quick recovery efforts . With Cimaron initially expected to strike Vietnam , officials planned to evacuate 218 @,@ 000 people ; however , Cimaron 's slow motion and demise over open waters resulted in these plans being suspended . Officials in Thailand and southern China also advised residents of possible effects from the storm .
In contrast to the typhoon 's extreme intensity , damage was somewhat limited in the Philippines due to the lower population density of the affected areas . Widespread flooding and landslides caused substantial disruptions to travel and isolated some communities . Thirty @-@ four people were killed in various incidents , mostly from flooding . Nearly 365 @,@ 000 people were affected by the storm and losses amounted to 1 @.@ 21 billion PHP ( US $ 31 million ) . Winds along the periphery of Cimaron fanned a large wildfire near Hong Kong , and moisture from it fueled record @-@ breaking rains in British Columbia , Canada . Relief efforts in the Philippines began soon after the storm 's passage ; however , two other storms struck the country in November , with one resulting in far greater damage . Following a request for international assistance in early December , more than US $ 10 million was provided in relief aid to the Philippines .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 24 , 2006 , an area of disturbed weather , characterized by flaring convection around a low @-@ level circulation , developed approximately 595 km ( 370 mi ) east of Guam . Situated within a region favoring tropical cyclogenesis , the system consolidated as it tracked generally westward . Late on October 25 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the low as a tropical depression . With poleward outflow improving , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert the following day before initiating advisories on Tropical Depression 22W . Several hours later , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration assigned the storm the local name Paeng as was within their area of responsibility . Situated south of a strong subtropical ridge , the system maintained a general west @-@ northwest track . On October 27 , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and was assigned the name Cimaron by the JMA . The small storm subsequently underwent a period of rapid intensification as dual outflow channels developed ; the storm reached typhoon status early on October 28 . At the end of this phase on October 29 , Cimaron attained its peak intensity with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 920 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) .
The JTWC estimated Cimaron to have been a stronger system , attaining its peak intensity as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon with one @-@ minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . However , satellite estimates from forecasters within the agency itself , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Satellite Analysis Branch ( SAB ) , the Air Force Weather Agency ( AFWA ) , and Dr. Karl Hoarau of Cergy @-@ Pontoise University stated Cimaron to have been an even stronger system . Using the Dvorak technique – a method of determining a tropical cyclone 's intensity based on satellite appearance – AFWA and SAB yielded a peak value of T7.5 , 285 km / h ( 180 mph ) , while advanced operational values from the JTWC peaked at T7.8 , 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) . Additionally , a forecaster at SAB noted that the lower estimates were likely due to restrictions on the Dvorak technique stemming from Cimaron 's rapid intensification . The forecaster also noted that a second type of estimate gave a maximum value of T8.0 , 315 km / h ( 195 mph ) , the highest rating on the scale .
While at its peak strength , Cimaron displayed two small concentric eyewalls , separated by a few kilometres . The storm later made landfall near Casiguran , Aurora in northern Luzon shortly after 1200 UTC on October 29 ; it became one of the strongest storms to ever hit the region . Interaction with the island 's mountainous terrain caused substantial weakening , though Cimaron maintained typhoon status during its 12 ‑ hour crossing . After emerging over the South China Sea on October 30 , the system initially maintained its west @-@ northwest course . However , the following day , a weakness developed within the ridge previously steering the typhoon , and Cimaron briefly turned north before essentially stalling . During this time , the system reorganized somewhat and reached a secondary peak intensity with winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) on November 2 . While executing a tight clockwise loop , increased wind shear and entrainment of dry air soon caused Cimaron to dramatically weaken . With a new ridge becoming established over China , the weakening system acquired a general southwestward track . Cimaron weakened to a tropical depression on November 4 and ultimately dissipated three days later just off the coast of southeastern Vietnam .
= = Preparations = =
By October 28 , Isabela , southern Cagayan , Quirino , and northern Aurora provinces were placed under Public Storm Warning Signal ( PSWS ) # 3 , the second @-@ highest level . More than 20 provinces overall were placed under varying PSWS levels . Residents living along the coast were urged to evacuate . Early on October 29 , several provinces along Luzon 's east coast were placed under PSWS # 4 , the highest level of alert . During a national radio broadcast President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo urged residents to heed warnings and not to venture out during the storm . Throughout Luzon , schools and government offices were closed on October 29 while residents in mountainous areas were urged to evacuate due to threat of mudslides . The National Transmission Corporation deployed power restoration crews across the region to allow for quick post @-@ storm response . Hospitals in Cimaron 's projected path requested employees to be present in anticipation of an influx of patients . Quick response teams from the Department of Social Welfare and Development were placed on standby for possible deployment . Within evacuation areas , the Philippine National Police was dispatched to prevent people from returning to these areas . Bus companies suspended all services north of Tarlac City and San Jose .
As Cimaron emerged over the South China Sea , officials in Vietnam began preparing for possible effects from the storm . Authorities began evacuating residents in flood @-@ prone areas along the coast from Quảng Bình Khánh Hòa , including 12 @,@ 500 in Thừa Thiên – Huế Province . Fishermen were urged to seek shelter at nearby ports until the storm subsided . The Vietnamese Government also requested the deployment of the nation 's Army , Coast Guard , and Navy to assist in evacuation efforts . Residents still recovering from Typhoon Xangsane in early October were forced to secure their homes and evacuate once again . An estimated 218 @,@ 000 people were planned to be relocated across Vietnam : 68 @,@ 000 in Quảng Nam , 60 @,@ 000 in Quảng Trị , 50 @,@ 000 in Thừa Thiên – Huế , and 40 @,@ 000 in Quảng Bình . Appeals were made to roughly 3 @,@ 500 vessels , with a collective crew count of 32 @,@ 285 , to return to port . The Navy deployed 42 ships for possible search and rescue missions . Following Cimaron 's change in course and cessation of movement , the Vietnamese Government suspended all evacuation plans on November 2 ; however , fishermen were urged to remain at port in fears of repeating the incidents during Typhoon Chanchu in May of that year where over 200 fishermen lost their lives .
Officials in Thailand also monitored the storm as a potential flood threat . Many reservoirs in the nation were above 80 percent capacity and further heavy rains would lead to a major flood event ; the main concerns were for the Bhumibol and Sirikit dams in Tak and Uttaradit provinces , respectively . Authorities in Hainan province , China , warned of possible effects from the storm as well beginning on October 31 . Heavy squalls , with winds of 50 to 100 km / h ( 31 to 62 mph ) were forecast for eastern areas of the island and areas offshore . By November 1 , approximately 20 @,@ 000 fishing vessels returned to port as conditions over the South China Sea deteriorated ; shipping over the Qiongzhou Strait remained unaffected .
= = Impact = =
= = = Philippines = = =
Typhoon Cimaron struck the Philippines with winds estimated at 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) and gusts in excess of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) . Along coastal Aurora Province , a mother and daughter were killed when strong winds destroyed their home . Numerous trees and power lines were felled by the winds as well , causing widespread blackouts in Luzon . The majority of Aurora and Isabela provinces were left without power and telecommunications for more than two weeks . Approximately 90 percent of the homes in Dinapigue were damaged . Heavy rains across the region swelled many rivers , flooding low @-@ lying areas along their banks . Several bridges became impassable and officials had to release water from two major dams to prevent them from overflowing . The most significant flooding occurred along the Allied @-@ Sinocalan and Tagamusing rivers in Pangasinan . Low @-@ lying areas along the Cagayan , Chico , Magat , Pinacanauan , Tuguegarao Pared rivers throughout Cagayan province were also affected by flooding . Numerous roads were blocked off by landslides or washed away by flooding , severely limiting travel . A landslide temporarily isolated four barangays in Nueva Vizcaya . A Provincial Disaster Coordinating Council search and rescue team was later deployed to Kasibu where at least four people were killed by flooding . Fatal landslides took place in Benguet and Kalinga provinces . A traffic accident blamed on the storm in La Union resulted in one death and seven injuries .
Throughout the Philippines , damage amounted to roughly 1 @.@ 21 billion PHP ( US $ 31 million ) , of which 664 million PHP ( US $ 17 million ) was attributed to agriculture . Approximately eight percent of the corn and rice harvest was destroyed . A total of 2 @,@ 605 homes were destroyed while another 18 @,@ 181 were damaged . Across seven provinces , 364 @,@ 733 people were affected by the typhoon , 65 @,@ 585 of whom were significantly impacted . A total of 34 people lost their lives as a result of Cimaron . Additionally , 65 people sustained injuries .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Though the storm remained over open waters after moving over the South China Sea , strong winds stemming from it fanned a large wildfire in Tai Lam Country Park , Hong Kong . At least 136 fires ignited on October 30 during the Chung Yeung Festival . The Tai Lam fire grew to be the largest in over a decade , ultimately charring 450 hectares ( 1 @,@ 112 acres ) and 66 @,@ 000 trees . The storm 's winds coupled with seasonally low humidity made conditions difficult for firefighters trying to suppress the fire . Over the South China Sea , the 128 m ( 420 ft ) long Chinese cargo ship , Tongda 998 , became stranded amid 5 m ( 16 ft ) swells and 75 to 88 km / h ( 47 to 55 mph ) winds after its engine failed . All 18 crewmen were unharmed after the vessel was towed to port in Zhuhai by the rescue ship Dejin .
Moisture from the typhoon also fed an extratropical cyclone , in a process referred to as the Pineapple Express , that brought heavy rains to southern British Columbia , Canada , prompting flood watches for the region Southern areas of the province were deluged by the storm , with some areas receiving 250 to 300 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 to 11 @.@ 8 in ) of rain . The daily rainfall record for November 6 of 20 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 81 in ) at Victoria International Airport was shattered with 50 @.@ 4 mm ( 1 @.@ 98 in ) falling . Widespread flooding occurred as rivers over @-@ topped their banks ; hundreds of homes were inundated , prompting numerous evacuations . The Vedder River reached a 25 @-@ year high and forced the evacuation 200 residences .
= = Aftermath = =
Damage assessments in the Philippines began on October 31 , with aerial surveys being utilized for isolated areas . With numerous roads blocked off or washed away , clearing operations were a priority . The Philippine Red Cross assisted in the immediate aftermath of Typhoon Cimaron , evacuating people in La Union and providing relief goods to more than 16 @,@ 000 people in Aurora . The majority of relief work was handled by local governments , though some assistance from the National Disaster Coordinating Council was received . By November 1 , the estimated cost of humanitarian assistance reached 3 @.@ 2 million PHP ( US $ 81 @,@ 000 ) . Teams from the Red Cross were already deployed in the Philippines due to Typhoon Xangsane in September and were able to quickly respond in Cimaron 's aftermath . Relief efforts for Cimaron were cut short as just two weeks later , Typhoon Chebi struck nearly the same areas . A weaker , though still powerful typhoon , damage from Chebi was relatively limited .
In late November , Typhoon Durian brought even greater devastation to the Philippines and prompted greater need for international assistance . On December 11 , President Arroyo declared a national state of calamity and released 1 billion PHP ( US $ 25 @.@ 6 million ) in relief and rehabilitation funds . Throughout 2006 as a whole , the Philippines was devastated by multiple natural disasters that collectively killed well over 1 @,@ 000 people and left more than US $ 1 @.@ 6 billion in damage . Consequently , the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs appealed for emergency assistance to the nation , in the form of US $ 46 million in funds for the most severely affected areas . The European Commission Humanitarian Aid department also provided € 2 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 9 million ) in emergency funds in relation to the four major typhoons that struck the country , with a focus on areas affected by Typhoon Durian . The Red Cross ultimately provided US $ 9 @.@ 67 million in assistance to the nation in relation to the four typhoons as well as Typhoon Fengshen in June 2008 which struck while relief efforts from the 2006 storms were still ongoing .
= Big Inch =
The Big Inch and Little Big Inch , collectively known as the Inch pipelines , are petroleum pipelines extending from Texas to New Jersey , built between 1942 and 1944 as emergency war measures in the U.S. Before World War II , petroleum products were transported from the oil fields of Texas to the north @-@ eastern states by oil tanker . After the United States entered the war on 1 January 1942 , this vital link was attacked by German submarines in the Operation Paukenschlag , threatening both the oil supplies to the north @-@ east and its onward transshipment to Great Britain . The Secretary of the Interior , Harold Ickes , championed the pipeline project as a way of transporting petroleum by the more @-@ secure , interior route .
The pipelines were government financed and owned , but were built and operated by the War Emergency Pipelines company , a non @-@ profit corporation backed by a consortium of the largest American oil companies . It was the longest , biggest and heaviest project of its type then undertaken ; the Big and Little Big Inch pipelines were 1 @,@ 254 and 1 @,@ 475 miles long ( 2 @,@ 018 km and 2 @,@ 374 km ) respectively , with 35 pumping stations along their routes . The project required 16 @,@ 000 people and 725 @,@ 000 short tons ( 658 @,@ 000 t ) of materials . It was praised as an example of private @-@ public sector cooperation and featured extensively in US government propaganda .
After the end of the war there were extended arguments over how the pipelines should be used . In 1947 , the Texas East Transmission Corporation purchased the pipelines for $ 143 @,@ 127 @,@ 000 , the largest post @-@ war disposal of war @-@ surplus property . The corporation converted them to transport natural gas , transforming the energy market in the north @-@ east . The Little Big Inch was returned to carry oil in 1957 . The pipelines are owned by Spectra Energy Partners and Enterprise Products and remain in use .
= = Background = =
By the time that the United States entered World War II in 1941 , oil was a vital part of military operations around the world . The United States produced 60 percent of the world 's crude oil , with the state of Texas in the south @-@ west leading this production , producing more than twice as much crude as any other state . The industry comprised a handful of very large producers and more than 3 @,@ 500 smaller operators .
The north @-@ east coast of the United States depended on these supplies of oil , importing both crude and refined products . Across most of Texas , there had been little interest in building pipelines to transport oil , and petroleum was typically moved from the south @-@ west to the north @-@ east coast using a mixture of sea freight and railroad transport . In early 1941 , 70 @,@ 000 barrels of oil were moved on the railroads each day , but this method was expensive , and the bulk of the oil was moved using barges , some with a capacity of up to 15 @,@ 000 barrels , operating up and down the rivers and the Atlantic Coast .
With the outbreak of war , the eastern sea routes of the country were attacked by German U @-@ boat submarines . United States naval defence was very limited and largely obsolete ; between January and April 1942 , among other naval losses , 46 oil tankers were sunk and 16 damaged . The problem was made worse as 50 tankers had been sent to help the UK earlier in 1941 . Insurers began to refuse to underwrite the remaining vessels and the volume of crude oil reaching the north @-@ east from the Texas Gulf dropped .
In response , steps were taken to better protect the tankers from attack , but losses continued to mount until , in April 1942 , they were banned by the Navy from operating the north @-@ east sea routes . The government and industry took steps to maximise the use of the railroads , increasing the amount of oil carried on them more than ten @-@ fold , but there were shortages of rail tank cars , and the existing fleet of cars was in poor condition . Instead , the United States government began to examine options for the use of pipelines to fulfil the demand for petroleum in the north @-@ east .
= = Concept = =
Transporting petroleum by pipeline from the south @-@ west to the north @-@ east was a potentially attractive option for the government as it would be safe from submarine attack and could operate efficiently regardless of the weather . Pipelines had been in use in the industry since 1862 , but by the 1930s they were usually only 8 inches ( 200 mm ) wide , able to deliver 20 @,@ 000 barrels of oil a day ; larger pipes could be built , but due to structural weaknesses they could not operate at the regular pressures . Technologies to build high @-@ pressure pipes at sizes larger than 12 inches ( 300 mm ) began to emerge during the decade before the war , but their adoption was not commercially viable .
The concept of constructing such a pipeline was first proposed in 1940 by the Secretary of the Interior , Harold Ickes , who argued that " the building of a crude oil pipeline from Texas to the East might not be economically sound ; but that in the event of an emergency it might be absolutely necessary " . A consortium led by Standard Oil put forward a bid to build one in spring 1941 , but the plan failed , due to concerns over the amount of steel that would be required for such a project . In May 1941 , Ickes was appointed as the Petroleum Coordinator for National Defense , and in December 1942 became the administrator of the Petroleum Administration for War . New laws were passed to enable the building of pipelines necessary for the war effort , including the compulsory purchasing of land under the right of eminent domain .
Initial planning for the Inch pipelines began on May 15 , 1941 , when a meeting of Ickes and the oil industry commissioned an aerial survey of the possible route . A preliminary design was ready that September , and a consortium of major oil companies formed a new company , National Defense Pipelines , to build a pipeline along the route . The government Supply Priorities and Allocation Board , however , refused to approve the necessary steel , and the consortium 's plan was dissolved shortly before the outbreak of war . After the outbreak of fighting , and the consequent deterioration of the sea routes for transporting oil , industry representatives met in March 1942 to produce a new pipeline strategy , called the Tulsa Plan . This included the construction of the Inch pipelines , backed by the slogan " longlines are lifelines " , for which the steel was finally approved by the War Production Board on June 10 .
Once steel supplies had been agreed , an initial tranche of $ 35 million in funding was provided by the government Reconstruction Finance Corporation , which owned and manage the operation of the pipelines through its subsidiary organizations , the Defense Plants and the Defense Supplies corporations . In turn , the actual construction and operation of the pipelines would be carried out by the War Emergency Pipelines company ( WEP ) , a non @-@ profit corporation backed by a consortium of the largest oil companies in the United States : Atlantic Refining , Cities Service Oil , Consolidated Oil , Gulf Oil , Pan American Petroleum and Transportation , Standard Oil , Tidewater Associated Oil , Shell Oil , Socony @-@ Vacuum Oil , Sun Oil and the Texas Pipe Line Company . The WEP was led by W. Alton Jones and Burt Hull , both with extensive backgrounds in the industry , with Oscar Wolfe as its chief engineer . The company established its offices in Little Rock , Arkansas .
= = Construction = =
= = = Design and management = = =
The Inch pipelines comprised two systems , the Big Inch pipeline and the Little Big Inch pipeline . The Big Inch was a 24 @-@ inch ( 610 mm ) pipeline for crude oil ; it ran from the East Texas Oil Field at Longview , Texas , to Norris City , Illinois , and onto Phoenixville , Pennsylvania , from where it branched into 20 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 510 mm ) segments . One served New York and terminated at Linden , New Jersey , and the other served Philadelphia and terminated at Chester Junction , Pennsylvania . The Little Big Inch , a largely parallel 20 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 510 mm ) line intended for refined products , ran from Beaumont , Texas , to Little Rock , Arkansas , where it joined the path of the Big Inch , making use of the same pumping stations . From there it ran along the same right @-@ of @-@ way as the Big Inch to New Jersey and Pennsylvania .
The pipeline project was the longest , biggest and heaviest of its kind in the world . In total , the Big Inch pipeline was 1 @,@ 254 miles ( 2 @,@ 018 km ) long , with 222 miles ( 357 km ) of secondary distribution and feeder lines , and had 28 pumping stations along the route , approximately every 50 miles ( 80 km ) . The Little Big Inch was 1 @,@ 475 miles ( 2 @,@ 374 km ) long , with 239 miles ( 385 km ) of secondary lines , and had seven unique pumping stations along its southern leg .
Charles Cathers of the DPC directed the engineering project , with much of the work undertaken by Oscar Wolfe and , on the Little Inch pipeline , F. E. Richardson and L. F. Scherer . A meeting of all of the contractors for the build was held at the start of the July to kickstart the project ; overall , 82 different companies would take on the pipeline work on a " cost @-@ plus " basis , employing over 16 @,@ 000 staff . The construction required the government to acquire permission to build the pipeline across 7 @,@ 500 parcels of land ; of these , the right of eminent domain had to be exercised in 300 cases . Major Jubel Parten , a director in the Petroleum Administration for War , considered the Inch pipelines to be part of “ the most amazing Government @-@ industry cooperation ever achieved ” .
The pipelines were soon given the names " Big Inch " and " Little Big Inch " by the construction teams , on account of their unprecedented diameters . The construction project was extensively advertised , as part of the US government 's war @-@ time propaganda effort . Newsreels ran clips such as Pipeline Goes Through ! and Pipe Dream Comes True @-@ Oil ! , and short @-@ films were made about the construction work , including Pipeline . The pipelines also appeared in the RKO Pathé film Oil is Blood .
= = = Process = = =
The Big Inch pipeline was made from sections of seamless steel pipe up to 44 feet ( 13 m ) long , 3 ⁄ 8 inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) thick and 4 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 900 kg ) in weight . The Little Big Inch used both 5 ⁄ 16 inch ( 7 @.@ 9 mm ) thick seamless steel and electric weld pipe , and a small amount of 1 ⁄ 2 inch ( 13 mm ) thick seamless pipe . In total , 21 @,@ 185 railcar loads of steel piping were laid during the project , the Big Inch alone requiring 360 @,@ 700 short tons ( 327 @,@ 200 t ) of steel .
The pipe was laid in trenches 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide , dug out by a combination of ditching machines and manual labor . The pipes were then cleaned by pulling a workman through the inside of them with cloths , and welded together , using both the " stovepiping " method and the roll @-@ weld , or " firing line " , methods . Stovepiping was an older method , in which the welder worked his way around two pipes , which remained stationary ; the newer roll @-@ weld approach instead rotated the pipes , allowing the welder to remain in one position as he worked , with up to seven pipes being welded together at the same time .
Where it was necessary for the pipeline to curve to fit the route , the steel pipes were bent , using either a cold @-@ bending approach , in which tractors would pull and push the pipelines into position , or a hot @-@ bending method , with the pipe heated up by blow @-@ torches and pulled into place using a jig . A new , specialized piece of equipment for bending pipes , the Cummings bending jig , was invented during the Big Inch build , and used on the construction of the Little Big Inch pipeline . To protect the pipeline from corrosion , its outside was then cleaned by machine , and painted in first a layer of coal tar enamel , and then hot coal tar coating , before being wrapped in asbestos felt . Finally the pipeline was lowered into position , taking care not to damage the ends of the pipes ; the larger pipes were so heavy that they required a D @-@ 8 caterpillar tractor equipped with counter @-@ weights to lift them . The trench was then back @-@ filled , completing the process .
The Big Inch pipeline had to pass under 33 rivers and 200 creeks and lakes , as well as under 289 railroad and 626 highway intersections . Specially lined tunnels were bored to lay the pipe under the roads and railroad lines , and specialist trenches dug to lay the pipelines across on the riverbeds and lakes , weighing down the pipeline to stop it floating to the surface . Around 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of underwater piping was laid in total . In marshy areas , the soft ground was filled in to provide firm foundations for the pipeline to rest on .
The pumping stations for the pipelines were built on parcels of land between 11 acres ( 4 @.@ 5 ha ) and 44 acres ( 18 ha ) in size ; those with storage tanks were between 90 acres ( 36 ha ) and 131 acres ( 53 ha ) big . The plain , utilitarian buildings were initially prefabricated steel constructs , but as supplies grew scarce , wood was used instead . As much as 725 @,@ 000 short tons ( 658 @,@ 000 t ) of materials was needed for the total project .
= = = Completion = = =
Work on the Inch pipelines began immediately after the establishment of the WEP on June 26 , 1942 . They were built in three phases . The first part to be constructed was the Big Inch , its initial leg running to an interim terminal at Norris City , where oil was to be off @-@ loaded to the railroad network . Once this leg was complete , it was extended to its terminus at Phoenixville . When the Big Inch was complete , work began on the third phase of the project , the Little Big Inch .
The first purchase order , for 137 @,@ 500 short tons ( 124 @,@ 700 t ) of 24 @-@ inch @-@ diameter pipe , was placed on July 2 , 1942 . To meet a construction deadline of January 1 , 1943 , the laying of pipe began on August 3 , 1942 , near Little Rock . Other pipeline crews began work immediately on segments elsewhere in Arkansas and Texas . By September 10 all eight pipelaying crews , each consisting of between 300 and 400 men , were in the field working . The schedule called for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the Big Inch pipeline to be laid each day . But soon men were laying as much as 9 miles ( 14 km ) a day . In all , roughly 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 5 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material were excavated . Oil began flowing through the Big Inch Line between Texas and Illinois on New Year 's Eve 1942 . Work on the Little Big Inch then began in 1943 .
The first crude oil arrived at Phoenixville via the Big Inch on August 14 , 1943 , and the first refined product in the Little Big Inch arrived on March 2 , 1944 . The Big Inch carried up to 334 @,@ 456 barrels of crude oil a day , the Little Big Inch 239 @,@ 844 barrels of gasoline ; the lines were among the largest industrial consumers of electricity in the US , requiring 3 @.@ 89 million kilowatt hours a day to pump the
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Donnell ) , the vet of Doc — the dog she shares with Shepherd — informs her that Doc has had several seizures due to his bone cancer and that she and Shepherd have to make a decision . Webber interrogates the interns individually about Duquette 's LVAD wire , but only learns about their personal problems instead . Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) finally accepts Duquette 's marriage proposal . At Dandridge 's office , Grey and Shepherd , joined by Dr. Addison Montgomery @-@ Shepherd ( Kate Walsh ) , decide to put Doc to sleep .
The hospital staff begins to arrive at the prom and Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) and Dr. George O 'Malley ( T. R. Knight ) discuss the status of their relationship , which leads to the former admitting her love and commitment . During the dance , Grey and Shepherd escape Dandridge and Montgomery to have a heated argument that leads to sexual intercourse . In the meantime , as Duquette waits for Stevens alone in his room , he experiences a sudden sense of pain , and unexpectedly dies . While Webber is sitting in the operating room gallery and reflecting on his career , Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) announces Duquette 's death .
News of the death spreads , and the interns hurry to his room to find a shocked Stevens , lying on the bed , clinging to his still form . As they each try to comfort her , the cause of his death is revealed to have been a blood clot that led to a fatal stroke . Stevens says that if she had taken less time to dress , she would have arrived at his room sooner and could have been with him while he died . Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) then talks to Stevens , picking her up and hugging her . Afterward , Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , who did not know how to handle Burke 's situation , goes to his room and puts her hand on his to show him her support . As the episode ends , Stevens confesses to Webber that she was the one responsible for the LVAD wire cut , and claiming she cannot be a surgeon , quits the program . After everyone begins going their separate ways , Grey remains torn on who she should follow : Shepherd or Dandridge .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series creator Shonda Rhimes and directed by filmmaker Mark Tinker , while Ed Ornelas edited it . It was the last episode to feature Sara Ramirez as a guest star , as she began receiving star billing in the season three premiere . Morgan , Ramirez , Thompson , Smith , Utterback , Devine , and O 'Donnell reprised their roles as Duquette , Torres , Travis , Hahn , Harper , Adele , and Dandridge , respectively , while Hirsh and Hines made their first and only appearances as Claire and Natalie , respectively . The soundtrack of the episode consisted of Pete Droge 's " Under the Waves " , Dressy Bessy 's " Side 2 " , Amos Lee 's " Colors " , Masha Qrella 's " Destination Vertical " , Kate Havnevik 's " Grace " , and Snow Patrol 's " Chasing Cars " . The American profile of Northern Irish band Snow Patrol increased after their single was used in this episode . Lead singer Gary Lightbody was initially uncertain about licensing a song for the soundtrack , but has since admitted that the publicity had a positive effect .
Rhimes entitled the episode " Losing My Religion " because she felt " that is what happens to each intern in this episode . Each intern lets go of the things they 've held onto all season . George lets go of loving Meredith . Cristina lets go of her well @-@ checked emotions . Izzie is forced to let go of her idealism . And that leads to her letting go of medicine . Alex lets go of his rage against Izzie . And Meredith ... well , Meredith just lets go . " The costumes were designed by Mimi Melgaard ; Rhimes noted that everyone was dressed in dark funeral colors to the prom , except Stevens who was dressed in pink . Stevens ' dress was an Amsale creation . Monologues done by the five main characters were used in this episode . Rhimes commented : " this was something we 'd never done and I wasn 't sure would work . But you place those pages into the hands of the actors and each and every one of them layered their characters ' souls right into the dialogue . " The episode 's theme was the prom ; Rhimes said she wanted to do it since the beginning of the season .
= = Reception = =
" Losing My Religion " was originally broadcast on May 15 , 2006 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , along with " Deterioration of the Fight or Flight Response " . The episodes were watched by a total of 22 @.@ 50 million Americans . It represents a slight decrease in comparison to the episode airing the previous night , " 17 Seconds " , which garnered 22 @.@ 60 million viewers . The episode received an 8 @.@ 0 / 22 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , ranking fifth for the week in terms of viewership , and registering as the week 's second highest @-@ rated drama . The episode 's rating outranked CBS 's The New Adventures of Old Christine and CSI : Miami , the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) ' s The Apprentice , and the Fox Broadcasting Company 's 24 .
The episode received mixed to negative reviews among critics . Joel Keller of The Huffington Post expressed mixed opinions on the episode , putting the emphasis on Yang 's development , whom he deemed " transformed " by the end of the episode . He applauded Torres ' evolution throughout the episode , and also praised Heigl 's performance and dress . Keller criticized the non @-@ realism of the punishment the interns received , Grey and Shepherd 's storyline being tiresome , and the cliffhanger , calling it a " lame cliché " . Writing for the Chicago Tribune , Maureen Ryan gave a negative review of the episode , stating : " overall , the whole thing just fell a little flat . " Though Ryan appreciated the scene of Doc 's death , she was critical of Torres ' underdevelopment , the lack of chemistry with O 'Malley , and her prom dress . Abigail Chao of Television Without Pity was also critical of Torres ' dress , but liked Heigl 's pink dress . She also applauded Karev 's intervening to calm Stevens down , and agreed that Grey 's cliffhanger was not good .
Eyder Peralta of The Houston Chronicle criticized Stevens ' ethics for cutting Duquette 's LVAD wire , writing that she " should not be practising medicine " . Alan Sepinwall , a former television columnist for The Star @-@ Ledger , commented favorably on Karev " finally displaying some humanity " in the scene following Duquette 's death . He was critical of Shepherd 's arc , however , and on the absence of severe consequences for Stevens having cut the LVAD wire , an action he called " insane and dangerous " . This episode was included on the list for the " 25 Sexiest TV Shows on DVD " by magazine Entertainment Weekly . It was also listed in Entertainment Weekly 's " 20 Unforgettable Proms " and in Starpulse 's " Top Ten TV Proms " . AOL TV placed the hook @-@ up scene involving Grey and Shepherd on its Top 20 of TV 's Sexiest Scenes . In 2009 , TV Guide ranked " Losing My Religion " # 63 on its list of the 100 Greatest Episodes . In 2013 , the magazine named Duquette 's death one of TV 's Most Heartbreaking Deaths . In December 2011 , Wetpaint named " Losing My Religion " one of the five best episodes of the series .
= M @-@ 44 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 44 is a 37 @.@ 463 @-@ mile ( 60 @.@ 291 km ) state trunkline highway in the western region of the US state of Michigan . It runs northward from the intersection of M @-@ 11 ( 28th Street ) and M @-@ 37 toward the Rockford area . The highway then turns eastward to Belding , and it ends six miles ( 10 km ) north of Ionia at M @-@ 66 . M @-@ 44 is known in Grand Rapids as the " East Beltline " and intersects with its related highway , Connector M @-@ 44 , in Plainfield Township . This highway runs concurrently with M @-@ 37 between M @-@ 11 and Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) .
As a state highway , M @-@ 44 dates back to around July 1 , 1919 , and it was routed along a section of its modern route at that time . The eastern end was altered in the late 1920s , and the western end was extended to the Grand Rapids area in the 1970s . For over 20 years , M @-@ 44 was truncated to remove the M @-@ 37 concurrency . Since 2003 though , the highway has terminated at the intersection with 28th Street .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 44 starts at the intersection of 28th Street and East Beltline Avenue in Kentwood . M @-@ 11 runs east and west along 28th Street and M @-@ 37 runs south along Broadmoor Avenue as the continuation of East Beltline . M @-@ 44 and M @-@ 37 run together on East Beltline Avenue north from this intersection , which is also the location of the Woodland Mall in Kentwood . From here north , M @-@ 37 / M @-@ 44 runs along a four @-@ lane divided boulevard through the campus of Calvin College . East Beltline passes through suburban residential areas near the east end of Reeds Lake and M @-@ 21 's western terminus at Fulton Street . Just north of this intersection is an interchange with I @-@ 96 at exit 38 . M @-@ 37 leaves the roadway to run along I @-@ 96 while M @-@ 44 continues northward along East Beltline Avenue . All of M @-@ 44 to this point is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
North of the interchange , M @-@ 44 passes the Frederik Meijer Gardens and Sculpture Park and the campus of Cornerstone University . The area around the highway is mixed businesses and office parks north to Knapp Street , and then residential north of there . At Plainfield Avenue , M @-@ 44 meets Conn . M @-@ 44 and crosses the Grand River . M @-@ 44 turns eastward near the south side of Rockford and runs through suburban residential areas near Lake Bella Vista , Silver and Bostwick lakes . East of here , the environs transition to rural farmland and the highway crosses the Kent – Ionia county line between Grattan and Cooks Corners , where it meets M @-@ 91 west of Belding . The highway continues east through town , where it crosses the Flat River , and ends at M @-@ 66 north of Ionia .
= = History = =
M @-@ 44 was first designated by July 1 , 1919 beginning at M @-@ 13 ( later US 131 ) from Rockford to Belding . Near Orleans , M @-@ 44 turned south into town and ended at M @-@ 21 in Ionia . The segment near Orleans was realigned to end at M @-@ 14 ( now M @-@ 66 ) in Woods Corners in 1929 . M @-@ 44 was extended concurrently along US 131 to end at the intersection of the East Beltline and 28th Street near Grand Rapids . Two other highways were also routed on the East Beltline : M @-@ 21 south of Fulton Street and M @-@ 37 south of Cascade Road . The US 131 , M @-@ 21 and M @-@ 37 concurrencies only lasted until 1964 when M @-@ 21 was moved to I @-@ 196 and M @-@ 37 was shifted to the new US 131 freeway .
US 131 was moved to its freeway north of Grand Rapids in 1969 . The Northland Drive segment of US 131 / M @-@ 44 was redesignated as only M @-@ 44 , and the Plainfield Avenue segment became Conn . M @-@ 44 . M @-@ 37 was rerouted as well up East Beltline from M @-@ 11 concurrently with M @-@ 44 to I @-@ 96 . In 1977 , this junction at I @-@ 96 became the official western terminus of M @-@ 44 , with the M @-@ 44 signs along East Beltline Avenue removed . Then in 2003 , the signs along the East Beltline were restored and the route extended back to its former terminus .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Connector route = =
M @-@ 44 Connector , or Conn . M @-@ 44 , is a 4 @.@ 185 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 735 km ) connector route state trunkline highway running along Plainfield Avenue in the Grand Rapids area . It connects I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 near Lamberton Lake with M @-@ 44 running along East Beltline Avenue near the Grand River . In between , the highway passes through a commercial area . North of 5 Mile Road , Plainfield Avenue takes on a more suburban residential character . There are more business again at the northern end by Versluis Lake . Conn . M @-@ 44 was formed in 1969 when the US 131 freeway was completed from I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 to 14 Mile Road near Rockford . US 131 along Plainfield Avenue was redesignated as Conn . M @-@ 44 to connect I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 with M @-@ 44 .
= Road to Rhode Island =
" Road to Rhode Island " is the 13th episode of the second season and the first episode of the ' Road To ... ' series of the American animated television series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on May 30 , 2000 . In the episode , Brian volunteers to bring Stewie home from his grandparents ' house in California , but the two miss their plane and must travel on foot for a cross @-@ country journey back home . Meanwhile , Peter becomes addicted to watching a collection of marriage counseling videos hosted by a pornstar .
The episode was directed by Dan Povenmire and was written by Gary Janetti . It guest starred Victoria Principal as Dr. Amanda Rebecca , Danny Smith and Wally Wingert as various characters . Series creator Seth MacFarlane conceived the idea for this episode , and was inspired by the 1940s Road to ... series of comedy films which starred Bing Crosby , Bob Hope , and Dorothy Lamour . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics . It was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less than One Hour ) , but lost to The Simpsons episode " Behind the Laughter " .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with a flashback set seven years ago , where it is revealed that Brian was born in a puppy mill and taken from his mother . Back in the present , Brian tells his psychiatrist about the experience . Afterwards , Brian volunteers to pick up Stewie from his vacation at his grandparents ' summer home in Palm Springs , California , where Stewie frames a maid for stealing to amuse himself at dinner . At the airport bar , Brian gets very drunk and , when Stewie comes to retrieve him , their plane tickets are stolen . They stop at a rundown motel , where Stewie tries calling home , but fails because he believes his phone number is 867 @-@ 5309 . The next day , they have to escape and hotwire a car because their credit card was rejected . To get home , Stewie and Brian masquerade as crop dusters to steal a plane , which they immediately wreck . As the pair continue hitchhiking back to Quahog , they pass by a puppy mill near Austin , Texas , Brian 's birthplace . Upon arrival , they discover that Brian 's mother was taxidermied and turned into a table by the puppy mill owners as a memorial . With Stewie 's reluctant help , Brian gives his mother a proper burial . The pair eventually complete their journey home by riding in an open boxcar , where Brian attempts to apologize to Stewie for all of the trouble he has put both of them through , only to have Stewie reply that he actually enjoyed it . Reconciled , they perform a musical duet " Off On the Road to Rhode Island " as the train takes them home . When Stewie and Brian return home , Lois asks Stewie about the trip , and Stewie covers up for Brian by saying the trip was " Smooth sailing through calm seas " . Lois leaves and Brian tells Stewie that he is thankful to Stewie for covering for him , and asks Stewie if there 's anything he can do to repay him . At first it appears that Stewie wishes to make him his servant by providing an example with an episode of The Brady Bunch , although it turns out that Stewie wants Brian to tape that episode for him .
Meanwhile , Lois urges Peter to watch relationship videos with her , but the videos turn out to be pornography hosted by Dr. Amanda Rebecca , who strips after asking the women to leave the room . Peter becomes addicted to the videos , much to Lois ' chagrin . She gets herself on the end of one of the tapes in black lingerie and entices Peter . While kissing , Peter rewinds the tape , playing the part of Lois taking her robe off over and over .
= = Production = =
" Road to Rhode Island " was directed by Dan Povenmire and was written by Gary Janetti . It featured guest appearances from Victoria Principal as Dr. Amanda Rebecca , Danny Smith and Wally Wingert as various characters . This was the first episode directed by Povenmire . Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane granted Povenmire substantial creative freedom for directing episodes . Povenmire said that MacFarlane would tell him , " We 've got two minutes to fill . Give me some visual gags . Do whatever you want . I trust you . " Povenmire praised MacFarlane 's management style for letting him have fun . Several years after the episode was written , in DVD commentary for the eighth and ninth season of the show , Gary Janetti , the writer of the episode , recalled that the original title of the episode was intended to be simply " Brian & Stewie " , but was changed by series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , who wanted there to be a " Road to " episode each season . The name of the episode was then changed to " Road to Rhode Island " , with the original name later being used for the landmark 150th episode of the show , also entitled " Brian & Stewie " , and written by Janetti .
This is the first episode of the " Road to " episodes of the series which air through various seasons of the show . The episodes are a parody of the seven " Road to " comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope , and Dorothy Lamour . MacFarlane , a fan of the film series , came up with the idea . The musical number in the episode is sung to the tune of " ( We 're Off on the ) Road to Morocco " from the film Road to Morocco .
= = = Edits = = =
During the airport section of the episode , there is a scene that has subsequently cut from some editions / airings of the show , involving Osama bin Laden . In the scene , Stewie , when approaching airport security , realizes that his bag is full of weapons . He then breaks into song , singing " On the Good Ship Lollipop " to distract the X @-@ ray scanners . He then says , " Let 's hope Osama bin Laden doesn 't know show tunes . " At that time , Osama is pictured in another line , distracting the scanners by singing " I hope I get it " from A Chorus Line . Even though the episode was made a year and a half before 9 / 11 , it was still controversial , and was left out of the original DVD release in the US . However , the scene was left intact on the " Freakin ' Sweet Collection . "
= = Reception = =
In his 2009 review , Ahsan Haque of IGN , rating the episode 10 / 10 , praised the episode , saying : " Great writing , hilarious jokes , a catchy musical , and a story that 's both hilarious and touching at the same time – Family Guy doesn 't get much better than this . " It is one of the only two Family Guy episodes that has ever been given a " Masterpiece " ( 10 / 10 ) rating by IGN , leading many to consider this episode as the greatest in Family Guy 's history . IGN also placed the episode at the top of their list of " Stewie and Brian 's Greatest Adventures " .
The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming less than One Hour ) , but lost to The Simpsons episode " Behind the Laughter " .
= Pilot ( Millennium ) =
" Pilot " is the pilot episode of the crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on October 25 , 1996 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , and directed by David Nutter . " Pilot " featured guest appearances by Paul Dillon , April Telek and Stephen J. Lang .
Offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , a member of the private investigative organisation Millennium Group , retires to Seattle with his family after a breakdown caused him to quit working for the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Using his incredible profiling skills , Black helps in an effort to catch a vicious murderer who believes he is fulfilling apocalyptic prophecies .
" Pilot " was filmed over the course of a month in Vancouver , British Columbia , and was inspired by the writings of Nostradamus and William Butler Yeats . Airing in the timeslot previously occupied by Carter 's first series , The X @-@ Files , the episode received a high Nielsen household and syndication rating and was generally positively received by fans and critics alike .
= = Plot = =
In a strip club in downtown Seattle , an unnamed man known to the club workers as " The Frenchman " ( Paul Dillon ) is mumbling poetic phrases and hallucinating blood pouring over a blonde stripper , with a wall of fire surrounding her . Later that night , the stripper is murdered . Just arriving in Seattle is Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and his family . Frank spots a newspaper about the local murder , and immediately contacts his old colleague Bob Bletcher . Frank joins the investigation as an advisor of the Millennium Group , a private investigative group composed of retired law enforcement agents .
When he views the body , Frank gets various vivid visions of the crime . His knowledge of various details unknown to the others unsettles Bletcher . Frank and a fellow member of the Millennium Group named Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) officially join the investigation .
In the meantime , the killer is hunting for his next victim . While unknown to him , the murderer is trapped in a world of grotesque hallucinations . Later that night , local police officers spot his latest victim . Frank visits the crime scene , which gives him a vision of the crime , again startling his colleague Bletcher . Later on , Frank presents his finding to the local homicide department , saying that the murderer is obsessed with apocalyptic prophecies and maddened by twisted sexual guilt .
After Frank presents his finding , Bletcher demands Frank give him the stripper girl 's " rape & murder on VHS . " . Frank tells him he can see what the killer sees . After telling him , Frank rushes to hospital when his daughter , Jordan Black ( Brittany Tiplady ) is stricken with a high fever . Getting another vision , Frank leaves the hospital and gathers local law enforcement officers to another victim .
This follows with Frank tracking down the killer to the local police department 's own evidence lab . In a mad rage the killer attacks Frank , but Bletcher shows up and shoots the killer , saving Frank 's life . After clearing up the case with the local authorities , Frank returns home and opens up a newly arrived anonymous piece of mail containing pictures of his family .
= = Production = =
" Pilot " was written by series creator Chris Carter . Beyond creating the concept for Millennium , Carter would write a total of six other episodes for the series in addition to " Gehenna " — three in the first season , and a further three in the third season . Director David Nutter would also go on to direct several episodes in the first season of the series — " Gehenna " , " 522666 " and " Loin Like a Hunting Flame " .
" Pilot " was filmed over the course of a month , which was an unheard @-@ of length of time for a single television episode . The episode was shot in Vancouver , British Columbia in early spring to give it a " gray " and " bleak " look . The decision to film in Vancouver was to give the show the same dark feel as its sister show The X @-@ Files , which had also been created by Carter . The strip club , Ruby Tip , was inspired by a club in Seattle named the Lusty Lady , which is located on that city 's main street . Director David Nutter had been a long @-@ time staff member of The X @-@ Files crew . Carter said the episode was " directed beautifully by David Nutter who added to the project in so many ways , even as it came on , things that he saw visually that were able to actually change and make the script more concise " . Although " Pilot " did not open with a literary quote as the series would do from the next episode onwards , its plot heavily features the 1919 poem " The Second Coming " by Irish poet William Butler Yeats .
Carter called it a " pleasure " to cast Kate Luyben and April Telek , because they were " good " -looking , which he felt was a refreshing change from frequently casting " character actors " on The X @-@ Files . Luyben would later make an appearance on The X @-@ Files and played a prominent role on Harsh Realm . The idea behind the character " The Frenchman " came from a prophecy by Nostradamus . According to Carter , " the idea that there is something approaching at the millennium , this series being produced I think four years before the end of the century , that we were headed toward something grave and foreboding " . The name of recurring character Bob Bletcher came from an attorney Carter had worked with previously . Another name , Giebelhouse was another name Carter had gotten from his childhood years . Carter said " This idea of the hard @-@ boiled detective is a kind of cliché " . But felt that the characters came " very real to life " , when compared to real law enforcement personnel .
Millennium was given the Friday night timeslot previously occupied by The X @-@ Files , prompting Carter to quip that his earlier series was " being abducted " . However , Millennium received higher viewing figures during its first season than The X @-@ Files had done , while the latter show 's fourth season , the one airing concurrently to Millennium , saw its ratings reach their highest to that point .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Pilot " was first broadcast on the Fox network on October 25 , 1996 ; and gathered a total viewership of 17 @.@ 72 million in the United States . In the " adults 18 – 49 " demographic , the episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 , with a 27 share ; meaning it was viewed by nine percent of television @-@ equipped households and 27 percent of those actively watching television . The rating across all demographics was 11 @.@ 9 . The episode 's broadcast set the record at the time for the most @-@ watched program on Fox .
Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handeln rated the episode a B , finding it to be " weirdly prescient of the crime dramas we wallow in today " . Handlen felt that episode 's tone was so " overwrought " as to be " hilarious " , but still found the series to be " uncompromising " and " compelling " . Handlen also noted similarities to the films Manhunter and Seven in both the episode 's plot and the series ' premise . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 5 / 5 , calling it " perhaps the most perfect opening episode to a one @-@ hour suspense thriller ... ever conceived " . Gibron also praised the casting of Henriksen and O 'Quinn in the series . An Entertainment Weekly preview for the episode noted that some of its scenes were " the grimmest ... in prime @-@ time history " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , calling it " bleak and confrontational " though finding that its symbolism was " too boldly stated " . Comparing the series to its sister show , The X @-@ Files , Shearman and Pearson noted that Henriksen portrays his role " with a confidence that makes him immediately a more credible character than Mulder or Scully would be for an entire season " . Writing for The Register @-@ Guard , Renee Graham called the episode " as lurid a television show as you 're ever going to see " , adding that it seemed " just too horrific to be enjoyable " . However , Graham noted that the episode was " by far the superior show " compared to the similar series Profiler , which aired around the same time .
= Flag of Japan =
The national flag of Japan is a white rectangular flag with a large red disc representing the sun in the center . This flag is officially called Nisshōki ( 日章旗 , " sun @-@ mark flag " ) in Japanese , but is more commonly known as Hinomaru ( 日の丸 , " circle of the sun " ) .
The Nisshōki flag is designated as the national flag in the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem , which was promulgated and became effective on August 13 , 1999 . Although no earlier legislation had specified a national flag , the sun @-@ disc flag had already become the de facto national flag of Japan . Two proclamations issued in 1870 by the Daijō @-@ kan , the governmental body of the early Meiji period , each had a provision for a design of the national flag . A sun @-@ disc flag was adopted as the national flag for merchant ships under Proclamation No. 57 of Meiji 3 ( issued on February 27 , 1870 ) , and as the national flag used by the Navy under Proclamation No. 651 of Meiji 3 ( issued on October 27 , 1870 ) . Use of the Hinomaru was severely restricted during the early years of the American occupation after World War II ; these restrictions were later relaxed .
The sun plays an important role in Japanese mythology and religion as the Emperor is said to be the direct descendent of the sun goddess Amaterasu and the legitimacy of the ruling house rested on this divine appointment and descent from the chief deity of the predominant Shinto religion . The name of the country as well as the design of the flag reflect this central importance of the sun . The ancient history Shoku Nihongi says that Emperor Monmu used a flag representing the sun in his court in 701 , and this is the first recorded use of a sun @-@ motif flag in Japan . The oldest existing flag is preserved in Unpō @-@ ji temple , Kōshū , Yamanashi , which is older than the 16th century , and an ancient legend says that the flag was given to the temple by Emperor Go @-@ Reizei in the 11th century . During the Meiji Restoration , both the sun disc and the Rising Sun Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy became major symbols in the emerging Japanese Empire . Propaganda posters , textbooks , and films depicted the flag as a source of pride and patriotism . In Japanese homes , citizens were required to display the flag during national holidays , celebrations and other occasions as decreed by the government . Different tokens of devotion to Japan and its Emperor featuring the Hinomaru motif became popular during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War and other conflicts . These tokens ranged from slogans written on the flag to clothing items and dishes that resembled the flag .
Public perception of the national flag varies . Historically , both Western and Japanese sources claimed the flag was a powerful and enduring symbol to the Japanese . Since the end of World War II ( the Pacific War ) , the use of the flag and the national anthem Kimigayo has been a contentious issue for Japan 's public schools . Disputes about their use have led to protests and lawsuits . The flag is not frequently displayed in Japan due to its association with ultranationalism . To Okinawans , the flag represents the events of World War II and the subsequent U.S. military presence there . For some nations that have been occupied by Japan , the flag is a symbol of aggression and imperialism . The Hinomaru was used as a tool against occupied nations for purposes of intimidation , asserting Japan 's dominance , or subjugation . Several military banners of Japan are based on the Hinomaru , including the sunrayed Naval Ensign . The Hinomaru also serves as a template for other Japanese flags in public and private use .
= = History = =
= = = Before 1900 = = =
The exact origin of the Hinomaru is unknown , but the rising sun seems to have had some symbolic meaning since the early 7th century ( the Japanese archipelago is east of the Asian mainland , and is thus where the sun " rises " ) . In 607 , an official correspondence that began with " from the Emperor of the rising sun " was sent to Chinese Emperor Yang of Sui . Japan is often referred to as " the land of the rising sun " . In the 12th @-@ century work , The Tale of the Heike , it was written that different samurai carried drawings of the sun on their fans . One legend related to the national flag is attributed to the Buddhist priest Nichiren . Supposedly , during a 13th @-@ century Mongolian invasion of Japan , Nichiren gave a sun banner to the shogun to carry into battle . The sun is also closely related to the Imperial family , as legend states the imperial throne was descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu .
One of Japan 's oldest flags is housed at the Unpo @-@ ji temple in Yamanashi Prefecture . Legend states it was given by Emperor Go @-@ Reizei to Minamoto no Yoshimitsu and has been treated as a family treasure by the Takeda clan for the past 1 @,@ 000 years , and at least it is older than 16th century .
The earliest recorded flags in Japan date from the unification period in the late 16th century . The flags belonged to each Daimyo and were used primarily in battle . Most of the flags were long banners usually charged with the mon ( family crest ) of the Daimyo lord . Members of the same family , such as a son , father , and brother , had different flags to carry into battle . The flags served as identification , and were displayed by soldiers on their backs and horses . Generals also had their own flags , most of which differed from soldiers ' flags due to their square shape .
In 1854 , during the Tokugawa shogunate , Japanese ships were ordered to hoist the Hinomaru to distinguish themselves from foreign ships . Before then , different types of Hinomaru flags were used on vessels that were trading with the Americans and Russians . The Hinomaru was decreed the merchant flag of Japan in 1870 and was the legal national flag from 1870 to 1885 , making it the first national flag Japan adopted .
While the idea of national symbols was strange to the Japanese , the Meiji Government needed them to communicate with the outside world . This became especially important after the landing of U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry in Yokohama Bay . Further Meiji Government implementations gave more identifications to Japan , including the anthem Kimigayo and the imperial seal . In 1885 , all previous laws not published in the Official Gazette of Japan were abolished . Because of this ruling by the new cabinet of Japan , the Hinomaru was the de facto national flag since no law was in place after the Meiji Restoration .
= = = Early conflicts and the Pacific War = = =
The use of the national flag grew as Japan sought to develop an empire , and the Hinomaru was present at celebrations after victories in the First Sino @-@ Japanese and Russo @-@ Japanese Wars . The flag was also used in war efforts throughout the country . A Japanese propaganda film in 1934 portrayed foreign national flags as incomplete or defective with their designs , while the Japanese flag is perfect in all forms . In 1937 , a group of girls from Hiroshima Prefecture showed solidarity with Japanese soldiers fighting in China during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , by eating " flag meals " that consisted of an umeboshi in the middle of a bed of rice . The Hinomaru bento became the main symbol of Japan 's war mobilization and solidarity with her soldiers until the 1940s .
Japan 's early victories in the Sino @-@ Japanese War resulted in the Hinomaru again being used for celebrations . It was seen in the hands of every Japanese during parades .
Textbooks during this period also had the Hinomaru printed with various slogans expressing devotion to the Emperor and the country . Patriotism was taught as a virtue to Japanese children . Expressions of patriotism , such as displaying the flag or worshiping the Emperor daily , were all part of being a " good Japanese . "
The flag was a tool of Japanese imperialism in the occupied Southeast Asian areas during Second World War : people had to use the flag , and schoolchildren sang Kimigayo in morning flag raising ceremonies . Local flags were allowed for some areas such as the Philippines , Indonesia , and Manchukuo . In Korea which was part of the Empire of Japan , the Hinomaru and other symbols were used to declare that the Koreans were subjects of the empire .
To the Japanese , the Hinomaru was the " Rising Sun flag that would light the darkness of the entire world . " To Westerners , it was one of the Japanese military 's most powerful symbols .
= = = U.S. occupation = = =
The Hinomaru was the de facto flag throughout World War II and the occupation period . During the occupation of Japan after World War II , permission from the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers ( SCAPJ ) was needed to fly the Hinomaru . Sources differ on the degree to which the use of the Hinomaru flag was restricted ; some use the term " banned ; " however , while the original restrictions were severe , they did not amount to an outright ban .
After World War II , an ensign was used by Japanese civil ships of the United States Naval Shipping Control Authority for Japanese Merchant Marines . Modified from the " E " signal code , the ensign was used from September 1945 until the U.S. occupation of Japan ceased . U.S. ships operating in Japanese waters used a modified " O " signal flag as their ensign .
On May 2 , 1947 , General Douglas MacArthur lifted the restrictions on displaying the Hinomaru in the grounds of the National Diet Building , on the Imperial Palace , on the Prime Minister 's residence and on the Supreme Court building with the ratification of the new Constitution of Japan . Those restrictions were further relaxed in 1948 , when people were allowed to fly the flag on national holidays . In January 1949 , the restrictions were abolished and anyone could fly the Hinomaru at any time without permission . As a result , schools and homes were encouraged to fly the Hinomaru until the early 1950s .
= = = Postwar to 1999 = = =
Since World War II , Japan 's flag has been criticized for its association with the country 's militaristic past . Similar objections have also been raised to the current national anthem of Japan , Kimigayo . The feelings about the Hinomaru and Kimigayo represented a general shift from a patriotic feeling about " Dai Nippon " – Great Japan – to the pacifist and anti @-@ militarist " Nihon " . Because of this ideological shift , the flag was used less often in Japan directly after the war even though restrictions were lifted by the SCAPJ in 1949 .
As Japan began to re @-@ establish itself diplomatically , the Hinomaru was used as a political weapon overseas . In a visit by the Emperor Hirohito and the Empress Kōjun to the Netherlands , the Hinomaru was burned by Dutch citizens who demanded that either he be sent home to Japan or tried for the deaths of Dutch prisoners of war during the Second World War . Domestically , the flag was not even used in protests against a new Status of Forces Agreement being negotiated between U.S. and Japan . The most common flag used by the trade unions and other protesters was the red flag of revolt .
An issue with the Hinomaru and national anthem was raised once again when Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympic Games . Before the Olympic Games , the size of the sun disc of the national flag was changed partly because the sun disc was not considered striking when it was being flown with other national flags . Tadamasa Fukiura , a color specialist , chose to set the sun disc at two thirds of the flag 's length . Fukiura also chose the flag colors for the 1964 as well as the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano .
In 1989 , the death of Emperor Hirohito once again raised moral issues about the national flag . Conservatives felt that if the flag could be used during the ceremonies without reopening old wounds , they might have a chance to propose that the Hinomaru become the national flag without being challenged about its meaning . During an official six @-@ day mourning period , flags were flown at half staff or draped in black bunting all across Japan . Despite reports of protesters vandalizing the Hinomaru on the day of the Emperor 's funeral , schools ' right to fly the Japanese flag at half @-@ staff without reservations brought success to the conservatives .
= = = Since 1999 = = =
The Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem was passed in 1999 , choosing both the Hinomaru and Kimigayo as Japan 's national symbols . The passage of the law stemmed from a suicide of the principal of Sera High School in Sera , Hiroshima , Ishikawa Toshihiro , who could not resolve a dispute between his school board and his teachers over the use of the Hinomaru and Kimigayo . The Act is one of the most controversial laws passed by the Diet since the 1992 " Law Concerning Cooperation for United Nations Peacekeeping Operations and Other Operations " , also known as the " International Peace Cooperation Law " .
Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi of the Liberal Democratic Party ( LDP ) decided to draft legislation to make the Hinomaru and Kimigayo official symbols of Japan in 2000 . His Chief Cabinet Secretary , Hiromu Nonaka , wanted the legislation to be completed by the 10th anniversary of Emperor Akihito 's enthronement . This is not the first time legislation was considered for establishing both symbols as official . In 1974 , with the backdrop of the 1972 return of Okinawa to Japan and the 1973 oil crisis , Prime Minister Tanaka Kakuei hinted at a law being passed enshrining both symbols in the law of Japan . In addition to instructing the schools to teach and play Kimigayo , Kakuei wanted students to raise the Hinomaru flag in a ceremony every morning , and to adopt a moral curriculum based on certain elements of the Imperial Rescript on Education pronounced by the Meiji Emperor in 1890 . Kakuei was unsuccessful in passing the law through the Diet that year .
Main supporters of the bill were the LDP and the Komeito ( CGP ) , while the opposition included the Social Democratic Party ( SDPJ ) and Communist Party ( JCP ) , who cited the connotations both symbols had with the war era . The CPJ was further opposed for not allowing the issue to be decided by the public . Meanwhile , the Democratic Party of Japan ( DPJ ) could not develop party consensus on it . DPJ President and future prime minister Naoto Kan stated that the DPJ must support the bill because the party already recognized both symbols as the symbols of Japan . Deputy Secretary General and future prime minister Yukio Hatoyama thought that this bill would cause further divisions among society and the public schools . Hatoyama voted for the bill while Kan voted against it .
Before the vote , there were calls for the bills to be separated at the Diet . Waseda University professor Norihiro Kato stated that Kimigayo is a separate issue more complex than the Hinomaru flag . Attempts to designate only the Hinomaru as the national flag by the DPJ and other parties during the vote of the bill were rejected by the Diet . The House of Representatives passed the bill on July 22 , 1999 , by a 403 to 86 vote . The legislation was sent to the House of Councilors on July 28 and was passed on August 9 . It was enacted into law on August 13 .
On August 8 , 2009 , a photograph was taken at a DPJ rally for the House of Representatives election showing a banner that was hanging from a ceiling . The banner was made of two Hinomaru flags cut and sewn together to form the shape of the DPJ logo . This infuriated the LDP and Prime Minister Tarō Asō , saying this act was unforgivable . In response , DPJ President Yukio Hatoyama ( who voted for the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem ) said that the banner was not the Hinomaru and should not be regarded as such .
= = Design = =
Passed in 1870 , the Prime Minister 's Proclamation No. 57 had two provisions related to the national flag . The first provision specified who flew the flag and how it was flown ; the second specified how the flag was made . The ratio was seven units width and ten units length ( 7 : 10 ) . The red disc , which represents the sun , was calculated to be three @-@ fifths of the hoist width . The law decreed the disc to be in the center , but it was usually placed one @-@ hundredth ( 1 ⁄ 100 ) towards the hoist . On October 3 of the same year , regulations about the design of the merchant ensign and other naval flags were passed . For the merchant flag , the ratio was two units width and three units length ( 2 : 3 ) . The size of the disc remained the same , however the sun disc was placed one @-@ twentieth ( 1 ⁄ 20 ) towards the hoist .
When the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem passed , the dimensions of the flag were slightly altered . The overall ratio of the flag was changed to two units width by three units length ( 2 : 3 ) . The red disc was shifted towards dead center , but the overall size of the disc stayed the same . The background of the flag is white and the sun disc is red ( 紅色 , beni iro ) , but the exact color shades were not defined in the 1999 law . The only hint given about the red color that it is a " deep " shade .
Issued by the Japan Defense Agency ( now the Ministry of Defense ) in 1973 ( Showa 48 ) , specifications list the red color of the flag as 5R 4 / 12 and the white as N9 in the Munsell color chart . The document was changed on March 21 , 2008 ( Heisei 20 ) to match the flag 's construction with current legislation and updated the Munsell colors . The document lists acrylic fiber and nylon as fibers that could be used in construction of flags used by the military . For acrylic , the red color is 5.7R 3 @.@ 7 / 15 @.@ 5 and white is N9.4 ; nylon has 6.2R 4 / 15 @.@ 2 for red and N9.2 for white . In a document issued by the Official Development Assistance ( ODA ) , the red color for the Hinomaru and the ODA logo is listed as DIC 156 and CMYK 0 @-@ 100 @-@ 90 @-@ 0 . During deliberations about the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem , there was a suggestion to either use a bright red ( 赤色 , aka iro ) shade or use one from the color pool of the Japanese Industrial Standards .
= = Use and customs = =
When the Hinomaru was first introduced , the government required citizens to greet the Emperor with the flag . There was some resentment among the Japanese over the flag , resulting in some protests . It took some time for the flag to gain acceptance among the people .
During World War II in Japanese culture , it was a popular custom for friends , classmates , and relatives of a deploying soldier to sign a Hinomaru and present it to him . The flag was also used as a good luck charm and a prayer to wish the soldier back safely from battle . One term for this kind of charm is Hinomaru Yosegaki ( 日の丸寄せ書き ) . One tradition is that no writing should touch the sun disc . After battles , these flags were often captured or later found on deceased Japanese soldiers . While these flags became souvenirs , there has been a growing trend of sending the signed flags back to the descendants of the soldier .
The tradition of signing the Hinomaru as a good luck charm still continues , though in a limited fashion . The Hinomaru Yosegaki could be shown at sporting events to give support to the Japanese national team . Another example is the hachimaki headband , which was white in color and had the red sun in the middle . During World War II , the phrases " Certain Victory " ( 必勝 , Hisshō ) or " Seven Lives " was written on the hachimaki and worn by kamikaze pilots . This denoted that the pilot was willing to die for his country .
Before World War II , all homes were required to display Hinomaru on national holidays . Since the war , the display of the flag of Japan is mostly limited to buildings attached to national and local governments such as city halls ; it is rarely seen at private homes or commercial buildings , but some people and companies have advocated displaying the flag on holidays . Although the government of Japan encourages citizens and residents to fly the Hinomaru during national holidays , they are not legally required to do so . Since the Emperor 's 80th Birthday on December 23 , 2002 , the Kyushu Railway Company has displayed the Hinomaru at 330 stations .
Starting in 1995 , the ODA has used the Hinomaru motif in their official logo . The design itself was not created by the government ( the logo was chosen from 5 @,@ 000 designs submitted by the public ) but the government was trying increase the visualization of the Hinomaru through their aid packages and development programs . According to the ODA , the use of the flag is the most effective way to symbolize aid provided by the Japanese people .
= = Culture and perception = =
According to polls conduced by mainstream media , most Japanese people had perceived the flag of Japan as the national flag even before the passage of the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem in 1999 . Despite this , controversies surrounding the use of the flag in school events or media still remain . For example , liberal newspapers such as Asahi Shimbun and Mainichi Shimbun often feature articles critical of the flag of Japan , reflecting their readerships ' political spectrum . To other Japanese , the flag represents the time where democracy was suppressed when Japan was an empire .
The display of the Hinomaru at homes and businesses is also debated in Japanese society . Because of the association of the Hinomaru with uyoku dantai ( right wing ) activists , reactionary politics , or hooliganism , some homes and businesses do not fly the flag . There is no requirement to fly the flag on any national holiday or special events . The town of Kanazawa , Ishikawa , has proposed plans in September 2012 to use government funds to buy flags with the purpose of encouraging citizens to fly the flag on national holidays . The Japanese Communist Party is vocally against the flag .
Negative perceptions of the Hinomaru exist in former colonies of Japan as well as within Japan itself , such as in Okinawa . In one notable example of this , on October 26 , 1987 , an Okinawan supermarket owner burned the Hinomaru before the start of the National Sports Festival of Japan . The flag burner , Shōichi Chibana , burned the Hinomaru not only to show opposition to atrocities committed by the Japanese army and the continued presence of U.S. forces , but also to prevent it from being displayed in public . Other incidents in Okinawa included the flag being torn down during school ceremonies and students refusing to honor the flag as it was being raised to the sounds of Kimigayo . In the capital city of Naha , Okinawa , the Hinomaru was raised for the first time since the return of Okinawa to Japan to celebrate the city 's 80th anniversary in 2001 . In the People 's Republic of China and South Korea , both of which had been occupied by the Empire of Japan , the 1999 formal adoption of the Hinomaru was met with reactions of Japan moving towards the right and also a step towards re @-@ militarization . The passage of the 1999 law also coincided with the debates about the status of the Yasukuni Shrine , US @-@ Japan military cooperation and the creation of a missile defense program . In other nations that Japan occupied , the 1999 law was met with mixed reactions or glossed over . In Singapore , the older generation still harbors ill feelings toward the flag while the younger generation does not hold similar views . The Philippines government not only believed that Japan was not going to revert to militarism , but the goal of the 1999 law was to formally establish two symbols ( the flag and anthem ) in law and every state has a right to create national symbols . Japan has no law criminalizing the burning of the Hinomaru , but foreign flags cannot be burned in Japan . Some people have humorously drawn an analogy between the Japanese flag and the appearance of a menstruation stain on a white bedsheet .
= = Protocol = =
According to protocol , the flag may fly from sunrise until sunset ; businesses and schools are permitted to fly the flag from opening to closing . When flying the flags of Japan and another country at the same time , the Japanese flag takes the position of honor and the flag of the guest country flies to its right . Both flags must be at the same height and of equal size . When more than one foreign flag is displayed , Japan 's flag is arranged in the alphabetical order prescribed by the United Nations . When the flag becomes unsuitable to use , it is customarily burned in private . The Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem does not specify on how the flag should be used , but different prefectures came up with their own regulations to use the Hinomaru and other prefectural flags .
= = = Mourning = = =
The Hinomaru flag has at least two mourning styles . One is to display the flag at half @-@ staff ( 半旗 , Han @-@ ki ) , as is common in many countries . The offices of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs also hoist the flag at half @-@ staff when a funeral is performed for a foreign nation 's head of state .
An alternative mourning style is to wrap the spherical finial with black cloth and place a black ribbon , known as a mourning flag ( 弔旗 , Chō @-@ ki ) , above the flag . This style dates back to the death of Emperor Meiji on July 30 , 1912 , and the Cabinet issued an ordinance stipulating that the national flag should be raised in mourning when the Emperor dies . The Cabinet has the authority to announce the half @-@ staffing of the national flag .
= = = Public schools = = =
Since the end of World War II , the Ministry of Education has issued statements and regulations to promote the usage of both the Hinomaru and Kimigayo at schools under their jurisdiction . The first of these statements was released in 1950 , stating that it was desirable , but not required , to use both symbols . This desire was later expanded to include both symbols on national holidays and during ceremonial events to encourage students on what national holidays are and to promote defense education . In a 1989 reform of the education guidelines , the LDP @-@ controlled government first demanded that the flag must be used in school ceremonies and that proper respect must be given to it and to Kimigayo . Punishments for school officials who did not follow this order were also enacted with the 1989 reforms .
The 1999 curriculum guideline issued by the Ministry of Education after the passage of the Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem decrees that " on entrance and graduation ceremonies , schools must raise the flag of Japan and instruct students to sing the " Kimigayo " ( national anthem ) , given the significance of the flag and the song . " Additionally , the ministry 's commentary on the 1999 curriculum guideline for elementary schools note that " given the advance of internationalization , along with fostering patriotism and awareness of being Japanese , it is important to nurture school children 's respectful attitude toward the flag of Japan and Kimigayo as they grow up to be respected Japanese citizens in an internationalized society . " The ministry also stated that if Japanese students cannot respect their own symbols , then they will not be able to respect the symbols of other nations .
Schools have been the center of controversy over both the anthem and the national flag . The Tokyo Board of Education requires the use of both the anthem and flag at events under their jurisdiction . The order requires school teachers to respect both symbols or risk losing their jobs . Some have protested that such rules violate the Constitution of Japan , but the Board has argued that since schools are government agencies , their employees have an obligation to teach their students how to be good Japanese citizens . As a sign of protest , schools refused to display the Hinomaru at school graduations and some parents ripped down the flag . Teachers have unsuccessfully brought criminal complaints against Tokyo Governor Shintarō Ishihara and senior officials for ordering teachers to honor the Hinomaru and Kimigayo . After earlier opposition , the Japan Teachers Union accepts the use of both the flag and anthem ; the smaller All Japan Teachers and Staffs Union still opposes both symbols and their use inside the school system .
= = Related flags = =
= = = Military flags = = =
The Japan Self @-@ Defense Forces ( JSDF ) and the Japan Ground Self @-@ Defense Force use a
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version of the sun disc design with eight red rays extending outward , called Hachijō @-@ Kyokujitsuki ( 八条旭日旗 ) . A gold border lies partially around the edge .
A well @-@ known variant of the sun disc design is the sun disc with 16 red rays in a Siemens star formation , which was also historically used by Japan 's military , particularly the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy . The ensign , known in Japanese as the Jyūrokujō @-@ Kyokujitsu @-@ ki ( 十六条旭日旗 ) , was first adopted as the War flag on May 15 , 1870 , and was used until the end of World War II in 1945 . It was re @-@ adopted on June 30 , 1954 , and is now used as the war flag and naval ensign of the Japan Ground Self @-@ Defense Force ( JGSDF ) and the Japan Maritime Self @-@ Defense Force ( JMSDF ) . In the surrounding Asian countries that were occupied by Japan , this flag still carries a negative connotation . The JMSDF also employs the use of a masthead pennant . First adopted in 1914 and readopted in 1965 , the masthead pennant contains a simplified version of the naval ensign at the hoist end , with the rest of the pennant colored white . The ratio of the pennant is between 1 : 40 and 1 : 90 .
The Japan Air Self @-@ Defense Force ( JASDF ) , established independently in 1952 , has only the plain sun disc as its emblem . This is the only branch of service with an emblem that does not invoke the rayed Imperial Standard . However , the branch does have an ensign to fly on bases and during parades . The ensign was created in 1972 , which was the third used by the JASDF since its creation . The ensign contains the emblem of the branch centered on a blue background .
Although not an official national flag , the Z signal flag played a major role in Japanese naval history . On May 27 , 1905 , Admiral Heihachirō Tōgō of the Mikasa was preparing to engage the Russian Baltic Fleet . Before the Battle of Tsushima began , Togo raised the Z flag on the Mikasa and engaged the Russian fleet , winning the battle for Japan . The raising of the flag said to the crew the following : " The fate of Imperial Japan hangs on this one battle ; all hands will exert themselves and do their best . " The Z flag was also raised on the aircraft carrier Akagi on the eve of the Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , in December 1941 .
= = = Imperial flags = = =
Starting in 1870 , flags were created for the Japanese Emperor ( then Emperor Meiji ) , the Empress , and for other members of the imperial family . At first , the Emperor 's flag was ornate , with a sun resting in the center of an artistic pattern . He had flags that were used on land , at sea , and when he was in a carriage . The imperial family was also granted flags to be used at sea and while on land ( one for use on foot and one carriage flag ) . The carriage flags were a monocolored chrysanthemum , with 16 petals , placed in the center of a monocolored background . These flags were discarded in 1889 when the Emperor decided to use the chrysanthemum on a red background as his flag . With minor changes in the color shades and proportions , the flags adopted in 1889 are still in use by the imperial family .
The current Emperor 's flag is a 16 @-@ petal chrysanthemum , colored in gold , centered on a red background with a 2 : 3 ratio . The Empress uses the same flag , except the shape is that of a swallow tail . The crown prince and the crown princess use the same flags , except with a smaller chrysanthemum and a white border in the middle of the flags . The chrysanthemum has been associated with the Imperial throne since the rule of Emperor Go @-@ Toba in the 12th century , but it did not become the exclusive symbol of the Imperial throne until 1868 .
= = = Subnational flags = = =
The 47 prefectures of Japan each have a flag resembling the national flag insofar as consisting of a symbol , called a mon , charged on a monocolored field ( with the exception of Ehime , which uses a symbol on a bicolor background ) . There are several prefecture flags , such as Hiroshima 's , that match their specifications to the national flag ( 2 : 3 ratio , mon placed in the center and is 3 ⁄ 5 the length of the flag ) . Some of the mon display the name of the prefecture in Japanese characters ; others are stylized depictions of the location or another special feature of the prefecture . An example of a prefectural flag is that of Nagano , where the orange katakana character ナ ( na ) appears in the center of a white disc . One interpretation of the mon is that the na symbol represents a mountain and the white disc , a lake . The orange color represents the sun while the white color represents the snow of the region .
Municipalities can also adopt flags of their own . The designs of the city flags are similar to the prefectural flags : a mon on a monocolored background . An example is the flag of Amakusa in Kumamoto Prefecture : the city symbol is composed of the Katakana character ア ( a ) and surrounded by waves . This symbol is centered on a white flag , with a ratio of 2 : 3 . Both the city emblem and the flag were adopted in 2006 .
= = = Derivatives = = =
In addition to the flags used by the military , several other flag designs were inspired by the national flag . The former Japan Post flag consisted of the Hinomaru with a red horizontal bar placed in the center of the flag . There was also a thin white ring around the red sun . It was later replaced by a flag that consisted of the 〒 postal mark in red on a white background .
Two recently designed national flags resemble the Japanese flag . In 1971 , Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan , and it adopted a national flag that had a green background , charged with an off @-@ centered red disc that contained a golden map of Bangladesh . The current flag , adopted in 1972 , dropped the golden map and kept everything else . The Government of Bangladesh officially calls the red disc a circle ; the red color symbolizes the blood that was shed to create their country . The island nation of Palau uses a flag of similar design , but the color scheme is completely different . While the Government of Palau does not cite the Japanese flag as an influence on their national flag , Japan did administer Palau from 1914 until 1944 . The flag of Palau is an off @-@ centered golden @-@ yellow full moon on a sky blue background . The moon stands for peace and a young nation while the blue background represents Palau 's transition to self @-@ government from 1981 to 1994 , when it achieved full independence .
The Japanese naval ensign also influenced other flag designs . One such flag design is used by the Asahi Shimbun . At the bottom hoist of the flag , one quarter of the sun is displayed . The kanji character 朝 is displayed on the flag , colored white , covering most of the sun . The rays extend from the sun , occurring in a red and white alternating order , culminating in 13 total stripes . The flag is commonly seen at the National High School Baseball Championship , as the Asahi Shimbun is a main sponsor of the tournament . The rank flags and ensigns of the Imperial Japanese Navy also based their designs on the naval ensign .
= = Similar flags = =
Australian Aboriginal Flag
Flag of Bangladesh
Flag of Greenland
Flag of Laos
Flag of Macedonia
Flag of Niger
Flag of Palau
Flag of Zaire
= = = Legislation = = =
= = = Japanese = = =
Flag protocol
Website on the standards of the Imperial family
= Construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System =
The construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System included over 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) of oil pipeline , 12 pump stations , and a new tanker port . Built largely on permafrost during 1975 – 77 between Prudhoe Bay and Valdez , Alaska , the $ 8 billion effort required tens of thousands of people , often working in extreme temperatures and conditions ; the invention of specialized construction techniques ; and the construction of a new road , the Dalton Highway .
The first section of pipe was laid in 1975 after more than five years of legal and political arguments . Allegations of faulty welds drew intense scrutiny from local and national observers . A culture grew around the unique working conditions involved in constructing the pipeline , and each union that worked on the project had a different function and stereotype . Thirty @-@ two Alyeska Pipeline Service Company employees and contract workers were killed during the project . The main construction effort lasted until 1977 ; the first barrel of oil was delivered on July 28 of that year . Several more pump stations , added as oil flow increased , were completed through 1980 .
= = Survey and design = =
Intensive geological sampling and survey work of the pipeline route started in spring 1970 . Aerial photograph were taken , examined , and a preliminary route was detailed . Small survey parties physically visited the route and hammered stakes into the ground . The work was difficult ; animal dangers forced the crews to be armed , and they also had to cope with the remote area and limited infrastructure . In places , the foliage was so dense that trees had to be cut down and progress was limited to 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) per day . The surveyed route passed through several mountain passes : Atigun Pass , Isabel Pass , Thompson Pass , and Keystone Canyon . In the latter location , surveyors had to rappel down cliffs in order to perform their work .
Surveyors and planners also had to deal with the Denali Fault , a major cause of earthquakes , and with large amounts of permafrost . In 1969 , the unincorporated Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System group drilled a series of core samples north of the Brooks Range that demonstrated how ubiquitous the permafrost was along the route . This forced the design of an elevated pipeline , which was tested in a 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) loop built near Barrow . This elevation required the pipeline to be insulated , since extreme cold temperatures caused the metal to become brittle , even when hot oil was being pumped through the pipeline .
After ecological objections forced subterranean pipeline crossings ( in order to allow caribou to cross ) , engineers developed a system by which the ground near the pipeline would be refrigerated by chilled brine . These refrigerated sections also would be placed in Styrofoam @-@ lined trenches and covered with gravel for their insulation value . Altogether , 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) of the pipeline was designed to be built underground in this way . In other places , a lack of permafrost meant it could simply be placed underground without a special refrigeration plant . Large amounts of gravel were needed for all sections of the pipeline as insulation to keep the heat of above @-@ ground structures from melting the permafrost . Gravel also was needed to build the construction and maintenance road , and surveyors located 470 sites across Alaska where the needed 65 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gravel could be located .
The Pipeline Authorization Act required the pipeline to be able to withstand the maximum earthquake ever recorded in the area it was built . When crossing the Denali Fault , Teflon @-@ coated sliders were designed to allow the pipeline to move side @-@ to @-@ side in an earthquake . To protect against forward @-@ and @-@ backward shocks and to allow for thermal expansion , the pipeline wasn 't designed as a straight line . Instead , it was intended to be laid in an S @-@ shape , and the bends would allow for expansion and movement without breaking .
Because most of the pipeline was built above permafrost , each of the pipes holding up the raised sections of pipeline contained a sealed tube of ammonia . As the permafrost below the pipeline warms , the ammonia absorbs the heat and rises to a radiator on top of each stanchion . The ammonia is cooled by the outside air , condenses , and falls back to the bottom of the tube , where the process repeats .
The surveyed route crossed hundreds of streams and rivers . To cross these with the pipeline , engineers designed concrete " jackets " to surround the pipe and weight it down so it would sink to the bottom of the stream or river . Because oil is lighter than water , the pipeline would float without the concrete jackets . Dredging rivers and burying the pipeline in the streambed was not allowed due to environmental concerns . In several places — either out of fear of disturbing the river or because of the river 's characteristics — pipeline bridges were constructed . The most notable of these are over the Yukon River and the Tanana River . To protect against corrosion in these wet environments , the pipeline was designed with cathodic protection .
In terms of spill prevention , the pipeline was designed with one @-@ way valves ( so oil moving ahead could not leak out of a hole behind a certain point ) , computer @-@ aided leak detection , and other features . The pipeline was designed to be pressurized , so any leak would be instantly detected by a loss of pressure at one of the pump stations , which could sound an alarm and halt the flow of oil quickly .
When it was proposed , the pipeline was scheduled to start at a capacity of 0 @.@ 6 million barrels per day ( 95 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , with capacity to be expanded to 1 @.@ 2 million barrels per day ( 190 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) in two years , and to 2 million barrels per day ( 320 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) at an indeterminate time . The oil embargo scrapped these plans , and it was intended that the pipeline be built with an initial capacity of 1 @.@ 2 million barrels per day ( 190 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) . This required eight pumping stations ( instead of five ) to be ready at startup , greatly increasing the manpower required .
= = = Valdez Marine Terminal = = =
The Valdez Marine Terminal , the southern end of the pipeline , was planned for a site across the Port Valdez fjord from Valdez proper . Initial studies predicted bedrock would be six feet below the surface of the ground , but when excavation began , it was discovered that bedrock actually was sixty feet down , requiring the removal of 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of overburden . The terminal itself was designed to be built with four tanker berths and space for a fifth , should it become necessary . Holding tanks were planned that had a capacity equal to that of the pipeline , allowing the whole pipeline to be emptied if required . As required by the Pipeline Authorization Act , a ballast @-@ water filtration system had to be designed as well . This system removes oil from tankers ' ballast water so it is not released into Prince William Sound — something fishermen feared when the pipeline was proposed .
= = Preparation = =
Shortly after the permit was signed , convoys of equipment on snow tractors began heading north , using hardened snow roads and an ice bridge over the Yukon River to reach the seven construction camps that had been dormant since 1970 . In the 83 days from mid @-@ January to the time the snow and ice melted in mid @-@ April , 680 workers moved 34 @,@ 000 short tons ( 31 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) to the seven camps , and built five more camps and five temporary airstrips .
In February , as the ice bridge and snow road were carrying tracked vehicles north , Alyeska awarded a contract to design the construction and maintenance road . Michael Baker , Jr . , Inc . , a firm in Pennsylvania , was awarded the contract . To cross the Yukon River , the state of Alaska designed a bridge and paid two @-@ thirds of its cost . The remaining third was paid by Alyeska , and the bridge was built by Manson @-@ Osberg @-@ Ghemm . On April 5 , the contracts to build the road were picked . In total , the new Dalton Highway cost $ 185 million to build , and four companies shared that cost . Construction of the Dalton Highway started on April 29 , and at the peak of the effort , Alyeska and the four subcontractors had more than 3 @,@ 400 workers deployed from the Yukon River to Prudhoe Bay . A massive airlift was created to supply the road construction effort ; more than 700 flights per day — 170 @,@ 000 in total — were required before the road was finished on September 29 . In just 154 days , a 360 @-@ mile gravel road had been built . Final grading had to be done and more than 20 small permanent bridges had to be built , but by November , the road was open to traffic crossing the Yukon River on another ice bridge .
= = = Management = = =
To supervise the construction of the pipeline , Alyeska appointed two construction management contractors to oversee all the other subcontractors in the project . Bechtel Corporation , from San Francisco , was named the management contractor for the pipeline itself . Fluor Alaska Inc . , a division of Fluor Corp. , was named the management contractor for the pumping stations and Valdez Marine Terminal , which was the most complex single section of the pipeline , since it involved the transfer of oil from the pipeline to seagoing oil tankers .
Neither of those two companies actually did the construction work . That job was handed off to a series of subcontractors , each of whom had responsibility on one ( or two ) of six sections of the pipeline ( seven , if the marine terminal is included ) . Bidding on the subcontracting jobs opened at the end of March , and the contracts were announced on June 12 , 1974 .
On Section One , which ran 153 miles ( 246 km ) from Valdez to the Sourdough pipeline camp , River Construction Corporation , a division of Morrison @-@ Knudsen , was given the contract . For Section Two , which covered 149 miles ( 240 km ) from Sourdough to north of Delta Junction , Perini Arctic Associates , a joint venture of Perini Corporation , Majestic Construction , Wiley Oilfield Hauling Ltd . , and McKinney Drilling Company . Section Three covered 144 miles ( 232 km ) from Delta Junction , past Fairbanks , and almost to the Yukon . The contract for this section was given to H.C. Price , a group formed by H.C. Price Company ( usually known as PPCO ) , R.B. Potashnick , Codell Construction Company , and Oman Construction Company .
Section Four was 143 miles ( 230 km ) from south of the Yukon to Coldfoot . It was contracted to Associated @-@ Green , a group formed by Associated Pipeline Contractors , Inc. and Green Construction Company . The group also was one of the main contractors for construction of the Dalton Highway . Section Five covered the distance from Coldfoot to Toolik pipeline camp , and Section Six went from Toolik to Prudhoe Bay . Together , the two sections covered 210 miles ( 340 km ) , and they both were under the supervision of Arctic Constructors , a venture of Brown & Root Inc . , Ingram Corporation , Peter Kiewit Sons Inc . , Williams Brothers Alaska , Inc . , and H.B. Zachry Company .
In Valdez , where Fluor had supervision , the work also was divided among several contractors . Site preparation work was done by Morrison @-@ Knudsen . Chicago Bridge & Iron Company built the tank farms , the tanker berths were built by Kiewest ( a venture of Peter Kiewit Sons and Willamette @-@ Western Corporation ) , and General Electric insulated the pipes . Fluor also had supervision of the construction of the pumping stations , which were generally built by the contractors working on a specific section of the pipeline .
= = = Pipeline camps = = =
When the contracts were announced , Alyeska already had 12 pipeline construction camps either built or under construction . These camps were all north of the Yukon , however , and camps had to be built along the entire length of the project . Alyeska planned for 29 construction camps , but 31 were created . Seven were built along the pipeline south of the Yukon , and one was built at each of the 12 pump stations along the length of the route .
The camps were built on thick beds of gravel laid down to insulate the underlying permafrost and to prevent pollution . At the conclusion of the construction project , the gravel was removed , theoretically removing oil leaks and other pollution with it . Atop the gravel were prefabricated modular buildings either flown to the site or trucked across the Dalton Highway . The standardized structures could house 28 people , and two typically were bolted together to create two " wings " . All were one @-@ story , except at Valdez and at the pump station camps , where modules were laid atop one another because of space concerns . In addition to the gravel insulation , both buildings and utility conduits were raised above the ground to avoid heating permafrost .
The camps housed from 250 people ( at each pump station ) to 3 @,@ 500 people ( at Valdez ) . A typical pump station camp cost $ 6 million to build , while the typical mainline camps cost about $ 10 million to build . The camps had beds for 16 @,@ 500 workers and were collectively referred to as " Skinny City " by workers . The name came from the fact that the " city " was 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) long , but only a few hundred feet wide .
Overall construction headquarters was at Fort Wainwright near Fairbanks , where Alyeska leased land and buildings from the U.S. Army . Vacant barracks were converted into housing , and vacant offices were given to oil workers . As air traffic increased , Alyeska arranged for the use of Fort Wainwright 's airfield to relieve the burden on Fairbanks International Airport . The camp at Wainwright was the only one that did not use prefabricated buildings .
= = Workers = =
The Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System was built entirely with unionized labor . Because construction was slumping in the United States at large , the pipeline drew workers from across the country . These workers had to follow a strict hiring process based on union seniority and the labor that was needed . Priority was given to hiring Alaska residents and Alaska Natives , and no strikes were permitted by a labor agreement between Alyeska and the unions . In exchange for abiding by these restrictions , workers were paid extremely well and received fringe benefits . According to the labor contract , every worker was guaranteed 40 hours ' pay per week , even if weather made work impossible . In addition , subcontractors had cost @-@ plus contracts with Alyeska for staffing , so there was no incentive to keep staffing levels low . These factors often led to more people being assigned to a job than there was work to do in an attempt to make up time lost to weather delays . At the peak of construction in fall 1975 , more than 28 @,@ 000 people were working on the pipeline . Fourteen to 19 percent of the workers were minorities , and 5 to 10 percent were women . Because of the high turnover on the project , more than 70 @,@ 000 people worked on at least a part of the pipeline .
= = = Welders = = =
The welders who worked on the pipeline itself came from Pipeliners Local 798 out of Tulsa , Oklahoma , which specialized in providing welders for large @-@ scale pipeline projects . Members of the Plumbers and Steamfitters Union performed all welding that was not a part of the pipeline itself , including pump stations , feeder pipelines , and work at the Valdez Marine Terminal . The welders were the highest paid of all the workers on the pipeline , with a normal rate of $ 18 @.@ 25 per hour . To be hired on the pipeline project , welders had to go through an intensive certification process that involved a series of test welds . If a welder failed any of the test welds , he was not hired and was not allowed to try again for several weeks .
Most 798ers were characterized by a Southern accent , cowboy boots , and unique welder 's hats . They were the only people to weld the 48 @-@ inch ( 120 cm ) pipe of the main pipeline , and outside observers characterized them as arrogant and " redneck " . As a fellow welder stated at the time , " Take your typical 798 pipeline welder and feed him a few drinks , and he 'll probably tell you that he 's God 's greatest gift to welding . " This attitude generated resentment from other pipeline workers , and the conflict caused large @-@ scale brawls . In some instances , Alaska State Troopers had to be flown to pipeline camps in order to break up small riots . Toward the end of the pipeline project , a series of bumper stickers was produced with the slogan " Happiness is 10 @,@ 000 Okies going south with a Texan under each arm . "
= = = Teamsters = = =
The Teamsters Union was by far the largest and most notable contributor of workers to the pipeline project . Teamsters worked in the transportation and supply aspects of the project . All trucks were driven by Teamsters , supply warehouses were run by Teamsters , and the buses that transported workers from camps to job sites were run by Teamsters . Teamsters Local 959 , with more than 23 @,@ 000 employees at its peak , was by far the most dominant labor force on the pipeline project . There were frequent allegations of corruption by Teamsters on the project , and the Anchorage Daily News won a Pulitzer Prize for a 15 @-@ part series on the rise of Local 959 and its influence on state politics . Repeated allegations of links to organized crime were never backed up by evidence , but two Teamsters leaders were murdered in 1976 while investigating drug activity on the pipeline project . Teamsters workers strongly denied any involvement with organized crime , and pointed to the fact that 80 percent of the Teamsters in the project had college degrees or professional and management experience .
The Teamsters ' control of tools and equipment in warehouses they ran led to conflicts with other workers . In a few instances , Teamsters were assaulted by workers from other unions . In other instances , the Teamsters used their position to extract concessions from Alyeska and the subcontractors . Although they were forbidden from striking , they were allowed to halt work for safety meetings , and this excuse was used on a handful of occasions . The most notable of these was in February 1975 , after a series of serious truck accidents on the Elliott Highway , which connected to the newly built Dalton . The Elliott , which had not been upgraded , was a treacherous drive for trucks hauling 80 feet ( 24 m ) of pipe . After his attempts to get Alyeska to upgrade the road were rebuffed , Teamster leader Jesse Carr stopped all truck traffic in the state for four days of safety meetings . Alyeska and the state promised upgrades to the road , and the traffic resumed .
= = = Operators = = =
The International Union of Operating Engineers ( called Operators for short ) represented the men and women who sat at the controls of the heavy equipment used on the construction of the pipeline . This equipment included bulldozers , cranes , drilling rigs , and sidebooms — a cross between a bulldozer and a crane that could lay a section of pipe in a trench parallel to its tracks . Because most of the heavy equipment was unheated , six operators were typically assigned to each piece of equipment , allowing for frequent breaks . A popular joke on the pipeline was that the sole qualification to be an Operator was , " Must be able to sit on a sideboom at 40 below and not freeze up . " More seriously , one laborer wrote , was that there was nothing more terrifying than to be in a trench and have a drunken or unskilled Operator handling the pipe that was being laid in the trench .
= = = Laborers = = =
The Laborers International Union represented the bulk of the less @-@ skilled labor on the project . Laborers , as they were commonly known , did most of the odd jobs on the project : digging trenches in areas inaccessible by heavy equipment , drilling holes for the pipeline 's Vertical Support Members , spreading gravel , crushing rock , and moving supplies by hand . Laborers Local 942 out of Fairbanks was the most prominent Laborers group on the project , and because no special skills were required for the jobs it filled , the Laborers Union attracted most of the people who came to Alaska specifically for the pipeline project . As one Laborer put it , they were people " simply looking for the easiest way possible of getting through the day . "
Because the Laborers had more applicants than jobs available , the process for getting a job on the pipeline through Laborers Local 942 was a multi @-@ tiered process . There were multiple levels of eligibility , based on the amount of seniority a person had . A @-@ level members had the first pick of jobs , but they had to have worked at least 800 hours with the union in the previous year . B @-@ level members had to have worked between 100 and 800 hours with the union . C @-@ level members had to have at least two years of experience outside of Alaska or be an Alaska resident for at least one year . D @-@ level was for everyone else , and D @-@ level people rarely got jobs . That didn 't stop people from trying . At 11 a.m. on January 1 , 1974 , shortly before the pipeline right @-@ of @-@ way was signed , more than 100 people spent the night outside the Fairbanks office of the Laborers Union , waiting for the first choice of jobs when the office opened .
= = = Pipeline life = = =
Life during the pipeline construction project was characterized by long hours , poor conditions , and limited entertainment compensated by excellent benefits and pay . Each worker was handed a small booklet of 23 camp rules , but the rules ( including no alcohol or smoking ) were frequently broken and became the target of ribald humor .
Within the living quarters , the atmosphere resembled that of a college dormitory . Housekeeping and laundry services were provided , but the quarters were small and little entertainment was available . Television broadcasts were delayed two days because of the need to fly tapes from California , and most workers had to develop their own forms of entertainment . In the winter , some took to skiing or sightseeing ; in the summer , some went hiking . In general , however , little time was available for recreation because of the long hours worked by most people .
In the first years of the project , workers were regularly treated to prime rib , steak dinners , and other exotic fare due to a cost @-@ plus contract between the food preparers and the subcontractors . In later years , these cost @-@ plus contracts were replaced , and institutional cooking and box lunches became common , but the food on the project was prized by many workers . As soon as the haul road , later named the Dalton Highway , was built , the food and the overtime for some unions changed . The highway construction was charged to the federal and state governments and was supposed to be cost plus . There were no more steak nights one to two times a week and the Australian rock lobster tails disappeared . The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers ( IBEW ) LU 1547 was one union that had overtime on Sundays changed from double time to time @-@ and @-@ one @-@ half upon completion of the haul road .
In 1976 , workers ' pay averaged between $ 11 and $ 18 per hour , depending on the position . With workweeks averaging between 70 and 84 hours per week , the problem for many workers became what to do with so much extra money . Teamster Jerry Thornhill , a typical worker , wrote to Money magazine , asking for advice . Thornhill detailed a pay rate of $ 57 @,@ 000 per year at a time when members of Congress earned $ 42 @,@ 500 annually , professional football players averaged $ 40 @,@ 000 , and U.S. vice president Nelson Rockefeller earned $ 62 @,@ 500 . The large amounts of money in the pipeline camps and a lack of entertainment caused frequent gambling games that sometimes involved tens of thousands of dollars . Instead of gambling , other workers saved their money for monthlong vacations to Hawaii or other warm climates , then returned to work with no money remaining .
= = Laying pipe = =
The first section of the Trans @-@ Alaska pipeline was laid on March 27 , 1975 , in the Tonsina River . Several forty @-@ foot sections of pipe were welded together and coated in concrete prior to the ceremony . Twelve sidebooms ( bulldozers with side @-@ mounted cranes ) together lifted 1 @,@ 900 feet ( 580 m ) of pipe , which was laid in a trench dug perpendicular to the riverbed . Bulldozers filled in the exposed trench with gravel , restoring the river 's original contours . This process was repeated a few miles south , where the pipeline crossed the Little Tonsina River . By the end of April , the first 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) of elevated pipeline also was built in the same area .
In 1975 , the first year of pipelaying , Alyeska set a goal of completing 45 percent of the 800 @-@ mile route . This would not be laid in a straight line , since it was expected that river crossings would take longer to complete than portions of the pipeline on dry land . Work on the pumping stations and the Valdez Marine Terminal , which had begun in the fall of 1974 , also was expected to take longer than laying pipe . Conversely , work on those two projects could proceed during the winter , when pipelaying could not take place due to the frozen ground .
Laying pipe took several stages . First , the right of way had to be cleared with chainsaws , bulldozers , and scrapers who followed the rough route laid out by the initial surveyors . These crews were followed by another group of surveyors and engineers who determined whether the pipeline could be laid in the planned spot , or if it had to be moved because of permafrost , soft ground , or other considerations . State and federal surveillance officers , working with the engineers , could give the OK to move the path of the pipeline as much as 200 feet to the right or left in order to avoid obstacles .
After the path was finalized came the augers and drillers for the holes that served as foundations for the Vertical Support Members that held up the pipe . These holes were drilled and filled with a mix of water , gravel and dirt before a VSM was dropped into each hole . Because of the frozen ground , the gravel and dirt froze as hard as concrete , sealing the VSMs in place . The VSMs were laid in parallel , two at a time , and each had a semicircular rest for the pipeline segments . These were carried in 40 @-@ foot or 80 @-@ foot segments by crane or sideboom to the appropriate location , lowered into place , then welded together . The welds were then inspected via X @-@ ray by quality control engineers who followed the welders .
The construction progressed under the management of Frank Moolin , Jr . , an engineer who had worked on refinery projects in Singapore and the construction of the Bay Area Rapid Transit system prior to being named senior project manager . Moolin became known for his work ethic and his hard @-@ driving style . It was said that he was the first person in the office and the last to leave at the end of the day . The Engineering News @-@ Record reported " He demands total dedication , saying , ' Your wife had a baby ; so what ? ' " when it named him the construction industry 's Man of the Year in 1976 . To spur progress on the pipeline , he started the " Alyeska Sweepstakes , " in which each of the five contractors working on the pipeline were compared to each other based on how much of their share they completed on time . In his biggest decision , he canceled Bechtel 's contract as management contractor because he felt the company was adding too much bureaucracy between Alyeska and the pipeline contractors . A historian later called the decision " one of the most humiliating defeats " in the history of Bechtel .
In October , snow and cold weather brought most of the pipeline laying to a halt for the year . Employment rose from 12 @,@ 000 workers in the spring to more than 21 @,@ 000 in the summer and down to 7 @,@ 000 at Christmas . Alyeska estimated that the pipeline laying was about 50 percent complete : 390 miles ( 630 km ) of pipeline were welded and in place . But work on the pump stations and in Valdez lagged ; the project as a whole was only 35 percent complete when the pumps were factored in .
= = Speeding up construction = =
During the winter of 1975 – 1976 , Moolin pronounced himself dissatisfied with progress , but promised improvements . " We 've learned an awful lot . This year ( 1975 ) was a pull @-@ ourselves @-@ up @-@ by @-@ our @-@ bootstraps operation . We didn 't really have our organization set until July , and it wasn 't working at top effectiveness until October . " To take advantage of that " top effectiveness " , Moolin set an ambitious goal for 1976 construction : " We 're expecting to have all of the line installed , insulated , and hydro @-@ tested by November 1 , " he said in January . That goal was ambitious , because most of the work that had been done to that point was on floodplains and flat terrain . Still left to tackle were difficult construction projects in Atigun Pass and Keystone Canyon . " In some areas , we did eat our cake last year , " Moolin said .
Even though winter shut down all pipelaying on the right of way , work on the pump stations and in Valdez continued without stop . At Pump Station 1 , in Prudhoe Bay , temperatures reached lower than − 70 ° F ( − 57 ° C ) , but the work continued . Because the pump station was the origin point for the main pipeline , it also had to process the feeder lines coming from oil wells . The pump station camp had a population of 270 workers through the winter , and it would peak in the summer with 430 workers .
= = = Welding controversy = = =
As the weather warmed and work resumed on the main pipeline , Alyeska administrators were distracted by a controversy about pipeline welds that had been done the previous year . In September 1975 , a former employee of Ketchbaw Industries filed suit against the company , alleging that he had been laid off because he would not participate in a conspiracy to falsify quality control X @-@ Rays of pipeline welds . The Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline was unique among pipeline projects to that point in that it required all welds of the main pipeline to be verified by X @-@ Ray . This was a time @-@ consuming process , and the quality @-@ control procedures continually lagged behind the welders .
At the end of 1975 , Alyeska terminated Ketchbaw 's contract and took responsibility for analyzing weld X @-@ Rays itself . The controversy continued , however , as Kelley 's lawsuit moved forward , a Ketchbaw manager was found dead of cyanide poisoning , and photographs of welds were stolen from a pump station construction camp . Alyeska began a review of all 30 @,@ 800 welds that had been done in 1975 , and submitted its report to the Interior Department in April 1976 . In May , it submitted its technical analysis and a report on repair work under way . The review produced a list of 3 @,@ 955 questionable welds — 10 percent of 1975 's work .
Alyeska reported that about half were too minor to affect the running of the pipeline , but questions lay with more than a thousand welds that might be dangerous . Re @-@ examining the welds would be extremely difficult , since those sections of pipeline were sealed ( and in many cases buried ) . By July , the U.S. Congress began holding hearings into the welding problems . President Gerald Ford sent a team to Alaska to oversee and examine Alyeska 's work . At the recommendations of this team and to avoid further investigations , Alyeska began repairing the welds on its own . By September , more than 3 @,@ 000 of the questionable welds had been redone or certified as safe . Alyeska asked for waivers on the remaining 612 welds , and more hearings resulted . By the end of November , only 34 welds were still at issue . The leader of Ford 's team ordered 31 of the welds to be dug up and re @-@ done . Waivers were granted for only three welds , all of which were buried 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) under the Koyukuk River south of the Brooks Range . Proof of the integrity of questionable welds were evaluated by a unique solution in Section Five north of the Brooks Range . On either side of the Sagavanirktok River , the above ground pipeline was cut upon and 48 inch fans installed to circulate air . Then a team of 12 men and inspectors riding on wheeled sleds pulled by a modified John Deere lawnmower entered the pipe . Welds were counted during the passage . After arriving at the questionable weld under the Sagavanirktok River , an ultrasound was taken on the inside of the pipe . Then the team exited the pipe on the opposite side and the ultrasound was taken back to camp for evaluation . Alyeska estimated the total cost of redoing the welds to be $ 55 million .
= = = Atigun , Keystone , and Sag River = = =
Many of the suspected faulty welds were in Section Five of the pipeline construction project — the northernmost 200 miles ( 320 km ) . This area also included two of the major problems encountered during the 1976 construction season : Atigun Pass and the Sagavanirktok River ( also known as Sag River ) . The pipeline had been laid in a trench beneath the river in the late fall of 1975 . Because it had been laid so late in the season , the trench fill material had frozen and it was impossible to fill the submerged trench containing the pipeline . Spring snowmelt flooded the river and battered the submerged portion of pipe . In June , the battered pipeline broke free of its moorings and a 1 @,@ 700 @-@ foot ( 518 m ) section of concrete @-@ coated pipe floated to the surface of the river . Because doing repair work would interfere with the migration of Arctic char , the Alaska Department of Fish and Game allowed only 24 hours for the project . After preparing the site , it took just four hours for a replacement trench to be dug , a pipe welded and laid in the trench , and the trench to be filled in .
At Atigun Pass , to the south of the Sag River , workers had to deal with a different set of challenges . In 1975 , surveyors discovered the pass was filled with permafrost and glacial soils . But because the pass is the site of frequent avalanches , an elevated pipeline was not possible . The solution was to design a reinforced , insulated ditch to lay the pipeline in . The result was a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 83 km ) long concrete box lined with 21 inches ( 53 cm ) of Styrofoam . The problem then became one of building it before the first snow started falling in October .
At the opposite end of the pipeline , just north of Valdez , engineers coped with the difficulties posed by Keystone Canyon . The canyon was the only route to Valdez , but it was occupied by the Richardson Highway and the Lowe River ; no room was available for the pipeline . The only solution was to avoid the canyon by building the pipeline through the Chugach Mountains and at the rim of the canyon . Winter work was made impossible by the more than 300 inches ( 760 cm ) of snow that fell in the winter of 1975 @-@ 1976 , and when the snow melted , construction workers had to figure out how to travel up a 60 percent grade , then lay the pipeline on it . A rock @-@ crushing plant was built at the canyon 's rim to avoid the need to carry gravel up the steep grade , but problems still persisted . Not even bulldozers could traverse the grade without a team of two helping each up the grade in turn . A bulldozer had to be modified to carry 80 @-@ foot ( 20 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ) sections of pipe up the grade , but even then , most of the sections and equipment had to be lifted by helicopter to the canyon rim . Similar techniques had to be used at nearby Thomson Pass , and both sections required the entire 1976 construction season to complete .
= = = Pump stations and marine terminal = = =
Work at the pump stations and marine terminal , which had not stopped during the winter , continued throughout the 1976 construction season . Pump Station 6 , just south of the Yukon River , had to be redesigned after excavation revealed ice @-@ rich permafrost below the site . Five pump stations needed at startup ( when throughput was lower ) received their pumps , turbines , and piping . As they were completed , the pump stations received hydrostatic testing , in which portions of pipe were filled with water and subjected to pressures in excess of the eventual operating conditions . Following this testing , the initial five pump stations were disconnected from the main pipeline and had oil run through them on a continuous loop . " It 's very similar to your new automobile , " one worker said . " You drive it around for ten days so that any components that are going to fail are given time to fail . " Work on additional pump stations , which would not be needed until the pipeline was brought to full capacity , was not pressed forward .
At Valdez , construction was two @-@ thirds complete by September as 4 @,@ 200 workers hurried to complete the marine terminal . Because of loose soil found at the job site , enormous retaining walls had to be constructed to secure the ground below some of the 58 structures that were completed by the end of the year . During the first week of November , the first ship docked at the newly built Valdez quays . It was not a tanker but a ship bringing more construction material . In December , the first signal was sent from the Valdez operations center — where two new control computers had been installed — to Pump Station 2 on the North Slope .
Although the project made strides toward completion in 1976 , it did not meet Moolin 's goal of having all pipe installed , insulated , and tested by winter . The final section of main pipeline was welded in place on December 6 , but not all of the pipeline was tested before winter set in . At the end of 1976 , the project was 92 percent complete . The pipeline was 97 @.@ 5 percent complete , the pump stations were 92 percent done , and the marine terminal stood at 83 percent . Because the terminal was the lagging portion of the project , its full work crew continued operations through the winter and into 1977 .
= = Finishing the line = =
Few tasks were left to complete when the 1977 construction season began . Most of the pump stations had been turned over to operating personnel by construction workers , and environmental mitigation and cleanup was in full swing as Alyeska repaired tundra damage caused by construction . Associated @-@ Green , which had performed its construction tasks well , was assigned the job of finishing the final touches on the main pipeline . The last 160 miles of hydrostatic testing were done , 33 remedial welds were completed , and 45 miles of pipe were insulated , among other tasks . Because the pace of construction was much slower than in 1976 , fewer workers were needed . Fewer than 11 @,@ 000 were employed at the peak of 1977 work , about half of 1976 's total . On May 31 , the final pipeline weld took place .
Additional tasks remained still to be completed , but the pipeline could be put into operation without them . The 2 @,@ 290 @-@ foot ( 700 m ) E. L. Patton Yukon River Bridge was not completed until October 1979 ; until then , traffic utilized a series of ferries across the river . Additional pump stations also were constructed between 1977 and 1980 , as oil flow increased .
= = = Camp cleanup = = =
As part of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act , Alyeska was required to remove most traces of the 31 pipeline construction camps . Seven camps closed in November 1976 , and six more closed before the 1977 construction season started . All told , 20 camps went up for sale . One was sold to the University of Alaska for use as an Arctic research facility , while another was converted for use as a truck stop and motel .
In addition to removing its camps , Alyeska also had to dispose of the heavy equipment used to build the pipeline . In January 1977 , Alyeska listed more than 20 @,@ 000 pieces of equipment for sale . The New York Times called the auction of surplus equipment " one of the biggest going @-@ out @-@ of @-@ business sales in history . "
= = Turning on TAPS = =
In April 1977 , Alyeska filed a notice that it intended to start filling the pipeline sometime between June 20 and July 1 . Engineers had to face several problems when filling the pipeline . First was the need to balance temperatures : Filled by air , the steel pipeline was about 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) degrees . The oil emerging from wells at Prudhoe Bay was more than 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) degrees , and there was a danger that if it was introduced before intermediate warming , the pipeline could crack because of thermal expansion . The second problem came when the pipeline needed to be purged of air in order to reduce the danger of fire or explosion . Usually , a pipeline is filled with water first , and the oil pushes the water ahead of it , purging the pipeline as it goes . In Alaska , there was a fear that the water would freeze in the pipeline , damaging it . This problem was solved when pressurized nitrogen was used instead of water .
On June 20 , 1977 , the first section of pipeline was pressurized with nitrogen , and oil was introduced behind it . Because of the cold temperature of the pipeline and the slow rate at which oil was introduced , it took 31 days for the first oil to travel from Prudhoe to Valdez . " As oil cools down , it becomes thicker , " explained one worker . " Our oil at first had a viscosity very similar to asphalt . Another problem was faced when the oil traveled downslope from Atigun Pass . To avoid a situation where the oil front could gain momentum from the downhill slope and rapidly crash into a pipeline section or pump and damage it , regulator valves were used to slow the rate at which the nitrogen ahead of the oil could move . This procedure was used at the other downhill slopes at startup .
As the oil advanced through the pipeline , it was paced by a series of inspectors who traveled along the pipeline route to ensure the weight of the oil did not cause the pipeline to settle or create problems on bridges as the unbalanced weight of the oil front passed over them . This first inspection crew was followed by a second , and others patrolled the pipeline regularly as the oil front passed down the line . The first oil arrived in Valdez on July 28 , 1977 , at 11 : 02 p.m. The oil was only 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) , but it gradually warmed as the system reached a thermal equilibrium . After the initial startup , the pipeline was intended to run continuously . Said an engineer : " We start up this pipeline once ... It will stay onstream then forever ... ' forever ' being the life of the oil field . "
The startup was not without incident . On July 4 , a nitrogen leak was detected at milepost 489 @.@ 2 . The flow of oil stopped for three days as workers repaired a pipe elbow that cracked because of the temperature difference between the pipe and the supercooled nitrogen . On July 8 , oil flowed through a shut @-@ off pump at Pump Station 8 as workers replaced a strainer . The resulting spray mixed with ambient air and was ignited by a stray spark . One worker was killed and five others were injured in the resulting explosion , which also shut down the station until March 1978 . On July 19 , a heavy equipment accident caused a pipeline break that leaked 1 @,@ 800 barrels per day ( 290 m3 / d ) of oil .
The startup process and construction as a whole came to an end on August 1 , 1977 when the tanker ARCO Juneau sailed out of Valdez with the first load of oil from the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System .
= = Cost = =
When the TAPS group initially proposed the pipeline in 1969 , the proposed cost was $ 900 million , and the pipeline would be completed by 1972 . By January 1970 , the projected cost had risen from $ 900 million to $ 2 billion . In October 1973 , Alyeska further refined its figures and anticipated a cost of between $ 3 @.@ 1 billion and $ 3 @.@ 5 billion , with the potential for a billion more . One year later , Alyeska released its most detailed cost estimate to that point : $ 5 @.@ 982 billion . By June 1975 , that figure had again risen to $ 6 @.@ 4 billion . At the time , it was estimated that $ 3 billion of the cost rise to that point was due to inflation , while another $ 2 billion was due to environmental costs . In July 1976 , amid the second year of construction , the project 's cost was raised to $ 7 @.@ 7 billion . The increase , Alyeska reported , was due to material and freight costs , repairs needed to poorly built sections of pipeline , and contingency estimates .
The final construction cost was tallied at $ 8 billion , but this figure does not include interest on investment loans or the cost of improvements and repairs after 1977 . The Valdez Marine Terminal alone cost $ 1 @.@ 4 billion . The percentage of the pipeline owned by various companies has changed over time , but as of 2009 , the primary owner was BP , which controls 46 @.@ 93 percent of the pipeline . Second is ConocoPhillips Transportation Alaska Inc. with 28 @.@ 29 percent , followed in order by ExxonMobil ( 20 @.@ 34 percent ) , Koch Alaska Pipeline Company ( 3 @.@ 08 percent ) , and Unocal Pipeline Company ( 1 @.@ 36 percent ) .
The pipeline also has had a human toll . Thirty @-@ two Alyeska or contract workers were killed during the construction project . That figure does not include common carrier fatalities . Since the pipeline began operating in 1977 , 10 people have been killed while working for Alyeska or one of its contractors .
= = Additional sources = =
Allen , Lawrence J. The Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline . Vol 1 : The Beginning . Vol 2 : South to Valdez . Seattle ; Scribe Publishing Co . 1975 and 1976 .
Alyeska Pipeline Service Co . Alyeska : A 30 @-@ Year Journey . Alyeska Pipeline Service Co . , 2007 .
Dobler , Bruce . The Last Rush North . Boston ; Little , Brown and Co . , 1976 .
Fineberg , Richard A. A Pipeline in Peril : A Status Report on the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline . Ester , Alaska ; Alaska Forum for Environmental Responsibility , 1996 .
Hanrahan , John and Gruenstein , Peter . Lost Frontier : The Marketing of Alaska . New York ; W.W. Norton , 1977 .
Kruse , John A. Fairbanks Community Survey . Fairbanks ; Institute of Social and Economic Research , 1976 .
Lenzner , Terry F. The Management , Planning and Construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System . Washington , D.C. ; Report to the Alaska Pipeline Commission .
McGinniss , Joe . Going to Extremes . New York ; Alfred A. Knopf , 1980 .
McPhee , John . Coming Into the Country . New York : Farrar , Straus and Giroux , 1976 .
Romer , John and Elizabeth . The Seven Wonders of the World : A History of the Modern Imagination . New York ; Henry Holt and Co . , 1995 .
= = = Video = = =
Armstrong , John . Pipeline Alaska . Pelican Films , 1977 .
Davis , Mark . The American Experience : The Alaska Pipeline . PBS , Season 18 , Episode 11 . April 24 , 2006 .
World 's Toughest Fixes : Alaska Oil Pipeline . National Geographic Channel . Season 2 , Episode 10 . August 20 , 2009 .
= Diolkos =
The Diolkos ( Δίολκος , from the Greek διά , dia " across " and ὁλκός , holkos " portage machine " ) was a paved trackway near Corinth in Ancient Greece which enabled boats to be moved overland across the Isthmus of Corinth . The shortcut allowed ancient vessels to avoid the long and dangerous circumnavigation of the Peloponnese peninsula . The phrase " as fast as a Corinthian " , penned by the comic playwright Aristophanes , indicates that the trackway was common knowledge and had acquired a reputation for swiftness .
The main function of the Diolkos was the transfer of goods , although in times of war it also became a preferred means of speeding up naval campaigns . The 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) to 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) long roadway was a rudimentary form of railway , and operated from c . 600 BC until the middle of the 1st century AD . The scale on which the Diolkos combined the two principles of the railway and the overland transport of ships remained unique in antiquity .
= = Function = =
The Diolkos saved ships sailing from the Ionian Sea to the Aegean Sea a dangerous sea journey round the Peloponnese , whose three headlands had a reputation for gales , especially Cape Matapan and Cape Malea . By contrast , both the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf were relatively sheltered waters . In addition , the overland passage of the Isthmus , a neck of land 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) wide at its narrowest , offered a much shorter route to Athens for ships sailing to and from the Ionian coast of Greece .
= = History = =
Ancient literature is silent on the date of the construction of the Diolkos . For Thucydides ( 460 BC – 395 BC ) the Diolkos already seemed to be something ancient . Excavated letters and associated pottery found at the site indicate a construction date at the end of the 7th or beginning of the 6th century BC , that is around the time when Periander was tyrant of Corinth . The Diolkos remained reportedly in regular service until at least the middle of the 1st century AD , after which no more written references appear . Possibly the trackway was put out of use by Nero 's abortive canal works in 67 AD . Much later transports of warships across the Isthmus in the late 9th century and around 1150 are assumed to have used a route other than the Diolkos due to the extensive time lag .
= = = Role in warfare = = =
The Diolkos played an important role in ancient naval warfare . Greek historians note several occasions from the 5th to the 1st century BC when warships were hauled across the Isthmus in order to speed up naval campaigning . In 428 BC , the Spartans planned to transport their warships over the Diolkos to the Saronic Gulf to threaten Athens , while later in the Peloponnesian War , in 411 BC , they carted over a squadron heading quickly for operations at Chios . In 220 BC , Demetrius of Pharos had a fleet of about fifty vessels dragged across the Isthmus to the Bay of Corinth by his men . Three years later , a Macedonian fleet of 38 vessels was sent across by Philip V , while the larger warships sailed around Cape Malea . After his victory at Actium in 31 BC , Octavian advanced as fast as possible against Marc Antony by ordering part of his 260 Liburnians to be carried over the Isthmus . In 868 AD , the Byzantine admiral Niketas Oryphas had his whole fleet of one hundred dromons dragged across the Isthmus in a quickly executed operation , but this took place most likely on a different route .
= = = Role in commerce = = =
Despite the frequent mentioning of the Diolkos in connection with military operations , modern scholarship assumes that the prime purpose of the trackway must have been the transport of cargo , considering that warships cannot have needed transporting very often , and ancient historiography was always more interested in war than commerce . Comments by Pliny the Elder and Strabo , which described the Diolkos as being in regular service during times of peace , also imply a commercial use of the trackway . Coinciding with the rise of monumental architecture in Greece , the construction of the Diolkos may have initially served particularly for transporting heavy goods like marble , monoliths and timber to points west and east . It is not known what tolls Corinth could extract from the Diolkos on its territory , but the fact that the trackway was used and maintained long after its construction indicates that it remained for merchant ships an attractive alternative to the trip around Cape Malea for much of antiquity .
= = Structure = =
= = = Course = = =
The Diolkos ran across the narrowest part of the Isthmus , where the trackway followed the local topography in a curved course in order to avoid steeper gradients . The roadway passed the Isthmus ridge at c . 79 m ( 259 ft ) height with an average gradient of 1 : 70 , while the steepest sections rose up to 6 % . Its total length is estimated at 6 – 7 km ( 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 3 mi ) , 8 km ( 5 mi ) or 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) depending on the number of supposed bends taken into account . A total of 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 609 ft ) has been archaeologically traced , mainly at its western end close to the Bay of Corinth . There the known trackway began at a mooring place south of the more recent canal and ran parallel to the waterway for a few hundred meters , after which it switched to the north side , running in a slight bend a similar distance along the canal . From there on , the Diolkos either followed in a straight line the course of the modern canal , or swung south in a wide arc . The roadway ended at the Saronic Gulf at the village Schoinos , modern @-@ day Kalamaki , described by Strabo as the trackway 's eastern terminal . Sections of the Diolkos have been destroyed by the 19th @-@ century Corinth Canal and other modern installations .
= = = Track and transport = = =
The Diolkos was a trackway paved with hard limestone with parallel grooves running about 1 @.@ 60 metres ( 63 in ) apart . The roadway was 3 @.@ 4 to 6 metres ( 11 to 20 ft ) wide . Since ancient sources tell little about how the ships were hauled across , the mode of ship transport has largely to be reconstructed from the archaeological evidence . The tracks indicate that transport on the Diolkos was done with some sort of wheeled vehicle . Either vessel and cargo were hauled across on separate vehicles , or only the cargo was taken across and reloaded on a different ship at the other side of the Isthmus . Although a technical analysis has shown that the transport of triremes ( 25 t , 35 metres ( 115 ft ) long , 5 metres ( 16 ft ) beam ) , albeit difficult , was technically feasible , it is assumed that the vessels were usually smaller boats rather than ships . To avoid damaging the keel during transport , hypozomata , thick ropes running from bow to stern , to reduce sagging and hogging of the hull , must have been used . Ship and cargo were presumably pulled by men and animals with ropes , tackles and possibly also capstans .
The scientist Tolley aimed to establish the manpower needed to haul the vessels over the isthmus ridge . Assuming that a trireme soaked with water weighed 38 tons including its trolley , and that a man can exert a force of 300 N over an extended period of time , the pulling teams — depending on the slope and the surface of the cart track — must have numbered between 112 and 142 people , with a combined exertion of force of 33 to 42 kN , or around 3 @.@ 8 tons weight . Bringing the trolley up to speed may have required as many as 180 men . Assuming a speed of 2 km per hour over an estimated length of 6 kilometres , the transfer from sea to sea would have taken three hours to complete .
Assuming less load and rolling friction , Raepsaet , in contrast , calculates a maximum pulling force of 27 kN , which would have needed a slightly smaller towing crew . Under these circumstances , the use of harnessed oxen — which has been refuted by Tolley on the basis of their relatively diminished pulling capabilities — would have become feasible . However , the necessary expenditure of energy at the Diolkos must be regarded in both scenarios as considerable .
= = = Ancient railway = = =
According to the British historian of science M.J.T. Lewis , the Diolkos represented a railway , in the basic sense of a prepared track which so guides the vehicles running on it that they cannot leave the track . Measuring between 6 km ( 4 mi ) and 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) , remaining in regular and frequent service for at least 650 years , and being open to all on payment , it constituted even a public railway , a concept which according to Lewis did not recur until c . 1800 . Also , its average gauge of around 160 cm ( 63 in ) is similar to modern standards .
However , a close examination of the excavated tracks may give a more differentiated picture . While there is agreement that the grooves in the eastern part were cut deliberately into the stone slabs to guide cart wheels , those in the western section are interpreted by some authors as a result of wear or do not appear at all . On the other hand , the marked cambers of this road section may point at deliberate tracks as well . Generally , varying forms of the grooves can also be explained by the long period of operation of the Diolkos , during which modifications and repairs must have significantly changed the appearance of the trackway .
= = = Modern exploration = = =
The chief engineer of the Corinth Canal , Béla Gerster , conducted extensive research on the topography of the Isthmus , but did not discover the Diolkos . Remains of the ship trackway were probably first identified by the German archaeologist Habbo Gerhard Lolling in the 1883 Baedeker edition . In 1913 , James George Frazer reported in his commentary on Pausanias on traces of an ancient trackway across the Isthmus , while parts of the western quay were discovered by Harold North Fowler in 1932 .
Systematic excavations were finally undertaken by the Greek archaeologist Nikolaos Verdelis between 1956 and 1962 , and these uncovered a nearly continuous stretch of 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) and traced about 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) in all . Even though Verdelis ' excavation reports continue to provide the basis for modern interpretations , his premature death prevented full publication , leaving many open questions concerning the exact nature of the structure . Additional investigations in situ , meant to complement Verdelis ’ work , were later published by Georges Raepsaet and Walter Werner .
Today , erosion caused by ship movements on the nearby Canal has left considerable portions of the Diolkos in a poor state , particularly at its excavated western end . Critics who blame the Greek Ministry of Culture for continued inactivity have launched a petition to save and restore the registered archaeological site .
= = Ancient sources = =
The following ancient writers mention the transfer of ships across the Isthmus ( in chronological order ) :
Thucydides 3 @.@ 15 @.@ 1 , 8 @.@ 7 , 8 @.@ 8 @.@ 3 – 4
Aristophanes , Thesmophoriazusae 647 – 648
Polybius 4 @.@ 19 @.@ 7 – 9 [ 318 ] , 5 @.@ 101 @.@ 4 [ 484 ] , frag . 162 ( ed . M. Buettner @-@ Wolst )
Livy 42 @.@ 16 @.@ 6
Strabo 8 @.@ 2 @.@ 1 [ C.335 ] , 8 @.@ 6 @.@ 22 [ C.380 ] , 8 @.@ 6 @.@ 4 [ C.369 ]
Pliny the Elder , Natural History , 4 @.@ 9 – 11 , 18 @.@ 18
Cassius Dio 51 @.@ 5
Hesychius ( ed . Schmidt , I , p . 516 @.@ 80 )
Suidas 2 @.@ 92
George Sphrantzes 1 @.@ 33
al @-@ Idrisi ( Joubert , P.A. : Géographie d 'Édrisi 2 , Paris 1840 , p . 123 )
= = Other ship trackways = =
Apart from the Diolkos at Corinth , there is scant literary evidence for two more ship trackways by that name in antiquity , both in Roman Egypt : The physician Oribasius ( c . 320 – 400 AD ) records two passages from his 1st century AD colleague Xenocrates , in which the latter casually refers to a diolkos close to the harbor of Alexandria which may have been located at the southern tip of the island of Pharos . Another diolkos is mentioned by Ptolemy ( 90 – 168 AD ) in his book on geography ( IV , 5 , 10 ) as connecting a false mouth of a partly silted up Nile branch with the Mediterranean Sea . Neither Xenocrates nor Ptolemy offers any details on his trackway .
= Xue Susu =
Xue Susu ( Chinese : 薛素素 ; also known as Xue Wu , Xuesu , Sunjung among other pen names ) ( c.1564 – 1650 ? C.E. ) was a Chinese courtesan . Known as one of the " Eight Great Courtesans of the Ming Dynasty " , she was an accomplished painter and poet , and was noted for her skill at mounted archery . She was particularly noted for her figure paintings , which included many Buddhist subjects . Her works are held in a number of museums both in China and elsewhere . Her archery was commented upon by a number of
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musical theater companies and producers across the country .
= = = Broadway " testing ground " = = =
Since the creation of the 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company in 1989 , the 5th has established a tradition of being a " testing ground " for new musicals before they make their debut on Broadway . Since 2000 the 5th has produced one pre @-@ Broadway world premiere every 2 to 3 years .
We 've become a very sought @-@ after partner for developing Broadway musicals .
Some notable musicals shown to Seattle audiences at the 5th Avenue Theatre prior to their success on Broadway include : Jekyll & Hyde in 1995 which was nominated for 4 Tony Awards , Hairspray in 2002 which won 8 Tony Awards , and The Wedding Singer in 2006 which had 4 Tony Award nominations . The film adaptation of Hairspray premiered at the 5th on July 16 , 2007 ( 4 days prior to its nationwide release ) as an acknowledgement of the 5th 's role in the musical 's success on Broadway . The " testing ground " tradition continued in the 2008 – 2009 season with the pre @-@ Broadway world premieres of Shrek the Musical , and Memphis . Both went on to win Tony awards , Shrek winning one in 2009 and Memphis winning four , including Best Musical , in 2010 . In the 2009 – 2010 season , they premiered Catch Me If You Can , which premiered on Broadway in the spring of 2011 . In their 2010 – 2011 season , they premiered A Christmas Story : The Musical , based on the film of the same name , and more recently the premiere of Aladdin , based on the Disney film " Aladdin " .
Along with their successful pre @-@ Broadway tryouts , the 5th Avenue Theatre has also performed two musicals , Princesses in 2005 and Lone Star Love in 2007 , which were originally scheduled to go to Broadway , but did not due to poor reviews . They also announced the premiere of a musical adaptation of Cry @-@ Baby , in 2007 , but it was later replaced with Buddy : The Buddy Holly Story .
= = = Community outreach programs = = =
The theatre also hosts a variety of special events , and offers a number of education and outreach programs to school @-@ age children and adults reaching over 61 @,@ 000 students , professional performers , and audiences each year . One example of this is the 5th Avenue High School Musical Theatre Awards which evaluate and honor the performances of student actors and stage hands in Washington state high school productions . At the end of each school year , a Tony Awards @-@ style ceremony is held which includes high @-@ profile presenters , performances by nominees , and acceptance speeches by the award recipients . The awards ceremony has become a useful scouting event for colleges looking to recruit talent for their drama departments .
= = Productions by season = =
= Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) =
" Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) " is a song by Powderfinger from their sixth album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . It is the fourth single from the album and was released in Australia in March 2008 . The band 's publicist , Ms. Fanclub , announced on 27 February that the single would be released to radioplay in the following week , without specifying a date . In her announcement , she also noted that a music video will be released at about the same time . The music video was then released in mid @-@ March ; however , the single 's release was then announced as 31 March .
A music video was released for the song ; however , it features the live version of the song taken from the DVD for the Across the Great Divide tour , whereas the radio single for the song is a radio edit of the studio album version . The music video is directly taken from the DVD ; however , it is altered optically with filters and converted into black and white .
= = Background = =
" Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) " was recorded by Powderfinger for their 2007 album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence at Sunset Sound Studio , Los Angeles , California , in early 2007 with producer Rob Schnapf . The part of the title " Featuring the Sound of Insanity " refers to a sound just after the bridge in which a sitar is played with synthesised effects overlaid . Prior to its release as a single , a live version of " Who Really Cares " appeared on the earlier Dream Days at the Hotel Existence single , " I Don 't Remember " . Another live version also appears on the group 's 2007 DVD Across the Great Divide tour .
= = Release = =
= = = Cover art = = =
Though the single was never a physical CD release , artwork was created for it . The artwork featured the headless man who is otherwise seen throughout the releases for other singles from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , however on this cover , the area where his head would be is a fireball , and he appears to be holding a briefcase while walking down the hallway of a hotel , another common theme throughout the artwork for the album . Unlike the last two singles from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , the artwork doesn 't follow the picture @-@ in @-@ picture theme .
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " Who Really Cares " is a live performance of the song by Powderfinger for their Across the Great Divide tour in 2007 . The music video contains the performance featured on the DVD for the Across the Great Divide tour , filmed in Melbourne in 2007 . The performance features a piano solo by the pianist Lachlan Doley , who performed keyboards and piano throughout the tour . The music video , produced by PVC as part of the tour DVD , is completely in black and white and throughout features optical filters that warp and alter the visual display . These filters intensify from the bridge and continue until the end of the clip . The music is performed differently from the original studio recording , with improvised solos , including Ian Haug playing the sitar part on a double necked guitar with synthesised effects to emulate the sitar sound , and the performance of the song ends with a ritardando , where the tempo slows to an end .
= = Critical response = =
Prior to being released as a single , " Who Really Cares " received a mixed response by reviewers when commenting on Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . Melbourne based webzine TheScene.com.au reviewer Andrew Weaver comments on the song 's musical layering , coupling the song with " Wishing on the Same Moon " and comments that the layering in the two songs gives the music " genuine depth of sound and taking the veteran group to new places " . CitySearch Sydney also made reference to the likeness to " Wishing on the Same Moon " , but notes that what sets the two songs apart is " a serviceable fade @-@ out cacophony of keys and guitar " . Music journalist Chris Leonard of UK magazine Rock Louder praises the live performance of the song while Powderfinger performed in Glasgow on 11 December 2007 . J. Watson of Fasterlouder.com.au comments that the song , when performed live at The Sydney Opera House Forecourt for charity on 31 October 2007 , was " another highlight of the evening " . Fellow reviewer from Fasterlouder , ShahXerxes , comments on the song 's " sparse Pink Floyd @-@ esque sound which echoes through " Who Really Cares " , as clever a rock ballad as the band have ever written . " Andrew Ramadge of Mess + Noise echoed the comments of similarities to Pink Floyd , and also Neil Young , stating " where psych @-@ gospel organ and wailing guitar billow around Fanning ’ s vocals like a lost track from Dark Side of the Moon " . Though most of the critical response has been positive , the song has also received criticism from UK reviewer Matthias Scherer of Noize Makes Enemies . Scherer notes that the song 's title " Who Really Cares " is a question that " should have been asked before recording , not during " , though this comment refers both to the song itself , and the whole album of Dream Days at the Hotel Existence .
= = = Charts = = =
The song 's critical response has been mostly positive , though so too were the two prior singles from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , which both performed poorly in the charts . Like these two , " Who Really Cares " was released to radioplay and music video stations , but with little inclusion in circulation , leading speculators to believe the single will follow " I Don 't Remember " and " Nobody Sees " with poor charting performance . This speculation proved to be accurate , leading to " Who Really Cares " to be the first single by Powderfinger since their 2004 release " Bless My Soul " to fail to achieve a position on the ARIA Charts . Although B @-@ side " One More Kiss As You Fly Away " was the number 81 on the ARIA Charts .
= = Track listing = =
" Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) "
" One More Kiss as You Fly Away "
= = Personnel = =
= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) =
SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was the lead ship of the Erzherzog Ferdinand Max class of broadside ironclads built for the Austrian Navy in the 1860s . She was built by the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino , with her keel laying in October 1863 , launching in May 1865 , and commissioning in June 1866 at the outbreak of the Third Italian War of Independence and the Austro @-@ Prussian War , fought concurrently . The ship was armed with a main battery of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder guns , though the rifled guns originally intended , which had been ordered from Prussia , had to be replaced with old smoothbore guns until after the conflicts ended .
Stationed in the Adriatic Sea , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max served as the flagship of the Austrian fleet under Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff . She saw action at the Battle of Lissa in July 1866 , where she rammed and sank the Italian ironclad Re d 'Italia . Slightly damaged in the collision , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max had her bow repaired in Malta after the war . She remained in the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet for the next twenty years , but severely reduced naval budgets owing to Hungarian disinterest in naval matters led to an uneventful career . She was rearmed with newer guns in 1874 and again in 1882 . Stricken from the naval register in May 1886 , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was employed as a tender to the gunnery training school from 1889 to 1908 . She remained in the inventory until 1916 when she was broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was 83 @.@ 75 meters ( 274 @.@ 8 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 15 @.@ 96 m ( 52 @.@ 4 ft ) and an average draft of 7 @.@ 14 m ( 23 @.@ 4 ft ) . She displaced 5 @,@ 130 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 050 long tons ; 5 @,@ 650 short tons ) . She had a crew of 511 . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine , manufactured by the Stabilimento Tecnico shipyard in Fiume , that drove a single screw propeller . The number and type of her coal @-@ fired boilers have not survived . Her engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 54 knots ( 23 @.@ 22 km / h ; 14 @.@ 43 mph ) from 2 @,@ 925 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 181 kW ) .
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder muzzle @-@ loading guns . She also carried several smaller guns , including four 8 @-@ pounder guns and two 3 @-@ pounders . The ship 's hull was sheathed with wrought iron armor that was 123 mm ( 5 in ) thick on the battery and reduced to 87 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) at the bow and stern .
= = Service history = =
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was laid down at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste on 6 May 1863 . She was launched on 24 May 1865 ; the builders were forced to complete fitting @-@ out work quickly , as tensions with neighboring Prussia and Italy erupted into the concurrent Austro @-@ Prussian War and the Third Italian War of Independence in June 1866 . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 's rifled heavy guns were still on order from Krupp , and they could not be delivered due to the conflict with Prussia . Instead , the ship was armed with old smooth @-@ bore guns . Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff , the commander of the Austrian Fleet , immediately began to mobilize his fleet . As the ships became fully manned , they began to conduct training exercises in Fasana . With his flag aboard Erzherzog Ferdinand Max , Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on 26 June in an attempt to draw out the Italians , but the Italian commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , refused to engage Tegetthoff . Tegetthoff made another sortie on 6 July , but again could not bring the Italian fleet to battle .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet , with twelve ironclads , out of Ancona , bound for the island of Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers . Persano then spent the next two days bombarding the Austrian defenses of the island and unsuccessfully attempting to force a landing . Tegetthoff received a series of telegrams between the 17 and 19 July notifying him of the Italian attack , which he initially believed to be a feint to draw the Austrian fleet away from its main bases at Pola and Venice . By the morning of the 19th , however , he was convinced that Lissa was in fact the Italian objective , and so he requested permission to attack . As Tegetthoff 's fleet arrived off Lissa on the morning of 20 July , Persano 's fleet was arrayed for another landing attempt . The latter 's ships were divided into three groups , with only the first two able to concentrate in time to meet the Austrians . Tegetthoff had arranged his ironclad ships into a wedge @-@ shaped formation , leading with Erzherzog Ferdinand Max at the center ; the wooden warships of the second and third divisions followed behind in the same formation .
While he was forming up his ships , Persano transferred from his flagship , Re d 'Italia to the turret ship Affondatore . This created a gap in the Italian line , and Tegetthoff seized the opportunity to divide the Italian fleet and create a melee . He made a pass through the gap , but failed to ram any of the Italian ships , forcing him to turn around and make another attempt . During the second attempt , Austrian gunfire had disabled Re d 'Italia 's rudder , leaving her incapable of maneuvering . Tegetthoff seized the opportunity to ram the Italian vessel , and ordered his ship to maximum speed . After two collisions that occurred at angles too oblique to inflict serious damage , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max struck the ship more directly . The Austrian ship 's ram tore a gaping hole in Re d 'Italia 's hull on the port side , though Erzherzog Ferdinand Max sustained no significant damage herself . Tegetthoff reversed course , allowing the Italian ironclad to lurch back to port and quickly sink . Tegetthoff initially ordered his crew to lower boats to pick up the Italians struggling in the water , but the Italian ironclad San Martino was approaching , and he could not allow his ship to become a stationary target . Instead , he ordered the aviso Kaiserin Elizabeth to remain behind and pick up the survivors while Erzherzog Ferdinand Max engaged San Martino . The other Italian ships , however , did not realize Kaiserin Elizabeth was attempting to pick up the Italian survivors , and so opened fire on her , driving her away from the men in the water .
By this time , Re d 'Italia had been rammed and sunk and the coastal defense ship Palestro was burning badly , soon to be destroyed by a magazine explosion . Persano broke off the engagement , and though his ships still outnumbered the Austrians , he refused to counter @-@ attack with his badly demoralized forces . In addition , the fleet was low on coal and ammunition . The Italian fleet began to withdraw , followed by the Austrians ; Tegetthoff , having gotten the better of the action , kept his distance so as not to risk his success . Additionally , the Austrian ships were slower than their Italian counterparts , and so they could not force a second engagement . As night began to fall , the opposing fleets disengaged completely , heading for Ancona and Pola , respectively . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max had fired 156 shells in the course of the battle . She had kept boarding parties on her deck , ready to attack Italian vessels , but the opportunity had not presented itself in the engagement ; steam powered ships could simply reverse course and disengage before a boarding party could cross over . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was not significantly damaged by Italian fire or the ramming attempts . A few armor plates were slightly dislodged , the paint had been stripped from the hull where she had collided with Re d 'Italia , and she had a minor leak from the concussion , but she was otherwise unscathed .
= = = Later career = = =
After returning to Pola , Tegetthoff kept his fleet in the northern Adriatic , where it patrolled against a possible Italian attack . The Italian ships never came , and on 12 August , the two countries signed the Armistice of Cormons ; this ended the fighting and led to the Treaty of Vienna . Though Austria had defeated Italy at Lissa and on land at the Battle of Custoza , the Austrian army was decisively defeated by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz . With the war over , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max went into the British Royal Navy shipyard in Malta to have her bow repaired . As a result of Austria 's defeat , Kaiser Franz Joseph was forced to accede to Hungarian demands for greater autonomy , and the country became Austria @-@ Hungary in the Ausgleich of 1867 . The two halves of the Dual Monarchy held veto power over the other , and Hungarian disinterest in naval expansion led to severely reduced budgets for the fleet .
In 1869 , Kaiser Franz Joseph took a tour of the Mediterranean Sea in his imperial yacht Greif ; Erzherzog Ferdinand Max , her sister ship Habsburg , and a pair of paddle steamers escorted the Kaiser for the trip to Port Said at the mouth of the Suez Canal . The two ironclads remained in the Mediterranean while the other vessels passed through the Canal into the Red Sea in company with Empress Eugenie of France aboard her own yacht . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships eventually returned to Trieste in December . In 1874 she was rearmed with a battery of fourteen 7 in ( 180 mm ) muzzle @-@ loading Armstrong guns and four light guns . Her battery was revised again in 1882 , with the addition of four 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) breech @-@ loader guns , two 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) breech @-@ loaders , a pair of 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) quick @-@ firing revolver guns , and three 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) auto @-@ cannons . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was stricken from the naval register on 19 May 1886 and her armament was reduced to eight 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The following year , these were removed and a single 26 cm ( 10 in ) gun and a 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) gun were installed . From 1889 to 1908 , she served as a tender to the gunnery training school . The ship was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1916 during World War I.
= Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show =
The Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show is an annual fashion show sponsored by and featuring Victoria 's Secret , a brand of lingerie and sleepwear . Victoria 's Secret uses the show to promote and market its goods in high @-@ profile settings . The show features some of the world 's leading fashion models such as current Victoria 's Secret Angels Adriana Lima , Alessandra Ambrosio , Behati Prinsloo , Candice Swanepoel , and Lily Aldridge .
American network television broadcasts the show during prime time . The first few shows in the 1990s were held in the days preceding Valentine 's Day to promote the brand for this holiday . They were not aired on national television . In 1999 and 2000 the show was webcast . Beginning in 2001 , the shows were moved ahead of the Christmas holiday season . Also in 2001 , the show made its network television broadcast on ABC , though in all subsequent years , it has been broadcast on CBS . The show has been held at a variety of locations in different cities including Miami , Los Angeles , and Cannes . The first four shows were held at the Plaza Hotel in New York City , but since it has become a televised event it has most often been held at the 69th Regiment Armory in New York City .
The show is a lavish event with elaborate costumed lingerie , varying music by leading entertainers , and set design according to the different themes running within the show . The show attracts hundreds of celebrities and entertainers , with special performers and acts every year . Each year , twenty to forty of the world 's top fashion models are selected to perform in the fashion show . In a typical year , this includes about a half dozen women under contract to the company , known as Victoria 's Secret Angels , who help publicize the event . The giant angel wings worn by the models , as well as other wings of various forms and sizes such as butterfly , peacock , or devil wings , have become emblematic of the Victoria 's Secret brand .
= = History = =
The first fashion show extravaganza , introduced by Stephanie Seymour , was held at the Plaza Hotel in New York City in August 1995 . The show also featured Beverly Peele and Frederique van der Wal . This first fashion show occurred two months before The Limited , parent company of Victoria 's Secret owner Intimate Brands , sold an initial public offering of a 16 percent stake in the company and almost had Seymour make an appearance at the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) for the opening bell . She actually did ring the closing bell at the NYSE as part of the publicity campaign . The subsequent three annual shows were also held at the Plaza .
In 1999 , during Super Bowl XXXIII , Victoria 's Secret announced a 72 @-@ hour countdown to the Internet webcast of the Victoria 's Secret fashion show , which resulted in over 2 million internet viewers of the show . Parent company Intimate Brands bought a $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( $ 2 @.@ 1 million today ) 30 @-@ second television advertisement during the Super Bowl broadcast and spent an additional $ 4 million ( $ 5 @.@ 7 million ) for subsequent international newspaper advertisements to publicize the event . The show , which was aired by Broadcast.com , featured Tyra Banks , Laetitia Casta , Heidi Klum , Karen Mulder , Daniela Pestova , Inés Rivero , and Seymour . In 1999 and 2000 , the show was broadcast live on the internet , but the 2000 show was moved for a year from the usual February event at the Plaza to a May event in concert with the Cannes Film Festival in France to raise money for the Cinema Against AIDS charity ; it raised $ 3 @.@ 5 million .
In 2001 , the show , which was hosted by Rupert Everett , returned to the New York City but at Bryant Park instead of the Plaza . That year , the show made its broadcast debut on ABC , drawing millions of viewers as well as some middle @-@ brow controversy ; the Federal Communications Commission received many complaints about the broadcast every year . The show has continued to be broadcast on network television every year since .
From 2002 through 2005 , it was held at the Lexington Avenue Armory in New York City . The 2004 show was canceled due to a widespread crackdown on perceived indecency in broadcasting stemming from the Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy , in which Jackson encountered a breast @-@ revealing " wardrobe malfunction " . Before the 2005 show , Banks announced her retirement from modeling and embarkation on a television career with The Tyra Banks Show , making the 2005 show a farewell to her decade of fashion shows for the company .
In 2004 , instead of the annual fashion show , the Angels ( Tyra Banks , Heidi Klum , Gisele Bündchen , Adriana Lima , and Alessandra Ambrosio ) did an Angels Across America Tour , a grassroots campaign for the brand visiting four major cities : New York City , Miami , Las Vegas , and Los Angeles .
The 2006 and 2007 shows were held at the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles . On November 13 , 2007 , the Victoria 's Secret Angels were honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk Of Fame right outside the Kodak Theatre . The 2007 Angels honored in this celebration to mark Victoria 's Secret 's 25th anniversary on Hollywood Boulevard were Heidi Klum , Adriana Lima , Alessandra Ambrosio , Karolina Kurkova , Selita Ebanks , Izabel Goulart , Marisa Miller , and Miranda Kerr . The other models , who also appeared in that year 's fashion show , were in attendance that day . The 2008 show coincided with the grand re @-@ opening of the Fontainebleau Miami Beach hotel .
In 2006 , Victoria 's Secret sub @-@ brand PINK made its debut on the runway . Justin Timberlake opened the show with his popular song " Sexy Back " . This year fashion show was the final walk of Gisele Bündchen .
The 2007 show featured a performance by the Spice Girls and gained prominence as the first American TV debut of the band after their comeback . Kanye West was also scheduled to perform at the event , but cancelled his appearance due to his mother 's death. will.i.am was called to perform in his place .
The 2008 show was held at Fountainebleu Miami Beach , Florida . Usher was appeared on the show as well as opened it . Unlike the other shows , the runway was designed parallel with the audience seats .
In 2009 , the fashion show took place in New York City at the Lexington Avenue Armory , where it was last held in 2005 . The 2009 show was notable for featuring the results of a competition , called the Victoria 's Secret Model Search , to find a new Victoria 's Secret " runway Angel . " The winner was announced as Kylie Bisutti .
The 2010 Victoria 's Secret Fashion show aired on November 30 , 2010 on CBS , and featured performances by Katy Perry and Akon . A promotional ad featured a lipdub for Katy Perry 's " Firework " . As of 2010 , 152 models have walked the show .
In 2011 , Kanye West started his song " Stronger " with a tribute to his mother who had died before his scheduled performance four years before , saying : " In 2007 , I was supposed to perform this song on this show ... and I lost my superhero . Now she 's my super @-@ angel . "
In 2012 , an outfit worn by model Karlie Kloss , which was reminiscent of Native American attire , sparked controversy due to its alleged stereotypical depiction of Native Americans . Victoria 's Secret released a statement of apology shortly after , saying that they will remove it from future advertisements and the broadcast . Kloss apologized on her Twitter account for the outfit and expressed her support for the outfit 's removal in the broadcast .
In 2013 , the Victoria 's Secret Fashion show featured performances by Taylor Swift , A Great Big World , Neon Jungle and Fall Out Boy . Taylor Swift performed " I Knew You Were Trouble " , A Great Big World performed " Say Something " , UK 's Neon Jungle made their US television debut with " Trouble " , and Fall Out Boy performed with Taylor Swift in " My Songs Know What You Did In The Dark " and later performed " The Phoenix " .
In 2014 , the Victoria 's Secret Fashion show featured performances by Taylor Swift ; for the second year in a row , Ed Sheeran , Ariana Grande , and Hozier . Taylor Swift performed " Blank Space " and " Style " . Ed Sheeran performed " Thinking Out Loud " . Ariana Grande performed " Love Me Harder " , " Bang Bang " , " Break Free " , and " Problem " . Hozier performed " Take Me to Church " . During the show , Ariana Grande was performing and was hit by accident with an angel 's wings .
= = Critical review = =
The early webcasts were criticized for poor connection , and users that could connect were subjected to low video quality . One critic from The New York Times described the initial 20th @-@ century webcast experience as having felt like he was " watching a striptease through a keyhole " .
Some critics have described the 21st @-@ century televised editions of the show as pornographic , while others have described it as both " outright commercialism " and an infomercial . The Federal Communications Commission has received complaints regarding the broadcast , but no fines have been imposed , with the FCC , following the 2001 airing , citing the First Amendment and stating that " sexual or excretory activities or organs in a patently offensive manner as measured by contemporary community standards for the broadcast medium " were not broadcast . In the initial 2001 airing ABC blurred the screen on particularly sheer lingerie . This enabled the show to pass muster with its internal Broadcast Standards and Practices department and to achieve the TV @-@ 14 rating . In 2002 , the National Organization for Women protested the show calling it a " soft @-@ core porn infomercial . " They were joined in protest by the Parents Television Council and other watchdog organizations . CBS has given past shows TV @-@ 14 ratings , which is a warning that the show may contain material unsuitable for children age 14 and under . Nonetheless some affiliates have chosen not to air the show in past years including Fisher Broadcasting affiliates in Idaho . In 2009 , the American Decency Association organized email letters of protests to sponsors of the show including AT & T , Kentucky Fried Chicken , Netflix , Nikon , and Reebok . CBS has described the event to as " the Super Bowl of fashion " .
= = Summary table = =
= = Fantasy Bra = =
Typically , one model is chosen among the Angels to wear a bejeweled bra dubbed the " Fantasy Bra " . It was first advertised in the Victoria 's Secret catalog , but since 2001 has been worn in the Fashion Shows . Prior to each Fashion Show , Victoria 's Secret contracts a renowned jewelry designer to craft the bra to be used as a focal point for promoting the fashion show and as a centerpiece within it . The company offers the Fantasy Bra for sale as " the ultimate holiday " gift . However , only the centerpiece from the 2004 Heavenly " 70 " Fantasy Bra and the 2012 Floral Fantasy Bra and Gift Set have found a buyer . If not bought , the bras are dismantled after a year .
Heidi Klum and Adriana Lima have worn the Fantasy Bra in three different years . Gisele Bündchen , Tyra Banks , Karolina Kurkova , and Alessandra Ambrosio have each worn two Fantasy Bras .
The $ 15 million price tag for the 2000 bra worn by Gisele Bündchen earned a place in the Guinness World Records as the most expensive item of lingerie ever created . The $ 3 million 2009 Harlequin Fantasy Bra and the $ 2 million 2010 Bombshell Fantasy Bra were designed by Damiani . Listed below are the prices per set ( including accessories for the 2007 and 2013 editions , the 2013 bra alone is worth $ 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) . The 2012 Floral Fantasy Bra was accompanied by a $ 500 @,@ 000 perfume bottle .
In 2014 , for the first time , two fantasy bras were created . They were worn by Alessandra Ambrosio and Adriana Lima and were valued at $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 each .
= Boston Police Strike =
In the Boston Police Strike , Boston police officers went on strike on September 9 , 1919 . They sought recognition for their trade union and improvements in wages and working conditions . Police Commissioner Edwin Upton Curtis denied that police officers had any right to form a union , much less one affiliated with a larger organization like the American Federation of Labor ( AFL ) . Attempts at reconciliation between the Commissioner and the police officers , particularly on the part of Boston 's Mayor Andrew James Peters , failed .
During the strike , Boston experienced several nights of lawlessness , although property damage was not extensive . Several thousand members of the State Guard , supported by volunteers , restored order . Press reaction both locally and nationally described the strike as Bolshevik @-@ inspired and directed at the destruction of civil society . The strikers were called " deserters " and " agents of Lenin . "
Samuel Gompers of the AFL recognized that the strike was damaging the cause of labor in the public mind and advised the strikers to return to work . Commissioner Curtis refused to re @-@ hire the striking policemen . He was supported by Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge , whose rebuke of Gompers earned him a national reputation . The strike proved a setback for labor unions , and the AFL discontinued its attempts to organize police officers for another two decades . Coolidge won the Republican nomination for vice @-@ president of the U.S. in the 1920 presidential election .
= = Background = =
In 1895 , the Massachusetts legislature transferred control of the Boston police department from Boston 's mayor to the governor of Massachusetts , whom it authorized to appoint a five @-@ person board of commissioners to manage the department . In 1906 , the legislature abolished that board and gave the governor the authority to name a single commissioner to a term of five years , subject to removal by the governor . The mayor and the city continued to have responsibility for the department 's expenses and the physical working conditions of its employees , but the commissioner controlled department operations and the hiring , training , and discipline of the police officers .
In 1918 , the salary for patrolmen was set at $ 1 @,@ 400 a year . Police officers had to buy their own uniforms and equipment which cost over $ 200 . New recruits received $ 730 during their first year , which increased annually to $ 821 @.@ 25 and $ 1000 , and to $ 1 @,@ 400 after six years . In the years following World War I , inflation dramatically eroded the value of a police officer 's salary . From 1913 to May 1919 , the cost of living rose by 76 % , while police wages rose just 18 % . Discontent and restiveness among the Boston police force grew as they compared their wages and found they were earning less than an unskilled steelworker , half as much as a carpenter or mechanic and 50 cents a day less than a streetcar conductor . Boston city laborers were earning a third more on an hourly basis .
Police officers had an extensive list of grievances . They worked ten @-@ hour shifts and typically recorded weekly totals between 75 and 90 hours . They were not paid for time spent on court appearances . They also objected to being required to perform such tasks as " delivering unpaid tax bills , surveying rooming houses , taking the census , or watching the polls at election " and checking the backgrounds of prospective jurors as well as serving as " errand boys " for their officers . They complained about having to share beds and the lack of sanitation , baths , and toilets at many of the 19 station houses where they were required to live , most of which dated to before the Civil War . The Court Street station had four toilets for 135 men , and one bathtub .
Boston 's police officers , acting with the sponsorship of the police department , had formed an association known as the Boston Social Club in 1906 . In 1917 , a committee of police officers representing the Social Club met with Commissioner Stephen O 'Meara to ask about a raise . He was sympathetic , but advised them to wait for a better time . They pressed the issue in the summer of 1918 and , near the end of the year , Mayor Andrew Peters offered salary increases that would affect about one @-@ fourth of the officers . O 'Meara died in December 1918 , and Governor Samuel McCall appointed Edwin Upton Curtis , former Mayor of Boston , as Commissioner of the Boston Police Department . After another meeting where representatives of the Social Club repeated their salary demands , Peters said : " while the word ' strike ' was not mentioned , the whole situation is far more serious than I realized . " He also made it clear to the rank and file that they were not entitled to form their own union . Curtis did not share his predecessor 's or the mayor 's sympathy for the police , but in February 1918 he offered a wage compromise that the police rejected . In May , Governor Coolidge announced raises , which were also rejected . When the Social Club 's representatives tried to raise grievances with him , Curtis set up his own grievance committee to handle management @-@ employee disputes , based on the election of representatives from each precinct house by secret ballot , and it met just once .
A few months later , in June 1919 , the American Federation of Labor ( AFL ) , responding to repeated requests from local police organizations , began accepting police organizations into their membership . By September , it had granted charters to police unions in 37 cities , including Washington , D.C. , Los Angeles , Miami , and St. Paul , though not without protests from some city officials , who opposed the unionization of police , firefighters , and teachers .
= = Events leading to the strike = =
The Boston police decided to organize under an AFL charter in order to gain support from other unions in their negotiations and any strike that might ensue . On August 9 , 1919 , the Boston Social Club requested a charter from the AFL . On August 11 , Curtis issued a General Order forbidding police officers to join any " organization , club or body outside the department " , making an exception only for patriotic organizations such as the American Legion . His administration argued that such a rule was based on the conflict of interest between police officers ' duties and union membership :
It is or should be apparent to any thinking person that the police department of this or any other city cannot fulfill its duty to the entire public if its members are subject to the direction of an organization existing outside the department .... If troubles and disturbances arise where the interests of this organization and the interests of other elements and classes in the community conflict , the situation immediately arises which always arises when a man attempts to serve two masters , – he must fail either in his duty as a policeman , or in his obligation to the organization that controls him .
On August 15 , the police received their AFL charter . On August 17 , the Central Labor Union of Boston welcomed the police union and denounced Curtis for his assertions that the police had no right to unionize . Curtis refused to meet with the eight members of the police union 's committee . He suspended them and 11 others who held various union offices and scheduled trials to determine if they had violated his General Order . At this point , Curtis was a hero to business interests . Late in August , the New Hampshire Association of Manufacturers called him " the Ole Hanson of the east , " equating the events they anticipated in Boston with the earlier Seattle General Strike .
Mayor Peters sought to play an intermediary role by appointing a Citizen 's Committee to review the dispute about union representation . He chose a well @-@ known local reformer as its chair , James J. Storrow . Storrow 's group recommended that Curtis and the police agree to a police union without AFL ties and without the right to strike . Curtis in turn would recognize the police union and the union would agree to remain " independent and unaffiliated " . Storrow 's group also recommended that no action be taken against the 19 men whom Curtis had suspended . Four of Boston 's five newspapers backed the compromise , with only the Boston Transcript holding to a consistent anti @-@ union position . The Boston Chamber of Commerce backed it as well .
Curtis , with the backing of Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge , rejected the Storrow Commission 's proposal . He proceeded with department trials of the 19 and on September 8 found them guilty of union activity . Rather than dismiss them from the police force , he extended their suspensions . He later explained that he was giving them an opportunity to reconsider their actions and avoid discharges , which would have been irrevocable . The police union members responded that same day by voting 1134 to 2 in favor of a strike and scheduled it to start at evening roll call the next day . Their stated grounds omitted wages and working conditions . They said the strike 's rationale was to protest the Commissioner 's denial of their right to ally themselves with the AFL .
In anticipation of the strike , all of Boston 's newspapers called it " Bolshevistic , " pleaded with the police to reconsider and predicted dire consequences . One also warned the police that their eventual defeat was guaranteed , that they would lose because " behind Boston in this skirmish with Bolshevism stands Massachusetts , and behind Massachusetts stands America . "
= = Strike = =
On September 9 , Boston Police Department officers went on strike at 5 : 45 p.m. Of the force 's 1 @,@ 544 officers and men , 1 @,@ 117 ( 72 % ) failed to report for work . Coolidge assigned 100 members of the state 's Metropolitan Park Police Department to replace the striking officers , but 58 of them refused to participate and were suspended from their jobs . Despite assurances from Commissioner Curtis to Mayor Peters and Governor Coolidge , Boston had little police protection for the night of September 9 . Volunteer replacements were still being organized and due to report the next morning .
Over the night of September 9 – 10 , the city witnessed an outbreak of hooliganism and looting . Some was rowdy behavior that scared respectable citizens , such as youths throwing rocks at streetcars and overturning the carts of street vendors . More overtly criminal activity included the smashing of store windows and looting their displays or setting off false fire alarms . Such activity was restricted to certain parts of the city and , according to the New York Times , " throughout the greater part of the city the usual peace and quiet prevailed . " In the morning the Mayor asked the Governor to furnish a force of State Guards ; Coolidge promptly agreed and eventually provided almost 5 @,@ 000 men . Commissioner Curtis later praised the State Guards ' performance in his Annual Report : " The whole community is now aware of the effectiveness with which the Massachusetts State Guard worked when it came into the city . I cannot add anything to the universal chorus of commendation that has greeted their work . " The morning papers following the first night 's violence were full of loud complaints and derogatory terms for the police : " deserters " , " agents of Lenin . "
Violence peaked the next evening , the night of September 10 – 11 . Businesses were better prepared . Some had boarded up and others stayed open all night with armed guards visible to discourage thieves taking advantage of the strike . Gamblers played dice in open view , and women had their handbags snatched . But the Guard 's inexperience at handling crowds resulted in dangerous attempts to assert control . Gunfire in South Boston left two dead and others wounded . One person died in a riot at Scollay Square , a center of amusement halls and theaters . Whether the crowds were threatening property or making trouble because they were in sympathy with the strikers is unknown . The death total ultimately reached nine .
City life continued relatively normally , especially during daytime hours . Schools remained open . Later claims against the city for losses incurred during the two nights of disorder ran to $ 35 @,@ 000 , of which the city paid $ 34 @,@ 000 . Those figures represent a non @-@ partisan calculation of the costs of the strike to the Boston business community .
When Governor Coolidge called the strikers " deserters " and " traitors , " a mass meeting of the Boston Police Union responded :
When we were honorably discharged from the United States army , we were hailed as heroes and saviors of our country . We returned to our duties on the police force of Boston .
Now , though only a few months have passed , we are denounced as deserters , as traitors to our city and violators of our oath of office .
The first men to raise the cry were those who have always been opposed to giving to labor a living wage . It was taken up by the newspapers , who cared little for the real facts . You finally added your word of condemnation ....
Among us are men who have gone against spitting machine guns single @-@ handed , and captured them , volunteering for the job . Among us are men who have ridden with dispatches through shell fire so dense that four men fell and only the fifth got through .
Not one man of us ever disgraced the flag or his service . It is bitter to come home and be called deserters and traitors . We are the same men who were on the French front .
Some of us fought in the Spanish war of 1898 . Won 't you tell the people of Massachusetts in which war you served ?
On the evening of September 11 , the Central Labor Union met to consider calling a general strike in support of the striking police . Earlier it had expressed enthusiasm for a general strike , more likely as an expression of solidarity than a declaration of serious intent . It collected the votes of its constituent unions and on September 12 announced it was delaying a decision . Their statement explained their reasoning : " We are not to act in a manner that will give the prejudiced press and autocratic employers a chance to criticize us . "
On September 11 , Matthew Woll , an AFL vice @-@ president , said his organization discouraged strikes by government employees but defended their right to organize : " all wage earners have the right to associate with one another and collectively to improve their condition " . He blamed the strike on government managers who failed to recognize that right and put the Boston situation in the context of the broader union movement : " On the question of industrial democracy [ i.e. , unionization ] , we find still that group of employers , Bourbonic in character , who believe democracy means for them to ruin or rule industrially . They cannot conceive that works have any right in the management of industry . ... The time has past when any man can say that he is the ruler of the people in his employment . " AFL President Samuel Gompers , just returned from Europe , quickly assessed the situation and the strength of public sentiment . On September 12 , he urged the strikers to return to work , asking the city to agree to suspend judgment on whether to recognize the police union . In a telegram to Mayor Peters he cited the model of Washington , D.C. , which had , at the suggestion of President Wilson , suspended its regulation forbidding police officers to join a union affiliated with the AFL until a conference scheduled for October 6 . The police accepted Gompers ' recommendation immediately . Coolidge replied with a statement of support for Curtis ' hard line . Gompers telegraphed Coolidge again , this time blaming Curtis for the crisis . Coolidge dismissed the Commissioner 's behavior as irrelevant , because no provocation could justify the police walkout . His terse summation created his reputation on the national scene : " There is no right to strike against the public safety , anywhere , anytime . " Coolidge said he would continue to " defend the sovereignty of Massachusetts . "
By the weekend , the presence of the State Guards had become a curiosity . Larger than usual crowds strolled in the center of the city . Thousands attended a band concert on the Boston Common . " The shootings of the last few days for interference with guardsmen , " said the New York Times , " seem to have had a marked effect . "
Coolidge said he originally hoped to reinstate the officers , stating in a telegram to a labor convention , " I earnestly hope that circumstances may arise which will cause the police officers to be reinstated " . Over the objections of Mayor Peters , Commissioner Curtis announced on September 13 that he planned to recruit a new force . He fired roughly 1 @,@ 100 and hired 1 @,@ 574 replacement police officers from a pool of unemployed World War I veterans . Members of the United Garment Workers refused to sew uniforms for the new hires , who had to report for work in civilian clothing .
The new officers hired in the wake of the strike received higher salaries and more vacation days than the strikers had . They enjoyed a starting salary of $ 1 @,@ 400 along with a pension plan , and the department covered the cost of their uniforms and equipment . The population of Boston raised $ 472 @,@ 000 to help pay for the State Guards until new police officers could be recruited .
= = National reaction = =
In an editorial on the first morning of the strike , the New York Times supported the police commissioner and said that the strikers were " [ i ] nspired unconsciously by anti @-@ social ideals , or acting by ' suggestion ' of their London and Liverpool brethren " , which had recently seen similar strikes . It said :
A policeman has no more right to belong to a union than a soldier or a sailor . He must be ready to obey orders , the orders of his superiors , not those of any outside body . One of his duties is the maintenance of order in the case of strike violence . In such a case , if he is faithful to his union , he may have to be unfaithful to the public , which pays him to protect it . The situation is false and impossible .... It is the privilege of Boston policemen to resign if they are not satisfied with the conditions of their employment .... but it is intolerable that a city ... should be deserted by men who misunderstand their position and function as policemen , and who take their orders from outside .... [ I ] t is an imported , revolutionary idea that may spread to various cities . There should be plain and stern law against it . It is practically an analogue of military desertion ... [ I ] t ought to be punished suitably and repressed .
It later called the strike " this Boston essay in Bolshevism " and lamented the attempt of Mayor Peters and the Storrow Commission " to submit to compromise an issue that could not be compromised " . Newspaper accounts exaggerated the level of crime and violence that accompanied the strike , resulting in a national furor that shaped the political response . A Philadelphia paper viewed the Boston violence in the same light as other labor unrest and numerous race riots in 1919 : " Bolshevism in the United States is no longer a specter . Boston in chaos reveals its sinister substance . " President Woodrow Wilson , speaking from Montana , branded the walkout " a crime against civilization " that left the city " at the mercy of an army of thugs . " He said that " the obligation of a policeman is as sacred and direct as the obligation of a soldier . He is a public servant , not a private employee , and the whole honor of the community is in his hands . He has no right to prefer any private advantage to the public safety . " Elihu Root , a former Secretary of War and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize , told a Carnegie Hall audience on September 17 that the strike was an attack on constitutional government because it represented " the passing of power to enforce laws , the power to punish crime , the power to maintain order from the whole people of the United States " to the 3 % of the population represented by the AFL .
A report from Washington , D.C. included this headline : " Senators Think Effort to Sovietize the Government Is Started . " Senator Henry Cabot Lodge saw in the strike the dangers of the national labor movement : " If the American Federation of Labor succeeds in getting hold of the police in Boston it will go all over the country , and we shall be in measurable distance of Soviet government by labor unions . " The Ohio State Journal opposed any sympathetic treatment of the strikers : " When a policeman strikes , he should be debarred not only from resuming his office , but from citizenship as well . He has committed the unpardonable sin ; he has forfeited all his rights . "
= = Aftermath = =
In the police commissioner 's Annual Report for 1919 , Curtis presented his view of the strike . He argued that he could not have requested State Guards for the strike 's first night because the city remained quiet and he had reports that many policemen would not join the strike . By the end of the year the strikers had formed a new organization called the Association of Former Police of the City of Boston .
The strike gave momentum to Coolidge 's political career . In 1918 , he had narrowly been elected governor . In 1919 he won 62 % of the votes when running against an opponent who favored reinstating the strikers . He failed to carry Boston by just 5 @,@ 000 votes , an impressive showing for a Republican in a strongly Democratic city . The Boston Transcript reported :
Massachusetts is hailed today from Maine to California as the winner of a shining triumph for straight Americanism . The voting booths of the old Bay State were a battleground for the nation . The ancient faith was under fire . Law and order formed the line of cleavage . The Governor was the Commander @-@ in @-@ chief , the people of the commonwealth were the invincible army , the issue was America , and in the triumph of that issue all America triumphs .
Coolidge himself later said , " No doubt it was the police strike in Boston that brought me into national prominence . " In a post @-@ election congratulatory telegram President Wilson wrote : " I congratulate you upon your election as a victory for law and order . When that is the issue , all Americans must stand together . " His role in the strike , however limited , became a prominent feature of his resume as he sought higher office . According to one obituary , " the Boston police strike of 1919 ... brought him national prominence and the nomination for the Vice Presidency " in 1920 . When he succeeded to the presidency in 1923 upon the death of Warren Harding , the New York Times headlined its biography : " Coolidge Firmness Won Recognition ; His Suppression of the Boston Police Strike Made Him a National Figure " . Coolidge 's political rivals interpreted his role differently . In 1925 , U.S. Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin said that Coolidge 's failure to intervene in that year 's coal strike mirrored his 1919 actions when he " persistently refused to act upon the requests of the Mayor of Boston for assistance until riot and bloodshed had aroused the entire State . Then when order had been restored by the efforts of Mayor Peters and the Storrow committee Coolidge sent in the militia and claimed full credit for restoring ' law and order ' . "
The strike heightened public fear of labor unrest and the possible radicalism that lay behind it . It contributed to the public anxiety of the period known as the Red Scare of 1919 – 1920 . The failure of this and other strikes in the years following World War I contributed to declining union membership in subsequent years . The American Federation of Labor responded to political pressure experienced during the strike and revoked the charters it had granted to police unions . That ended police unionism in the U.S. for two decades , as police would not try to organize until World War II .
In 1930 , a history of the Boston Transcript , the most resolutely anti @-@ union of Boston 's newspapers in 1919 , perpetuated its original account of urban chaos during the strike 's first nights . It described large crowds , including a number of sailors from docked naval ships , that took to the streets , smashing windows , committing robbery and stoning bystanders and cars . It said that the northern , southern , and western areas of the city were all taken over by armed gangs .
In 1931 , the Massachusetts legislature voted to allow the officers who had struck to be rehired . In 1937 , Massachusetts Governor Charles F. Hurley , after meeting with some of the 1919 strikers , backed the decision of Police Commissioner Joseph Timilty not to reinstate them .
The Boston Police Patrolman 's Association was formed in 1965 following the enactment of a state statute allowing state and municipal workers to organize for the sake of collective bargaining .
No police officers in the U.S. went out on strike until July 1974 , when some Baltimore police , estimated at 15 % to 50 % of the force , refused to report for work for several days as a demonstration of support for other striking municipal unions .
= = In popular culture = =
The Dropkick Murphys album Rock Against Bush Volume 2 includes the song " We Got the Power " about the Boston police strike .
Dennis Lehane 's novel The Given Day is partly set during the Boston police strike .
Issue number 7 of Alan Moore 's comic book series Providence is set on the backdrop of the Boston police strike .
= Charles Lloyd ( Australian general ) =
Major General Charles Edward Maurice Lloyd , CBE ( 2 February 1899 – 31 May 1956 ) was a senior officer in the Australian Army . Lloyd graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon in 1918 as a regular officer in the artillery and subsequently served in a range of staff and regimental positions in the inter @-@ war years . He later saw service in the Second World War , during which he held senior staff and administrative positions in the Middle East , the Netherlands East Indies , Papua and Australia . Later he worked as a newspaper executive , as chief of several United Nations agencies , and in private enterprise . Lloyd died in 1956 .
= = Early life = =
Charles Lloyd was born on 2 February 1899 at South Fremantle , Western Australia , the second and only surviving child of Thomas Edward Lloyd , a postmaster , and his wife Edith , née Lock . His parents separated in 1901 and two years later his father committed suicide . He was subsequently raised by his mother who worked as a telephone attendant at Coolgardie , and then in Fremantle from 1909 . Lloyd was educated at Beaconsfield , Fremantle Boys ' Central and Perth Modern schools .
= = Military career = =
Entering the Australian Army in 1915 , Lloyd graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon in December 1918 as a regular officer in the artillery , too late to see action during the First World War . Lloyd was nicknamed " Gaffer " by the other cadets due to his serious demeanor , and Gavin Long considered him among the " ablest " of the group of officers that joined the Staff Corps at that time . He was appointed as a lieutenant in the Australian Imperial Force upon completing his training at Duntroon and embarked from Sydney in January 1919 , being sent to the United Kingdom and later posted to France . Returning to the Permanent Military Force as the AIF was demobilised , he later completed his training serving with the British Army in England and India in 1919 – 20 .
Lloyd married Sybil Drummond in Melbourne on 31 December 1921 . He subsequently held junior staff and regimental postings in Australia during the 1920s , at the same time studying law at the University of Sydney . His next postings included various adjutant and quar
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tracked through the Windward Islands before dissipating in the eastern Caribbean Sea . Tropical Depression Eight led to a significant flooding event between San Antonio and Houston on August 30 and August 31 while recurving through Texas into Louisiana . Hurricane Emily formed on September 1 southeast of Bermuda . Emily made a cyclonic loop as a tropical storm . Emily strengthened into a hurricane out in the North Atlantic Ocean and by September 12 , was no longer identifiable . Hurricane Floyd was a Category 3 hurricane that grazed Bermuda , but no damage was reported . Hurricane Gert formed September 8 , strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane , and followed the same track as Floyd , dissipating near the Azores . Hurricane Harvey became the strongest storm of the season , reaching Category 4 strength . Harvey never affected land , but ships reported tropical storm @-@ force winds . Tropical Depression Thirteen brought gusts of tropical storm force to Bermuda in mid @-@ to @-@ late September . Hurricane Irene also stayed out at sea , reaching Category 3 strength and was extratropical in early October . The extratropical Irene made landfall in France .
Tropical Depression Fifteen was small and well @-@ organized as it crossed the tropical Atlantic before weakening as it moved through the northeast Caribbean and southwest North Atlantic during late September and early October . Tropical Storm Jose was a short @-@ lived storm forming out in the open Atlantic in late October . Jose never affected land and dissipated on November 1 near the Azores . Hurricane Katrina formed in the Caribbean Sea , and made landfall in Cuba after reaching hurricane strength . Katrina was the only named storm with fatalities . The final storm of the season , Subtropical Storm Three , formed in the Atlantic Ocean on November 12 and moved north , making landfall in Nova Scotia and becoming extratropical soon after .
The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 100 , which is classified as " near normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Arlene = = =
Arlene was a very unusual tropical storm in 1981 . It formed on May 6 , well before the beginning of the normal hurricane season . It developed out of a disturbance that moved from the Pacific Ocean across Central America into the Caribbean Sea . As the disturbance tracked northeast across the western Caribbean , it became a tropical depression , then on May 7 reached tropical storm strength near the Cayman Islands . Arlene struck eastern Cuba on the night of May 7 , and the passage over land weakened it to a depression . It restrengthened briefly over the southeastern Bahamas , but weakened again and was absorbed by another system . Reported damage was minimal .
= = = Tropical Depression Two = = =
A tropical depression formed in the Bay of Campeche near Veracruz , Mexico , on June 3 . The system moved north @-@ northwest , lured by a cyclone over the southern Plains . Tropical Depression Two made landfall along the upper Texas coast on June 5 , spreading up to 15 inches ( 380 mm ) of rainfall northeast of the point of landfall . A total of nine tornadoes stuck the western Gulf coast , with eight touching down in Louisiana . Three people died ; two due to flooding and one from an associated tornado . The depression quickly recurved through the Mississippi Valley , and deepened as it moved off the coast of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states into the western subtropical Atlantic on June 7 . At least US $ 4 million in damage was caused by this depression .
= = = Tropical Storm Bret = = =
Bret formed out of a subtropical low roughly 150 miles ( 240 km ) off the coast of North Carolina . The storm moved west @-@ northwest , striking land in southern Maryland on July 1 . Bret weakened significantly just before landfall , and reported winds were below gale force . Rainfall amounts were light , with a narrow area of over one inch of rain reported near its track and within the central Appalachians . The highest rainfall amount reported was 4 @.@ 48 inches ( 114 mm ) at Big Meadows , Virginia . No significant damage was reported , but one fatality was reported at Nags Head , North Carolina due to riptides .
= = = Tropical Depression Four = = =
A tropical disturbance moved across the Caribbean sea between July 20 and July 24 before moving across the Yucatán peninsula . After emerging into the south @-@ central Gulf of Mexico , the disturbance organized into a tropical depression early on July 25 . The depression moved west @-@ northwest into northeast Mexico on July 26 before its surface circulation dissipated . Heavy rains fell across western Texas , Oklahoma , and Arkansas when the remains of this system interacted with a stationary front across the southern Plains between July 28 and July 30 .
= = = Tropical Storm Cindy = = =
A subtropical depression that developed along a cold front organized into Tropical Storm Cindy on August 2 , in the open Atlantic midway between Bermuda and Nova Scotia . Cindy tracked east @-@ northeast until it became extratropical on August 5 as it moved over colder water . The storm never affected land and caused no known damage .
= = = Hurricane Dennis = = =
Dennis began as Cape Verde @-@ type hurricanes typically do . A tropical wave leaving the coast of Africa on August 5 developed into Tropical Storm Dennis on August 7 near Cape Verde . Unlike most such storms , Dennis degenerated to a tropical wave before reaching the Windward Islands on August 12 . This wave crossed the Caribbean , passing over Jamaica before reaching the southwestern coast of Cuba on August 15 .
Once near Cuba , the wave began rapid organization , restrengthening into a tropical storm . It crossed Cuba , then moved into southern Florida . Over Florida , steering currents weakened and the storm stalled . On August 19 , Tropical Storm Dennis reemerged over water , skimming the coasts of the Carolinas before accelerating out to sea . Dennis reached hurricane strength before becoming extratropical on August 22 .
Most damage associated with Dennis was from the heavy rainfall caused by its slow passage over Florida , although two tornadoes were also reported within Florida . The highest amount registered was near Homestead , Florida , where 25 @.@ 56 inches ( 649 mm ) of rain was measured . Agriculture damage in Dade County , Florida was estimated at $ 15 million ( 1981 USD ) . Coastal areas of the Carolinas were also affected by heavy rainfall , with spots seeing over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) , as well as minor beach erosion .
= = = Tropical Depression Seven = = =
This system developed across the tropical Atlantic ocean on August 18 , moving westward through the Windward islands into the eastern Caribbean Sea before dissipating on August 21 .
= = = Tropical Depression Eight = = =
This tropical depression formed in the Bay of Campeche on August 26 and moved slowly northwest , moving ashore northeast Mexico on August 29 and into the United States on August 30 . As an ill @-@ defined surface low , a large thunderstorm complex formed near its center that day , unleashing heavy rainfall in a band 50 miles ( 80 km ) wide which stretched along a path 200 miles ( 320 km ) long from Seguin , Texas to north of Houston , Texas . The highest rainfall amount reported was from Pine Springs in Fayette County , Texas , where 21 inches ( 530 mm ) fell in the 24 ‑ hour period ending on the morning of August 31 . Five died in the town of Shiner , Texas due to the flood . Downtown Halletsville flooded to a depth of 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) . Significant flooding occurred along the Lavaca , Guadalupe , and Colorado rivers in Texas . The cyclone spawned 14 tornadoes as well , including one at Scholes Field in Galveston , Texas which produced winds as high as 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) at 7 : 15 pm on August 31 .
Its surface circulation remained ill @-@ defined as it produced another round of heavy rainfall across northwest Louisiana on September 1 . A large mesoscale convective system moved in from Oklahoma and northeast Texas , dissipating what was left of this tropical depression by September 2 . Paid losses by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) totaled nearly US $ 21 million ( 1981 dollars ) , with total damages exceeding US $ 26 million ( 1981 dollars ) .
= = = Hurricane Emily = = =
On September 1 , a subtropical storm became Tropical Storm Emily southwest of Bermuda . Emily moved northeast , crossing the island the next day , but measured winds were below tropical storm force . The storm continued generally northeast and strengthened into a hurricane . Hurricane Emily weakened over the north Atlantic and was no longer identifiable as a weather system by September 12 . Hurricane Emily caused beach erosion across the East Coast of the United States , but no other damage was reported .
= = = Hurricane Floyd = = =
Floyd was first tracked as a tropical depression on September 3 when it organized east of the Leeward Islands . As the depression moved northwest , it caused heavy rain . The highest rainfall reported was 5 @.@ 7 inches ( 140 mm ) at Antigua . It strengthened into a tropical storm , then reached hurricane strength on September 7 .
Floyd turned to the northeast , and passed just southeast of Bermuda as a weakening hurricane . As a tropical storm , Floyd moved east across the Atlantic until losing its identity on September 12 .
No damages are associated with Floyd . Although Bermuda was directly affected , the island experienced the weaker half of the storm .
= = = Hurricane Gert = = =
A tropical wave exited western Africa on September 1 , gradually developing a concentrated area of convection . Early on September 7 , it was estimated that Tropical Depression Eleven about 400 mi ( 640 km ) east of the Leeward Islands , based on satellite imagery . The next day , data from the Hurricane Hunters indicated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Gert . The newly upgraded storm passed between the islands of Dominica and Guadeloupe and continued to intensify , making landfall on southeastern Puerto Rico with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) late September 8 . After emerging into the Atlantic , Gert weakened while passing off the north coast of the Dominican Republic . It restrengthened while turning northward near the Bahamas , becoming a hurricane on September 10 . Midday on September 11 , Gert attained its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 988 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) . The hurricane turned northeastward and weakened over cooler waters , passing about 100 mi ( 160 km ) north of Bermuda on September 12 as a tropical storm . On September 14 , Gert weakened further to tropical depression status , dissipating the next day .
While passing through the Leeward Islands , Gert dropped moderate rainfall of 5 @.@ 85 inches ( 148 @.@ 5 mm ) on St. Thomas . Winds gusted to 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on the island . In Puerto Rico , rainfall peaked at 6 @.@ 02 inches ( 153 mm ) in the Puerto Rican municipality of Maricao . Gale warnings were issued for the Turks and Caicos Islands and later the southeastern Bahamas , and light rainfall occurred in the region , reaching 3 @.@ 20 inches ( 81 @.@ 28 mm ) on the island of San Salvador . Winds were light in Bermuda .
= = = Hurricane Harvey = = =
Harvey formed in the central Atlantic , reaching hurricane strength only a few hours after first becoming a named system on September 12 . From its initial position several hundred miles east of the Leeward Islands , Harvey moved northwest . Its path began curving more to the north , and was considered a threat to Bermuda until the continuing curve took Harvey away from the island . Harvey 's track became more easterly , and the storm weakened and became extratropical as it approached the Azores . Harvey caused no reported damage , although several ships reported experiencing tropical storm force winds .
= = = Tropical Depression Thirteen = = =
The thirteenth tropical depression developed 275 mi ( 443 km ) southwest of Bermuda on September 22 , and was initially expected to intensify into a tropical storm . Although it failed to further intensify , Tropical Depression Thirteen brought squalls to Bermuda with winds gusts of tropical storm force as it passed west of the island on September 23 . Moving northward , the system merged with a developing extratropical cyclone south of Nova Scotia on September 24 .
= = = Hurricane Irene = = =
Irene became a named storm midway between the Windward Islands and Cape Verde on September 23 , and its track mimicked that of Hurricane Harvey . The storm tracked northwest , becoming a hurricane on September 25 . Its track then began curving to the east , eventually resulting in motion to the northeast .
The storm weakened and became extratropical in early October . The remaining extratropical storm moved over France on October 3 .
= = = Tropical Depression Fifteen = = =
This tropical depression formed southwest of the Cape Verde Islands on September 27 , and tracked through the deep tropics before weakening as it moved over the Leeward Islands late on September 30 . Heavy rains occurred at Guadeloupe as the system passed by the island . The depression then recurved to the south and east of Bermuda late on October 3 .
= = = Tropical Storm Jose = = =
Jose was a weak and short @-@ lived tropical storm that formed far from land on October 29 . It moved generally northeast before becoming subtropical and then dissipating on November 1 near the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Katrina = = =
A tropical depression formed on November 3 in the western Caribbean Sea about 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of the Cayman Islands . The depression moved north , reaching tropical storm strength as it moved through the Caymans . Katrina continued to strengthen , reaching hurricane strength half a day before landfall in Cuba . A weakening Katrina moved across eastern Cuba on November 6 . After emerging over water , the storm accelerated northeast through the Bahamas . Katrina 's circulation fell apart , and the storm merged with a front on November 8 .
Hurricane Katrina is reported to have killed two and caused widespread flood damage in Cuba 's Camagüey province . Katrina was the only named storm responsible for fatalities in 1981 .
= = = Subtropical Storm Three = = =
A frontal low over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream organized into an subtropical storm on November 12 while 400 miles ( 640 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida . After moving northeastward , it turned to the northwest , threatening the northeastern United States as an intensifying subtropical storm that was gradually developing tropical characteristics . A high pressure system turned it to the northeast , and after peaking at 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) it became extratropical near Nova Scotia on November 17 . The storm produced significant beach erosion and coastal flooding .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1981 . No names were retired , so it was used again in the 1987 season . It was the first use for all of these names since the post @-@ 1978 naming change , except for Arlene , Cindy and Irene which had been previously used in 1959 , 1963 , 1967 , and 1971 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Retirement = = =
Due to lack of major damage from the storms , the WMO did not retire any names in 1981 . They were used again in 1987 .
= = Season summary = =
= Günther Lützow =
Günther Lützow ( 4 September 1912 – 24 April 1945 ) was a German Luftwaffe aviator and fighter ace credited with 110 enemy aircraft shot down in over 300 combat missions . Apart from five victories during the Spanish Civil War , most of his claimed victories were over the Eastern Front in World War II . He also claimed 20 victories over the Western Front , including two victories — one of which was a four @-@ engined bomber — flying the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter .
Born in Kiel , Lützow volunteered for military service in the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic in 1931 . In parallel , he was accepted for flight training with the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule , a covert military @-@ training organization , and at the Lipetsk fighter @-@ pilot school . Following flight training , he was posted to Jagdgeschwader " Richthofen " ( Fighter Wing " Richthofen " ) in 1934 . In 1937 , he volunteered for service with the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War where he was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) in Jagdgruppe 88 ( J / 88 — 88th Fighter Group ) . From April to September 1937 , he claimed five aerial victories . For his service in Spain he was awarded the Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds , Germany 's highest decoration of the Spanish Civil War .
After an assignment as fighter pilot instructor , he was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) in Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) following the outbreak of World War II . He led the Gruppe through the Battle of France and claimed his first victory of World War II on 14 May 1940 . Lützow became Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of JG 3 on 21 August 1940 . After 15 aerial victories during the Battle of Britain , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 18 September 1940 . Lützow commanded JG 3 in the aerial battles of Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . There , after his 42nd aerial victory , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 20 July 1941 . Three months later , following his 92nd aerial victory of the war , Lützow was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords on 11 October 1941 . On 24 October , he claimed his 100th victory of the war , becoming the second fighter pilot after Werner Mölders to do so . From September to November 1941 , he also served as acting commander of Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) , replacing Friedrich Beckh , who had been injured in combat , until the position was filled by Karl @-@ Gottfried Nordmann . After being instructed not to fly operations , he ignored the order , adding two more victories before being posted on 11 August 1942 to the staff of General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighters ) Adolf Galland , serving as " Inspector of Day Fighters , East " .
In July 1943 , Lützow was tasked with commanding fighter operations in Italy . From September 1943 to March 1944 , he led the 1 . Jagd Division ( 1st Fighter Division ) , commanding all day- and night @-@ fighter operations in northwestern Germany , the Netherlands and Belgium . Lützow 's role in the " Fighter Pilots Revolt " was considered mutiny by Hermann Göring , who exiled Lützow to Italy . In April 1945 , he joined Galland 's Jagdverband 44 ( JV 44 — 44th Fighter Detachment ) . He was reported missing in action flying the Me 262 on 24 April 1945 while attempting to intercept a U.S. Army Air Forces B @-@ 26 Marauder raid near Donauwörth . His body was never recovered .
= = Early life and career = =
Lützow was born on 4 September 1912 in Kiel , at the time the capital of the Province of Schleswig @-@ Holstein , a province of the Kingdom of Prussia . He was the third of five children of Friedrich Lützow , a naval officer , and his wife Hildegard , née Kinzel . He had an older brother , Werner , an older sister , Liselotte ( Elisabeth Charlotte ) , a younger sister , Hildegard , and a younger brother , Joachim . The family at the time lived at the Reventlouallee 23 on the west bank of the Kieler Förde . This was close to the German Imperial Naval Academy where his father attended a two @-@ year Admiralty Staff training course . Following the outbreak of World War I , his father was posted to the staff of the Führer der Unterseeboote ( Commander of Submarines ) Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) Hermann Bauer , and the family had to move to Wilhelmshaven .
Lützow graduated with his Abitur ( university @-@ preparatory high school diploma ) on 31 March 1931 from the Schulpforta , a boarding school for academically gifted students . Unlike his brothers , who both pursued a naval career , Lützow joined the Reichswehr ( Army of the Weimar Republic ) following his graduation from school . This decision had been influenced by his mother 's youngest brother , Eberhard Kinzel , at the time an officer in the Reichswehr and later General der Infanterie ( General of the Infantry ) in the Heer ( German Army ) .
On 7 April 1931 Lützow began his pilot training at the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule ( DVS — German Air Transport School ) at Schleißheim . The DVS was headed by Karl Bolle , a World War I fighter pilot , and his flight instructor was Wilhelm Stör , another World War I fighter pilot . He and 29 other trainees were part of Kameradschaft 31 ( camaraderie of 1931 ) , abbreviated " K 31 " . Among the members of " K 31 " were future Luftwaffe staff officers Bernd von Brauchitsch , Wolfgang Falck , Günther Radusch and Hannes Trautloft . Lützow graduated from the DVS on 19 February 1932 . In late September 1931 , Lützow and three other students made a cross @-@ country flight from Schleißheim to Berlin . The flight was made in two 2 @-@ seater Klemm Kl 26 training aircraft . Lützow , as the best air navigation student of his class , flew in the navigator 's position . In the Luftstreitkräfte of World War I , the pilot was called " Emil " and the navigator was called " Franz " . From that point on , Lützow was nicknamed " Franz " or the diminutive " Franzl " ( little Franz ) . From " K 31 " , Lützow and nine others were recommended for Sonderausbildung ( special training ) at the Lipetsk fighter @-@ pilot school .
Following his return from flight training , Lützow joined 5 . ( Preußisches ) Infanterie @-@ Regiment ( 5th ( Prussian ) Infantry Regiment ) , at first in Greifswald ( 15 October 1932 – 31 January 1933 ) as a Offizieranwärter ( officer candidate ) . There he completed his basic training . From 1 February to 31 March 1933 , he served with 5 . ( Preußisches ) Infanterie @-@ Regiment in Stettin . He then attended the Kriegsschule ( war school ) in Dresden and was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 October 1934 . In 1935 , he officially transferred to the newly formed Luftwaffe , at first serving as a fighter pilot instructor at Schleißheim ( 8 March 1935 – 31 March 1936 ) followed by a posting to II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of Sturzkampfgeschwader 162 ( StG 162 — 162nd Diver Bomber Wing ) at Lübeck @-@ Blankensee ( 1 April – 3 November 1936 ) . In parallel , from 1 May to 1 November 1936 , Lützow held the position of Staffeloffizier ( squadron officer ) with 4 . Staffel ( 4th squadron ) of Jagdgeschwader 132 " Richthofen " ( JG 132 — 132nd Fighter Wing ) at Jüterbog @-@ Damm .
= = Spanish Civil War = =
During the Spanish Civil War , Lützow volunteered for service with the Condor Legion , a unit composed of volunteers from the Luftwaffe and from the Heer which served with the Nationalists . On 19 March 1937 , he was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 2 . Staffel ( 2nd squadron ) of Jagdgruppe 88 ( J / 88 — 88th Fighter Group ) .
From March to September 1937 , Lützow , now an Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) , claimed five victories , including the first ever recorded claim by a Messerschmitt Bf 109 pilot . Flying a Bf 109 B , he shot down an Polikarpov I @-@ 15 , a Soviet built biplane fighter aircraft , on 6 April 1937 . On 26 April 1937 , air elements of the Condor Legion targeted and bombed Guernica , an attack which has been characterised as a war crime by Wette and Ueberschär , but Lützow did not participate in the attack as he was on home leave from 8 – 29 April 1937 . After he returned , Lützow claimed three more I @-@ 15s shot down , one on 22 May , another on 28 May , and his last on 18 August 1937 . His final aerial victory in Spain was over a Polikarpov I @-@ 16 , a monoplane fighter aircraft , which he shot down on 22 August 1937 .
On 16 October 1937 , Lützow was assigned to the Reichsluftfahrtministerium ( RLM — Ministry of Aviation ) Sonderstab W. ( special staff " W " ) under the command of and named after General Helmuth Wilberg . Sonderstab W. was responsible for collecting and analyzing the tactical lessons of the Spanish Civil War . Lützow wrote up his report , Erfahrungsbericht Winterausbildung 1937 / 1938 , Jüterbog @-@ Damm , 5 . Staffel ( field report winter training 1937 / 1938 , Jüterbog @-@ Damm , 5th squadron ) documenting his Spanish experiences and tactical proposals . His report referred to the finger @-@ four formation as the clearly superior tactical formation for contemporary fighter operations . Lützow 's comrade Werner Mölders solved the problem of manoeuvring a finger @-@ four formation months later by introducing what is still known today as the " crossover turn " or " tac turn " . At RLM , Lützow received his promotion to Hauptmann ( captain ) on 20 November 1937 . For his achievements in Spain , Lützow was honored with the Spanish Medalla de la Campaña and Medalla Militar and the German Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( Spanienkreuz in Gold mit Schwertern und Brillanten ) on 6 June 1939 .
On 12 February 1938 , Lützow met his future wife Gisela von Priesdorff , the oldest daughter of military historian Kurt von Priesdorff , at a carnival party held at the Jagdfliegerschule 1 ( fighter pilot school ) at Werneuchen . On 19 July 1938 the two were officially engaged , and they married on 11 March 1939 at the Holy Trinity Church in Berlin . They had a son , Hans @-@ Ulrich , born 29 January 1940 , and a daughter , Carola , born 31 August 1942 . On 1 November 1938 , Lützow became a head flight instructor at Jagdfliegerschule 1 at Werneuchen , replacing Johannes Janke . At the time Jagdfliegerschule 1 , was under the command of Theo Osterkamp , a World War I fighter pilot .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday 1 September 1939 , when German forces invaded Poland . Lützow did not participate in this campaign . He was tasked with providing fighter protection for Berlin . From the Jagdfliegerschule in Werneuchen , he detached two squadrons and placed them under the command of Jagdgruppe 20 based at Strausberg . At the end of October 1939 , a change in command of I. Gruppe ( 1st group ) of Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) was announced . The former commander Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) Otto @-@ Heinrich von Houwald was transferred to the Jagdfliegerschule in Werneuchen . Lützow joined I. Gruppe on 1 November 1939 , officially taking over command as Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) two days later .
= = = Battle of France = = =
On 10 May 1940 , the Wehrmacht began its offensive Operation Case Yellow ( Fall Gelb ) , the invasion of France and the neutral Low Countries . I. Gruppe of JG 3 participated in the offensive as a subordinated unit of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) . During the Battle of France , JG 77 was under control of I. Fliegerkorps ( 1st Air Corps ) , which formed the right wing of Luftflotte 3 ( 3rd Air Fleet ) in Belgium and the Netherlands .
On 14 May 1940 , Lützow claimed his first two aerial victories of World War II . Flying out of Hargimont , his flight was tasked with providing fighter cover in the area northwest of Dinant . At 8 : 00 pm , the flight encountered 15 to 20 Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) Curtiss P @-@ 36 Hawk fighter aircraft . Without loss , I. Gruppe claimed seven Curtisses shot down , including two claimed by Lützow . The next day , he claimed another P @-@ 36 southeast of Charleroi , his third victory of the war . On 19 May in combat north of Arras , he claimed a Hawker Hurricane fighter aircraft . Lützow claimed his fifth and sixth victory of the war on 31 May 1940 , shooting down two Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 fighter aircraft south of Amiens . This was followed by another P @-@ 36 on 3 June . On 6 June , he claimed a Bristol Blenheim light bomber followed by another Blenheim shot down on 8 June . This latter Blenheim was shot down when Lützow was returning from a Junkers Ju 87 dive bomber escort mission . The Blenheim IV was flying alone unescorted and Lützow set it on fire . The bomber exploded in midair near Abbeville .
On 23 June 1940 , I. Gruppe was moved to a forward airfield at Grandvilliers in preparation for missions over the Channel Coast , but the following day , all Bf 109s were sent to Wiesbaden , via Brussels , for a thorough maintenance check . The overhaul detachment arrived in Wiesbaden in the late afternoon and the pilots were sent on home leave . The cease @-@ fire of the Armistice of 22 June 1940 went into effect on 25 June 1940 , ending the Battle of France . During the French campaign , Lützow flew 64 combat missions and claimed nine victories . Under his leadership , I. Gruppe was one of the most successful units in this campaign . It was credited with 88 aerial victories for the loss of six pilots killed and ten Bf 109s destroyed .
By 3 July 1940 , the majority of the Bf 109s had returned to Grandvilliers from maintenance overhaul . At the time , Lützow had 45 pilots and 33 Bf 109 Es for disposition , 28 of the aircraft being operational . I. Gruppe flew its first missions over the Channel Coast on the evening of 5 July 1940 . In the following days flight operations were impeded by a period of bad weather . On 1 August 1940 , I. Gruppe was moved to Colembert , the Geschwaderstab ( headquarters unit ) and the other two Gruppen were moved to airfields in the vicinity of Boulogne . In preparations for actions against Great Britain , JG 3 was put under the control of Luftflotte 2 ( 2nd Air Fleet ) , thus placing it under the command of Jagdfliegerführer 2 Oberst ( Colonel ) Osterkamp .
On 1 August 1940 , Adolf Hitler had issued Führer Directive no . 17 ( Weisung Nr. 17 ) ; the strategic objective of which was to engage and defeat the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) so as to achieve air superiority in preparation for Operation Sea Lion ( Unternehmen Seelöwe ) , the proposed amphibious invasion of Great Britain . Reichsmarschall ( Marshal of the Realm ) Hermann Göring , in his role as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Luftwaffe ordered an attack on RAF Fighter Command 's ground organization , code named Adlertag ( Operation Eagle Attack ) . On 13 August , 485 bomber and approximately 1 @,@ 000 fighter sorties were flown , targeting British airfields in southern England . Lützow claimed his first aerial victory in the Battle of Britain on 16 August 1940 , shooting down a Supermarine Spitfire over Kent .
= = = Wing commander of JG 3 = = =
At the height of the Battle of Britain on 21 August 1940 , it was announced that Lützow was to be appointed Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of JG 3 . He officially took command of JG 3 on 25 August and was promoted to Major ( major ) on 30 August 1940 . On 25 August , command of I. Gruppe was handed over to Oberleutnant Lothar Keller who led the Gruppe until the new Gruppenkommandeur Hauptmann Hans von Hahn arrived at the end of August . Lützow 's former adjutant with I. Gruppe , Friedrich @-@ Franz von Cramon , joined him at the Geschwaderstab and continued to serve as his adjutant . Under Lützow 's command , the Geschwaderstab was based on the Channel Coast until 16 February 1941 , at first in Colembert , then in August 1940 it was moved to Wierre @-@ au @-@ Bois and at the end of September to Desvres . Lützow , as Geschwaderkommodore , claimed eight victories during the Battle of Britain , his 11th – 18th of the war .
On 26 August 1940 , Lützow claimed a pair of Boulton Paul Defiant fighters from No. 264 Squadron off the north Kent coast . On 27 August 1940 , Lützow , and other Geschwaderkommodore , were summoned to a meeting held by Jagdfliegerführer 2 , Generalmajor ( Major General ) Kurt @-@ Bertram von Döring in Wissant . This meeting was also attended by Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Albert Kesselring , and the commanding general of the II . Fliegerkorps Generaloberst ( Colonel General ) Bruno Loerzer . The subject of the meeting was the perceived lack of fighter protection provided for the bomber arm by the Jagdwaffe ( fighter force ) . The bomber crews had demanded the fighter escorts fly closer to the bombers , within visual proximity , increasing perceived security of the bomber crews . The generals accused the Geschwaderkommodere of being overly interested in accumulating aerial victories and awards at the expense of exposing the bombers to enemy attacks . Lützow argued that a fighter aircraft , such as the Bf 109 , required speed and space to combat the fast and more agile RAF fighter aircraft . The discussion ended with a compromise , some of the fighters were ordered to fly close and at the same speed as the bombers , while other fighters were to fly 1 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 – 6 @,@ 600 feet ) above the main bomber force , clearing the airspace of enemy fighters in the direction the bomber force was flying .
In September 1940 , Lützow claimed three Hurricanes , one each on 7 , 9 and 15 September . In addition to the 15 aerial victories he had claimed since the start of the war , he was credited with three ground victories and one barrage balloon destroyed . Subsequently , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernes Kreuzes ) on 18 September 1940 . The presentation was made by Göring at the headquarters of the Befehlshaber der Wehrmachts in den Niederlanden ( Supreme Commander of the Wehrmacht in the Netherlands ) , General der Flieger ( General of the Flyers ) Friedrich Christiansen , at Wassenaar near The Hague on 19 September . That day , both Lützow and Wolfgang Schellmann , Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) , were so honored . Lützow was credited with three further victories against the RAF , two P @-@ 36s shot down on 5 October , and a Spitfire on 5 November 1940 . These were his last victories claimed over the Western Front until 1945 , taking his World War II score to 18 .
In spring 1941 , Geschwaderstab of JG 3 was transferred to Mannheim @-@ Sandhofen for a period of rest and conversion to the new Bf 109 F @-@ 2 . On 4 May 1941 , the Geschwaderstab was sent back into combat along the Channel Coast . On 7 May 1941 , Lützow 's Bf 109 F @-@ 2 ( Werknummer 8117 — factory number ) suffered minor damage in combat when his tail surfaces were shot up . Operating from Saint @-@ Pol @-@ Brias until 8 June , the Geschwaderstab flew missions over southern England and the English Channel without filing any claims or sustaining any losses .
= = = War against the Soviet Union = = =
In preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , the Geschwaderstab began heading east on 8 June 1941 . They stopped for several days at Breslau @-@ Gandau , the present day Wrocław – Copernicus Airport in Poland . On 18 June , the Geschwaderstab relocated to Hostynne , from where on 22 June 1941 , Lützow led JG 3 in combat against the Soviet Union . At the start of the campaign , JG 3 was subordinated to the V. Fliegerkorps ( 5th Air Corps ) , under command of General der Flieger Robert Ritter von Greim , which was part of Luftflotte 4 ( 4th Air Fleet ) , under command of Generaloberst Alexander Löhr . These air elements supported Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt 's Heeresgruppe Süd ( Army Group South ) , with the objective of capturing the Ukraine and its capital Kiev .
Lützow claimed nine aerial victories in his first week on the Eastern Front . The first victory , an I @-@ 18 fighter , a variant of the Polikarpov I @-@ 16 , was achieved on the opening day of Barbarossa . On the second day of Barbarossa , he accounted for two Tupolev SB @-@ 2 bombers . On 24 June , he filed a claim for a Polikarpov I @-@ 153 biplane fighter destroyed . Two days later , he destroyed three aircraft , two SB @-@ 2 bombers and a Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2 ground attack aircraft . On 27 June , he shot down an Ilyushin DB @-@ 3 bomber followed by another Pe @-@ 2 on the following day , his last victory of June 1941 . Following a DB @-@ 3 bomber claimed on 7 July , Lützow was credited with four aerial victories on 10 July , consisting of one Vultee V @-@ 11 attack aircraft and three I @-@ 153s . The next day he claimed an II @-@ 16 . On 15 July he shot down two further I @-@ 16s and another DB @-@ 3 taking his total to 36 World War II victories .
On 16 July 1941 , Lützow claimed three further victories — a SB @-@ 2 , an I @-@ 16 and a DB @-@ 3 — and another DB @-@ 3 the next day . On 20 July , he claimed his 42nd aerial victory of the war , two V @-@ 11s . On the same day he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) , and was the 27th member of the Wehrmacht so honored .
Major Friedrich Beckh , Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) at the time , was wounded in combat on 16 September . During Beckh 's convalescence , Lützow temporarily commanded both JG 51 and JG 3 until 21 December when Beckh returned . On 23 September , Lützow suffered combat damage to his radiator and had to make a forced landing behind Soviet lines near Krasnograd . He managed to return to the German lines unhurt . In October he claimed 29 victories , including five bombers shot down on 8 October . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) on 11 October 1941 at which point he had accumulated 92 aerial victories since 1 September 1939 . The presentation was made on 12 October 1941 by Hitler at the Führer Headquarter Wolfsschanze ( Wolf 's Lair ) in Rastenburg ( now Kętrzyn in Poland ) .
On 24 October 1941 , Lützow became the second fighter pilot , after Mölders , to amass 100 aerial victories in World War II . This event was also mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht , a propaganda radio report , on 25 October 1941 . Fearing his loss in combat , Lützow was then grounded , an order he did not always obey . In early November , he led Stab JG 3 back to Germany to rest and re @-@ equip . During this period , Lützow participated in the honor guard for Generaloberst Ernst Udet . Udet had committed suicide on 17 November 1941 and on 1 December JG 3 received the honorary name " Udet " . In May 1942 Lützow and JG 3 commenced operations near Kharkov before moving into the Crimea and operating around Stalingrad . Lützow added one victory when he claimed a Polikarpov I @-@ 16 fighter on 21 May 1942 for his 107th kill . On 11 August , Lützow handed over command of JG 3 to Hauptmann Wolf @-@ Dietrich Wilcke .
According to Braatz , sometime in June 1942 ( most likely in Grakowo ) , Lützow was visited by two men from the SS . They were of lower rank . After Lützow asked them how he could be of assistance to them they responded by requesting as many of his men as possible to form up execution squads to liquidate Jews , Soviet Political Officers and other " scum " . Lützow was furious and ordered the entire Geschwader in full dress uniform to assemble and before the Jagdgeschwader he explained what the SS had requested and how he considered this act to be barbaric and criminal . He threatened to resign from command and take off his uniform if a single soldier volunteered . Braatz speculated whether this act got Lützow into trouble with the SS and the NSDAP .
= = = Luftwaffe commander = = =
In August 1942 , Lützow was posted to the staff of General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighters ) Adolf Galland as Inspector of Day Fighters , Eastern Area . Braatz argues that Galland 's decision to appoint Lützow to this position may have been motivated by a desire to get him out of the " line of fire " from the SS and NSDAP . On 1 April 1943 , Lützow was promoted to Oberst ( colonel ) .
In July 1943 , Lützow became Inspector of Day Fighters , Italian Front , based in Naples . From September 1943 to March 1944 , he commanded the 1 . Jagd @-@ Division ( 1st Fighter Division ) in Defense of the Reich at Döberitz , where he assumed command for day- and night @-@ fighter operations in northwestern Germany , the Netherlands and Belgium . 1 . Jagd @-@ Division was under control of 1 . Jagd @-@ Korps ( 1st Fighter Corps ) commanded by Generalmajor Joseph Schmid . Lützow was relieved of this command on 16 March 1944 due to personal differences with Schmid . Following his dismissal , he was given command of the 4 . Flieger @-@ Schuldivision ( 4th Flyers Training Division ) .
= = = Dismissal and death = = =
Lützow became known as a central figure and spokesman behind the Fighter Pilots ' Mutiny which escalated in a meeting with Göring on 22 January 1945 . This was an attempt to reinstate Galland who had been dismissed for outspokenness regarding the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( Luftwaffe high command ) , and had been replaced by Oberst Gordon Gollob as General der Jagdflieger . The meeting was held at the Haus der Flieger in Berlin and was attended by a number of high @-@ ranking fighter pilot leaders which included Lützow , Hermann Graf , Gerhard Michalski , Helmut Bennemann , Kurt Bühligen , Erich Leie and Herbert Ihlefeld , and their antagonist Göring supported by his staff Brauchitsch and Karl Koller . The fighter pilots , with Lützow taking the lead as spokesman , criticized Göring and made him personally responsible for the decisions taken which effectively had led to the lost air war over Europe . This behavior , the fact that someone dared to criticize Göring in his leadership abilities , was regarded as mutiny by Göring , who relieved him of command and had him posted to Italy to take over Jagdfliegerführer Oberitalien ( Fighter Leader Northern Italy ) from Oberst Eduard Neumann . Göring exiled Lützow from Germany by placing him under " Reichsacht " ( lit . " Ban from the Reich " ) . He was not allowed to inform his secretary in Jüterbog nor his wife back home , he immediately had to leave Germany .
In early April 1945 , Lützow joined Galland 's Jagdverband 44 ( JV 44 — 44th Fighter Detachment ) at Munich @-@ Riem . JV 44 was equipped with the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter , an aircraft which was heavily armed and faster than any Allied fighter . Galland hoped that the Me 262 would compensate for the numerical superiority of the Allies . Lützow had been released from his position as fighter leader in Italy and Galland appointed him as his adjutant . Lützow was credited with two aerial victories flying the Me 262 .
Lützow was posted missing in action following combat on 24 April 1945 while attempting to intercept an attack by United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) Martin B @-@ 26 Marauder medium bombers near Donauwörth . According to Stockert , an examination of U.S. records by Mr. Hirst indicates that Lützow 's Me 262 crashed near Schrobenhausen . The USAAF flew three attacks against the oil terminals at Schrobenhausen , south of Neuburg an der Donau , that day . On their second mission , 22 B @-@ 26 bombers escorted by 16 Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt fighter aircraft , were just beginning their bomb run at 3 : 25 pm , when they came under attack by four Me 262s . Two P @-@ 47s came diving down from their top cover position to fend off the attacking jets . In this account , one Me 262 pilot noticed that he was about to come under attack and attempted to dive away . Unable to recover from this dive , the American pilots observed the Me 262 crashing into a small hill . This Me 262 may have been piloted by Lützow .
That day , Lützow had led a flight of six Me 262s of JV 44 against a force of 256 medium bombers of the 322nd and 344th Bombardment Group ( 344th BG ) . Lützow 's flight included Hauptmann Walter Krupinski and Oberleutnant Klaus Neumann . Two of the Me 262s had to abort the mission due to engine problems . The remaining four , of which at least Lützow 's and Neumann 's Me 262s were armed with the R4M air @-@ to @-@ air rockets , attacked elements of 344th BG . Following the first attack , at least three B @-@ 26 Marauder bombers were seen trailing smoke , when the Me 262s came under attack by P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt fighter aircraft of the 365th Fighter Group . Blue Flight leader Captain Jerry G. Mast and his wingman , Second Lieutenant Byron Smith , went into full power dives to drive the attacking Me 262s away . Following the dive , Smith got separated from Mast and pursued an Me 262 . Mast and Second Lieutenant William H. Myers then jointly went after another Me 262 which went into an even steeper dive . The Me 262 was seen crashing into the ground and exploding . In Forsyth 's account , the Me 262 chased by Mast and Myers was Lützow 's and had been flying furthest to the south .
On 28 April 2015 , the Augsburger Allgemeine , a German regional daily newspaper , published an article stating that according to Erich Bäcker , Lützow attempted an emergency landing at Donaumünster / Erlingshofen and crashed into the Danube . Bäcker made his claim based on reports made by eye @-@ witnesses who saw a low flying Me 262 crashing into the Danube that day .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
Lützow was credited with 110 enemy aircraft shot down in 310 combat missions . He claimed five victories in Spain , and 105 during World War II . The majority of his World War II victories were claimed over the Eastern Front , although 20 were claimed over the Western Front , two of which were achieved while flying the Me 262 jet fighter . These included one four @-@ engined bomber .
This and the ♠ ( Ace of spades ) indicates those aerial victories which made Lützow an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " , a term which designates a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more airplanes in a single day . This along with the * ( asterisk ) indicates conflicting information regarding the date or type of the aerial victory .
= = Awards = =
Spanish Medalla de la Campaña
Spanish Medalla Militar
Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( 6 July 1939 )
Wound Badge in Black
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 300 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 26 May 1940 )
1st Class ( 3 June 1940 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 18 September 1940 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 3
27th Oak Leaves on 20 July 1941 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 3
4th Swords on 11 October 1941 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 3
Mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht
= Imperator torosus =
Imperator torosus , commonly known as the brawny bolete , is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae . It is native to southern Europe east to the Caucasus and Israel . It is generally associated with deciduous trees such as hornbeam , oak and beech in warm , dry locales . Although generally rare in Europe , it appears to be relatively common in Hungary . Appearing in summer and autumn on chalky soils , the stocky fruit bodies have an ochre cap up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) across , yellow pores on the cap underside , and a wine @-@ red to brown or blackish stipe up to 6 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long by 3 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide . The pale yellow flesh changes to different colours when broken or bruised depending on age ; younger mushrooms become reddish , and older ones additionally take on bluish tones .
Elias Magnus Fries and Christopher Theodor Hök first described this species as Boletus torosus in 1835 , a name by which it was known for many years . Modern molecular phylogenetics shows that it is only distantly related to Boletus edulis — the type species of Boletus — and it was duly placed in the new genus Imperator in 2015 . Eating raw mushrooms of this species leads to vomiting and diarrhea . Gastrointestinal symptoms have also occurred after eating cooked specimens , though some people have eaten it without ill @-@ effects .
= = Taxonomy = =
Swiss mycologist Louis Secretan described the brawny bolete as Boletus pachypus in his 1833 work Mycographie Suisse . Many of his names have been rejected for nomenclatural purposes because Secretan had a narrow species concept , dividing many taxa into multiple species that were not supported by other authorities , and his works did not use binomial nomenclature consistently . Swedish mycologists Elias Magnus Fries and Christopher Theodor Hök described Boletus torosus in 1835 based on Secretan 's B. pachypus — distinct from the B. pachypus described by Fries himself . Fries reported in his 1838 book Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici seu Synopsis Hymenomycetum that he had not actually observed the species , and he did not designate a type specimen or illustration . The specific epithet torosus , which derives from Latin , means " muscular " . In the United Kingdom , it is known commonly as the " brawny bolete " . The German name Ochsen @-@ Röhrling means " oxen bolete " and the French bolet vigoureux is " strong bolete " .
French naturalist Lucien Quélet transferred the species to the now @-@ obsolete genus Dictyopus in 1886 , which resulted in the synonym Dictyopus torosus . Boletus xanthocyaneus , first described by Henri Romagnesi in 1948 as Boletus purpureus var. xanthocyaneus and classified as a species in 1976 , was considered by Italian mycologist Carlo Luciano Alessio to be synonymous with B. torosus . Others , however , regard this fungus a distinct species . In 2013 Italian mycologists Valerio Bertolini and Giampaolo Simonini observed that the brevity of the original species description meant that some subsequent papers used B. torosus for specimens that aligned more closely with descriptions of Boletus rhodopurpureus or B. luteocupreus ( both now placed in the genus Imperator ) . They did note that Swiss and French authors had adhered to a more detailed description by Quélet , and that this was the only description faithful to the original description with a grey cap and yellow pores that slowly turn red . They concluded the original description must have been based on specimens growing near the French @-@ Swiss border and hence selected a neotype specimen from this region .
Within the large genus Boletus , the brawny bolete was classified in the section Luridi , which included species producing medium to large fruit bodies with thick , swollen stipes , and minute pores . In 1996 , Czech mycologist Jiří Hlaváček further subdivided the section Luridi , defining and naming the subsection Torosi — for B. torosus — to contain boletes that strongly bruised blue @-@ black with handling .
In a molecular analysis of Boletaceae phylogeny , the brawny bolete was most closely related to Boletus luteocupreus ; these two species formed a clade that was sister to B. luridus . Genetic analysis published in 2013 showed that B. torosus and many ( but not all ) red @-@ pored boletes were part of a dupainii clade ( named for B. dupainii ) , well @-@ removed from the core group of Boletus edulis ( the type species of genus Boletus ) and relatives within the Boletineae . This indicated that the brawny bolete and its relatives needed to be placed in a new genus . It was made the type species of the new genus Imperator , becoming Imperator torosus , in 2015 .
= = Description = =
Quite heavy compared with other mushrooms of similar size , the stocky fruit body contains relatively high amounts of chitin . Holding the brawny bolete has been described as " having a stone in your hand " . The cap is 6 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter . Hemispherical when young , it extends and flattens into a convex and finally a flattish shape , sometimes forming a slight depression in the centre . Initially curled downward and inward , the cap margin gradually turns outward , eventually flattening in maturity , and sometimes protruding beyond the pored undersurface . The surface texture starts out slightly velvety , but becomes smoother and hairless with age ; in moist weather , the cap is slightly sticky . Changing over time , the colour of the cap is initially vivid yellow or golden yellow , then ochre , then darkening in age to brown . However , if the cap cuticle is bruised , or even touched , there are sudden changes in the colour that depend on the age of the mushroom : young , yellow caps become cherry @-@ red , while ochre @-@ brown cap tissue bruises to reddish @-@ purple . These colour changes soon give way to bluish or greyish tones , which , when combined , give the cap a variegated appearance .
The pores on the cap underside are round and small , the sulfur @-@ yellow colour of the pore surface becoming less intense with age . The squat stipe measures 6 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long by 3 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . Egg @-@ shaped when young , it lengthens somewhat as the mushroom grows , but is still bulbous in maturity ; a mature stipe is typically a little shorter than the diameter of the cap . It is initially roughly the same colour as the cap , but as it matures , develops a wine @-@ red colouration near the base and a dirty brown to bluish @-@ black colouration elsewhere . The surface has a mesh @-@ like pattern ( reticulation ) that has a colour development similar to that of the cap : initially yellow , then purplish , and finally dark brown . The flesh is thick and hard . It is yellow , except for the stipe base where it is deep red , or dark brownish in older mushrooms . The pores , stipe and flesh turn greenish @-@ blue with bruising or cutting . The smell is unpleasant , but the taste is mild .
The spore print is olive @-@ brown . The smooth oval spores measure 12 – 15 by 5 – 6 μm , and sometimes have an internal oil drop . Basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 22 – 34 by 8 – 9 μm . The fusiform ( fuse @-@ shaped ) cystidia are colourless with oil droplets , and have dimensions of 40 – 50 by 7 – 8 μm . Cap cuticle tissue is in the form of a trichoderm , where the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface . These cylindrical , interwoven hyphae contain septa .
= = = Similar species = = =
The Mediterranean species Boletus poikilochromus somewhat resembles I. torosus , but can usually be distinguished by a smaller fruit body , a cylindrical stipe , and the lighter colours of younger mushrooms . Also , B. poikilochromus does not feature the colour change of the stipe base in mature fruit bodies that is seen in I. torosus . Imperator luteocupreus and Caloboletus radicans are also similar but the pores of the former are red and the flesh of latter has a bitter taste .
Several chemical tests can be used to distinguish I. torosus from other similar boletes , such as I. rhodopurpureus . I. torosus displays the following characteristic colour changes with tests performed on cut flesh less than 12 hours old : ammonium hydroxide ( NH4OH ) – yellow centre bordered by a blue circular outer ring ; potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) – deep buff ( instantly ) ; ferrous sulphate ( FeS04 ) – no change ; Melzer 's reagent – dark blue ; phenol – blue green ( very slow ) ; formalin – mid blue ( slow ) .
= = Toxicity = =
Like many boletes , Imperator torosus causes gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain , diarrhoea and vomiting when eaten raw . These reactions can also happen to some people when the mushroom is eaten cooked , though others have consumed it with no ill effects . In a 1994 study , researchers Ulrich Kiwitt and Hartmut Laatsch looked for the antabuse @-@ like compound coprine in Suillellus luridus and similar species that had been suspected of inducing antabuse @-@ like reactions with alcohol . Coprine ingestion results in heat and flushing in the face , tingling in arms and legs , nausea and vomiting , and increased heart rate within five to ten minutes of consuming alcohol . They found none in the suspect species , but did find indications for it in Imperator torosus . They concluded that the most likely explanation for historical poisoning incidents was a misidentification of I. torosus with Suillellus luridus , though they could not rule out the latter species containing a hitherto unidentified compound causing alcohol @-@ related reactions . No clinical cases of alcohol @-@ related sensitivity have been recorded for I. torosus .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Imperator torosus is native to southern Europe east to the Caucasus and Israel . A mycorrhizal species , the fungus is generally associated with deciduous trees such as hornbeam ( Carpinus ) , oak ( Quercus ) and beech ( Fagus ) in warm , dry locales , and is generally rare in Europe . In the United Kingdom , it is listed as a " priority species " — a threatened species requiring conservation action under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan . Similarly , it is on the list of protected species of macrofungi in Montenegro . It appears to be relatively common in Hungary . It is found under Palestine oak ( Quercus calliprinos ) in the Bar 'am forest in Upper Galilee . Fruitings typically occur from July to September in calcareous ( chalky ) soil , with fruit bodies appearing either singly or in small groups .
= Kareena Kapoor =
Kareena Kapoor ( pronounced [ kəˈriːnaː kəˈpuːr ] ; born 21 September 1980 ) , also known by her married name Kareena Kapoor Khan , is an Indian actress who appears in Hindi films . She is the daughter of actors Randhir Kapoor and Babita , and the younger sister of actress Karisma Kapoor . Noted for playing a variety of characters in a range of film genres — from romantic comedies to crime dramas — Kapoor is the recipient of several awards , including six Filmfare Awards , and is one of Bollywood 's most popular and highest @-@ paid actresses .
After making her acting debut in the 2000 war film Refugee , Kapoor established herself in Hindi cinema with roles in the historical drama Aśoka , and the blockbuster melodrama Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( both 2001 ) . This initial success was followed by a series of commercial failures and repetitive roles , which garnered her negative reviews . The year 2004 marked a turning point for Kapoor when she played against type in the role of a sex worker in the drama Chameli . She subsequently earned wide critical recognition for her portrayal of a riot victim in the 2004 drama Dev and a character based on William Shakespeare 's heroine Desdemona in the 2006 crime film Omkara . She went on to receive Filmfare Awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress for her performances in the 2007 romantic comedy Jab We Met and the 2010 drama We Are Family , respectively . Kapoor achieved further success by featuring as the female lead in four of India 's top @-@ grossing productions — the 2009 comedy @-@ drama 3 Idiots , the 2011 romantic drama Bodyguard , the 2011 science fiction Ra.One , and the 2015 social drama Bajrangi Bhaijaan — and received praise for her roles in the 2009 thriller Kurbaan and the 2012 drama Heroine .
Married to actor Saif Ali Khan , Kapoor 's off @-@ screen life is the subject of widespread coverage in India . She has a reputation for being outspoken and assertive , and is recognised for her contributions to the film industry through her fashion style and film roles . In addition to film acting , Kapoor is a stage performer and has contributed as a co @-@ author to three books : an autobiographical memoir and two nutrition guides . She has also launched her own clothing line in association with the retail chain Globus .
= = Early life and background = =
Born on 21 September 1980 in Bombay ( now Mumbai ) , Kapoor ( often informally referred to as ' Bebo ' ) is the younger daughter of Randhir Kapoor and Babita ( née Shivdasani ) ; her elder sister Karisma is also an actress . She is the paternal granddaughter of actor and filmmaker Raj Kapoor , maternal granddaughter of actor Hari Shivdasani , and niece of actor Rishi Kapoor . According to Kapoor , the name " Kareena " was derived from the book Anna Karenina , which her mother read while she was pregnant with her . She is of Punjabi descent on her father 's side , and on her mother 's side she is of Sindhi and British descent . As a child , Kapoor regularly practised Hinduism
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dinner at the Taj Mahal Hotel ( hosted by Valérie Trierweiler ) where she participated in a campaign to raise awareness on hunger and malnutrition in the world .
In 2014 , Kapoor began working with UNICEF to advocate the education of girls and increase quality based education in India . During the first year , Kapoor visited schools in the states of Rajasthan and Maharashtra where she interacted with students and participated in fundraising events hosted by the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya organization in the Jalna district . As part of a joint initiative by UNICEF and Groupon to help raise funds for promoting a higher @-@ quality learning environment in Indian schools , Kapoor gave an equivalent amount of the funds raised during the campaign , and later launched the ' Child @-@ Friendly School and Systems ' ( CFSS ) package . In 2015 , ( along with chief minister Raman Singh ) she awarded 31 students and 5 teachers for their contribution towards the field of education in Chhattisgarh at the concluding ceremony of Child Rights Protection week . Also that year , Kapoor provided a voice @-@ over for the documentary film Girl Rising : Woh Padhegi , Woh Udegi [ She will learn , she will fly ] for the organisation of the same name and made donations to the Kashmir flood relief .
= = = Stage performances = = =
Kapoor has participated in several stage shows and world tours since 2002 . Her first tour ( Heartthrobs : Live in Concert ( 2002 ) with Hrithik Roshan , Karisma Kapoor , Arjun Rampal and Aftab Shivdasani ) was successful in the United States and Canada . At the end of that year , she performed with several other Bollywood stars at Kings Park Stadium in Durban , South Africa in the show Now or Never .
Four years later , Kapoor returned to the stage with six other Bollywood celebrities in the successful Rockstars Concert world tour . The concert was originally scheduled to commence in April 2006 , but was postponed due to the arrest of Salman Khan . It later began the following month and was staged in 19 cities across the United Kingdom , the United States and Canada . In 2008 , Kapoor performed in Shah Rukh Khan 's Temptation Reloaded 2008 , a series of concerts in a number of countries . The show ( which also featured Arjun Rampal , Katrina Kaif , Ganesh Hegde , Javed Ali and Anusha Dandekar ) debuted at the Ahoy Rotterdam venue in Rotterdam , the Netherlands . Several months later she again joined Khan , Rampal and Kaif to perform for an audience of 15 @,@ 000 at Dubai 's Festival City Arena .
= = Public image and character = =
Known for her nonchalant relationship with the media , Kapoor has gained a reputation for discussing her private life with no reservations . As a child she regularly attended award ceremonies and events with her family , and would also accompany Karisma on @-@ set during filming . In an interview with Filmfare , she explained that growing up in a film family helped her develop a sense of professionalism and dedication towards her craft . Kapoor 's private life has been the subject of media attention in India , with frequent press coverage of her weight and relationship with actor Saif Ali Khan . The couple — dubbed " Saifeena " by the entertainment media — has been one of the country 's most @-@ reported celebrity stories since 2007 . In July 2016 , Khan confirmed to the media that they were expecting their first child , due in December 2016 .
While a segment of the press has described Kapoor as friendly and extremely close to her family , others have criticized her for being arrogant and vain — an image she gained in the wake of her superficial character , Poo , in Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( 2001 ) . She subsequently featured in films portraying similar characters , and this further established her off- and on @-@ screen personae . Before the release of Chameli ( 2004 ) ( in which she played a sex worker ) , Kapoor stated that " there is a certain image that people identify you with [ and ] [ i ] t always follows you whichever role you play . I am trying to transgress this image and become more screen @-@ friendly than image @-@ friendly . " Chameli helped Kapoor reinvent her on @-@ screen persona , and she later explained that her honesty and openness was often perceived by the media as arrogance .
Kapoor is also known for her assertive and moody nature , and her outspoken views and independence have been singled out for making major contributions to her career ; they " add to her superstar aura " . In an early interview , she confessed to being an " introvert , yet [ ... ] extremely candid and blunt " , reasoning : " Total faith and complete belief in myself is my attitude towards life , films and virtually everything else . I am all about doing what I feel is right . It is not easy to pin me down as I can be a bundle of contradictions . " Journalist Subhash K Jha explained that while this approach has sometimes been at the cost of professional opportunities , it " makes her such a favourite among the generation that believes in self regard being the highest form of creativity [ ... ] She lives for the moment and crams all her intensity into it , not sparing a single thought for what is gone and what is waiting around the corner . " Meanwhile , Anu Ahuja suggested that Kapoor 's demeanour is an act ; she is " cold and unapproachable so that no one will act funny with her " .
Today , Kapoor is considered as one of the most popular Bollywood celebrities in India . Her look and performances have established her as a style icon for young women . In a 2009 poll conducted by the newspaper Daily News and Analysis Kapoor was voted one of India 's most popular icons ; with her partner Saif Ali Khan , she was listed amongst the top celebrity endorsers for brands and products worldwide . She became the only Indian actress to be featured on CNNGo 's list of " Who Mattered Most in India " , and was later selected by Verve for its list of the country 's most powerful women from 2008 to 2013 . In June 2010 , Kapoor was named " India 's Most Beautiful Woman " by the Indian edition of People magazine ; Eastern Eye and Indian Maxim named her as " Asia 's Sexiest Woman " and " India 's Hottest Woman " in 2011 and 2012 respectively . The following year , she was selected by India Today for its list of the country 's most influential women . From 2012 – 15 , Kapoor has featured on Forbes India 's " Celebrity 100 , " a list based on the income and popularity of India 's celebrities . She ranked among the top 25 each year , peaking at the seventh position in 2012 with an estimated annual earning of ₹ 735 million ( US $ 11 million ) .
= = Performances : technique and analysis = =
According to media reports , Kapoor relies on her instincts and spontaneity as an actor . She is known to commit heavily to each role , and refrains from rehearsing for a project . Commenting on this , director Rajkumar Hirani said " I usually have a habit of conducting rehearsals for my actors , but she insisted on not having them as it would affect her spontaneity . She really surprised me with a couple of emotional scenes which we canned in just one take . " Karan Johar described Kapoor as a " natural " , explaining that " she has no craft , grammar or process attached to her acting [ ... ] It is a great sense of cinema that can keep her going . " According to Rensil D 'Silva ( who directed her in Kurbaan ) , " Kareena [ .. ] is instinctive and has emotional intelligence . She absorbs the situation and performs accordingly . Discussing the scene , in fact , harms her . "
While discussing her career highlights in a 2010 article , Rediff.com noted : " [ E ] ven though a lot of her starring roles have been forgettable , [ a ] look at her filmography now , however , would show a more thoughtful selection of roles [ ... ] playing to her strengths . " Her portrayal of a series of superficial characters at the start of her career were criticized ; film historian Gyan Prakash explained that these roles " tended to infantilise her , packaging her as daddy 's little girl , all bubble and no fizz " . Critics noted Chameli ( 2004 ) as her coming of age , claiming that " a new actor in her was discovered " . Following her portrayal of a variety of character types in Chameli , Dev ( 2004 ) , Omkara ( 2006 ) and Jab We Met ( 2007 ) , Kapoor was noted for her versatility . In 2010 , Filmfare Magazine included two of her performances — from Omkara and Jab We Met — in its list of " 80 Iconic Performances " . India Today labelled her " the most versatile female lead in the industry " , noting that she " play [ s ] her roles with trademark spunk " .
Manjula Sen of The Telegraph wrote that although she has " the worst success ratio among her contemporaries " , it does not affect her marketability . Sen further explained that Kapoor 's strength lies in her being versatile ; she is " effortlessly honest in her performances . It is a candour that spills over in her personal conduct . " Writing for CNN @-@ News18 , Rituparna Chatterjee spoke of her transformation to date : " [ A ] fter 40 films and 10 years of fighting off competition from some of the most versatile actors of her generation , Kareena has matured into a bankable actor reinventing herself with surprising ease . " In 2004 , Kapoor placed third on Rediff 's list of " Top Bollywood Female Stars " . She was later ranked seventh and fifth in 2005 and 2006 , respectively , and returned to third place in 2007 . In January 2011 , Kapoor placed fourth on Rediff 's list of " Top 10 Actresses of 2000 – 2010 " .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Kapoor has received six Filmfare Awards out of ten nominations . For her role in Refugee , Kapoor was awarded the Best Female Debut in 2000 . She earned a special jury recognition for Chameli ( 2003 ) , and two Critics Award for Best Actress for Dev ( 2004 ) and Omkara ( 2006 ) . Kapoor later received the Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress for Jab We Met ( 2007 ) and We Are Family ( 2010 ) respectively .
= Ryan Hanigan =
Ryan Michael Hanigan ( born August 16 , 1980 ) is an American professional baseball catcher for the Boston Red Sox of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . After graduating from Andover High School in 1999 , Hanigan attended Rollins College , where he signed as an undrafted free agent with the Cincinnati Reds . He then spent the 2002 to 2006 seasons with Reds minor league baseball teams before making his MLB debut on September 9 , 2007 as a pinch hitter . He recorded his first major league hit in that at @-@ bat . He also played for the Tampa Bay Rays . He has caught two no hitters , both thrown by Homer Bailey .
= = Early life = =
Hanigan was born on August 16 , 1980 , in Washington , D.C. , to Mike and Helen Hanigan . He has an older sister named Hayley . He played American Legion Baseball for American Legion Post 8 in Andover . At Andover High School , Hanigan was a three @-@ year varsity starter , and was named an Eagle @-@ Tribune and Eastern Massachusetts All @-@ Star during his senior season , in which he hit .397 . From 1997 – 98 , the Andover team had a 38 – 9 record . He was teammates with future professional golfer Rob Oppenheim , and graduated from the school in 1999 .
= = College career = =
After graduating from high school , Hanigan had a difficult time finding a college that would let him play baseball . He attended Rollins College in Winter Park , Florida , where he played third base or left field because of an upperclassman at the catcher position . During the summer in 2001 , Hanigan played in the New England Collegiate Baseball League , where he hit .282 in 38 games . In his junior year , he hit .384 with 48 RBIs over 57 games for Rollins , as the team finished 41 – 16 and clinched a berth to the NCAA Division II Baseball Championship . Hanigan would have served as team captain his senior year ; when he left Rollins , Hanigan 's .359 career batting average was seventh best in school history .
He played summer baseball in the Cape Cod League for Orleans Cardinals , where he was named the Top New England Prospect and an All @-@ Star . In August 2002 , Hanigan was awarded the Charles F. Moore Sr. award for the most valuable player on the Cardinals team . John Brickley , a scout for the Reds , signed him as a free agent on August 23 , although six other teams " showed interest " in signing the catcher .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
True fans of baseball understand that Hanigan is known for his extraordinarily competitive at @-@ bats . As early as T @-@ Ball--a league I 'm which it 's difficult to give away an AB-- " Hanny " as his teammates called him , was known for his patience and eye . " Every at @-@ bat is competitive with Ryan , " said then teammate Eric Derek . " This guy sets the rest of us up to crush that ball [ on the tee ] . " Hanigan continued commanding at @-@ bats all the way to the major leagues where his .190 average belies his mastery of the zone . " Watching him command an at @-@ bats isn 't unlike watching a ninja master command an inferior opponent , " said current teammate Dustin Pedroia . " I imagine . " In 2002 , Hanigan began his career with the Reds ' organization when he played in six minor league games for the Dayton Dragons of the Midwest League , batting .273 with three hits . On April 28 , 2003 , in a game against the Quad City River Bandits , he went 4 – 5 with three RBIs . Hanigan was named to the East squad in the Midwest League All @-@ Star Game , where he served as the reserve catcher . Later in July , he was placed on the disabled list ( DL ) with a high ankle sprain ; up until then , he was hitting .283 with 26 RBIs . Hanigan finished the season batting .277 with a home run and 31 RBIs , which earned him a promotion to the Triple @-@ A Louisville Bats . In one game for the Bats , he went 1 – 3 .
Hanigan spent the entire 2004 season with the Class A @-@ Advanced Potomac Cannons , where he served as the team 's catcher and designated hitter . From July 6 to July 29 , he had a 22 @-@ game hit streak , the longest in the Carolina League for the year . On August 24 , he hit in the game @-@ winning run against the Salem Avalanche with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning . For the season , Hanigan hit .296 with five home runs and 56 RBIs over 119 games as the Cannons made the Carolina League Northern Division playoffs for the first time since 1995 .
The following season , Hanigan played for the Double @-@ A Chattanooga Lookouts . On August 29 , 2005 , he hit a grand slam against the West Tennessee Diamond Jaxx as the Lookouts lost , 10 – 12 . After the season , he was selected by the Reds to represent the organization in the Arizona Fall League , and was a non @-@ roster invitee to the Reds 2006 spring training camp . In 2006 , Hanigan appeared in 56 games for the Lookouts as well as eight games for the Bats . During a July 13 , 2006 contest , Hanigan drove in the what would be the winning run with two outs in the seventh inning against the Birmingham Barons . For the season , he hit .246 for the Lookouts and .154 for the Bats .
Playing for the Lookouts , Hanigan was selected to the Southern League All @-@ Star Game in June 2007 . He was promoted to the Bats on June 28 , 2007 , after reaching base safely in 40 of his last 42 games for the Lookouts , including three four @-@ hit games . He was called up to the major @-@ league squad on September 1 . Hanigan made his MLB debut on September 9 against the Milwaukee Brewers . Pinch hitting for Kirk Saarloos , he doubled to left field off the first pitch from All @-@ Star Ben Sheets , and later scored a run on a wild pitch . For the MLB Reds , Hanigan hit .300 in five games played , with two RBIs and a double . During the off @-@ season , he played in the Dominican Professional Baseball League for the Leones del Escogido .
Playing for the Bats in 2008 , Hanigan was a mid @-@ season and postseason International League ( IL ) All @-@ Star , and was named the best defensive catcher in the IL by Baseball America . He was called up to the majors on August 10 , 2008 , after David Ross was designated for assignment by the Reds ; 18 days later , he hit a home run in the eighth inning to score what would be the winning run against the Houston Astros . After batting .271 in 31 games for the Reds , Hanigan was ranked as the 16th best prospect in the Reds minor league system by Baseball America .
Hanigan spent the entire 2009 season with the Reds except for five games with the Bats . He served as the backup catcher to Ramón Hernández until Hernández underwent knee surgery and was placed on the DL . Hanigan went on the DL after he was hit on the face mask by a foul tip and suffered a concussion ; he returned on August 8 , 2009 . For the season , Hanigan had the best fielding percentage as a catcher ( .998 ) , and the second best caught stealing percentage ( 42 @.@ 9 ) in the majors .
On March 14 , 2011 , Hanigan signed a three @-@ year , $ 4 million extension with the Reds , covering his first two arbitration @-@ eligible seasons . The contract also included up to $ 800 @,@ 000 in incentives based on playing time , split for the 2012 and 2013 seasons . The deal included a $ 300 @,@ 000 signing bonus .
On April 3 , 2011 , he set career records by hitting more than one home run and getting four hits in a single game . Against Chicago Cubs pitcher Sean Marshall , Hanigan drove in the tie @-@ breaking run in what was an 8 – 7 win for the Reds on August 7 . He finished the year batting .267 with an on @-@ base percentage of .356 and a career @-@ high of six home runs .
In 2012 and 2013 , Hanigan split time catching with Reds ' prospect Devin Mesoraco . Hanigan caught both of Homer Bailey 's no @-@ hitters , against the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 28 , 2012 , and against the San Francisco Giants on July 2 , 2013 .
= = = Tampa Bay Rays = = =
Hanigan was traded to the Tampa Bay Rays as part of a three @-@ team trade also involving the Arizona Diamondbacks on December 3 , 2013 . The Rays immediately signed him to a three @-@ year , $ 10 @.@ 75 million contract through 2016 , with a team option for 2017 .
Playing as the Rays ' primary catcher , on April 4 he went 2 @-@ 5 with a three @-@ run homer in a win over the Texas Rangers . Two weeks later he hit two home runs with six RBIs in a 16 @-@ 1 win over the New York Yankees . In May , Hanigan , plagued for nearly two weeks by a strained hamstring , was finally placed on the 15 @-@ day DL on May 28 . On June 17 he had a home run and a walk against the Baltimore Orioles , but he then missed several more games due to neck stiffness and later with soreness in his left side .
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
On December 19 , 2014 , the Rays traded Hanigan and Wil Myers to the San Diego Padres as part of a three @-@ team transaction , in which the Padres traded Jake Bauers , Burch Smith , and René Rivera to the Rays , the Padres trade Joe Ross and a player to be named later to the Washington Nationals , and Washington traded Steven Souza and Travis Ott to Tampa Bay . The Padres then traded him , later that same day , to the Boston Red Sox for Will Middlebrooks . On April 17 , 2015 , Hanigan hit his first home run in a Red Sox uniform off of Ubaldo Jiménez of the Baltimore Orioles . The two run shot tied the game that Boston eventually won in walk @-@ off fashion . On May 1 , 2015 , Hanigan left the game after a ball struck his hand after Mark Teixeira got struck in his hand first . The next day , X @-@ rays tested positive that Hanigan 's hand was fractured , placing him on the 15 @-@ day disabled list . The Red Sox projected that he was going to be out indefinitely but other sources projected that the injury did not end his 2015 year . On May 3 , 2015 , Hanigan was placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list .
= = Personal life = =
Hanigan currently resides in Lexington , Kentucky , where he also breeds horses . His Australian shepherd won a Best in Breed award at the 2014 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show .
= SS Pennsylvanian =
SS Pennsylvanian was a cargo ship built in 1913 for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . During World War I she was requisitioned by the United States Navy and commissioned as USS Pennsylvanian ( ID @-@ 3511 ) in September 1918 , and renamed two months later to USS Scranton . After her naval service , her original name of Pennsylvanian was restored .
Pennsylvanian was built by the Maryland Steel Company as one of eight sister ships for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company , and was employed in inter @-@ coastal service via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Panama Canal after it opened . Pennsylvanian was one of the first two steamships to travel eastbound through the canal when it opened in August 1914 . During World War I , as both SS Pennsylvanian and USS Scranton , the ship carried cargo and animals to France , and returned American troops after the Armistice in 1918 .
After her naval service ended in 1919 , she was returned to her original owners and resumed relatively uneventful cargo service over the next twenty years . Early in World War II , the ship was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration , and shipped cargo on New York – Caribbean routes and transatlantic routes . In mid @-@ July 1944 , Pennsylvanian was scuttled as part of the breakwater for one of the Mulberry artificial harbors built to support the Normandy Invasion .
= = Design and construction = =
In September 1911 , the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for four new cargo ships — Minnesotan , Dakotan , Montanan , and Pennsylvanian . The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an 8 % profit for Maryland Steel , with a maximum cost of $ 640 @,@ 000 each . The construction was financed by Maryland Steel with a credit plan that called for a 5 % down payment in cash with nine monthly installments for the balance . Provisions of the deal allowed that some of the nine installments could be converted into longer @-@ term notes or mortgages . The final cost of Pennsylvanian , including financing costs , was $ 70 @.@ 35 per deadweight ton , which came out to just under $ 716 @,@ 000 .
Pennsylvanian ( Maryland Steel yard no . 127 ) was the final ship built under the original contract . She was launched on 29 March 1913 , and delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian in June . Pennsylvanian was 6 @,@ 547 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 429 feet 2 inches ( 130 @.@ 81 m ) in length and 53 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 31 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 10 @,@ 175 LT DWT and a storage capacity of 491 @,@ 084 cubic feet ( 13 @,@ 906 @.@ 0 m3 ) . Pennsylvanian had a single quadruple expansion steam engine powered by oil @-@ fired boilers that drove a single screw propeller . It could propel the ship at a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . The engine had cylinders of 25 ½ inches ( 65 cm ) , 37 inches ( 94 cm ) , 53 ½ inches ( 136 cm ) and 78 inches ( 200 cm ) diameter by 54 inches ( 140 cm ) stroke . It was built by the Maryland Steel Company , Sparrows Point , Maryland .
= = Early career = =
When Pennsylvanian began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Tehuantepec Route to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route would arrive at Mexican ports — Salina Cruz , Oaxaca , for eastbound cargo , and Coatzacoalcos for westbound cargo — and would traverse the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Tehuantepec National Railway . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature . Pennsylvanian sailed in this service on the west side of North America .
After the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 ( which found six American @-@ Hawaiian ships in Mexican ports ) , the Huerta @-@ led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping . This loss of access , coupled with the fact that the Panama Canal was not yet open , caused American @-@ Hawaii to return in late April to its historic route of sailing around South America via the Straits of Magellan . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to taking that route . Pennsylvanian , on the west side of the canal when it opened , was one of the first two eastbound steamers to traverse the canal during her trip to New York . In late August , American @-@ Hawaiian announced that Pennsylvanian would sail on a San Francisco – Panama Canal – Boston route , sailing opposite of Mexican , Honolulan , and sister ship Washingtonian . When landslides closed the canal in October 1915 , all American @-@ Hawaiian ships , including Pennsylvanian , returned to the Straits of Magellan route again .
Pennsylvanian 's exact movements during 1916 and 1917 are unclear . She may have been in the half of the American @-@ Hawaiian fleet that was chartered for transatlantic service . She may also have been in the group of American @-@ Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America , delivering coal , gasoline , and steel in exchange for coffee , nitrates , cocoa , rubber , and manganese ore . However , when the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , the entire American @-@ Hawaiian fleet , including Pennsylvanian , was requisitioned by the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , which then returned the ships for operation by American @-@ Hawaiian .
= = U.S. Navy service = =
On 13 September 1918 , Pennsylvanian was transferred to the U.S. Navy at New York and commissioned USS Pennsylvanian ( ID @-@ 3511 ) the same day . Assigned to the Navy 's Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) , Pennsylvanian loaded a general cargo and sailed for Brest , France , on 30 September . She arrived there on 15 October and sailed for La Pallice the next day , where she unloaded her cargo before departing for New York on 5 November .
Arriving at New York on 15 November , four days after the Armistice , Pennsylvanian was refitted as an animal transport ship , which , among other things , required the building of ramps and stalls for the animals . Sometime in November , probably during her refit , she was renamed USS Scranton , becoming the first U.S. Navy ship named in honor of the Pennsylvania city . Scranton sailed for France on 12 December , arriving at Saint @-@ Nazaire on 29 December , and returning to New York on 29 January 1919 .
On 5 February , Scranton was transferred from the NOTS to the Navy 's Cruiser and Transport Force , and began conversion to a troop transport to carry American personnel home from France . While sailing to France to begin her first troop @-@ carrying duties in late March , Scranton suffered damage to her rudder and was disabled 900 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 700 km ) east of New York . Navy transport El Sol responded to Scranton 's distress call , and attempted to take Scranton under tow . During the day on 28 March , Scranton attempted to run a towline to El Sol by sending a launch in the rolling seas , but it capsized , drowning three men . El Sol stood by Scranton for over 40 hours until minesweeper Penguin arrived and took Scranton under tow . Penguin and Scranton arrived in New York on 3 April , where Scranton entered drydock to undergo repairs .
After repairs , Scranton made three roundtrips to France and carried some 6 @,@ 000 troops and passengers home to the United States before she was decommissioned on 19 July . The ship was handed over to the USSB for return to American @-@ Hawaiian , who restored her original name .
= = Interwar years = =
Pennsylvanian resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from World War I service . Though the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes by this time , Pennsylvanian continued inter @-@ coastal service through the Panama Canal in a relatively uneventful career . One incident of note occurred on 28 November 1930 , when Pennsylvanian hit a Southern Pacific ferry near Goat Island ( present @-@ day Yerba Buena Island ) in a dense fog in San Francisco Bay . Pennsylvanian hit the stern of the ferry and caused damage to the ferry 's superstructure and destroyed about 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of the ferry 's railing . No one on either ship was injured .
Other hints of Pennsylvanian 's activities throughout the rest of her career can be found from contemporary newspaper reports . In October 1929 , the Los Angeles Times reported on a shipment that included 2 @,@ 500 to 3 @,@ 000 radio sets among Pennsylvanian 's 2 @,@ 300 long tons ( 2 @,@ 340 t ) of cargo . In March 1938 , The Christian Science Monitor reported that Pennsylvanian 's captain , C. M. Bamforth , had temporarily turned the deck of the cargo ship into a boatyard to build a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) catboat for his son in Swampscott , Massachusetts . Bamforth laid the keel while in San Francisco , bought copper rivets for the hull planking in Portland , Oregon , and began painting the boat after Pennsylvanian had traversed the Panama Canal . He expected to have the boat finished when Pennsylvanian arrived in Boston on 22 April .
In October the same year , Pennsylvanian delivered 325 long tons ( 330 t ) of steel parts for the Hale Telescope then under construction at the Palomar Observatory outside San Diego . The ship had picked up the $ 375 @,@ 000 cargo in Philadelphia before sailing for San Diego .
= = World War II = =
At some point after the United States entered World War II , Pennsylvanian was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration ( WSA ) , and , as with her pre @-@ U.S. Navy service in World War I , she continued to be operated by American @-@ Hawaiian . From July to September 1942 , Pennsylvanian sailed between New York and Caribbean ports , calling at Trinidad , Key West , Hampton Roads , Guantánamo Bay , and Cristóbal . In January 1943 , Pennsylvanian called at Bandar Abbas , Iran , on the Persian Gulf , and returned to Caribbean sailings again by March 1943 .
Between May and September 1943 , Pennsylvanian made four transatlantic crossings between New York and Liverpool , making intermediate stops in Loch Ewe and Methil while in the United Kingdom . The cargo ship made two New York – Guantánamo Bay roundtrips between September and December before resuming transatlantic sailings . After two New York – Liverpool roundtrips between late December 1943 and April 1944 , Pennsylvanian left the United States for the final time on 19 May 1944 , arriving in Liverpool on 2 June . She called at the British ports of Methil , Loch Ewe , Clyde , and Milford Haven in late June and early July , and , sailing from Barry in mid July , Pennsylvanian arrived at Saint @-@ Laurent @-@ sur @-@ Mer , France . There she was scuttled as part of the breakwater for the Mulberry artificial harbor built to support the Normandy Invasion .
In March 1945 , the WSA offered a payment of $ 565 @,@ 910 to American @-@ Hawaiian for Pennsylvanian as part of a $ 7 @.@ 2 million settlement for eleven requisitioned American @-@ Hawaiian ships that had either been sunk , scuttled , or were to be retained by the government .
= Cabell Breckinridge =
Joseph " Cabell " Breckinridge ( July 14 , 1788 – September 1 , 1823 ) was a lawyer and politician in the U.S. state of Kentucky . From 1816 to 1819 , he was a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives , serving as speaker from 1817 to 1819 . In 1820 , he was appointed Kentucky Secretary of State by Governor John Adair . A member of the Breckinridge political family , he was the son of U.S. Attorney General John Breckinridge and the father of U.S. Vice President John C. Breckinridge .
Born in Albemarle County , Virginia to John Breckinridge ( 1760 @-@ 1806 ) and Mary Hopkins Cabell Breckinridge ( 1769 @-@ 1858 ) , Breckinridge moved to Kentucky with his parents in 1793 . When John Breckinridge was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1801 , Cabell traveled with him to Washington , D.C. , and completed preparatory studies at New London Academy ( now Colby – Sawyer College ) . In 1806 , he enrolled in the College of New Jersey ( now Princeton University ) . His studies were interrupted in 1807 when he participated in a student protest against the strict rules and rigorous curriculum at the institution , but after a year @-@ long break , he returned and completed his bachelor 's degree in 1810 . After graduation , he married Mary Clay Smith , daughter of Samuel Stanhope Smith , the university 's president .
Breckinridge intended to begin practicing law in Lexington , Kentucky , but he enlisted for service in the War of 1812 instead . After the war , he opened his practice and was elected to the Kentucky House , where he led an unsuccessful attempt to oust Gabriel Slaughter after he ascended to the governorship upon the death of George Madison . He served as Speaker of the House from 1817 to 1819 , and was appointed as Adair 's Secretary of State in 1820 . He moved to Frankfort , the state capital , so that he could attend to the duties of his office , but fell ill with a fever in August 1823 and died in office on September 1 .
= = Early life and family = =
Joseph Cabell Breckinridge was born in Albemarle County , Virginia , on July 14 , 1788 . He was the second child and first son of John and Mary Hopkins " Polly " ( née Cabell ) Breckinridge . He was named for his maternal grandfather , Joseph Cabell , of Virginia 's Cabell political family but was known as " Cabell " throughout his life .
In 1793 , the family moved to Lexington , Kentucky . Late in the year , a smallpox epidemic struck the city . Inoculations came too late , and Breckinridge , his mother , and three of his siblings were infected . Breckinridge , his mother , and his sister Letitia survived , but his sister Mary and brother Robert died . Other than this , historian Lowell H. Harrison wrote that " little is known of his boyhood " , although he speculates that he probably attended some local schools and read from his father 's extensive library .
In 1801 , when Breckinridge was 12 years old , his father was elected to the U.S. Senate . The family moved to Bedford County , Virginia , where they lived with relatives in order to be closer to the elder Breckinridge during the congressional session at Washington , D.C .. While there , Cabell Breckinridge attended New London Academy ( now Colby – Sawyer College ) . A case of measles prevented him from attending William and Mary College ( now College of William & Mary ) , his father 's alma mater , where his cousin , future Congressman James Breckinridge , was enrolled . In 1803 , he accompanied his father to the capital where he witnessed the debates over the Louisiana Purchase before returning to college in October . After Congress adjourned in March , John Breckinridge met his son in Virginia , and they arrived back at Cabell 's Dale , the family estate near Lexington , on April 18 , 1804 . He did not return to Virginia with his father in late 1804 , instead pursuing preparatory studies under Colonel Samuel Wilson in advance of his enrollment at the College of New Jersey ( now Princeton University ) .
= = Studies at Princeton University = =
Breckinridge arrived in Princeton , New Jersey , in late December 1805 . He had completed his final exams by April 5 , but he declined his father 's offer to come to Washington because he needed to catch up on his studies in arithmetic . When the next term began in May , he joined the American Whig – Cliosophic Society , a debating society founded by James Madison , Philip Freneau , Aaron Burr , and Henry Lee in 1769 .
In mid @-@ 1806 , Cabell learned that his father was sick . Not long after , however , he received word that his father was improving and expected to meet him in Virginia en route to the capital . Although a rendezvous location had not been set , he assumed it would be in Lynchburg , where the Breckinridges had relatives . In October , he traveled to his uncle Lewis Breckinridge 's home to wait for his father , but he never came . Disappointed , he returned to Princeton for the beginning of the new term , unaware that his father 's recovery had been short @-@ lived . Later he learned that his father had attempted to leave Cabell 's Dale on October 22 but collapsed off his horse and returned to his sick bed ; he died December 14 , 1806 .
In January 1807 , travelers from Kentucky finally brought news of John Breckinridge 's death . Despite Cabell 's declaration to a relative that , " I consider my life dedicated to my mother 's ease " , Breckinridge continued his studies . John Breckinridge died intestate , complicating the settlement of his estate and creating financial difficulties for Cabell , who had been receiving support from his father . Desperate , he appealed to Alfred Grayson , his sister Letitia 's husband and son of Senator William Grayson , for assistance .
In March 1807 , about 125 students organized a protest against the college 's strict conduct policies and rigorous study requirements . The protest included signing a formal petition of protest ; college administrators subsequently suspended everyone who refused to withdraw his name from the petition . Breckinridge was required to apologize for his part in the protest in order to return to school , but he refused to do so . In May , he left Princeton for Cabell 's Dale , but in Philadelphia he found that there were no available stages heading west for two weeks . Unable to afford room and board for that long , he went to Fincastle , Virginia , to stay with relatives . He considered enrolling at the College of William and Mary for the fall term in 1807 , believing he could complete his studies in nine months but ultimately decided against it . Harrison surmises that the lack of correspondence between Breckinridge and his family in Kentucky between July 1807 to July 1808 indicated that he was at Cabell 's Dale during most or all of that period .
By July 1808 , Breckinridge had decided to return to Princeton in October to finish his studies . His roommate , James G. Birney , and the university president , Samuel Stanhope Smith , were both ardent abolitionists , and through their influence , he became convinced that slavery must be ended , but only by voluntary emancipation , not by government interference . He completed his bachelor 's degree in 1810 .
= = Marriage and law practice = =
While completing his degree , Breckinridge began courting Mary Clay Smith , the daughter the university president and granddaughter of John Witherspoon , a signer of the Declaration of Independence . After graduation , he journeyed home , but returned to Princeton where he and Smith were married on May 11 , 1811 . The couple had five children – Frances ( b . 1812 ) , Caroline ( b . 1813 ) , Mary Cabell ( b . 1815 ) , John Cabell ( b . 1821 ) , and Laetitia ( b . 1822 ) . John Cabell Breckinridge went on to represent Kentucky in both houses of Congress , was elected Vice President of the United States in 1856 , and was the fifth and final Confederate States Secretary of War .
After attending wedding celebrations with friends and relatives in Princeton , Philadelphia , and New York City , the couple moved in with Breckinridge 's widowed mother at Cabell 's Dale . Before Breckinridge could commence practice , the U.S. entered the War of 1812 . He was commissioned a major and served as aide @-@ de @-@ camp under Samuel Hopkins . He would later refer to the war as " a foolish and ineffectual brace of campaigns on the Illinois and Wabash " . After the war , Breckinridge returned to Kentucky , was admitted to the bar in 1814 , and opened a practice in Lexington . Concurrent with his practice , he served as a professor of religion . He also helped found the Second Presbyterian Church in Lexington and became one of its ruling elders . In 1815 , he purchased Thorn Hill , a home in Lexington , from John W. Hunt .
= = Political career = =
In 1816 , Breckinridge was elected as a Democratic @-@ Republican to represent Fayette Countyin the Kentucky House of Representatives , gaining the largest majority given to a candidate for office in that county to that point . Historian Lewis Collins notes that Breckinridge 's legislative career began during the national " Era of Good Feelings " , largely congruent with the presidency of James Monroe , when political disagreements were relatively few . Nevertheless , dissension erupted in Kentucky in October 1816 after the death of Governor George Madison just three weeks into his term . Lieutenant Governor Gabriel Slaughter , as acting governor , rescinded Madison 's appointment of Charles Stewart Todd as Secretary of State , replacing him with former Senator John Pope , who was unpopular because of his vote against declaring the War of 1812 . Slaughter followed this up by appointing Martin D. Hardin , widely regarded as a Federalist despite his nominal identification with the Democratic @-@ Republicans , to fill the Senate vacancy caused by the resignation of William T. Barry .
Both appointments were unpopular in the state , and on January 27 , 1817 , Breckinridge formed a coalition of legislators in the House that sponsored a bill to elect " a governor to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of " Madison , essentially an attempt to oust Slaughter from the governorship . The bill passed the House by a vote of 56 – 30 , but the Senate refused to concur . Madison 's death was the first time the lieutenant governor succeeded permanently to the governorship , establishing the precedent for future instances . Nevertheless , several anti @-@ Slaughter candidates were elected in the 1817 legislative elections . Breckinridge was re @-@ elected in both 1817 and 1818 and was chosen Speaker of the House both years .
In 1820 , Breckinridge 's friend , newly elected Governor John Adair , appointed him as Kentucky Secretary of State . Of this appointment , historian William C. Davis wrote , " It was a prestigious , albeit not too influential , position and would require his full @-@ time presence at the capital . " He remained in Lexington until the birth of his son in January 1821 ; in February , the family moved to the Governor 's Mansion in Frankfort to live with Adair . Although his mother opposed the move to Frankfort , he intended for it to be permanent ; an acquaintance wrote that " his plans were extensive and his hopes high " for his family 's
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release of " Climax " on Valentine 's Day the preceding year .
" Go Missin ' " contains similar characteristics to " Climax " ; it is a quiet storm mid @-@ tempo R & B track , and incorporates heavy bass and synthesizers . Usher utilizes his falsetto range throughout , with Billboard writing that the song 's lyrics follow Usher attempting to " convince a stranded woman at a club to come home with him " . The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised Diplo 's production and Usher 's vocals .
= = Background and release = =
On February 14 , 2013 , Valentine 's Day , Usher announced through his Twitter and Facebook the release of a new single . He wrote through Twitter " You loved what I gave you last Valentine 's # Climax So here is ' Special delivery from the cloud 'Happy [ sic ] Valentine 's Day ! " . " Go Missin ' " was released on the day of its announcement through SoundCloud as a free download . The song was produced by Diplo , who previously collaborated with Usher on the track " Climax " , which was released as the lead single from the latter 's seventh studio album , Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . " Go Missin ' " was later released to Italian radio on February 22 , 2013 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Go Missin ' " has a running duration of three minutes and two seconds . It contains similar characteristics to " Climax " , in that it is a quiet storm R & B track , complimented by drum machine . It is built upon synthesizers , while incorporating bass . Usher utilizes his falsetto range throughout the song , shifting in arrangements . Billboard wrote that the song 's lyrics follow Usher attempting to " convince a stranded woman at a club to come home with him " . The Huffington Post 's Kia Makarechi described " Go Missin ' " as a " standard track " , and wrote that its lyrics contain " serial killer @-@ esque " undertones in the line : Conscience telling you you shouldn 't go , don 't listen / I 'mma take care of you for sure / Follow me right out that back door / Go missin .
= = Critical response = =
August Brown of Los Angeles Times commended the song 's production and Usher 's vocals . Brown described the track as to be " full of roiling snares and boomy bass kicks " while saying that Usher 's vocals are " so pristine " that they walk a line between " digital witch @-@ magic and the hair @-@ raising choral work of Ligeti . " About.com 's Mark Edward Nero described the collaboration as " innovative " , and thought that the track contained a " cinematic quality with delicate vocals laid over a moody , semi @-@ futuristic electronic beat " . Billboard 's David Greenwald compared " Go Missin ' " to the work of Canadian singer The Weeknd , while describing Usher 's vocals as " seductive " .
Marc Hogan of Spin wrote that despite the song not being as " immediately jaw @-@ dropping " compared to " Climax " , it still contains the same " Radiohead quiet storm style " as the latter song , with Usher utilizing his " hair @-@ raising falsetto " . Forrest Wickman of Slate magazine interpreted the song as different in terms of music and lyrics to the latter song . Wickman praised Usher 's vocals , describing them as " calculated " to make you feel " uneasy , swirling around in minor harmonies " . Rolling Stones 's Jon Dolan gave the song three out of five stars , writing that " Go Missin ' " is not as " subtle " as " Climax " , though he praised its implementation of synthesizers , saying that it gives the song a " nervous , predatory throb " .
= You Know What You Did =
" You Know What You Did " is the first episode of the third season of The Hills . It originally aired on MTV on August 13 , 2007 . In the episode , Lauren Conrad ends her friendship with former housemate Heidi Montag after suspecting that she and her boyfriend Spencer Pratt fabricated rumors of a sex tape involving herself and her ex @-@ boyfriend Jason Wahler . The ensuing feud between the women becomes a central focus of the series , and is carried through each subsequent season in which Conrad appears .
" You Know What You Did " was produced by Tony DiSanto , Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Sara Mast , Andrew Perry , Jason Sands , Robyn Schnieders , Sean Travis , Michael " Spike " Van Briesen , and Rick Van Meter . The episode was met with generally favorable reviews from critics , who felt that the changed dynamic between Conrad and Montag was entertaining for television . It was additionally notable for Conrad 's delivery of the titular line " You know what you did ! " when speaking to Montag , which has since been recognized as an iconic moment from the series .
According to Nielsen ratings , " You Know What You Did " was watched by 3 @.@ 6 million viewers in its original airing . The episode was released on DVD on July 19 , 2008 , packaged with the third season set .
= = Plot = =
The third season of The Hills begins with Whitney Port becoming Lauren 's boss , after being promoted within Teen Vogue . On their first day returning to work , Lauren informs Whitney of false speculation regarding a sex tape involving herself and her ex @-@ boyfriend Jason Wahler . Lauren comments that she has not spoken with Heidi since she moved into an apartment with Spencer , and the women become suspicious of her possible involvement with the rumors . Meanwhile , Heidi and Spencer are planning their housewarming party ; Spencer plans on inviting several of his friends , while Heidi was only planning on inviting Lauren , Whitney , and Audrina Patridge . Visiting Audrina at Epic Records unannounced , she delivers invitations for Audrina and Lauren . Audrina accepts the invitations , although later tells her co @-@ worker that she believes that Heidi and Spencer were speaking badly of Lauren and were responsible for spreading the sex tape rumors .
Lauren and Whitney decline their invitations to the housewarming party , and instead plan an impromptu outing at the club Les Deux . Meanwhile , during the housewarming party , Jenn Bunney makes a brief appearance at the apartment , although Heidi is disappointed after realizing that Lauren will not be attending . Unaware that they will run into Heidi and Spencer , Lauren and Audrina attend a birthday party for their friend Frankie Delgado the following day . As Lauren leaves for the bathroom after Heidi gives her a letter , Heidi tells Audrina that she is unsure of the reason for the tension between them . Audrina finds Lauren in the bathroom and they read the letter together , which details Heidi 's interest in rekindling their friendship . Angered that Heidi will not acknowledge the sex tape rumors , Lauren decides to exit the club .
At the recommendation of Spencer , Heidi confronts Lauren before she is able to leave the club . Lauren and Audrina get into an argument with Heidi and Spencer outside of Les Deux , where Lauren delivers the now @-@ famous quote " You know what you did ! " , elaborating that " You started a sick little rumor about me ! You 're a sad , pathetic person . " The following morning , Heidi explains to her co @-@ worker Elodie Otto that she was unaware of said speculation , and still wants to reconcile with Lauren . Meanwhile , Lauren tells Whitney that she is saddened by the idea of losing her friend , although admits that she has benefited from their separation .
= = Production = =
" You Know What You Did " was produced by Tony DiSanto , Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Sara Mast , Andrew Perry , Jason Sands , Robyn Schnieders , Sean Travis , Michael " Spike " Van Briesen , and Rick Van Meter . Rumors of a sex tape involving Conrad and Wahler , in addition to stories alleging that she invaded his house to retrieve it , surfaced in April 2007 . Conrad adamantly denied both reports , commenting that " if I ever tried to get something back from Jason , it was probably just photo albums and stuff " and the producers " videotape my life five days out of the week . I don 't need additional footage , you know ? "
The president of entertainment for MTV , Brian Graden , commented that the series benefits from the media coverage it receives in between seasons , which he described as a " six @-@ month commercial for the show that doesn 't five away the narrative in full . " He elaborated that MTV wants " viewers to watch Lauren and the girls as the characters we know instead of in a show about being the stars of The Hills " ; the sex tape rumors were consequently presented like a personal conflict between the women , and was intentionally not addressed as a highly publicized controversy .
The ensuing feud between Conrad and Montag received extensive media attention since its beginning ; Conrad was doubtful of the possibility of a reconciliation , noting that " I can see us getting to not hating each other but I don 't think we would ever go back to being best friends . " When addressing speculation that the conflict was fabricated for television , Conrad stated that " I wouldn 't fight for the camera . If anything I would try not to . " In a separate interview , she revealed that she almost quit the program before the season began , stating " it wasn 't so much about the filming , but I didn 't want to do a show with the other people on it " , which was assumed to be alluding to Montag and Pratt .
= = Release and reception = =
" You Know What You Did " was met with generally favorable reviews from critics , who felt that the changed dynamic between Conrad and Montag was entertaining for television . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Jennifer Armstrong provided a favorable review ; she opined that the conflict between Conrad and Montag made for the " most mature season ever " and offered a disclaimer that the term " maturity " was " being relative here , of course . " A writer for The Hollywood Gossip stated that the episode " didn 't disappoint " , and felt that the storyline clearly categorized Patridge and Port as being part of " Team Lauren " and Pratt as being part of " Team Heidi " in the " epic war " .
Virginia Heffernan from The New York Times felt that the deterioration of Conrad and Montag 's friendship was " more convincing than Friends and just about any other comedy about female relationships because — as anyone who has ever been a young woman knows — undying friendships die . " Writing for Los Angeles Times , Denise Martin was complimentary of the fact that the conflict was " unsullied " despite the extensive media coverage it received before the season began , and added that it was " better than anything you 'd get on All My Children . " Furthemore , Conrad 's delivery of the titular line " You know what you did ! " when speaking to Montag has been recognized as an iconic moment from the series ; the staff from Us Weekly ranked the scene as the most memorable event from the program when recapping highlights from its six seasons in July 2010 .
In its original broadcast in the United States on August 13 , 2007 , " You Know What You Did " was watched by 3 @.@ 6 million viewers . Consequently , it became the series ' most @-@ viewed episode at the time of its first airing ; as August 2007 , the episode was the network 's highest @-@ rated broadcast that year . It was surpassed by " Paris Changes Everything " , which served as the premiere for the second half of the season , on March 17 , 2008 ; it attracted 4 @.@ 8 million viewers in its original airing . In the United States , the third season was released as a four @-@ disc DVD set on July 19 , 2008 .
= Early Winter =
" Early Winter " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani from her second solo studio album , The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) . Written by Stefani and English pianist Tim Rice @-@ Oxley , the song was released in Europe as the album 's fifth and final single on January 18 , 2008 by Interscope Records . Musically , " Early Winter " is a soft rock and synthpop ballad with new wave influences . Critics found it similar to songs by English alternative rock band Keane . The lyrics of the song describe the nearing of the end of a relationship , and were speculated to be references to Stefani 's own relationship with husband Gavin Rossdale .
Upon its release , " Early Winter " received generally positive reviews from music critics , many of whom commended Stefani 's vocal delivery and the song 's emotional appeal . The song charted on only a few record charts , but performed well in Germany and Slovakia , where it peaked at number six on the singles and airplay chart , respectively . An accompanying music video for " Early Winter " was directed by Sophie Muller and was filmed in destinations like Budapest , Milan , and Prague . It contains scenes of Stefani in a palace @-@ like hall in various gowns and at railway stations . " Early Winter " was included in the setlist of The Sweet Escape Tour , and the performances featured a special coda section delivered by American musician and bassist Gail Ann Dorsey .
= = Background = =
" Early Winter " was written by Tim Rice @-@ Oxley , pianist of English alternative rock band Keane , and Gwen Stefani for the latter 's second solo studio album The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) . The production of the song was handled by Nellee Hooper . Before working with Oxley in the studio , Stefani called him to discuss some of her ideas behind a potential song , saying " I wanted a ballad . I wanted to write ' Eyes Without a Face ' or ' Killing Me Softly ' or ' Time After Time , ' and he was like , ' OK , Cyndi Lauper , got it , ' like he was taking my order . " In the studio , Oxley played " Early Winter " on a piano , and after hearing the song , Stefani approved of it and commented that " It was so beautiful and addictive . I didn 't really attack it because it was kind of done , lyrics and everything . " After letting the song " sit with her for a bit " , she rewrote some of the lyrics .
Stefani was the first artist Oxley wrote a song for outside of Keane , and the singer remarked that " he 's like Clark Kent @-@ subtle , but Superman @-@ talented . I 'm lucky I was his first , because I 'm sure he 's going to go write with lots of girls after me . " Oxley would later collaborate with artists like Australian singer Kylie Minogue , and in an interview he talked about working with her and Stefani , saying " I 've been very lucky to work with people at the top of the industry . Both were very talented and more creative than I think they ’ re given credit for . They ’ re both very good writers and singers and they both work so hard , just grafting the whole time . Honing those pop sensibilities through writing with them was good fun " .
= = Composition and release = =
Musically , " Early Winter " is a " sleek , surging " soft rock and synthpop ballad . Similar to Stefani 's work with her band No Doubt , it is highly influenced by new wave music . Clark Collis from Entertainment Weekly termed it a " tortured and not un @-@ Keane @-@ like lament " . The lyrics of " Early Winter " are based on issues related to the end of a relationship , and Jennifer Vineyard from MTV described them to be " poignant lyrics about a couple recognizing the beginning of the end " . In the song , Stefani metaphorically compares the end of her relationship with her partner to falling leaves . It was speculated that the song was a reference to Stefani 's own relationship with English musician and husband Gavin Rossdale . " Early Winter " was chosen as the fifth and final single from The Sweet Escape , and was released in Europe as a CD single on January 25 , 2008 by Interscope Records . It was made available for digital download on the iTunes Store on January 18 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics . Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club praised Stefani 's vocal delivery , saying her " nasal voice suits the whiny sentiment of the subject matter " and opining that she " sounds most commanding in songs that flirt with blush @-@ making drippiness " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy rated " Early Winter " four out of five stars , and complimented its emotional nature , naming it a " forgotten classic from an eighties movie soundtrack " and deeming it " the most affecting moment of Stefani 's solo career to date " . John Murphy from MusicOMH called the song " rather nice " and appreciated its lyrical content , although he commented that " it does sound like Stefani covering a Keane song " . Alex Miller from NME complimented Oxley 's involvement in " Early Winter " and singled it out as " one of the few potential hits " from The Sweet Escape . Mark Pytlik from Pitchfork Media picked " Early Winter " as one of the highlights from the album and favoured Stefani 's vocal delivery , noting that the song " proves that Stefani still has the ability to elevate an otherwise ordinary rock song to another level " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine complimented " Early Winter " for being " less forced and much less self @-@ conscious " in comparison to the rest of the songs on The Sweet Escape , and felt that " it 's refreshing to hear Stefani in her more natural habitat " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Early Winter " had limited chart success , and appeared on only a few charts . It narrowly missed charting inside the top twenty of the Austrian Singles Chart by peaking at number twenty @-@ two , although it stayed on the chart for nineteen weeks . " Early Winter " debuted and peaked at number six on the German Singles Chart , becoming Stefani 's second highest @-@ peaking single in the region , alongside " The Sweet Escape " ( 2006 ) . It spent fourteen weeks on the German chart . The song failed to chart on the Hungarian Singles Chart , but managed to peak at number seventeen on the airplay chart . " Early Winter " entered the Slovak Airplay Chart at number 95 and peaked at number six , and spent a total of thirty @-@ nine weeks on the chart . After debuting at number fifty @-@ two on the Swiss Singles Chart , it ascended to number twelve and spent a total of twenty weeks on the chart .
= = Promotion = =
An accompanying music video for " Early Winter " was directed by Stefani 's frequent collaborator Sophie Muller , who had previously directed the music videos of " Cool " and " Wind It Up " . Filming of the music video took place at destinations like Budapest , Milan , and Prague , where Stefani had been touring during The Sweet Escape Tour in 2007 . It opens with a black @-@ and @-@ white scene of Stefani lying on the ground in a long white gown . In the next scene , Stefani is shown walking on the street under red street lights and then holds her love interest , played by her tour backup dancer Steelo Vazquez , against the wall and talks to him . The scene then changes to Stefani walking on a street and later walking into the railway station . In the next scene , Stefani is seen singing under falling red @-@ coloured feathers in a huge palace @-@ type hall . Scenes of Stefani staring at herself in the mirror with her hair up and snow falling slowly down , with the lights turning on and off intermittently , are interspersed throughout the video . Stefani is also seen sitting on the ground and singing while crying . She is then shown at a railway station walking besides a moving train . The video ends with Stefani running out of the hall . Tamar Anitai from MTV Buzzworthy praised the video for being " acutely artful , immeasurably stylish " and commented that " Gwen ’ s managed to raise the bar on her own superlatively supreme style in her new video . "
" Early Winter " was included on the setlist of The Sweet Escape 's promotional tour of the same name . The performance of the song included a coda section , which was delivered by American musician and bassist Gail Ann Dorsey . Joan Anderman from The Boston Globe regarded " Early Winter " as a " winsome anthem " and Dorsey 's coda performance " thrilling " .
= = Track listing = =
CD single and digital download
" Early Winter " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 44
" Early Winter " ( Live ) – 6 : 53
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Sweet Escape .
= = Charts = =
= Blue Dragon =
Blue Dragon ( Japanese : ブルードラゴン , Hepburn : Burū Doragon ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Mistwalker and Artoon and published by Microsoft Game Studios exclusively for the Xbox 360 . Blue Dragon is based on a design by Final Fantasy series creator Hironobu Sakaguchi , who also supervised development and wrote the plot . It is both Mistwalker 's debut title and the first title to be helmed by Sakaguchi outside of Square Enix . The game was released in Japan on December 7 , 2006 , where it was sold both as a standalone title and as part of a bundle with the Xbox 360 ( including the game , the Xbox 360 system itself , and a Blue Dragon console skin ) . Other regions received only the game itself , with a release in Europe on August 24 , 2007 , and in North America on August 28 , 2007 .
Taking place in a fictional open @-@ world environment , the story of Blue Dragon focuses on five friends ( Shu , Jiro , Kluke , Zola , and Marumaro ) as they travel across the world to confront Nene , the evil ruler of the Grand Kingdom . The setting inspired separate anime and manga adaptations , although these follow the story to different degrees and feature a different cast of characters . The game follows a traditional role @-@ playing design , based around exploration and turn @-@ based combat .
Blue Dragon is the first Xbox 360 title to make use of multiple discs , spanning three discs in total . Overall , the game has received a positive reception , with an average score of 77 @.@ 48 % on the review aggregator website Game Rankings . Blue Dragon was both applauded and criticized for its adaptation of the traditional elements of role @-@ playing games .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Blue Dragon uses turn @-@ based gameplay elements seen in older Japanese role @-@ playing video games . The game world contains two major types of areas : towns , in which the player can rest and purchase items , and dungeon @-@ like areas , with numerous foes to be defeated .
= = = Exploration = = =
Players are initially able to walk between locations on the overworld , and later gain the ability to teleport to previously visited locations . The player controls a party of characters , but only one is shown when exploring the overworld . The player is able to cast magic outside of combat situations based on each character 's respective abilities . When combat begins , the entire party appears for battle . Enemies are visible to the player while exploring the game world , and can be avoided . At the same time , players can choose to engage enemies by luring them close and them activating a circle which will allow players to fight multiple monsters at a time . In some cases , specific foes will block a path or desired treasure chest and must be defeated to proceed . Other foes will pursue the player 's character once the player is spotted , but players can elude them if they flee far enough . Frequently , a single enemy or monster displayed on the screen actually represents a number of different foes of potentially different types .
Combat begins differently depending on how the player avatar makes contact with the monster . If the avatar strikes an enemy from behind , they take the advantage in battle with a " Back Attack " . Similarly , if the avatar is struck from behind , the enemy takes the advantage in a " Surprise Attack " . Players can also choose to fight several groups of monsters at once , with each combat taking place immediately after the previous one . A player who successfully employs this tactic is rewarded with bonuses . Players may use " field skills " to aid in controlling enemy encounters , such as using bombs to paralyze enemies . In rare cases , two groups of monsters may be of rival species , in which case a " Monster Fight " will occur , with both monster groups appearing at once and focusing on each other before attacking the player .
= = = Shadows = = =
The core mechanic in Blue Dragon is the use of magical " shadows " , with each playable character having a distinct shadow modeled after either a dragon , a phoenix , a bat , a minotaur , or a saber @-@ toothed tiger . Each shadow can be assigned to a single character class ( from a number of such classes ) at a time , taking on the attributes and abilities of that class . Only the active class may earn Class levels or " ranks " , but players are free to change classes at any time except in combat , allowing the group 's shadows to be customized in order to achieve the desired combination of skills .
As shadows increase in rank in a given class , they learn new skills , which can then be assigned to a limited number of skill slots to be used in combat . Shadows can be assigned previously learned skills regardless of their current class . For example , if a shadow is currently set to be an " Assassin " , but has previously learned the ability to cast " Barrier Magic " while acting as a member of the Barrier Magic class , the Barrier Magic skill can be set as an active skill . This allows mixing or hybridization , with the player able to pick and choose from among the skills learned by a given shadow .
= = = Combat = = =
Although combat in the game follows a strictly turn @-@ based formula , the turn sequence of the characters you have are calculated based on the speed statistic of the character , and in some cases characters are allowed to strike before enemies can act if they possess sufficient speed . Different attacks can take varied periods of time to execute .
Another combat timing mechanic featured in the game is the " Charge Meter " , which allows players to increase the power of spells or attacks by spending additional time preparing them . This meter is always used for spell casting , as well as when using the " Charge Attack " skill used by the " Monk " class . Although players can choose to act immediately , an ability will become more powerful the longer that the player charges the attack . However , the greater the amount of time one charges attacks , the longer the charging character must wait before the next turn . As a result of this , players can choose to charge up an ability so that the ability triggers shortly before an enemy acts , or can instead aim for the " sweet spot " , a special red area on the charging bar , indicating a charge that allows for less time until the next attack , as well as a smaller mana cost . Overall , deciding on the correct amount of charge and letting go of the button at precisely that time can greatly influence the effectiveness of each character 's attacks during combat .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Blue Dragon takes place in a fictional open @-@ world environment where every year for the past ten years , purple clouds have mysteriously appeared in the sky , signaling misfortune and disaster for people across the world . For years , a terrifying beast dubbed the " Land Shark " , and other lost technologies , such as the " sea cube " came with the purple clouds , killing thousands of people and destroying a number of villages . The world is split up into climate regions , each containing multiple kingdoms and villages , a few of which are not on the main path , but hold small stories , such as the giants , and the sheep , as well as hidden dungeons . Around the environment are multiple sources of treasure
= = = Story = = =
On an unnamed world , the legendary purple clouds arrive in Talta Village which is the home of Shu , Kluke , and Jiro . While the other villagers seek shelter , Shu and Jiro slow down the Land Shark . After encountering troubles , Kluke saves them . Together , the three trap the Land Shark in a net , but the Land Shark breaks free and rushes away , with Shu , Jiro , and Kluke dangling from its back . The Land Shark stops in an ancient ruin that the three friends explore . They discover the Land Shark is really a machine — a " Mechat " . Without warning , the mechat comes to life , only this time sailing into the sky , again carrying the three with it .
The party arrives at a giant Mechat base in the clouds and are tossed into the throne room of Nene , the apparent leader . Nene explains to them how he enjoys hearing the screams of the dying victims of the Land Shark . The party battles Nene , but are easily defeated . They are thrown out of the base and start to fall to their deaths , but a beam of light from the base catches them , and brings them back to the base . The party find three small floating spheres in the middle of the room ; a mysterious voice commands them to swallow the spheres . The party refuses , and instead hold onto the spheres for safekeeping . As they try to reach another Mechat to escape the base , they are forced to fight a large army of Nene 's robots . When the battle seems it will never end , and with the unseen voice promising them knowledge of how to pilot the Mechat , the party members eat the spheres . As they consume the spheres , a strange transformation occurs to each , changing the forms of their shadows into powerful beings that are able to destroy the robot army . The party escapes the base and crash in a desert .
After becoming familiar with their new shadows , the party travels to Talta village , befriending Marumaro on the way , who also possesses a magical shadow . Finding that the villagers from Talta have started to head towards the capital city of Jibral , the party takes off after them . Just outside Jibral , the party finds the villagers attacked by Steel @-@ Eating Tigers . They are saved by the arrival of King Jibral and his forces , including Zola . Once the villagers are brought to Jibral , the King decides to implement a plan to destroy one of Nene 's bases near Jibral using Shu and his friends along with Zola . Together , the party works with the warriors of Talta Village the Jibral Kingdom to besiege Nene 's Mechat base . After the base is destroyed , the party heads north in search of Nene . Nene captures Kluke , and places a collar around her neck which Nene alleges will explode . After reaching Nene , Zola separates from the party to buy them time to attack Nene . When the party attempts to remove Kluke 's collar , Nene absorbs the party 's shadows by placing collars on all of them . After taking their powers and placing them in himself , he removes their collars and attempts to kill them before they recover . Shu , despite being drained of magical ability , unconsciously teleports the party to the distant Devour village .
In Devour Village , they find themselves unable to escape the village without their magic , because the community is surrounded by evil trees . Shu has an epiphany and finds himself able to summon his dragon shadow without his sphere . Shu destroys the Eat Yeet in Devour Village , and the party is finally able to leave . Eventually all the party are able to summon their shadows again .
At that point , the party reunites with Zola , who supplies a Mechat for them to pursue Nene . As the party goes after Nene in the Mechat , Nene initiates an ancient machine that splits the world into two hemispheres , with thousands of isolated cubes floating between the halves . The party follows Nene to the Primitive Cube at the core of the transformation . The party journeys through the cube eventually defeating General Szabo and ultimately engaging Nene . As the party weakens Nene , it is revealed that Zola was working for Nene all along , and she was the voice that told the others to swallow the spheres . When Zola was too weak to defend herself , Nene had given her a shadow and sent her to Jibral as a spy . Zola betrays and kills Nene choosing her friends over him .
Deathroy , the small creature that has been on Nene 's shoulder removes himself from his masters body and absorbs Nene 's remaining life force . Deathroy is revealed to be Destroy , the biomechanical weapon that destroyed the legendary ancients that once tried to bring peace to the world . The party defeats Destroy , melting him in lava . The party then quickly escapes from the melting cube to rejoin their families .
= = Development = =
Blue Dragon was first revealed on February 24 , 2005 as one of two unnamed role @-@ playing games in development by Mistwalker Studios for the console which later came to be known as the Xbox 360 . In an IGN interview following the unveiling , Peter Moore stressed the importance to Microsoft of having Japanese games available on the system , commenting " ... It 's a main priority for me in the next 12 – 18 months to ensure Japanese developers are our partners . " Contributors to Blue Dragon include a number of well known Japanese figures in the gaming industry . The title 's original story was written by Hironobu Sakaguchi , the game director of the first five Final Fantasy video games . It also features art from Akira Toriyama , the creator of Dragon Ball and visual character and monster designer and illustrator of both the Dragon Quest series and Chrono Trigger .
Much of the actual software development work on the game was done at Artoon , with Takuya Matsumoto serving as director and Manabu Kusonoki responsible for the game 's world view . Matsumoto previously worked as a designer on Blinx 2 : Masters of Time and Space , while Kusonoki is known for his work at Sega , including the world of Panzer Dragoon . Near the end of November 2005 , roughly a year before the title was released in Japan , Artoon 's Naoto Ohshima indicated that the game was around 40 % complete . He also pointed out that Artoon had previously been known primarily for action titles , so that responsibility for Blue Dragon was originally somewhat frightening . Following this , a relative lack of media information for most of 2006 resulted in speculation that the title would be delayed until 2007 , but Microsoft 's Takashi Sensui confirmed in August 2006 that the game would indeed see a year @-@ end 2006 release . Blue Dragon was eventually released on three full DVD discs , making it the first Xbox 360 game to span multiple discs .
In a November 2006 interview with IGN , Sakaguchi confirmed that the sequel , Blue Dragon 2 , was in the planning stages , and would presumably start development shortly thereafter . Later in an issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump , it was announced that Blue Dragon Plus was in the works for the Nintendo DS . It is a real @-@ time simulation RPG , featuring 2D sprite graphics , and was released on September 4 , 2008 in Japan and on February 19 , 2009 in North America . In 2009 , a second Blue Dragon title was released for the DS , Blue Dragon : Awakened Shadow . The latter is more action oriented , and follows a player @-@ created character , rather than Shu .
= = = Music = = =
Blue Dragon 's score was composed and produced by Nobuo Uematsu , who is better known for composing much of the music in the popular Final Fantasy series . One of the boss themes , " Eternity " , was composed by Uematsu , with lyrics by Hironobu Sakaguchi himself , and includes vocals by English singer Ian Gillan . Blue Dragon Original Soundtrack was released on December 13 , 2006 and was arranged by Satoshi Henmi and Hiroyuki Nakayama . Music from Blue Dragon was performed live at the Play ! A Video Game Symphony concerts in 2006 . IGN praised the track " Cave " as one of the " Top 10 Nobuo Uematsu Musical Moments " . Enter Shikari also made an instrumental song , " Enter Shikari vs. Blue Dragon " for the original soundtrack .
Blue Dragon Original Soundtrack track listing
= = Manga = =
On November 12 , 2006 , Shueisha announced that a manga adaptation of Blue Dragon would be produced . Known as Blue Dragon ST ( ブルードラゴン シークレットトリック , Burū Doragon Shīkuretto Torikku , " Blue Dragon : Secret Trick " ) , the manga was done by Ami Shibata and premiered in Monthly Shōnen Jump in January 2007 . The production was ended in July 2007 with the magazine 's cancellation .
A second manga was later produced under the name Blue Dragon Ral Ω Grad , also known as Ral Grad . This adaptation was done by Tsuneo Takano and Takeshi Obata , the illustrator of Death Note . Ral Grad began serialization in issue 1 , 2007 of Weekly Shōnen Jump . Viz Media later began releasing the manga as simply " Ral Grad " in February 2008 .
= = Anime = =
An anime adaptation directed by Yukihiro Matsushita , animated by Studio Pierrot and co @-@ produced by SKY Perfect Wellthink , TV Tokyo and Pierrot was announced in November 2006 . The anime began airing April 7 , 2007 , featuring a different vocal cast than that used for the game . It also ignored most of the game 's plot . It aired on TV Tokyo , and ran for 51 episodes . A second season of Blue Dragon — Blue Dragon : Trials of the Seven Shadows ( BLUE DRAGON 天界の七竜 , Burū Doragon : Tenkai no Shichiryū ) — premiered on TV Tokyo on April 5 , 2008 .
On April 16 , 2007 , Viz Media announced that it had licensed the anime for release in North America and Europe . An edited English language dub of the series premiered in the United States on Cartoon Network , on April 5 , 2008 , where it aired on Toonami Jetstream until Jetstream was cancelled on January 30 , 2009 . Since then it has been discovered that Viz Media did make an uncut version of the Blue Dragon anime in English . This uncut version released by Manga Entertainment has had the first 24 episodes released on DVD ( so far exclusively in the UK ) over three 2 disc DVD sets with the release date of the next DVD set to be announced . These uncut episodes unlike the US DVD releases fully restores the original Japanese opening and closing , all edited scenes from the Cartoon Network version are restored including the original music , as well as having the option to view the series in Japanese with English subtitles . On July 22 , 2011 , Viz Media started streaming Blue Dragon episodes on VizAnime and Hulu . At Otakon , Viz Media representative Amy Mar said that if the streaming numbers are good , they might release the uncut episodes on physical media .
= = Reception = =
Pre @-@ orders of Blue Dragon bundled with a limited edition Xbox 360 Core system were sold out in Japan well before the December 7 , 2006 release date . Microsoft and Mistwalker initially hoped to sell over 200 @,@ 000 copies , which would break their record for sales of an Xbox 360 game in Japan . The game did manage the goal , with almost exactly 200 @,@ 000 copies sold as of December 27 , 2007 . Creator Hironobu Sakaguchi was pleased the game sold as well as it did .
Reviews for Blue Dragon were somewhat mixed , though generally favorable . On the review aggregator Game Rankings , the game had an average score of 77 % based on 62 reviews . While many reviewers praised the game for its traditional approach , a few reviewers criticized it for that very reason , with one reviewer remarking , " In fact , there is very little you can point to in Blue Dragon that hasn 't been done multiple times over before " . The story also came under scrutiny from some reviewers for being too generic and too similar to existing Japanese RPGs , with slow pacing during the beginning of the game . Eurogamer stated that the apparent lack of effort put into the facial animations for each character resulted in a limited ability to express emotion . They also noted that the mouth movements are well timed , but that the rest of the characters ' facial movements are " static " .
Game Informer commented that Blue Dragon lacked " jaw dropping " moments and was missing a nebulous " key element " to make it perfect . 1UP.com also picked up on this , adding that Blue Dragon was missing " strong characters , gripping storytelling , and excellent pacing " . X @-@ Play said that the game was very visually pleasing , but indicated that it was like any other role @-@ playing game . Though most of the reviewers criticized the game in one way or another , they all complimented it for its excellent graphics and music . Specifically , Game Informer remarked that " the characters look like sculpted figurines wandering around a world built to scale " . GameSpy complimented the title 's music and graphics saying the game had " phenomenal music ; and magnificently rendered cutscenes " .
= Welsh cuisine =
Welsh cuisine encompasses the cooking traditions and practices of the country of Wales and the Welsh people . Whilst there are a large number of dishes that can be considered Welsh due to their ingredients and / or history , dishes such as cawl , Welsh rarebit , laverbread , Welsh cakes , bara brith and the Glamorgan sausage have all been regarded as symbols of Welsh food . There is some variation in dishes around Wales , but the most pronounced difference is in the Gower Peninsula , an isolated rural area which was heavily influenced by Somerset and Devon . There the dishes created included whitepot and often incorporated pumpkin .
While Wales has imported throughout the centuries some culinary practices and dishes from its British neighbors , uniquely Welsh cuisine grew largely from the lives of the Welsh working folk , such as farmers , shepherds , and peasants , as these Welsh working people tended to be more isolated from outside culinary influences . Welsh common folk were instead influenced by the food that they could produce based on what little ingredients they could produce or afford , all while having little or no contact with neighboring English cuisine and English society . Welsh Celts and their more recent Welsh descendants originally practiced transhumance , moving their cattle to higher elevations in the summer and back to their home base in the winter . Once they settled to homesteads , a family would have generally eaten meat from a pig primarily , keeping a cow for dairy products . Vegetables beyond cabbages and leeks were rare .
In Wales , beef and dairy cattle are raised widely . Sheep farming , however , is extensive in the country , and lamb is the meat traditionally associated with Wales . Other important produce includes seafood — especially close to the coast , where fishing culture is strong and fisheries are common . This is exemplified by the use of cockles and laverbread in Welsh cuisine . The leek , the country 's national vegetable , is also used frequently in Welsh cuisine . Since the 1970s , the rise of the gastropub and high @-@ end restaurants has given Wales five Michelin @-@ starred restaurants .
= = History = =
There are few written records of traditional Welsh foods ; recipes were instead held within families and passed down orally between the women of the family . The lack of records was highlighted by Mati Thomas in 1928 , who made a unique collection of 18th century " Welsh Culinary Recipes " as an award winning Eisteddfod entry .
Those with the skills and inclination to write Welsh recipes , the upper classes , conformed to English styles and therefore would not have run their houses with traditional Welsh cuisine . Upper @-@ class households would take on any English fashions , even adopting English names . The traditional cookery of Wales originates from the daily meals of peasant folk , unlike other cultures where meals often started in the kitchens of the gentry and would be adapted .
Historically the King of the Welsh people would travel , with his court , in a circuit , demanding tribute in the form of food from communities they visited as they went . The tribute was codified in the Laws of Hywel Dda , showing that people lived on beer , bread , meat and dairy products , with few vegetables beyond cabbages and leeks . The laws show how much value was put on different parts of Welsh life at the time , for example that wealth was measured in cattle ; they also show that the court included hunters , who would be restricted to seasonal hunting sessions .
Towards the start of the 11th century , Welsh society started to build settlements . Food would be cooked in a single cauldron over an open fire on the floor , it would likely be reheated and topped up with fresh ingredients over a number of days . Some dishes could be cooked on a bakestone , a flat stone which could be placed above a fire to heat it evenly .
Gerald of Wales , chaplain to Henry II , wrote after an 1188 tour of Wales , " The whole population lives almost entirely on oats and the produce of their herds , milk , chees and butter . You must not expect a variety of dishes from a Welsh kitchen , and there are no highly @-@ seasoned titbits to whet your appetite . " The medieval Welsh used thyme , savory , and mint in the kitchen , but in general herbs were much more likely to be used for medicinal purposes than culinary ones .
Towards the end of the 18th century , Welsh land owners divided up the land to allow for tenant @-@ based farming . Each small holding would include vegetable crops , as well as a cow , pigs and a few chickens . The 18th and 19th centuries were a time of unrest for the Welsh people . The Welsh food riots began in 1740 , when colliers blamed the lack of food on problems in the supply , and continued throughout Wales as a whole . The worst riots happened in the 1790s after a grain shortage , which coincided with political upheaval in the form of forced military service and high taxes on the roads , leaving farmers unable to make a profit . As a result of riots by colliers in the mid 1790s , magistrates in Glamorgan sold the rioters corn at a reduced price . At the same time they also requested military assistance from the government to stop further rioting . Due to the close @-@ knit nature of the poor communities , and the slightly higher status of the farmers above the labourers , the rioters generally blamed the farmers and corn merchants , rather than the gentry .
The majority of food riots had ended by 1801 , and there were certain political undertones to the actions , though lack of leadership meant that little came of it . By the 1870s , 60 % of Wales was owned by 570 families , most of whom did no farming . Instead , they employed workers , who were forced to vote Tory or lose their jobs .
Around the end of the 19th century , the increase in coal mining and steel works around Wales led to the immigration of Italian workers . The workers brought families who integrated their culture into Welsh society , bringing with them Italian ice cream and Italian cafes , now a staple of Welsh society .
In the 1960s , isolated communities were unable to access produce that the majority of Britain would such as peppers or aubergines . Artisan Welsh produce was limited or non @-@ existent , farms rarely made their own cheese , and Welsh wine was of poor quality . By the 1990s , historical Welsh foods were going through a revival . Farmers ' markets became more popular , Welsh organic vegetables and farm @-@ made cheese started to appear in supermarkets . Other modern Welsh characteristics are more subtle , such as supermarkets offering salty butters and laverbread or butchers labelling beef skirt as ' cawl meat ' .
Restaurants are promoting the quality of Welsh ingredients , encouraging people to purchase Welsh produce and creating new dishes using them . This has meant that Welsh products can find their way into the higher @-@ priced delicatessens of London or North America . However , the regular diet of Welsh people has been more influenced by India , China and America . The most popular dish is chicken tikka masala , followed by burgers or chow mein . As a result of the popularity of these sorts of foods , Wales has the highest fat consumption in Britain , and therefore the highest levels of obesity .
= = Regional variations = =
There are some variations in the foods that are eaten around the different areas of Wales . These variations trace their roots back to medieval cooking . Ingredients were historically limited by what could be grown ; the wetter climate in highland areas meant that crops were restricted to oats , whilst the more fertile lowland areas allowed the growth of barley or wheat . Coastal inhabitants were more likely to include seafood or seaweed in their meals , whilst those living inland would supplement their farmed cereals with the seeds of land weeds to ensure there was enough to eat .
The invasions of the Romans and Normans also had an effect on the fertile areas which were conquered . The people there learned more " sophisticated eating habits " . Conversely those who remained in wilder areas kept the traditional approaches to cooking ; tools such as the pot crane continued to be used as late as the 20th century .
The only region that has a significant difference from the rest of Wales is the Gower peninsula , whose lack of land transport links left it isolated . Instead it was strongly influenced by Somerset and Devon on the other side of the Bristol Channel . Dishes such as whitepot and ingredients such as pumpkin , rare elsewhere in Wales , became commonplace in Gower .
= = Produce = =
Welsh food can be better traced though the history of its foodstuffs than through the dishes themselves .
= = = Meat and fish = = =
There a number of local Welsh breeds of cow , including the Welsh Black , a breed which dates back to at least 1874 . Cattle farming accounts for the majority of agricultural output in Wales — in 1998 the production of beef contributed 23 % of Welsh agricultural output , whilst in 2002 25 % of agricultural output was in the production of dairy products . Welsh beef has a European Union Protected Geographical Indicator , so it must be wholly reared and slaughtered in Wales .
Pigs were the primary meat eaten by early Welsh folk , which could be preserved easily by salting . By 1700 , there were a number of different Welsh breeds of pig , with long snouts and thin backs , generally light coloured , but some were dark or spotted . Today , pigs in Wales are either farmed intensively , using the white Welsh pig or Landrace pig , or extensively , where Saddleback pig , Welsh pig or crossbreeds are farmed .
The Welsh uplands were most suited to grazing animals such as sheep and goats , and the animals became associated with Wales . Sheep @-@ farming on a large scale was introduced by Cistercian monks , largely for wool , but also for meat . By the start of the 16th century Welsh mutton was popular in the rest of the UK . Once modern synthetic fibres became more popular than wool , Welsh sheep were raised almost exclusively for meat . Towards the end of the 20th century , there were more than 11 million sheep in Wales . The most popular breed of sheep is the Welsh Mountain sheep which is notably smaller than other breeds but better @-@ suited to the Welsh landscape and only rears one lamb , rather than the lowland breeds which rear two or more ; the mountain sheep are regarded as having more flavoursome meat . Welsh farmers have started using scientific methods , such as artificial insemination or using ultrasound to scan a sheep 's depth of fat , to improve the quality of their meat .
Coastal areas of Wales , and those near rivers , produce many different forms of fish and shellfish . Traditional fishing methods , such as wade netting for salmon , remained in place for 2 @,@ 000 years . Welsh coracles , simple boats made of a willow frame and covered in animal hides , were noted by Romans and were still in use in the 20th century . Once landed , fish would generally be wind @-@ dryed and smoked , or cured with salt .
Herring , a fish which takes well to salting , became a well established catch ; the busiest harbour was Aberystwyth , which reportedly took up to 1 @,@ 000 barrels of herring in a single night in 1724 . Many other villages also fished for herring , generally between late August and December . Herring , along with mackerel , trout , salmon and sea trout , were the main fishes found in Welsh cuisine . Salmon was abundant and therefore a staple for the poor . Trout , which would dry out quickly when cooked , would be wrapped in leek leaves for cooking , or covered in bacon or oatmeal . Many fish would be served with fennel , which grew wild in abundance in Wales .
Lobster fishing was done on a small scale especially in Cardigan Bay , but was reserved almost exclusively for export . Welsh fisherman would be more likely to eat the less profitable crabs . Cockles have been harvested since Roman times and are still harvested in a traditional manner with a hand rake and scraper . Cockle picking still happens in the Gower peninsula , but due to the difficulty in getting licences and reduced yield , villages near the Carmarthen Bay no longer gather them .
= = = Dairy products = = =
As cattle were the basis of Celtic wealth , butter and cheese were generally made from cows ' milk . The Celts were amongst the earliest producers of butter in Britain , and for hundreds of years after the Romans left the country butter was the primary cooking medium and basis for sauces . Salt was an important ingredient in Welsh butter , but also in early Welsh cheeses , which would sit in brine during the cheesemaking process .
The Welsh were also early adopters of roasting cheese . An early incarnation of Welsh rarebit was being made in medieval times , and by the middle of the 15th century Rarebit was considered a national dish . The acid soil of Wales meant that the milk produced by their cattle created a soft cheese , which was not as good for roasting , so Welsh people would trade for harder cheeses such as Cheddar .
The best known Welsh cheese is Caerphilly , named in 1831 but made long before that . Originally a method for storing excess milk until it could be brought to market , it was a moist cheese that would not last very long . Production of the cheese was halted due to milk rationing after World War II , although it was still made in England . There , the cheese was produced very quickly and sold early in its maturation process , creating a dryer cheese . In the 1970s , production of Caerphilly returned to Wales and over the following few decades a variety of new cheeses have also been produced in Wales .
= = = Cereals = = =
As far back as the Iron Age , Welsh folk were using wild cereals to create a coarse bread . By the time the Romans invaded , Celtic skills with bread had progressed to the point that white or brown breads could be produced . The Roman invasion led to many Welsh people moving to the less hospitable uplands , where the only cereal crops which could be grown were oats , barley and rye . Oat and barley breads were the main breads eaten in Wales up until the 19th century , with rye bread created for medicinal purposes . Oats were used to bulk out meat or meat and vegetable stews , also known as pottage .
The Welsh also created a dish called Llymru , finely ground oatmeal soaked in water for a long time before boiling until it solidified . This blancmange styled dish became so popular outside Wales that it got a new name , flummery , as the English couldn 't pronounce the original . A similar dish , sucan , was made with less finely ground oatmeal , making a coarser product .
= = = Vegetables = = =
Celtic law made specific provision with regards to cabbages and leeks , stating that they should be enclosed by fences for protection against wandering cattle . The two green vegetables were the only ones mentioned specifically in the laws , though uncultivated plants were still likely to be used in their cooking . The leek went on to be so important to Welsh cuisine — found in many symbolic dishes including cawl and Glamorgan sausage — that it became the country 's national vegetable .
Potatoes were slow to be adopted amongst Welsh folk , despite being introduced to the UK in the 16th century ; only in the early 18th century did they become a Welsh staple , due to grain failures . Once the potato did become a staple , it was quickly found in Welsh dishes such as cawl , and traditions grew around their use . One tradition , which was still in place at the start of World War II , was that villagers could plant an 80 @-@ yard ( 73 @-@ metre ) row of potatoes in a neighbouring farmer 's field for each labourer the household could provide at the time of harvest .
= = Welsh dishes = =
Whilst there are a large number of dishes that can be considered Welsh due to their ingredients , there are some which are quintessentially Welsh . Dishes such as cawl , Welsh rarebit , laverbread , Welsh cakes , bara brith ( literally " speckled bread " ) or the Glamorgan sausage have all been regarded as symbols of Welsh food .
Cawl , pronounced in a similar way to the English word " cowl " , can be regarded as Wales ' national dish . Dating back to the 11th century , originally it was a simple broth of meat ( most likely bacon ) and vegetables , it could be cooked slowly over the course of the day whilst the family was out working the fields . It could be made in stages , over a number of days , first by making a meat stock , then by adding the vegetables on the following day . Once cooked , the fat could be skimmed from the top of the pot , then it would be served as two separate dishes , first as a soup , then as a stew . Leftovers could be topped up with fresh vegetables , sometimes over the course of weeks . During the 18th and 19th centuries , the amount of meat used in the broth was minimal ; instead it was bulked out with potatoes . Today , cawl would be much more likely to include beef or lamb for the meat , and may be served with plain oatmeal dumplings or currant dumplings known as trollies . Traditionally cawl would be eaten with a " specially @-@ carved wooden spoon " and eaten from a wooden bowl .
The predilection of the Welsh for roasted cheese led to the dish of Welsh rarebit , or Welsh rabbit , seasoned melted cheese poured over toasted bread . The cheese would need to be a harder one , such as chedder or similar . Referred to as Welsh rabbit as early as 1725 , the name is not similar to the Welsh term caws pobi . Welsh folk rarely ate rabbit due to the cost and as land owners would not allow rabbit hunting , so the term is more likely a slur on the Welsh . The name evolved from rabbit to rarebit , possibly to remove the slur from Welsh cuisine or due to simple reinterpretation of the word to make menus more pleasant .
Laverbread , or Bara Lawr , is a Welsh speciality . It is made by cooking porphyra seaweed slowly over the course of up to ten hours until it becomes a puree known as laver . The seaweed can also be cooked with oatmeal to make laverbread . It can be served with bacon and cockles as a breakfast dish , or fried in to small patties . Today , laverbread is commercially produced by washing in water , cooking for about 5 hours before chopping , salting and packaging .
The Glamorgan sausage is a Welsh vegetarian sausage . It contains no meat or skin , instead it is made with cheese , generally Caerphilly , but sometimes cheddar , along with leek or spring onion . This mixture is then coated in breadcrumbs and rolled into a sausage shape before cooking . Glamorgan sausages date back to at least the early 19th century , at which point the sausages would have contained pork fat .
Welsh cakes , or pice ar y maen meaning " cakes on the stone " , are small round spiced cakes , traditionally cooked on a bakestone , but more recently on a griddle . Once cooked , they can be eaten hot or cold , on their own or topped either with sugar or butter . The dough which is mixed with raisins , sultanas and sometimes currants , is similar to shortbread , meaning they can have the consistency of biscuits when cooked on the griddle , and slightly more like a cake when cooked in the oven .
Bara brith is a fruit loaf originating from rural Wales , where they used a mortar and pestle to grind the fresh sweet spices . Historically it was made with yeast and butter , though recently it is likely to be made with bicarbonate of soda and margarine . The fruit included would be dried raisins , currants and candied peel , which would be soaked in cold tea before cooking . Generally served sliced with butter during afternoon tea , it is often known as Welsh tea bread . Bara Brith translates to " speckled bread " , but it is also known as teisen dorth in South Wales , where sultanas are included in the recipe , or as torta negra when Welsh settlers brought it to Argentina .
= = Beverages = =
Wine and beer , especially of the home @-@ made varieties , were central to socialising in Wales , as they were in England . This remained the case even when tea gained popularity in England , supplanting the home @-@ made alcohol . Beer is now the national drink of Wales , although Welsh beers never gained the status of other British beers , such as stout or English ales . This was in part due to the breweries keeping promotion of their products to a minimum so as not to upset the temperance movement in Wales .
The temperance movement remained a strong influence though , and when new breweries were set up , the outcry led to the Welsh Sunday Closing Act in 1881 , an act that forced the closure of public houses in Wales on a Sunday . Wales ' passion for beer remained ; the Wrexham Lager Beer Company opened in 1881 , as the first lager producer in Britain . The Felinfoel Brewery made a deal with the local tin works and became the first brewery in Europe to put beer in cans .
The Welsh also have a history of producing whisky , in a similar manner to other Celtic people such as the Irish or Scottish but on a smaller scale . Distillation began for commercial purposes before 1750 , by families who went on to emigrate to America and help found the Kentucky Whiskey industry . Always a niche industry , by the late 19th century , the main whisky production in Wales was at Frongoch near Bala , Gwynedd . The distillery was bought by Scottish whisky companies and closed in 1910 when they were attempting to establish brands in England . In 1998 the Welsh Whisky Company , now known as Penderyn , was formed and whisky production began at Penderyn , Rhondda Cynon Taf in 2000 . Penderyn single malt whisky was the first whisky commercially produced in Wales for a century and went on sale in 2004 . The company also produces Merlyn Cream Liqueur , Five Vodka and Brecon Gin .
Welsh vineyards were first planted by Romans , but in the 1970s , modern vineyards were planted in South Wales with the intention of creating Welsh wine . Despite a slow start , by 2005 Wales had 20 vineyards , producing 100 @,@ 000 bottles a year , primarily white wines , but also a few reds . According to the Wine Standards Board , by September 2015 , there were 22 operational vineyards in Wales. and there were almost 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) of vines planted in Wales .
By 2005 the Welsh bottled water industry was worth as much as £ 100m . Popular brands include Brecon Carreg , Tŷ Nant , Princes Gate and Pant Du .
= = Eating out = =
The number of restaurants in Wales has significantly increased since the 1960s , when the country had very few notable places to eat out . Today , Wales is no longer considered a " gastronomic desert " ; as of 2016 , it has five Michelin starred restaurants and other award systems such as TripAdvisor and the AA have included Welsh restaurants in their lists . The most significant increase in restaurants has been at the high end , but there has been growth and improvement in quality across the whole range of Welsh eateries .
Many Welsh restaurants attempt to showcase their " Welshness " , but few include historic Welsh dishes besides cawl . Instead , they showcase their Welsh ingredients , creating new dishes from them . There has also been a rise in Asian cuisine in Wales , especially that of Indian , Chinese , Thai , Indonesian and Japanese , with a preference for spicier foods . Finally there has been a significant rise in " gastropubs " , as there has around the United Kingdom , with the first in the country credited as the The Walnut Tree in Llanddewi
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Motorsports Commission in December 2011 , a series of amendments to the sporting regulations were published . Chief among these is the re @-@ introduction of a rule that will allow all lapped traffic under the safety car ( which remained the Mercedes @-@ Benz SLS AMG introduced in 2010 . ) to be released from the queue before the car returns to pit lane , allowing the drivers to unlap themselves and to ensure a clean restart .
Drivers were not permitted to leave the confines of the circuit without a justifiable reason , following a spate of incidents in 2011 when drivers were sighted using access roads around the circuit to shorten their reconnaissance and in @-@ laps in order to preserve their fuel and tyres . Similarly , drivers will not be allowed to return to the normal racing line should they choose a defensive line going into a corner .
Races were run to a maximum four @-@ hour time limit to prevent the indefinite suspension of a race . This will stop the theoretical possibility of a race lasting more than eight hours . This rule was introduced in response to the rain @-@ interrupted 2011 Canadian Grand Prix , which set a record for the longest race in Formula One history , at four hours , four minutes and thirty @-@ nine seconds .
Any driver in the pit lane when a race is suspended was permitted to return to the circuit and take up the position on the grid that they were running in at the time of the suspension .
At the 2012 British Grand Prix in July , the FIA disabled the use of the Drag Reduction System ( DRS ) during a race while yellow flags were being shown in the same sector as the DRS zone . The move followed an incident at the European Grand Prix in which Michael Schumacher was observed to activate his DRS while yellow flags were being shown .
= = = Other changes = = =
In July 2011 , a joint broadcasting deal for Formula One in the United Kingdom was announced between Sky Sports and the BBC . The announcement was controversial , being met with highly negative reactions from fans and observers as it had previously been believed that the terms of the Concorde Agreement prevented Formula One from being broadcast exclusively on pay @-@ per @-@ view , but the Agreement did not prevent a shared broadcast such as the proposal made by Sky Sports and the BBC . The controversial nature of the broadcast deal led to the Culture , Media and Sport Committee of the House of Commons calling Bernie Ecclestone and " senior BBC figures " including director @-@ general Mark Thompson to answer questions over the details of the broadcasting arrangement .
In December 2011 , Red Bull Racing and Scuderia Ferrari exited FOTA , the Formula One Teams Association , following prolonged debate over the implementation of the controversial Resource Restriction Agreement , though Red Bull team principal Christian Horner reaffirmed his team 's commitment to cost @-@ cutting measures and highlighting the team 's concerns over certain loopholes in the Resource Restriction Agreement that they felt teams and manufacturers would willingly exploit . One week later , Sauber also left the organisation , though the Swiss team did not publicly give a reason for ending their membership . In February 2012 , Red Bull Racing 's sister team Scuderia Toro Rosso was also reported as having left the organisation since the first schism in December .
= = Race summaries = =
= = = Pre @-@ season testing — Jerez de la Frontera and Barcelona = = =
The 2012 season was preceded by three test sessions ; one at Jerez de la Frontera and two in Barcelona . These sessions gave the teams and drivers the opportunity to familiarise themselves with their cars , though the teams downplayed the accuracy of testing times as being representative of the running order for the season . At the second test in Barcelona , Lotus F1 discovered a critical fault in the build of their chassis that forced them to miss four days of running , while both HRT and Marussia were unable to complete any mileage with their 2012 cars after both the HRT F112 and Marussia MR01 failed their crash tests , though both teams were able to complete shakedowns of their cars .
= = = Round 1 – Australia = = =
The season began in Australia . Jenson Button took an early lead from pole @-@ sitter Lewis Hamilton and the Red Bull cars while the rest of the field was bottle @-@ necked by contact in the first corner . Button remained unchallenged throughout , even after a mid @-@ race safety car to retrieve the stricken Caterham of Vitaly Petrov . Button went on to take his third victory at the Melbourne circuit , ahead of Sebastian Vettel , who profited from the safety car to pass Hamilton . McLaren team principal Martin Whitmarsh later admitted that Button was " more than marginal " on fuel after the team made a mistake in calculating their fuel loads for the race , forcing Button to use a " severe fuel @-@ saving mode " from the eighth lap of the race . Hamilton came under threat from Mark Webber in the late stages of the race , but held on to secure third place . Webber finished fourth – his best result in his home Grand Prix – while Fernando Alonso finished fifth , having endured pressure from Pastor Maldonado for the last half of the race . Maldonado 's race ended when he crossed onto the astroturf on the final lap and spun into the wall . Kimi Räikkönen finished seventh after a poor qualifying session saw him start the race seventeenth , taking advantage of a chaotic final lap to make up two places , while Felipe Massa and Bruno Senna both retired after a bizarre collision that saw their cars tangled up in one another . HRT failed to qualify for the race for the second consecutive season after drivers Pedro de la Rosa and Narain Karthikeyan failed to set a lap time within 107 % of the fastest qualifying time .
= = = Round 2 – Malaysia = = =
McLaren locked out the front row of the grid for the second race in succession , with Lewis Hamilton once again on pole . Both HRT cars qualified for the race , but filled out the final row of the grid almost two seconds behind Marussia 's Charles Pic in twenty @-@ second position . In the race , Hamilton made a better start than Jenson Button , but his lead was short @-@ lived ; heavy rain interrupted the race , forcing the suspension of the Grand Prix . When the race restarted an hour later , Button was involved in contact with Narain Karthikeyan that forced him to make an unscheduled stop for a new front wing , while Hamilton had a slow pit stop and was held in the lane while other cars passed . Fernando Alonso inherited the lead , with Sauber 's Sergio Pérez a surprise second , having made an early stop for extreme wet weather tyres and then taking advantage of a rush to the pit lane to position himself in third at the restart . As the race wore on , Pérez began to quickly catch Alonso on a drying track . Daniel Ricciardo was the first driver to pit for dry @-@ weather tyres on lap 38 , triggering another round of stops . Sauber and Pérez initially looked as if they had left their stop too late when Pérez emerged from the pits five seconds behind Alonso , but he began catching the two @-@ time World Champion at the same rate as he had before . Pérez closed to within half a second with seven laps to go , but ran wide at turn 14 and lost five seconds , later admitting that it was his mistake . He was unable to close the gap , and Alonso went on to win the race by two seconds , the win giving him a five @-@ point lead in the championship . Pérez was second , taking his first podium and Sauber 's best ever result as an independent team . Hamilton finished third ahead of Mark Webber and Kimi Räikkönen , while Button had to settle for fourteenth . Bruno Senna finished in sixth , scoring more points in a single race than his team scored in 2011 . Sebastian Vettel finished outside the points after making contact with Karthikeyan and developing a puncture .
= = = Round 3 – China = = =
The championship resumed three weeks later in China , with the lead @-@ in period to the race marked by Lotus F1 protesting the legality of Mercedes 's rear wing design . The FIA rejected the protest , and with Mercedes allowed to continue racing with their car unchanged , Nico Rosberg took his — and the team 's — first pole position since their return to Formula One in 2010 , while a penalty to Lewis Hamilton for a gearbox change promoted Michael Schumacher to second on the grid . Schumacher would ultimately retire from the race after the first round of stops when it was discovered that one of his wheels had not been attached properly . Rosberg took an early lead in the race , and while his attempt to complete the race with only two pit stops came under threat from second @-@ placed Jenson Button , a mistake by Button 's pit crew during his final stop handed Rosberg a nineteen @-@ second advantage over Kimi Räikkönen . Räikkönen was attempting a similar two @-@ stop strategy , but his tyres wore out seven laps from the end of the race , and he lost eleven positions in a single lap . This forced Rosberg to drive conservatively to preserve his tyres while Button recovered from his disastrous pit stop to pass Sebastian Vettel for second . Button was held up by the incumbent World Champion long enough for Rosberg to preserve his tyres , and he became the 103rd person to win a Grand Prix . The result was also Mercedes 's first win as a constructor since Juan Manuel Fangio won the 1955 Italian Grand Prix . Button was second , with Hamilton scoring his third consecutive third place , giving him a two @-@ point championship lead over Button ; Fernando Alonso , who had been leading the championship before the race , finished ninth . After two retirements in the opening rounds of the championship , Romain Grosjean scored his first points in Formula One by finishing sixth .
= = = Round 4 – Bahrain = = =
In the face of ongoing media speculation and public pressure to cancel the race due to ongoing political instability in Bahrain , the FIA released a statement at the Chinese Grand Prix confirming that the Bahrain Grand Prix would go ahead as planned . The week preceding the Grand Prix saw a renewed wave of protests against the government 's attempts use the race to " tell the outside world that the whole thing is back to normal " , while human rights organisations including Amnesty International criticised the decision to hold the race amid the violent crackdowns . Three days before the race , a group of Force India mechanics travelling in an unmarked hire car were involved in a petrol bombing incident at an impromptu roadblock and were briefly exposed to tear gas fired by security forces . There were no injuries or damage , but two of the mechanics involved chose to leave the country . The team later announced their intentions to race despite the incident .
Sebastian Vettel qualified on pole , his first since the 2011 Brazilian Grand Prix . Heikki Kovalainen qualified sixteenth , the second time Caterham ( and its predecessor , Team Lotus ) advanced beyond the first qualifying period in dry conditions . Vettel went on to win the race — becoming the fourth winner in as many races — after spending much of the race defending against Kimi Räikkönen . Having started eleventh , Räikkönen used an extra set of soft tyres to move up through the field . His team @-@ mate , Romain Grosjean , finished third . Grosjean had initially shown the pace to challenge Vettel 's lead , but unlike Räikkönen , he did not have an extra set of fresh tyres , and lost touch with the reigning World Champion after the first set of stops . Lewis Hamilton finished eighth , once again hampered by slow pit stops . He was later involved in an altercation with Nico Rosberg that saw Rosberg referred to the stewards for forcing Hamilton beyond the boundary of the circuit while defending his position , but he escaped without penalty . Hamilton went on to finish eighth , while team @-@ mate Jenson Button was forced to retire two laps from the end of the race after reporting an unusual vibration from the differential . Daniel Ricciardo was involved in early contact that saw the Australian driver slide down the order from sixth at the start to fifteenth by the end of the race , having spent most of the Grand Prix caught behind Vitaly Petrov . Vettel 's win gave him a four @-@ point lead in the championship over Hamilton , while Mark Webber 's fourth consecutive fourth place secured third overall . Red Bull Racing took the lead from McLaren in the World Constructors ' Championship , while Lotus 's double podium moved them into third overall .
The decision to hold the race despite the ongoing protests made it one of the most controversial Grands Prix in the sport 's sixty @-@ year history .
= = = Mid @-@ season test – Mugello = = =
Starting on 1 May , the teams conducted a three @-@ day test at the Mugello Circuit in Italy ahead of the Spanish Grand Prix . The test gave teams the opportunity to assess major aerodynamic upgrades before racing them . HRT elected not to take part in the test , instead choosing to concentrate on establishing themselves at their new headquarters in Madrid . Both Lotus 's trackside operations director Alan Permane and Red Bull Racing driver Mark Webber questioned the value of testing at the Mugello circuit as the characteristics of the circuit were unlike any of the circuits the championship was due to visit after the test , while Caterham driver Vitaly Petrov was critical of the choice of Mugello as a testing venue as he felt it was not safe enough for Formula One . Petrov 's comments came shortly after Fernando Alonso crashed on the final morning of the test . Red Bull Racing and Lotus team principals Christian Horner and Éric Boullier were also critical of the test as they felt that the costs of conducting in @-@ season testing outweighed any benefits , with Horner stating his opposition to continuing mid @-@ season testing in the future .
= = = Round 5 – Spain = = =
Following criticism over the sensitivity of their tyre compounds , tyre supplier Pirelli announced changes to their tyre allocation for the Spanish Grand Prix , making pit strategy the focal point of the Grand Prix . Pirelli would later diagnose the problems with the tyre compounds as originating from developing them on a testing chassis that was two years out @-@ of @-@ date at the time . Lewis Hamilton took his third pole of the season , edging out Williams driver Pastor Maldonado by half a second , while Maldonado 's team @-@ mate Bruno Senna was eliminated early when he spun . Hamilton was later excluded from the qualifying results after his car did not have enough fuel to return to the pits for scrutineering , promoting Maldonado to pole position and moving Hamilton to the back of the grid . Fernando Alonso took the lead of the race at the first corner , but Maldonado reclaimed it during the second round of pit stops , when his team forced Ferrari to pit early while Alonso was held up by the Marussia of Charles Pic . Maldonado maintained a lead of seven seconds over Alonso , but a mistake by his crew during the third pit stop cost him time and left him vulnerable to the Ferrari driver in the final stint of the race . Meanwhile , third @-@ placed Kimi Räikkönen moved to an ambitious strategy that would see him attempt to force Maldonado and Alonso to race beyond the life expectancy of their tyres , allowing him to swoop in at the last minute to steal first place . Räikkönen 's strategy failed as Maldonado withstood pressure from Alonso for fifteen laps , winning the race by three seconds . It was Williams 's first win in one hundred and thirty Grand Prix starts ; their previous race win was Juan Pablo Montoya 's victory at the 2004 Brazilian Grand Prix . Lewis Hamilton recovered from twenty @-@ fourth on the grid to finish eighth , while Sebastian Vettel overcame a drive @-@ through penalty and an unscheduled stop for a technical fault that forced his team to replace his front wing to make a late move on Nico Rosberg for sixth place that would preserve his championship lead .
= = = Round 6 – Monaco = = =
For the second consecutive race , the fastest driver in qualifying did not start the race from pole . Michael Schumacher set the fastest time , but a five @-@ place grid penalty left him sixth overall . Two hours before the race , protests against parts introduced onto the floor of the Red Bull RB8 left team principal Christian Horner with a choice : to change the offending parts and start both cars from the pit lane , guaranteeing that any result the team recorded would be preserved ; or to leave the parts on the car , allowing both drivers to start the race from the positions they qualified in , but risking a post @-@ race exclusion . Horner ultimately chose the latter option , and Mark Webber started from pole , establishing an early lead over Nico Rosberg as a first @-@ corner accident eliminated four cars . The race was run under the constant threat of rain , with drivers trying to extend the life of their tyres to avoid being forced to make an additional stop and falling down the order . The rain never materialised , though Jean @-@ Éric Vergne was observed using a set of intermediate tyres late in the race . The variety of strategies used by the front @-@ runners resulted in the last ten laps being contested with the top six cars running nose @-@ to @-@ tail . Webber visibly faded in the final laps , but held on when the following cars were momentarily pinned behind the slow @-@ moving Heikki Kovalainen . Webber won the race — his second on the streets of Monaco — with Rosberg second and Fernando Alonso third , the result giving Alonso a three @-@ point lead in the championship . Red Bull Racing maintained their lead in the Constructors ' Championship as rival teams chose not to follow through on the threat of their pre @-@ race protest , while Kovalainen finished thirteenth to see Caterham overtake Marussia for tenth place . Elsewhere , Spanish Grand Prix winner Pastor Maldonado was given a ten @-@ place grid penalty for an incident that saw him clip Sergio Pérez . Combined with a five @-@ place penalty for changing his gearbox , Maldonado started from the back row of the grid where he was eliminated in the first @-@ corner accident .
= = = Round 7 – Canada = = =
One week before the Canadian Grand Prix , the FIA declared the floor used by Red Bull in Monaco to be illegal , forcing the team to change the offending parts for the Canadian Grand Prix . Despite the ruling , the team 's results were kept intact . The team was also forced to change the design of their axles , after FIA Race Director Charlie Whiting felt that holes in the axles contravened the technical regulations . Nevertheless , Sebastian Vettel comfortably took pole position by three @-@ tenths of a second . Vettel controlled the early phase of the race , but was caught and passed by Lewis Hamilton before the first round of stops , while Fernando Alonso slipped through shortly afterwards . All three drivers were using a two @-@ stop strategy at the time , but as Hamilton made his second stop , both Alonso and Vettel shifted to a one @-@ stop strategy , with Alonso 's team resorting to discussing strategy options in his native Spanish to prevent their rivals from overhearing their plans . Hamilton had twenty laps to make up a twelve @-@ second deficit , and he easily reeled Vettel in ; in response , Red Bull pitted the reigning World Champion , and Vettel fell to fifth . Hamilton 's next target was Alonso , whose tyres lost all grip and he fell victim to Hamilton , Romain Grosjean , Sergio Pérez and Vettel in quick succession . Hamilton won the race , becoming the seventh winner in seven races and taking a two @-@ point lead in the championship . Grosjean 's second place saw Lotus take third place in the Constructors ' Championship from Ferrari . Both Grosjean and Pérez expressed surprise at finishing on the podium , while 2011 winner Jenson Button finished sixteenth in what he described as his " worst race in years " and Michael Schumacher suffered a hydraulics failure that left his drag reduction system ( DRS ) device jammed in the open position .
= = = Round 8 – Europe = = =
Fernando Alonso became the first man to win two races in 2012 at the European Grand Prix in Valencia , scoring his first home win since the 2006 Spanish Grand Prix . Starting eleventh , he was forced to navigate his way through traffic , narrowly avoiding early contact between Bruno Senna and Kamui Kobayashi as Sebastian Vettel broke free of the field to establish a twenty @-@ second lead by the first round of stops . Vettel 's lead was quashed when Heikki Kovalainen and Jean @-@ Éric Vergne made contact , triggering the deployment of the safety car to clear debris from the circuit . Alonso found himself third at the restart and pounced on a mistake by second @-@ placed Romain Grosjean to lead the chase against Vettel . Vettel pulled away once more , but his lead was short @-@ lived as he lost drive and his engine shut down on lap 33 . Grosjean attempted to challenge Alonso , but was forced out of the race with an alternator problem seven laps later , leaving Alonso in the lead , four seconds clear of Lewis Hamilton and Kimi Räikkönen . As the race entered the final laps , Räikkönen forced his way past Hamilton to secure second place , but Pastor Maldonado 's attempts to take third place ended with Hamilton in the barrier and a broken nose for the Williams driver . Maldonado finished tenth , but was given a post @-@ race drive @-@ through penalty and was classified twelfth . Meanwhile , Michael Schumacher and Mark Webber had started to carve their way through the field by virtue of a late pit stop and easily picked off the minor points positions and taking advantage of the Maldonado — Hamilton collision to finish third and fourth behind Alonso and Räikkönen . It was Schumacher 's first podium since the 2006 Chinese Grand Prix . Alonso 's win cemented a twenty @-@ point lead in the championship , whilst Vettel 's retirement relegated him to fourth overall , twenty @-@ six points behind Alonso .
= = = Round 9 – Great Britain = = =
Difficult conditions greeted the teams upon their arrival at the Silverstone Circuit , as parts of the Midlands received a month 's rainfall in the space of two days . The torrential rain lasted throughout the weekend , forcing qualifying to be suspended for ninety minutes , before race day dawned clear . The circuit was declared dry , allowing the drivers to start on the tyre compound of their choice , with Alonso on the harder tyre streaking away at the start while Paul di Resta crashed at Aintree on the first lap after making contact with Romain Grosjean . As the leaders settled into a rhythm , Pastor Maldonado and Sergio Pérez collided at Brooklands , prompting an angry response from the Mexican driver . Perez 's team mate Kamui Kobayashi also ran into trouble , locking his tyres as he entered his pit box and hitting three members of his pit crew , though none were seriously injured . The race was ultimately decided by the choice of tyre in the first stint as Alonso moved onto the softer option and Webber onto the harder prime for the final phase of the race . Webber caught Alonso with five laps to go , passing him on the Wellington Straight . Webber held on for his second win of the season , with Vettel third and Felipe Massa in fourth , his best result since achieving a podium in South Korea in 2010 . The result meant Webber closed to within thirteen points of Alonso 's championship lead , with both drivers breaking away from third @-@ placed Vettel . After showing early promise in the wet conditions , McLaren went backwards in the dry , losing second place in the Constructors ' Championship to Ferrari and third to Lotus .
= = = Round 10 – Germany = = =
Limited running in practice and a wet qualifying session meant that teams had to improvise their strategies at the Hockenheimring . Fernando Alonso controlled much of the race from pole position , only relinquishing the lead when he pitted , and he went on to take his third victory of the season . Lewis Hamilton 's one hundredth Grand Prix started with a disaster when he picked up a puncture on the third lap and spent most of the race at the tail end of the field before retiring on lap 56 with a suspension problem . Confusion briefly reigned when Hamilton , in seventeenth place at the time , began lapping faster than the leaders and sought to unlap himself . Sebastian Vettel later claimed that this was a ploy by McLaren to force both him and Alonso to drive defensively against Hamilton , slowing them down enough to allow team @-@ mate Jenson Button to leap @-@ frog them at the second round of stops ; Vettel lost a position to Button , but Alonso was unaffected , as Ferrari pitted him before Hamilton could interfere with his race . Button briefly looked as if he had the pace to pass Alonso for the race lead , but the race was deadlocked in the final twenty laps , and Button began to fade in the final five laps of the race . The race was marked by another technical dispute regarding Red Bull Racing , who were referred to the stewards by FIA Technical Delegate Jo Bauer for what he felt was an illegal engine map in use on the Red Bull RB8 . The stewards elected to take no action against Red Bull , stating that the team had not violated any of the technical regulations , but noted that they did not accept all of the arguments presented by the team when asked to explain . The stewards were less forgiving of Vettel , who ran wide at the hairpin while trying to pass Button and could only complete the pass outside the limits of the circuit . Vettel had twenty seconds added to his race time as a penalty , demoting him to fifth overall . With Button promoted to second , Kimi Räikkönen inherited third place and Kamui Kobayashi was classified a career @-@ best fourth .
= = = Round 11 – Hungary = = =
As the championship moved into the second half of the season , Fernando Alonso maintained a thirty @-@ four point lead over his nearest rival , Mark Webber , with Sebastian Vettel a further ten points behind . Alonso 's outlook for the race was dour , qualifying sixth and pinning his hopes on a wet race as Lewis Hamilton continued McLaren 's mid @-@ season resurgence , returning to pole position for the first time since the Malaysian Grand Prix . Following an aborted start triggered by Michael Schumacher lining up in the wrong grid position and then shutting his engine off in the confusion , Hamilton and Grosjean lead the field away . After prematurely moving Jenson Button onto a three @-@ stop strategy , McLaren gave Hamilton the order to hold position as the tight confines of the Hungaroring circuit forced the teams to try to make up positions in the pits . This was evidenced by Kimi Räikkönen , who inherited the lead after the first set of stops and produced a series of fast laps that allowed him to rejoin in second , coming dangerously close to team @-@ mate Grosjean under brakes as he emerged from the pit lane . Despite taking two seconds out of Hamilton 's lead within five laps of rejoining the race , Räikkönen was powerless to reel Hamilton in any further . Hamilton won the race , the nineteenth of his career , with Räikkönen second and Grosjean in third . Hamilton 's victory brought with it twenty @-@ five points that put him back in championship contention , while a late decision by Red Bull to move Mark Webber onto a three @-@ stop strategy saw the Australian slip further behind Fernando Alonso , as the Spaniard extended his championship lead to forty points .
= = = Round 12 – Belgium = = =
The championship resumed one month later in Belgium . Jenson Button qualified on pole and broke away at the start while a four @-@ car pile @-@ up started behind him when Romain Grosjean made contact with Lewis Hamilton and they both slammed into Fernando Alonso and Sergio Pérez , eliminating all four on the spot and triggering the safety car . Kamui Kobayashi 's car was also damaged , and Pastor Maldonado was spun around amidst the chaos . Grosjean was later given a one @-@ race ban for causing the collision , becoming the first driver in eighteen years to be banned from racing . Maldonado retired shortly after the restart with a broken front wing after making contact with Timo Glock , while Narain Karthikeyan spun off at Stavelot mid @-@ way through the race when his wheel came loose . Button controlled the race from the front and was unchallenged throughout , while Sebastian Vettel clawed his way up to second from tenth on the grid . Kimi Räikkönen started and finished third , let down by a conservative pit strategy that forced him to make a second stop late in the race in order to use both compounds of tyre as per the rules — even when it became apparent that Button and Vettel were racing on a one @-@ stop strategy — and Nico Hülkenberg finished in a career @-@ best fourth place . Button 's win allowed him to regain precious ground on the championship fight , while Alonso 's retirement from the race and Vettel 's second place moved the reigning World Champion to within twenty @-@ four points of the championship lead . Scuderia Toro Rosso scored their first points since the Malaysian Grand Prix , with Jean @-@ Éric Vergne and Daniel Ricciardo finishing eighth and ninth respectively . Further down the order , Caterham was summoned to the stewards on charges of an unsafe pit release when Heikki Kovalainen was released directly into the path of Karthikeyan and the team was given a € 10 @,@ 000 fine for the incident .
= = = Round 13 – Italy = = =
The final race in Europe took place at Monza . Ferrari 's early bid to put Fernando Alonso on pole position by way of using Felipe Massa to offer him a slipstream ended in disaster when Alonso 's rear anti @-@ roll bar failed in the final period of qualifying , leaving the championship leader marooned in tenth while Lewis Hamilton took pole . Hamilton asserted early control over the race , and while Ferrari made significant ground early on to be running second and third — despite losing the data uplink between their cars and the pit wall that provided them with telemetry — it was Sergio Pérez who proved to be Hamilton 's biggest challenge . Starting outside the top ten , Pérez elected to start on the harder compound tyres and complete one stop , producing fastest lap after fastest lap as McLaren 's confidence was broken when Jenson Button 's car was paralysed by a fuel pressure problem . Hamilton would ultimately prevail , but he was forced to push in the final few laps to maintain his lead , and won the race by four seconds as Pérez claimed his third podium of the season with second place . Alonso went on to finish third , benefiting from Button 's retirement and a drive @-@ through penalty for Sebastian Vettel when the reigning World Champion forced him so wide through the Curva Grande that Alonso was forced off the circuit . Bruno Senna later criticised the race stewards for not penalising Paul di Resta for a similar altercation on the approach to the Variante della Roggia early in the race . Meanwhile , with Romain Grosjean serving his suspension , Lotus enlisted former Marussia F1 driver Jérôme d 'Ambrosio as their second driver for the weekend . He qualified sixteenth , and went on to finish thirteenth overall .
Red Bull Racing suffered a double retirement , with Vettel falling victim to another alternator failure and Mark Webber spinning violently at the Ascari chicane , with the resultant damage to his tyres sending vibrations through the car that forced him to retire . This allowed Hamilton to leapfrog both drivers and Kimi Räikkönen — who finished the race fifth — to take second place in the World Drivers ' Championship , with the result enabling McLaren to close the gap to Red Bull in the World Constructors ' Championship .
= = = Round 14 – Singapore = = =
As the teams returned to Asia , the focus shifted to the championship race . Lewis Hamilton put himself in the ideal position to take the fight to Fernando Alonso , qualifying on pole whilst Alonso could only manage fifth place . In the physically most demanding race of the year , the teams jostled for position through the first phase of the Grand Prix , trying to position themselves for the final ten laps . Just as the drivers established a rhythm , Hamilton 's gearbox failed , forcing him out of the race and handing the lead to Sebastian Vettel . The race was shortened by two laps to fit the two @-@ hour time limit for a Grand Prix following a pair of lengthy safety car interventions ; first , Narain Karthikeyan understeered into the barriers under the grandstands on lap 30 , forcing the safety car to be deployed . The drivers had little opportunity to get comfortable on the restart , as Michael Schumacher misjudged his braking point at the end of the Esplanade Bridge , careening into the back of Jean @-@ Éric Vergne and triggering the safety car for the second time in an accident that was a near mirror @-@ image of his collision with Sergio Pérez in 2011 . He was later given a ten @-@ place grid penalty for the Japanese Grand Prix . Vettel controlled the race from the second restart , beating Jenson Button to the line , for his second win of the season and his first since the Bahrain Grand Prix five months previously . Alonso completed the podium , retaining his championship lead after defending from Paul di Resta late in the race . Elsewhere , a string of retirements — including a late engine problem for Bruno Senna , which left the Brazilian with minor burns to his back — and a series of altercations involving Mark Webber , Nico Hülkenberg , Kamui Kobayashi and Sergio Pérez as they fought over the minor points positions allowed Timo Glock to finish twelfth , the result seeing Marussia retake tenth position in the World Constructors ' Championship from Caterham .
= = = Round 15 – Japan = = =
Fernando Alonso 's luck finally ran out in Japan ; having spent most of the season profiting from poor results from his rivals when he needed them the most , Alonso was the victim of a dramatic first corner clash , spinning out when he made contact with Kimi Räikkönen and paving the way for his championship rivals to make considerable inroads into his twenty @-@ nine point championship lead . Mark Webber was also caught up in the opening lap melee when he was hit by Romain Grosjean ; Webber was forced to pit straight away , while Grosjean was given a ten @-@ second stop @-@ go penalty for causing yet another first lap incident . Bruno Senna also ran afoul of the stewards , hitting Nico Rosberg whilst trying to avoid Grosjean and Webber and earning a drive @-@ through penalty for his troubles while Rosberg retired on the spot . Sergio Pérez added his name to the growing list of early retirements when he slid off at the hairpin under brakes and into the gravel trap whilst trying to force his way past a struggling Lewis Hamilton . Sebastian Vettel won the race from pole position , having led every lap of the race and setting the fastest lap time in the process to complete his second Grand Chelem . Felipe Massa finished second , his first podium result since the 2010 Korean Grand Prix , whilst Kamui Kobayashi claimed the first podium of his career — and the first podium for a Japanese driver at the Suzuka Circuit since Aguri Suzuki finished third in 1990 — after withstanding late pressure from Jenson Button .
With Alonso retiring and Vettel taking a full twenty @-@ five points for victory , the championship fight became as close as it had been all season long .
= = = Round 16 – Korea = = =
Sebastian Vettel 's momentum continued one week later in Korea , winning his third consecutive race and taking a six @-@ point championship lead as Fernando Alonso finished third . Vettel overcame pole @-@ sitter Mark Webber at the start , and was aided in building up a lead by first @-@ lap contact between Jenson Button , Nico Rosberg and Kamui Kobayashi that saw Button and Rosberg retire with damage from the collision ; Rosberg pulled over on the approach to the third turn , forcing a protracted yellow flag period as marshalls attempted to retrieve his car . With the sporting regulations banning overtaking while yellow flags were shown , the field was effectively thinned out in the opening laps as drivers were unable to pass one another . Tyre management became the focus of the race , as drivers reported heavy graining , particularly on the right @-@ front tyre , which bore most of the load over a lap of the circuit . Vettel ignored six radio calls from his pit wall cautioning him that a tyre failure was imminent , only backing off just enough in the final few laps to secure victory over Webber by six seconds . The team later denied that there had ever been a problem with Vettel 's tyres . Further down the order , Scuderia Toro Rosso 's Jean @-@ Éric Vergne and Daniel Ricciardo fought their way from sixteenth and twenty @-@ first on the grid to finish eighth and ninth , while Romain Grosjean drove a conservative race to finish seventh , having been warned beforehand by the stewards that another first @-@ lap altercation would likely result in his disqualification from the race . Lewis Hamilton 's day went from bad to worse when an anti @-@ roll bar on his McLaren failed , while the car handled its tyres so poorly that he was forced to make an unscheduled stop in order to make it to the finish , only to tear up a length of astroturf that wreaked havoc on his downforce and he slid down to tenth place , narrowly fending off an opportunistic charge from Sergio Pérez to take the final World Championship point on offer . Button 's retirement and Hamilton 's single point meant that McLaren lost second place in the World Constructors ' Championship to Ferrari , and Hamilton admitted that his bid to be the 2012 World Drivers ' Champion was over .
= = = Round 17 – India = = =
Ferrari 's strategy for staying in the championship battle saw them introduce upgrades to the F2012 at every remaining race in the season , starting with an extensive revision for the Indian Grand Prix , but whatever advantage they offered was still not enough for Fernando Alonso to catch Sebastian Vettel . Vettel dominated the weekend , setting the fastest time in every practice session before qualifying on pole , and leading every lap of the sixty @-@ lap race , though he was denied his third Grand Chelem when Jenson Button set the fastest lap of the race on the final lap . Fernando Alonso finished second , conceding another seven championship points to Vettel . The Ferrari driver rounded up both McLaren drivers at the start of the race and proceeded to chase down Mark Webber for second , only overtaking the Australian on the long back straight when his car developed a KERS fault fifteen laps from the end that it never recovered from . Webber held off a late challenge from Lewis Hamilton to complete the podium . Further down the order , Kimi Räikkönen finished seventh after spending most of the race trapped behind Felipe Massa , and later claimed that mistakes on Saturday had robbed him of a podium on Sunday , while Pedro de la Rosa retired from the race when he suffered a brake failure that saw him spin into the barriers at Turn 4 . The race was marked by a series of explosive punctures after cars made light contact with one another ; Michael Schumacher 's right @-@ rear tyre deflated on the first lap when he made contact with Jean @-@ Éric Vergne at the first corner ; Sergio Pérez suffered a puncture under similar circumstances when he glanced Daniel Ricciardo 's front wing , with the loose rubber damaging the floor of Pérez 's car enough that he was forced into retirement ; and Pastor Maldonado also had a tyre punctured when he and Kamui Kobayashi touched at speed on the approach to Turn 5 , forcing the Venezuelan to run wide onto the tarmac run @-@ off , but suffering no lasting damage .
= = = Round 18 – Abu Dhabi = = =
Sebastian Vettel 's dominant run was derailed in Abu Dhabi when his car was found to have insufficient fuel after qualifying and he was subsequently moved to the back of the grid . As Lewis Hamilton led the race away from the start , Vettel started from pit lane and took advantage of a chaotic opening corner that saw Nico Hülkenberg , Paul di Resta , Romain Grosjean and Bruno Senna tangle ; Hülkenberg was forced out , while di Resta and Grosjean pitted with damage . Vettel began to round up the HRTs , Marussias and Caterhams , but his early progress came at the expense of his front wing endplate when he made contact with Senna at Turn 8 switchback . He chose not to pit for the time being , as the race was interrupted by the intervention of the safety car . Nico Rosberg , who had been forced to pit with damage to his front wing , was in the process of overtaking Narain Karthikeyan as Karthikeyan 's car began to fail and the Indian quickly slowed . Rosberg , caught unawares by Karthikeyan 's troubles , was launched over the back of the HRT and into the barrier . During the safety car period , Vettel was forced to pit when he swerved to avoid Daniel Ricciardo and crashed into the polystyrene bollard marking the start of the DRS zone , further damaging his wing . Red Bull Racing took the opportunity to pit him early , with the downside being that Vettel would have to do 42 laps on the soft tyre when supplier Pirelli predicted they could only do 36 . Meanwhile , Hamilton suffered another mechanical failure while leading the race , and was once again forced out , handing the lead to Kimi Räikkönen while Fernando Alonso inherited second . Vettel began to work his way through the field again , but was forced to make a second stop when his tyres started losing grip . He was saved by the second appearance of the safety car moments later , brought about when di Resta forced Sergio Pérez wide ; as Pérez rejoined the circuit , he cut back across the front of Grosjean and the two made contact , which in turn forced Grosjean into the path of Mark Webber . Grosjean and Webber retired , whilst Pérez was given a stop @-@ go penalty . When racing resumed , Räikkönen began to rebuild his lead over Alonso , who was being harried by Jenson Button ; Button himself was being harried by Vettel in fourth . Button and Vettel 's duel allowed Alonso to break free , and he started chasing down Räikkönen in the last five laps . Räikkönen held on to secure his — and Lotus F1 's — first victory of the season . Alonso was second , while Vettel caught and passed Button to complete the podium , keeping a ten @-@ point championship lead in the process . With both Alonso and Vettel finishing on the podium with him , Räikkönen 's win was not enough to keep him in contention for the World Drivers ' Championship , leaving the title to be fought out between Alonso and Vettel over the final two races of the season .
= = = Round 19 – United States = = =
Despite its troubled construction period , the Circuit of the Americas passed its final FIA inspection on 25 September , allowing the race to go ahead . Sebastian Vettel took his sixth pole position of the season , whilst Alonso struggled throughout qualifying to start the race ninth , which became eighth when Romain Grosjean received a grid penalty for an unscheduled gearbox change . Amid concerns that drivers starting from even @-@ numbered grid slots would suffer from a lack of grip as they were located off the racing line , Ferrari deliberately broke the seal on Felipe Massa 's gearbox , thereby giving him a five @-@ place grid penalty and promoting Alonso to seventh and the clean side of the grid . Ferrari 's fears were not without merit as the drivers starting from even @-@ number spaces fell behind at the start of the race . Vettel quickly converted pole position into a steady race lead as Lewis Hamilton fought to regain second place from Mark Webber . Moments after Hamilton caught him on lap 17 , the Australian suffered yet another alternator problem , and coasted to a halt . Red Bull Racing team principal Christian Horner later admitted that the team 's perpetual alternator problems were a serious concern with just one race left in the championship , a World Championship at stake and very little time to diagnose and correct the problem . With Webber now out of the running , Hamilton then turned his attentions on Vettel and steadily closed the gap to the lead , overtaking the World Championship leader on lap 42 when Vettel got caught behind Narain Karthikeyan in the meandering first sector , which allowed Hamilton to pass Vettel along the long back straight . Hamilton held onto the lead for the final fourteen laps , but with Vettel never more than a second and a half behind him , Hamilton could not afford to relax , and he won the race by just six tenths of a second . Alonso recovered from seventh to finish third — marking the first time that he , Hamilton and Vettel had stood on the podium together in the one hundred races all three had contested together — and forcing the title fight to extend to the final round in Brazil . Further down the order , Massa overcame his gearbox penalty to finish fourth , while Jenson Button fell from twelfth on the grid to sixteenth at the end of the first lap , using an alternative strategy to claw his way back up to fifth . Michael Schumacher , on the other hand , went backwards ; after qualifying fifth , his Mercedes chewed through its tyres , forcing him to make a second stop that sent him plummeting down the order to finish sixteenth , and a clutch problem during his stop deprived Kimi Räikkönen of the chance to compete with Alonso for the final podium place . Both Marussia drivers out @-@ qualified the Caterhams for the first time , only for Timo Glock and Charles Pic be out @-@ raced by Heikki Kovalainen and Vitaly Petrov , but the Russian team held onto tenth place in the World Constructors ' Championship . Despite losing Webber to an alternator failure , Red Bull collected enough points to secure their third consecutive World Constructors ' Championship title .
= = = Round 20 – Brazil = = =
The final race of the season was run in conditions that were never quite wet enough for drivers to use wet tyres , but never quite dry enough for slick tyres to provide enough grip . While Jenson Button and Lewis Hamilton fought over the race lead , Sebastian Vettel was involved in a first @-@ lap clash with Bruno Senna that damaged his exhaust and spun him around , relegating him to last place . Senna retired on the spot , as did Sergio Pérez , who was caught in the crossfire . The race was one of attrition , with Pastor Maldonado and Romain Grosjean also crashing out early . Button seized the lead from Hamilton , but soon found himself under pressure from Nico Hülkenberg and lost the lead to the German driver on lap 18 , and second place to Hamilton shortly thereafter . The field stabilised themselves after the first round of stops , with Vettel in the lower points and Fernando Alonso running fourth when he needed a podium to stand any chance of being champion . Hülkenberg spun on lap 48 and lost the lead to Hamilton , but caught the McLaren on lap 54 as they encountered lapped traffic . The two made contact in the first corner , forcing Hamilton out of the race and earning Hülkenberg a drive @-@ through penalty for causing an avoidable accident . In the wake of their collision , Button re @-@ took the lead and held on to the end of the race . Meanwhile , the rain intensified , prompting teams to scramble for tyres . Hülkenberg 's penalty and Hamilton 's retirement promoted Alonso to the podium , which became second place when team @-@ mate Felipe Massa yielded for him . A slow stop for Vettel relegated him to twelfth and swinging the balance of power in Alonso 's favour . In the last ten laps of the race , Vettel began to make his way back up the order until he was seventh , just enough to secure the title , but leaving him vulnerable if the damage he received on the first lap — which by now had left a long crack running along the floor of his car — got worse . Vettel 's seventh became sixth when Michael Schumacher moved aside to let Vettel through . Two laps from the end of the race , Paul di Resta crashed heavily as he came onto the main straight , forcing the deployment of the safety car . Button won the race , with Alonso second and Massa third , but Vettel 's sixth place was enough to secure his third consecutive World Drivers ' Championship . Kimi Räikkönen finished the season third overall , having benefited from Hamilton 's retirement to hold onto the place following a bizarre incident in which he left the circuit and attempted to rejoin by taking to the support paddock pit lane , only to find the way blocked and forcing him to double back and find another way onto the circuit . In his final race in Formula One , Schumacher 's seventh place saw him finish the season in thirteenth place overall ; his worst performance over a season since he contested six rounds during the 1991 season . In the World Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari secured second place from McLaren with two cars on the podium , while Kamui Kobayashi 's ninth place was not enough for Sauber to take sixth from Mercedes , and Marussia lost tenth place to Caterham when Vitaly Petrov secured the team 's best result of the season with eleventh place . Nikolai Fomenko , Marussia 's director of engineering , later claimed that Charles Pic had deliberately let Petrov through , as Pic had announced his move to Caterham for the 2013 season two days before the race ; however , no action was taken by the FIA in response to these claims .
= = = Post @-@ season controversy = = =
Three days after the Brazilian Grand Prix , reports began to surface suggesting that Sebastian Vettel 's championship was under threat and that Ferrari would be filing a formal protest against the race results . The challenge centred on a pass Vettel made on Jean @-@ Éric Vergne early in the race . At the time , the first sector of the circuit was under yellow flag conditions following the spin and retirement of Pastor Maldonado at Curva do Sol , the Interlagos circuit 's third corner , which feeds onto the back straight . Vettel overtook Vergne along the straight , which led to claims that the pass was illegal because of the yellow flags . Intense media speculation suggested that the challenge threatened Vettel 's championship because as the race finished behind the safety car , any post @-@ race penalty had the potential to demote him in the race standings , and Vettel would not have enough points to secure the title . Ferrari wrote to the FIA , requesting clarification on the matter . The FIA reviewed the incident and declared that Vettel 's pass was legal as a green flag was being shown by a marshal adjacent to the pit exit , meaning the track was green from that point onward ; the confusion had been caused by a digital board showing a yellow flag on the exit of Curva do Sol some one hundred metres before the marshalling post . Both Ferrari and Red Bull Racing announced that they were satisfied with the ruling , thereby preserving Vettel 's championship .
= = Results and standings = =
= = = Grands Prix = = =
= = = Drivers ' standings = = =
Points were awarded to the top 10 classified finishers .
Notes :
† – Drivers did not finish the Grand Prix , but were classified as they completed over 90 % of the race distance .
= = = Constructors ' standings = = =
Notes :
† – Cars did not finish the Grand Prix , but were classified as they completed over 90 % of the race distance .
Official FIA results for the Constructors ' Championship identified the constructors as " Red Bull Racing " , " Scuderia Ferrari " , " Vodafone McLaren Mercedes " , etc .
= Typhoon Shanshan ( 2006 ) =
Typhoon Shanshan , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Luis , was a strong typhoon that affected parts of East Asia in late September 2006 . The 13th named storm of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season , Typhoon Shanshan was also the seventh typhoon of the year operationally recognised by the Japan Meteorological Agency . In post @-@ operational analysis Shanshan became the eighth typhoon of the year when Typhoon Maria was added to the list . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center considered Shanshan the 13th tropical storm and eighth typhoon of the season , a Category 4 @-@ equivalent typhoon in terms of 1 @-@ minute average wind speed . The name Shanshan was submitted to the naming list by Hong Kong and is a girls ' given name .
Shanshan wreaked havoc in Japan , with reports that it caused a tornado which derailed a train . It made landfall first in the Yaey
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ama Islands , where it caused heavy rains , and later in Kyūshū . The outer bands of Shanshan also affected South Korea . Shanshan also knocked power out to thousands of homes in the two countries , and killed at least eleven people . Damage amounted to $ 2 @.@ 5 billion ( 2006 USD ) , making Shanshan the sixth costliest disaster worldwide in 2006 .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 9 , 2006 , the Japan Meteorological Agency identified a tropical depression with 25 @-@ knot 10 @-@ minute average sustained winds about 500 kilometres ( 300 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Yap , near latitude 14 @.@ 0 ° N longitude 139 @.@ 0 ° E. Later that day , the Hong Kong Observatory ( HKO ) picked up on the tropical depression and started issuing track forecasts for the system .
As the system continued to move northwestward , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 14W on the morning of September 10 . Later that day , the tropical depression moved into the PAGASA Area of Responsibility , and was named Luis . As the system continued to strengthen , the JMA upgraded the depression to a storm at 1200 UTC and named it Shanshan , a girls ' given name submitted by Hong Kong . The HKO did the same at the same time , upgrading the depression to a storm .
The storm quickly strengthened , being upgraded twice by the JMA on September 11 , at 0600 UTC to a severe tropical storm and at 1800 UTC to a typhoon , becoming the seventh official typhoon of the season . It then took on a more north @-@ northwesterly track , weakening while undergoing an eyewall replacement cycle on September 14 . However , it restrengthened , reaching its maximum intensity of 110 knots ( 205 km / h , 125 mph ) from the JMA and 120 knots ( 220 km / h , 140 mph ) from the JTWC before passing Iriomote on September 15 . Originally expected by the JTWC to pass to the east of Okinawa Island , a subtropical high @-@ pressure ridge south of the main Japanese islands forced the storm to take a more westward track , pushing it towards Taiwan . Shortly later , Shanshan passed directly over Iriomote .
PAGASA issued their final advisory later on September 16 . Peak intensity for Typhoon Luis as reported by PAGASA while it was in their area of responsibility was only 80 knots ( 150 km / h , 95 mph ) . Shanshan made landfall on September 17 on the island of Kyūshū . The HKO issued their final track forecast on the weakening typhoon later that day as it passed out of their area of responsibility , with the peak intensity while within HKO 's area of responsibility set at 185 km / h ( 115 mph , 100 kt ) . The JTWC declared the system extratropical shortly after .
The JMA downgraded the typhoon to a severe tropical storm at 0000 UTC September 18 . Just before crossing the island of Hokkaidō , according to the JMA 's best @-@ track graphic , Severe Tropical Storm Shanshan became extratropical . The extratropical storm was tracked by the JMA in their high seas marine warnings until September 22 .
= = Preparations = =
In anticipation of Typhoon Shanshan , the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau issued a marine warning for all ships in the areas around the north and the east coasts of the island and in the Bashi Channel . Tourists were also asked to avoid the areas due to fears over large waves . The Zhejiang provincial government in the People 's Republic of China also asked all fishermen to return to port and ordered local authorities to help with evacuations of people from areas threatened by the typhoon .
In Japan , the United States military and its navy took precautions against the approaching storm . Okinawa was put under Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness ( TCCOR ) 1 @-@ E , which means that all outdoor activities are prohibited as there are sustained winds of at least 50 knots ( 95 km / h , 60 mph ) in force , on September 16 , with over 100 flights into and out of Naha International Airport on the island cancelled . Kadena Air Base moved various aircraft to other undisclosed locations in the Pacific . Sasebo Naval Base declared TCCOR 1 @-@ E on September 17 . The USS Harpers Ferry ( LSD @-@ 49 ) and USS Juneau ( LPD @-@ 10 ) both left the base , while the USS Patriot ( MCM @-@ 7 ) was moved to a wet berth . Only one vessel , the USS Tortuga ( LSD @-@ 46 ) remained in port for repairs , because authorities thought that the ship could withstand the storm . Elsewhere in Japan , some flights and Shinkansen bullet trains were delayed or cancelled . In Miyazaki and Hiroshima prefectures , evacuation orders were issued for almost 170 families . In Kyūshū , 10 @,@ 000 people voluntarily evacuated their houses for higher ground . The island 's seven main airports were closed , causing 41 @,@ 900 passengers to be stranded when 357 flights were cancelled . Ahead of an expected landfall on Hokkaidō , the JMA warned residents of the possibility of high winds .
Typhoon warnings were issued for Jeju and the southern and eastern coasts of South Korea ahead of the storm . Passenger ships normally serving Jeju Island remained in port . In Busan , ports were closed , and in Ulsan , 1 @,@ 600 ships remained in port . In South Gyeongsang Province , authorities banned departures from the port at Tongyeong , stranding over 16 @,@ 000 fishing boats . The Korean Coast Guard said that a total of 52 @,@ 000 ships remained at ports across the nation . Mount Jiri was also closed ahead of the storm 's passage through Korea , which was expected to bring up to 100 mm ( 4 inches ) of rain .
= = Impact = =
= = = South Korea = = =
In South Korea , Jeju Island reported 100 mm ( 4 inches ) of rain by September 16 , well before the typhoon hit , while Busan had reported 60 mm ( 2 inches ) . Shanshan knocked out electricity to nearly 4 @,@ 000 homes in southeastern South Korea . A ship off Ulleungdo sank , but no casualties were reported from that incident . A sailor died when trying to dock boats on Jeju @-@ do .
= = = Japan = = =
Shanshan 's effects on Japan and its outlying Pacific islands were widespread . On Iriomote , a peak gust of 69 @.@ 9 metres per second ( 251 km / h , 157 mph ) was recorded , the strongest ever on record since records started in 1972 . On Ishigaki , Okinawa , a peak gust of 67 @.@ 0 m / s ( 241 km / h , 150 mph ) was reported , with rainfall rates of up to 50 mm per hour ( 2 inches per hour ) reported . Over 25 @,@ 000 homes on Ishigaki lost power after 182 utility poles were downed by the storm , and at least 12 people on the island were injured . Eight vessels were reported to have capsized .
At Kadena Air Base , 2 inches ( 50 mm ) of rain were reported , with a maximum gust of 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) recorded . Naha International Airport on Okinawa reported a recorded maximum wind gust to 70 mph ( 112 km / h ) . In Motobu , Okinawa , high waves damaged the local port and swept 30 cargo containers to sea , while in Okinawa City , six injuries were reported . One building in the city suffered a wall collapse , and at least 70 houses were damaged .
Off Kyūshū , a Maldives @-@ registered car ferry capsized , killing one crew member . A train was derailed , possibly due to a tornado , injuring five people . On the island , an electrician in Fukuoka Prefecture died after an industrial container at his firm fell on top of him , crushing him . A glass entrance of a supermarket in Nobeoka broke on impact with flying debris , killing one person . Elsewhere in the prefecture , a 42 @-@ year @-@ old man died in his bedroom when it was crushed , while an elderly woman farmer died when she was hit by a fallen tree outside a greenhouse . Three other deaths were confirmed on the island .
Meanwhile , in Hiroshima Prefecture , a 50 @-@ year @-@ old firefighter was killed when he drowned after being swept away by rising flood waters . A journalist went missing in similar circumstances , and was found dead a few days later . In all , Typhoon Shanshan killed 11 people and injured over 260 others . Shanshan is also credited with US $ 4 @.@ 9 million worth of net losses in the third financial quarter for IPC Holdings , Ltd .
= Type II supernova =
A Type II supernova ( plural : supernovae or supernovas ) results from the rapid collapse and violent explosion of a massive star . A star must have at least 8 times , and no more than 40 – 50 times , the mass of the Sun ( M ☉ ) to undergo this type of explosion . It is distinguished from other types of supernovae by the presence of hydrogen in its spectrum . Type II supernovae are mainly observed in the spiral arms of galaxies and in H II regions , but not in elliptical galaxies .
Stars generate energy by the nuclear fusion of elements . Unlike the Sun , massive stars possess the mass needed to fuse elements that have an atomic mass greater than hydrogen and helium , albeit at increasingly higher temperatures and pressures , causing increasingly shorter stellar life spans . The degeneracy pressure of electrons and the energy generated by these fusion reactions are sufficient to counter the force of gravity and prevent the star from collapsing , maintaining stellar equilibrium . The star fuses increasingly higher mass elements , starting with hydrogen and then helium , progressing up through the periodic table until a core of iron and nickel is produced . Fusion of iron or nickel produces no net energy output , so no further fusion can take place , leaving the nickel @-@ iron core inert . Due to the lack of energy output creating outward pressure , equilibrium is broken and the core is compressed by the overlying mass of the star .
When the compacted mass of the inert core exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ , electron degeneracy is no longer sufficient to counter the gravitational compression . A cataclysmic implosion of the core takes place within seconds . Without the support of the now @-@ imploded inner core , the outer core collapses inwards under gravity and reaches a velocity of up to 23 % of the speed of light and the sudden compression increases the temperature of the inner core to up to 100 billion kelvin . Neutrons and neutrinos are formed via reversed beta @-@ decay , releasing about 1046 joules ( 100 foe ) in a ten @-@ second burst . The collapse of the inner core is halted by neutron degeneracy , causing the implosion to rebound and bounce outward . The energy of this expanding shock wave is sufficient to disrupt the overlying stellar material and accelerate it to escape velocity , forming a supernova explosion . The shock wave and extremely high temperature and pressure rapidly dissipate but are present for long enough to allow for a brief period during which the production of elements heavier than iron occurs . Depending on initial size of the star , the remnants of the core form a neutron star or a black hole . Because of the underlying mechanism , the resulting nova is also described as a core @-@ collapse supernova .
There exist several categories of Type II supernova explosions , which are categorized based on the resulting light curve — a graph of luminosity versus time — following the explosion . Type II @-@ L supernovae show a steady ( linear ) decline of the light curve following the explosion , whereas Type II @-@ P display a period of slower decline ( a plateau ) in their light curve followed by a normal decay . Type Ib and Ic supernovae are a type of core @-@ collapse supernova for a massive star that has shed its outer envelope of hydrogen and ( for Type Ic ) helium . As a result , they appear to be lacking in these elements .
= = Formation = =
Stars far more massive than the sun evolve in more complex ways . In the core of the star , hydrogen is fused into helium , releasing thermal energy that heats the sun 's core and provides outward pressure that supports the sun 's layers against collapse in a process known as stellar or hydrostatic equilibrium . The helium produced in the core accumulates there since temperatures in the core are not yet high enough to cause it to fuse . Eventually , as the hydrogen at the core is exhausted , fusion starts to slow down , and gravity causes the core to contract . This contraction raises the temperature high enough to initiate a shorter phase of helium fusion , which accounts for less than 10 % of the star 's total lifetime . In stars with fewer than eight solar masses , the carbon produced by helium fusion does not fuse , and the star gradually cools to become a white dwarf . White dwarf stars , if they have a near companion , may then become Type Ia supernovae .
A much larger star , however , is massive enough to create temperatures and pressures needed to cause the carbon in the core to begin to fuse when the star contracts at the end of the helium @-@ burning stage . The cores of these massive stars become layered like onions as progressively heavier atomic nuclei build up at the center , with an outermost layer of hydrogen gas , surrounding a layer of hydrogen fusing into helium , surrounding a layer of helium fusing into carbon via the triple @-@ alpha process , surrounding layers that fuse to progressively heavier elements . As a star this massive evolves , it undergoes repeated stages where fusion in the core stops , and the core collapses until the pressure and temperature are sufficient to begin the next stage of fusion , reigniting to halt collapse .
= = Core collapse = =
The factor limiting this process is the amount of energy that is released through fusion , which is dependent on the binding energy that holds together these atomic nuclei . Each additional step produces progressively heavier nuclei , which release progressively less energy when fusing . In addition , from carbon @-@ burning onwards , energy loss via neutrino production becomes significant , leading to a higher rate of reaction than would otherwise take place . This continues until nickel @-@ 56 is produced , which decays radioactively into cobalt @-@ 56 and then iron @-@ 56 over the course of a few months . As iron and nickel have the highest binding energy per nucleon of all the elements , energy cannot be produced at the core by fusion , and a nickel @-@ iron core grows . This core is under huge gravitational pressure . As there is no fusion to further raise the star 's temperature to support it against collapse , it is supported only by degeneracy pressure of electrons . In this state , matter is so dense that further compaction would require electrons to occupy the same energy states . However , this is forbidden for identical fermion particles , such as the electron – a phenomenon called the Pauli exclusion principle .
When the core 's mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ , degeneracy pressure can no longer support it , and catastrophic collapse ensues . The outer part of the core reaches velocities of up to 70 @,@ 000 km / s ( 23 % of the speed of light ) as it collapses toward the center of the star . The rapidly shrinking core heats up , producing high @-@ energy gamma rays that decompose iron nuclei into helium nuclei and free neutrons via photodisintegration . As the core 's density increases , it becomes energetically favorable for electrons and protons to merge via inverse beta decay , producing neutrons and elementary particles called neutrinos . Because neutrinos rarely interact with normal matter , they can escape from the core , carrying away energy and further accelerating the collapse , which proceeds over a timescale of milliseconds . As the core detaches from the outer layers of the star , some of these neutrinos are absorbed by the star 's outer layers , beginning the supernova explosion .
For Type II supernovae , the collapse is eventually halted by short @-@ range repulsive neutron @-@ neutron interactions , mediated by the strong force , as well as by degeneracy pressure of neutrons , at a density comparable to that of an atomic nucleus . When the collapse stops , the infalling matter rebounds , producing a shock wave that propagates outward . The energy from this shock dissociates heavy elements within the core . This reduces the energy of the shock , which can stall the explosion within the outer core .
The core collapse phase is so dense and energetic that only neutrinos are able to escape . As the protons and electrons combine to form neutrons by means of electron capture , an electron neutrino is produced . In a typical Type II supernova , the newly formed neutron core has an initial temperature of about 100 billion Kelvin , 104 times the temperature of the sun 's core . Much of this thermal energy must be shed for a stable neutron star to form , otherwise the neutrons would " boil away " . This is accomplished by a further release of neutrinos . These ' thermal ' neutrinos form as neutrino @-@ antineutrino pairs of all flavors , and total several times the number of electron @-@ capture neutrinos . The two neutrino production mechanisms convert the gravitational potential energy of the collapse into a ten @-@ second neutrino burst , releasing about 1046 joules ( 100 foe ) .
Through a process that is not clearly understood , about 1 % , or 1044 joules ( 1 foe ) , of the energy released ( in the form of neutrinos ) is reabsorbed by the stalled shock , producing the supernova explosion . Neutrinos generated by a supernova were observed in the case of Supernova 1987A , leading astrophysicists to conclude that the core collapse picture is basically correct . The water @-@ based Kamiokande II and IMB instruments detected antineutrinos of thermal origin , while the gallium @-@ 71 @-@ based Baksan instrument detected neutrinos ( lepton number = 1 ) of either thermal or electron @-@ capture origin .
When the progenitor star is below about 20 M ☉ – depending on the strength of the explosion and the amount of material that falls back – the degenerate remnant of a core collapse is a neutron star . Above this mass , the remnant collapses to form a black hole . The theoretical limiting mass for this type of core collapse scenario is about 40 – 50 M ☉ . Above that mass , a star is believed to collapse directly into a black hole without forming a supernova explosion , although uncertainties in models of supernova collapse make calculation of these limits uncertain .
= = Theoretical models = =
The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory which describes three of the four known fundamental interactions between the elementary particles that make up all matter . This theory allows predictions to be made about how particles will interact under many conditions . The energy per particle in a supernova is typically one to one hundred and fifty picojoules ( tens to hundreds of MeV ) . The per @-@ particle energy involved in a supernova is small enough that the predictions gained from the Standard Model of particle physics are likely to be basically correct . But the high densities may require corrections to the Standard Model . In particular , Earth @-@ based particle accelerators can produce particle interactions which are of much higher energy than are found in supernovae , but these experiments involve individual particles interacting with individual particles , and it is likely that the high densities within the supernova will produce novel effects . The interactions between neutrinos and the other particles in the supernova take place with the weak nuclear force , which is believed to be well understood . However , the interactions between the protons and neutrons involve the strong nuclear force , which is much less well understood .
The major unsolved problem with Type II supernovae is that it is not understood how the burst of neutrinos transfers its energy to the rest of the star producing the shock wave which causes the star to explode . From the above discussion , only one percent of the energy needs to be transferred to produce an explosion , but explaining how that one percent of transfer occurs has proven very difficult , even though the particle interactions involved are believed to be well understood . In the 1990s , one model for doing this involved convective overturn , which suggests that convection , either from neutrinos from below , or infalling matter from above , completes the process of destroying the progenitor star . Heavier elements than iron are formed during this explosion by neutron capture , and from the pressure of the neutrinos pressing into the boundary of the " neutrinosphere " , seeding the surrounding space with a cloud of gas and dust which is richer in heavy elements than the material from which the star originally formed .
Neutrino physics , which is modeled by the Standard Model , is crucial to the understanding of this process . The other crucial area of investigation is the hydrodynamics of the plasma that makes up the dying star ; how it behaves during the core collapse determines when and how the " shock wave " forms and when and how it " stalls " and is reenergized .
In fact , some theoretical models incorporate a hydrodynamical instability in the stalled shock known as the " Standing Accretion Shock Instability " ( SASI ) . This instability comes about as a consequence of non @-@ spherical perturbations oscillating the stalled shock thereby deforming it . The SASI is often used in tandem with neutrino theories in computer simulations for re @-@ energizing the stalled shock .
Computer models have been very successful at calculating the behavior of Type II supernovae when the shock has been formed . By ignoring the first second of the explosion , and assuming that an explosion is started , astrophysicists have been able to make detailed predictions about the elements produced by the supernova and of the expected light curve from the supernova .
= = Light curves for Type II @-@ L and Type II @-@ P supernovae = =
When the spectrum of a Type II supernova is examined , it normally displays Balmer absorption lines – reduced flux at the characteristic frequencies where hydrogen atoms absorb energy . The presence of these lines is used to distinguish this category of supernova from a Type I supernova .
When the luminosity of a Type II supernova is plotted over a period of time , it shows a characteristic rise to a peak brightness followed by a decline . These light curves have an average decay rate of 0 @.@ 008 magnitudes per day ; much lower than the decay rate for Type Ia supernovae . Type II are sub @-@ divided into two classes , depending on the shape of the light curve . The light curve for a Type II @-@ L supernova shows a steady ( linear ) decline following the peak brightness . By contrast , the light curve of a Type II @-@ P supernova has a distinctive flat stretch ( called a plateau ) during the decline ; representing a period where the luminosity decays at a slower rate . The net luminosity decay rate is lower , at 0 @.@ 0075 magnitudes per day for Type II @-@ P , compared to 0 @.@ 012 magnitudes per day for Type II @-@ L.
The difference in the shape of the light curves is believed to be caused , in the case of Type II @-@ L supernovae , by the expulsion of most of the hydrogen envelope of the progenitor star . The plateau phase in Type II @-@ P supernovae is due to a change in the opacity of the exterior layer . The shock wave ionizes the hydrogen in the outer envelope – stripping the electron from the hydrogen atom – resulting in a significant increase in the opacity . This prevents photons from the inner parts of the explosion from escaping . When the hydrogen cools sufficiently to recombine , the outer layer becomes transparent .
= = Type IIn supernovae = =
The " n " denotes narrow , which indicates the presence of intermediate or very narrow width H emission lines in the spectra . In the intermediate width case , the ejecta from the explosion may be interacting strongly with gas around the star – the circumstellar medium . The estimated circumstellar density required to explain the observational properties is much higher than that expected from the standard stellar evolution theory . It is generally assumed that the high circumstellar density is due to the high mass @-@ loss rates of the SN IIn progenitors . The estimated mass @-@ loss rates are typically higher than 10 − 3 M ⊙ yr − 1 . There are indications that they originate as stars similar to Luminous blue variables with large mass losses before exploding . SN 1998S and SN 2005gl are famous examples of Type IIn ; SN 2006gy , an extremely energetic supernova , may be another example .
= = Type IIb supernovae = =
A Type IIb supernova has a weak hydrogen line in its initial spectrum , which is why it is classified as a Type II . However , later on the H emission becomes undetectable , and there is also a second peak in the light curve that has a spectrum which more closely resembles a Type Ib supernova . The progenitor could have been a giant star which lost most of its hydrogen envelope due to interactions with a companion in a binary system , leaving behind the core that consisted almost entirely of helium . As the ejecta of a Type IIb expands , the hydrogen layer quickly becomes more transparent and reveals the deeper layers . The classic example of a Type IIb supernova is Supernova 1993J , while another example is Cassiopeia A. The IIb class was first introduced ( as a theoretical concept ) by Ensman & Woosley 1987 .
= = Hypernovae ( collapsars ) = =
Hypernovae are a rare type of supernova substantially more luminous and energetic than standard supernovae . Examples are 1997ef ( type Ic ) and 1997cy ( type IIn ) . Hypernovae are produced by more than one type of event : relativistic jets during formation of a black hole from fallback of material onto the neutron star core , the collapsar model ; interaction with a dense envelope of circumstellar material , the CSM model ; the highest mass pair instability supernovae ; possibly others such as binary and quark star model .
Stars with initial masses between about 25 and 90 times the sun develop cores large enough that after a supernova explosion , some material will fall back onto the neutron star core and create a black hole . In many cases this reduces the luminosity of the supernova , and above 90 M ☉ the star collapses directly into a black hole without a supernova explosion . However , if the progenitor is spinning quickly enough the infalling material generates relativistic jets that emit more energy than the original explosion . They may also be seen directly if beamed towards us , giving the impression of an even more luminous object . In some cases these can produce gamma @-@ ray bursts , although not all gamma @-@ ray bursts are from supernovae .
In some cases a type II supernova occurs when the star is surrounded by a very dense cloud of material , most likely expelled during luminous blue variable eruptions . This material is shocked by the explosion and becomes more luminous than a standard supernova . It is likely that there is a range of luminosities for these type IIn supernovae with only the brightest qualifying as a hypernova .
Pair instability supernovae occur when an oxygen core in an extremely massive star becomes hot enough that gamma rays spontaneously produce electron @-@ positron pairs . This causes the core to collapse , but where the collapse of an iron core causes endothermic fusion to heavier elements , the collapse of an oxygen core creates runaway exothermic fusion which completely unbinds the star . The total energy emitted depends on the initial mass , with much of the core being converted to 56Ni and ejected which then powers the supernova for many months . At the lower end stars of about 140 M ☉ produce supernovae that are long @-@ lived but otherwise typical , while the highest mass stars of around 250 M ☉ produce supernovae that are extremely luminous and also very long lived ; hypernovae . More massive stars die by photodisintegration . Only population III stars , with very low metallicity , can reach this stage . Stars with more heavy elements are more opaque and blow away their outer layers until they are small enough to explode as a normal type Ib / c supernova . It is thought that even in our own galaxy , mergers of old low metallicity stars may form massive stars capable of creating a pair instability supernova .
= Pulveroboletus ravenelii =
Pulveroboletus ravenelii , commonly known as Ravenel 's bolete or the powdery sulfur bolete , is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae . Described as new to science in 1853 , the widely distributed species is known from Asia , Australia , North America , Central America , and South America . Mycorrhizal with oak , the fungus fruits on the ground singly , scattered , or in groups in woods . Fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have convex to flat , yellowish to brownish @-@ red caps up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) in diameter . On the cap underside , the pore surface is bright yellow before turning dingy yellow to grayish brown with age ; it stains greenish blue then grayish brown after injury . A cottony and powdery partial veil remains as a ring on the stipe . The mushrooms are edible , and have been used in traditional Chinese medicine and for mushroom dyeing .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described as Boletus ravenelii by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis in 1853 . Specimens were sent to them by American botanist Henry William Ravenel , who collected them in South Carolina . They considered the bolete " a most splendid species closely allied to B. hemichrysus , and , like that , remarkable for the pulverulent veil . " The specific epithet honors Ravenel . William Alphonso Murrill transferred the fungus to the genus Pulveroboletus in 1909 , giving it the name by which it is known today . The mushroom is commonly known as " Ravenel 's bolete " or the " powdery sulfur bolete " .
= = Description = =
The cap is rounded to convex before flattening with age , and attains a diameter of 1 – 10 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) . Its margin is curved inward when young , and usually has hanging remnants of the partial veil . The surface is dry and initially coated with fine particles , while later it develops fine hairs or small scales that are pressed down flat on the surface ; in maturity the surface usually develops fine cracks or wrinkles . It is bright yellow , later turning to orange @-@ red to brownish red . The flesh is white to pale yellow , and , when cut , will slowly stain pale blue , then dingy yellow to pale brown . Its flesh has been described variously as indistinct , or bitter tasting with an odor of hickory leaves . The pore surface is bright yellow before turning dingy yellow to grayish brown with age . It stains greenish blue then grayish brown after being bruised or injured . The pores , which number about 1 – 3 per millimeter , are angular to almost circular . The tubes comprising the pore surface are 5 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) deep . The yellow stem measures 4 @.@ 5 – 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 7 in ) long by 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and is roughly equal in width throughout or somewhat thicker near the base . It is solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , and , above the level of the base , the surface is covered with minute hairs pressed flat against the surface . The partial veil , also bright yellow , is cottony and powdery , and remains as a ring on the upper portion of the stem , although in some specimens it merges gradually with the stipe surface and becomes inconspicuous . There is white mycelium at the stipe base .
Pulveroboletus ravenelii produces an olive @-@ grey to olive @-@ brown spore print . Spores are elliptical to oval , smooth , and measure 8 – 10 by 4 – 5 μm . The hyphal tissue in the hymenophore is inamyloid and bilateral , meaning it diverges downward from the flesh toward the edge of the hymenophore , away from a central strand . The tubes have scattered cystidia on the walls ( pleurocystidia ) and abundant cystidia on the edges ( cheilocystidia ) . The hyphae in the cap cuticle are arranged as an ixotrichodermium – long and typically multi @-@ celled , with erect hyphae embedded in a gelatinous matrix . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Pulveroboletus ravenelii grow on the ground singly , scattered , or in groups in woods under conifers . Preferred mycorrhizal plant hosts include pine , hemlock , and rhododendron . Fruiting occurs from July to October . In North America , it is distributed from eastern Canada extending south to the Gulf of Mexico , and west to Texas , Michigan , and California . The bolete was reported from a Mexican beech ( Fagus mexicana ) forest in Hidalgo , Mexico in 2010 . It has also been recorded from Costa Rica and Colombia . In Asia , it has been found in Indonesia and China . It has also been recorded from northeast Australia .
= = Uses = =
Pulveroboletus ravenelii mushrooms are edible . They have been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat lumbago , numbed limbs , and as an antihemorrhagic . Bioactive compounds that have been identified from the fruit bodies include pulveravin A , pulveravin B , vulpinic acid , and pulverolide . Mushrooms are also used in mushroom dyeing to produce the colors yellow , gold , greenish yellow , orange , or olive , depending on the mordant used .
= Johnny 's Theme =
" Johnny 's Theme " is an instrumental jazz song played as the opening theme of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson from the show 's inception in 1962 through its finale in 1992 . The piece was composed by Paul Anka and Johnny Carson , based on a previous composition by Anka . It was performed by The Tonight Show Band , which released an arrangement by Tommy Newsom in 1986 as part of its Grammy Award @-@ winning eponymous debut album . The single release also garnered a Grammy nomination .
" Johnny 's Theme " has since been released in cover versions and on compilation albums . It has appeared in several films , and been played live in concert by school bands and by amateur and professional musicians , including Doc Severinsen 's Big Band .
= = Development and evolution = =
= = = 1959 : Two songs = = =
" Johnny 's Theme " began life as " Toot Sweet " , a pop instrumental composed in 1959 by Paul Anka and recorded by Tutti 's Trumpets . It was released on Disney 's Buena Vista label as the B @-@ side to The Camarata Strings ' single " Lost In a Fog " .
" Tutti " Camarata , who was Annette Funicello 's producer at the time , asked Anka to write some songs for Funicello 's first album to follow her work on The Mickey Mouse Club . Anka added lyrics to " Toot Sweet " and published them under the title " It 's Really Love " , and the song was released as part of Annette Sings Anka . He recorded his own version of " It 's Really Love " that same year for the French film Faibles Femmes ; it was released on seven @-@ inch EPs in France , Italy and Spain .
= = = 1962 : Johnny Carson = = =
When Johnny Carson , a fan of jazz music , was preparing to take over as the permanent host of The Tonight Show starting in October 1962 , he recognized that he would need a theme song . Carson and Anka had worked together in England on the television special An Evening with Paul Anka in 1961 ; when they happened to meet up again in New York City the following year , Carson manager Al Bruno mentioned needing a theme .
Anka created a new instrumental arrangement for " It 's Really Love " and sent a demo to Carson and Ed McMahon , who were in Fort Lauderdale , Florida , making preparations for the show . McMahon said " it was the first time either one of us heard [ the song ] — and magic . "
= = = 1962 – 92 : The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson = = =
Shortly after sending the demo , Anka received a telephone call and was told that Tonight Show bandleader Skitch Henderson was angry because Carson wanted to use a theme song written by " a 20 @-@ year @-@ old kid " . Anka said he then offered to let Carson write and publish new lyrics in order to claim a songwriter 's credit , along with half of the royalties every time the song was played . Those lyrics were never used on the show . Anka estimated that " Johnny 's Theme " was played live on Carson 's Tonight Show more than 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 times over the course of 30 years . As its original composer , Anka also was paid each time the song was broadcast , earning each man an average of about US $ 200 @,@ 000 per year .
The song was retired along with Carson in 1992 ; his iteration of The Tonight Show was called " the last widely public big @-@ band forum " . Incoming bandleader Branford Marsalis composed a more " funky " theme for successor Jay Leno because " a swing tune doesn 't reflect Jay at all [ and ] jazz doesn 't come to mind either . "
= = Releases = =
Henry Mancini and his orchestra recorded a 2 : 44 arrangement of " Johnny 's Theme " in 1972 for the German EP Theme from Nicholas and Alexandra . A version also appeared as part of Mancini 's 2010 compilation Big Screen , Little Screen . Paul Anka produced a recording by Top Brass for Buddah Records in 1973 . Lawrence Welk and his orchestra performed the song for their 1976 album Nadia 's Theme .
Doc Severinsen and the band recorded " Johnny 's Theme " and 12 other tracks for their album The Tonight Show Band , released in 1986 . Amherst Records also released the track as a single , titled " Johnny 's Theme ( The Tonight Show Theme ) " , which debuted at # 27 on the Radio & Records Jazz Top 30 chart . The song has been released on compilations of television themes , the 1995 compilation 25 Years of Chrysalis Music , and The Very Best of Doc Severinsen ( 1998 ) .
= = Reception = =
" Johnny 's Theme " earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Instrumental Performance , losing to " Top Gun Anthem " at the awards presentation in 1987 . The Tonight Show Band was honored for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance , Big Band .
= = Legacy = =
In 2005 , Doc Severinsen , Carson 's bandleader starting in 1967 , said the song worked so well because it was " accessible . People could understand what it was , and it was associated with Johnny . " Larry King called it " one of the most familiar themes in American television history . " Paul Anka said the song was played for only a short time each night , " but everybody knows it . Simplicity is indeed royal . "
The Washington Post in 2008 said the days of the television theme song were fading into nostalgia , though they " used to abound " , with or without lyrics . For example , " Anka 's Tonight Show theme was inseparable from late night and Johnny Carson . "
" Johnny 's Theme " has been included in numerous films , including This Is My Life , Isn 't She Great and Talk to Me . The song has been performed live by musicians at varying skill levels , from student to professional . Iowa State Cyclones men 's basketball coach Johnny Orr came onto the court pumping his fist as the pep band played " Johnny 's Theme " before games at the Hilton Coliseum . Orr 's tenure ran from 1980 to 1994 .
Doc Severinsen has kept the song alive on tour . His Big Band opened its shows by playing the theme in its entirety , " just to let you know who we are . " Severinsen and The Roots played " Johnny 's Theme " during a 2015 episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon .
= Blue Velvet ( film ) =
Blue Velvet is a 1986 American mystery film , written and directed by David Lynch . Blending psychological horror with film noir , the film stars Kyle MacLachlan , Isabella Rossellini , Dennis Hopper and Laura Dern . The title is taken from Bobby Vinton 's 1963 song of the same name . Although initially receiving a divided critical response , the film is now widely acclaimed as one of the greatest films of the 1980s , and earned Lynch his second Academy Award nomination for Best Director . As an example of a director casting against the norm , Blue Velvet is also noted for re @-@ launching Hopper 's career and for providing Rossellini with a dramatic outlet beyond the work as a fashion model and a cosmetics spokeswoman , something for which she had until then been known .
After the commercial and critical failure of Lynch 's Dune ( 1984 ) , he made attempts at developing a more " personal story " , somewhat characteristic of the surrealist style he displayed in his debut Eraserhead ( 1977 ) . The screenplay of Blue Velvet had been passed around multiple times in the late 1970s and early 1980s , with many major studios declining it because of its strong sexual and violent content . The independent studio De Laurentiis Entertainment Group , owned at the time by Italian film producer Dino De Laurentiis , agreed to finance and produce the film .
Since its initial theatrical release , Blue Velvet has achieved cult status , generated significant academic attention with regard to its thematic symbolism and is widely regarded as one of Lynch 's best works . The film is consistently ranked among the greatest American films of all time by various publications , including Sight & Sound , Time Magazine , Entertainment Weekly and BBC Magazine . In 2008 , Blue Velvet was chosen by the American Film Institute as one of the greatest mystery films ever made .
= = Plot = =
Jeffrey Beaumont ( Kyle MacLachlan ) returns to his logging home town of Lumberton , North Carolina from Oak Lake College after his father suffers a near @-@ fatal stroke . While walking home from the hospital , he cuts through a vacant lot and discovers a severed ear . Jeffrey takes the ear to police detective John Williams ( George Dickerson ) and becomes reacquainted with the detective 's daughter , Sandy ( Laura Dern ) . She tells him details about the ear case and a suspicious woman , Dorothy Vallens ( Isabella Rossellini ) , who may be connected to the case . Increasingly curious , Jeffrey enters Dorothy 's apartment by posing as an exterminator , and while Dorothy is distracted by a man dressed in a yellow suit at her door ( whom Jeffrey later refers to as the Yellow Man ) , Jeffrey steals her spare key .
Jeffrey and Sandy attend Dorothy 's nightclub act , in which she sings " Blue Velvet " , and leave early so Jeffrey can sneak into her apartment to snoop . He hurriedly hides in a closet when she returns home . However , Dorothy , wielding a knife , discovers him and threatens to kill him . Believing his curiosity is merely sexual and aroused by his voyeurism , Dorothy makes Jeffrey undress at knifepoint and begins to fellate him before their encounter is interrupted by a knock at the door . Dorothy hides Jeffrey in the closet . From there he witnesses the visitor , Frank Booth ( Dennis Hopper ) , inflict his bizarre sexual proclivities — which include inhaling an unidentified gas ( possibly amyl nitrite ) , dry humping , and sadomasochism — upon Dorothy . Frank is an extremely foul @-@ mouthed , violent sociopath whose orgasmic climax is a fit of both pleasure and rage . He continually refers to her as " Mommy " and to himself as both the " Daddy " and the " Baby " , who " want to fuck . " Frank has kidnapped Dorothy 's husband and son to force her to perform sexual favors ; to " Do it for van Gogh . " When Frank leaves , a sad and desperate Dorothy tries to seduce Jeffrey again and demands that he hit her , but when he refuses , she tells him to leave . When Jeffrey moves to leave , she asks him to stay , though he leaves anyway .
Jeffrey relays his experience to Sandy , asking her why there are people like Frank . Sandy in turn tells him of a wonderful dream she had about robins that she interprets as a sign of hope for humanity . Jeffrey and Sandy find themselves attracted to each other , though Sandy has a boyfriend .
Jeffrey again visits Dorothy 's apartment and she tells him that although she knows nothing about him , she has been yearning for him . Jeffrey attends another of Dorothy 's performances at the club , where she sings the same song . At the club , Jeffrey spots Frank in the audience fondling a piece of blue velvet fabric he cut from Dorothy 's robe . Jeffrey follows Frank and spends the next few days spying on him . Shortly afterwards , two men that Jeffrey calls the Well @-@ Dressed Man and the Yellow Man exit an industrial building that Frank frequently visits . Jeffrey concludes the men are criminal associates of Frank , and tells his new findings to Sandy . The two briefly kiss , though she feels uncomfortable about going any further . Jeffrey immediately visits Dorothy again , and the two have sex . However , when he refuses to hit her , she pressures him , becoming more emotional . In a blind rage he knocks her backwards and is instantly horrified , but Dorothy derives pleasure from it .
Afterwards , Frank catches Dorothy and Jeffrey together and forces them both to accompany him to the apartment of Ben ( Dean Stockwell ) , his suave , effeminate partner in crime who is holding Dorothy 's son . Ben lip @-@ syncs a performance of Roy Orbison 's " In Dreams " , sending Frank into maudlin sadness , then rage . Frank takes Jeffrey to a lumber yard and when he molests Dorothy , Jeffrey stands up to Frank by punching him . Frank 's cronies drag Jeffrey out of the car and Frank kisses Jeffrey 's face , intimidates him , and then savagely beats him to the overture of " In Dreams " . Jeffrey wakes the next day at the same place and walks home , overcome with guilt and despair . He goes to the police station , where he notices that Sandy 's father 's partner is the Yellow Man — an officer named Lieutenant Detective Tom Gordon ( Fred Pickler ) . Later , at Sandy 's home , her father is amazed by Jeffrey 's story , but warns Jeffrey to stop his amateur sleuthing lest he endanger himself and the investigation . Jeffrey and Sandy go to a dance together and profess their love , only to be confronted by Sandy 's boyfriend . A confrontation is averted when the group finds Dorothy — naked , battered , and distressed — on Jeffrey 's front lawn . Barely conscious , Dorothy reveals her intimacy with Jeffrey , causing Sandy to become upset and to slap Jeffrey , although she later forgives him .
Jeffrey insists on returning to Dorothy 's apartment and tells Sandy to immediately send the police there , including her father . At Dorothy 's apartment , Jeffrey finds Dorothy 's husband ( Don Vallens ) , who is dead from a gunshot to the head and identifiable by his missing ear , as well as the Yellow Man ( Gordon ) , who bears a gruesome head wound and appears to have suffered a crude lobotomy . When Jeffrey tries to leave , he sees the Well @-@ Dressed Man coming up the stairs and recognizes him as Frank in disguise . Jeffrey talks to Detective Williams over the Yellow Man 's police radio , but lies about his location inside the apartment . Frank enters the apartment and brags about hearing Jeffrey 's location over his own police radio . While Frank searches for him in the wrong room , Jeffrey retrieves the Yellow Man 's gun and hides in the same closet in which he hid during his first visit to the apartment . Frank fires sporadically , knocking over the dead Yellow Man , who had still been standing up , and when he opens the closet door , Jeffrey fatally shoots him in the head . Detective Williams , gun drawn , enters with Sandy a moment later . Jeffrey and Sandy now go ahead with their relationship and note the unusual appearance of robins in their town . A montage sequence ends the film , which shows Dorothy and her son reunited .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
The film 's story originated from three ideas that crystallized in the filmmaker 's mind over a period of time starting as early as 1973 . The first idea was only " a feeling " and the title Blue Velvet , Lynch told Cineaste in 1987 . The second idea was an image of a severed , human ear lying in a field . " I don 't know why it had to be an ear . Except it needed to be an opening of a part of the body , a hole into something else ... The ear sits on the head and goes right into the mind so it felt perfect " , Lynch remarked in an interview . The third idea was Bobby Vinton 's classic rendition of the song Blue Velvet and " the mood
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. New MPC line cards were introduced , which have a throughput of up to 1 @.@ 6 Tbit / s . Simultaneously the Juniper Extension Toolkit ( JET ) was announced . JET is a programming interface for integrating third @-@ party applications that automate provisioning , maintenance and other tasks . The Junos Telemetry Interface was also announced at the same time . It reports data to applications and other equipment to automate changes to the network in response to faults or in order optimize performance .
= = Current products and specifications = =
According to Juniper 's website , Juniper 's current MX Series products include the following :
= Lord Howe Island =
Lord Howe Island ( / ˈhaʊ / , local / ˈhæɔː / ; formerly Lord Howe 's Island ) is an irregularly crescent @-@ shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand , 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) directly east of mainland Port Macquarie , and about 900 kilometres ( 560 mi ) south @-@ west of Norfolk Island . It is about 10 km long and between 2 @.@ 0 km and 0 @.@ 3 km wide with an area of 14 @.@ 55 km2 , though just 3 @.@ 98 km2 of that comprises the low @-@ lying developed part of the island . Along the west coast there is a sandy semi @-@ enclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon . Most of the population lives in the north , while the south is dominated by forested hills rising to the highest point on the island , Mount Gower ( 875 m or 2 @,@ 871 ft ) . The Lord Howe Island Group comprises 28 islands , islets and rocks . Apart from Lord Howe Island itself the most notable of these is the volcanic and uninhabited Ball 's Pyramid about 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) to the south @-@ east of Howe . To the north lies the Admiralty Group , a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands .
The first reported sighting of Lord Howe Island took place on 17 February 1788 , when Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball , commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply was en route from Botany Bay to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island . On the return journey Ball sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession . It subsequently became a provisioning port for the whaling industry , and was permanently settled in June 1834 . When whaling declined , the 1880s saw the beginning of the worldwide export of the endemic kentia palms , which remains a key component of the Island 's economy . The other continuing industry , tourism , began after World War II ended in 1945 .
The Lord Howe Island Group is part of the state of New South Wales and for legal purposes is regarded as an unincorporated area administered by the Lord Howe Island Board which reports to the New South Wales Minister for Environment and Heritage . The island 's standard time zone is UTC + 10 : 30 , or UTC + 11 when daylight saving time applies . The currency is the Australian dollar . Commuter airlines provide flights to Sydney , Brisbane , and Port Macquarie .
UNESCO records the Lord Howe Island Group as a World Heritage Site of global natural significance . Most of the island is virtually untouched forest , with many of the plants and animals found nowhere else in the world . Other natural attractions include the diversity of the landscapes , the variety of upper mantle and oceanic basalts , the world 's southernmost barrier coral reef , nesting seabirds , and the rich historical and cultural heritage . The Lord Howe Island Act of 1981 established a " Permanent Park Preserve " ( covering about 70 per cent of the island ) . The surrounding waters are a protected region designated the Lord Howe Island Marine Park .
= = History = =
= = = 1788 – 1834 : First European visits = = =
It appears that , prior to European discovery and settlement , Lord Howe Island was uninhabited , and unknown to Polynesian peoples of the South Pacific . The first reported European sighting of Lord Howe Island was on 17 February 1788 by Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball , commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply ( the oldest and smallest of the First Fleet ships ) , which was on its way from Botany Bay with a cargo of nine male and six female convicts to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island . On the return journey of 13 March 1788 Ball observed Ball 's Pyramid and sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession . Numerous turtles and tame birds were captured and returned to Sydney . Ball named Mount Lidgbird and Balls Pyramid after himself and the main island after Richard Howe , First Earl Howe , who was First Lord of the Admiralty at the time .
Many names on the island date from this time , and also from May of the same year when the island was visited by four ships of the First Fleet , HMS Supply , Charlotte , Lady Penrhyn and Scarborough when much of the plant and animal life was first recorded in the journals and diaries of visitors like David Blackburn , Master of the Supply , and Arthur Bowes Smyth , surgeon of the Lady Penrhyn . Watercolour sketches of native birds including the Lord Howe woodhen ( Gallirallus sylvestris ) , white gallinule ( Porphyrio albus ) , and Lord Howe pigeon ( Columba vitiensis godmanae ) , were made by artists including George Raper and John Hunter . As the latter two birds were soon hunted to extinction these paintings are their only remaining pictorial record . Over the next three years the Supply returned to the island several times in search of turtles and the island was also visited by ships of the Second and Third Fleets . Between 1789 and 1791 the Pacific whale industry was born with British and American whaling ships chasing sperm whales ( Physeter macrocephalus ) along the equator to the Gilbert and Ellice archipelago , then south into Australian and New Zealand waters . The American fleet numbered 675 ships and Lord Howe was located in a region known as the Middle Ground noted for sperm whales ( Physeter macrocephalus ) and southern right whales ( Eubalaena australis ) .
The island was subsequently visited by many government and whaling ships sailing between New South Wales and Norfolk Island and across the Pacific , including many from the American whaling fleet , so its reputation as a provisioning port preceded settlement , some ships leaving goats and pigs on the island as food for future visitors . Between July and October 1791 the Third Fleet ships arrived at Sydney and within days the deckwork was being reconstructed for a future in the lucrative whaling industry . Whale oil was to become New Holland 's ( Australia ) most profitable export until the 1830s , and it was the whaling industry that shaped Lord Howe Island 's early history .
= = = 1834 – 1841 : Settlement = = =
Permanent settlement on Lord Howe was established in June 1834 when the British whaling barque Caroline , sailing from New Zealand and commanded by Captain John Blinkenthorpe , landed at what is now known as Blinky Beach . They left three men , George Ashdown , James Bishop and ( unknown ) Chapman , who were employed by a Sydney whaling firm to establish a supply station . The men were initially to provide meat by fishing and by raising pigs and goats from feral stock . They landed with ( or acquired from a visiting ship ) their Maori wives and two Maori boys . Huts were built in an area now known as Old Settlement which had a supply of fresh water , and a garden was established west of Blinky Beach .
This was a cashless society ; the settlers bartered their stores of water , wood , vegetables , meat , fish and bird feathers for clothes , tea , sugar , tools , tobacco and other commodities not available on the island – but it was the whalers ’ valuation that had to be accepted . These first settlers eventually left the island when they were bought out for £ 350 in September 1841 by businessmen Owen Poole and Richard Dawson ( later joined by John Foulis ) whose employees and others then settled on the island .
= = = 1842 – 1860 : Trading provisions = = =
The new business was advertised and ships trading between Sydney and the New Hebrides ( Vanuatu ) would also put into the island . Rover 's Bride , a small cutter , became the first regular trading vessel . Between 1839 and 1859 between five and twelve ships made landfall each year , occasionally closer to 20 with seven or eight at a time laying off the reef . In 1842 and 1844 the first children were born on the island . Then in 1847 Poole , Dawson and Foulis , bitter at failing to obtain a land lease from the New South Wales Government , abandoned the settlement although three of their employees remained . One family , the Andrews , after finding some onions on the beach in 1848 , cultivated them as the " Lord Howe red onion " which was popular in the Southern Hemisphere for about 30 years until the crop was attacked by smut disease .
In 1849 there were just 11 people living on the island but it was not long before the island farms expanded . In the 1850s gold was discovered on mainland Australia where crews would abandon their ships , preferring to dig for gold than to risk a life at sea . As a consequence many vessels avoided the mainland and Lord Howe Island experienced an increasing trade which peaked between 1855 and 1857 . In 1851 about 16 people were living on the island . Vegetable crops now included potatoes , carrots , maize , pumpkin , taro , watermelon – even grapes , passionfruit and coffee . Between 1851 and 1853 there were several aborted proposals by the NSW Government to establish a penal settlement on the island .
From 1851 to 1854 Henry Denham captain of HMS Herald , which was on a scientific expedition to the southwest Pacific ( 1852 – 1856 ) , completed the island 's first hydrographic survey . On board were three Scottish biologists , William Milne ( a gardener @-@ botanist from the Edinburgh Botanic Garden ) , John Macgillivray ( naturalist ) who collected fish and plant specimens , and Assistant Surgeon and zoologist Denis Macdonald . Together these men established much basic information on the geology , flora and fauna of the island .
In about 1853 a further three settlers arrived on the American whaling barque Belle , captained by Ichabod Handy . As well as George Campbell ( who died in 1856 ) and Jack Brian ( who left the island in 1854 ) , the third , Nathan Thompson , brought three women ( called Botanga , Bogoroo , and a girl named Bogue ) from the Gilbert Islands . When his first wife Botanga died he then married Bogue . Thompson was the first resident to build a substantial house in the 1860s from mainland cedar washed up on the beach . Most of the residents with island ancestors have blood relations or are connected by marriage to Thompson and his second wife Bogue .
In 1855 the island was officially designated as part of New South Wales by the Constitution Act .
= = = 1861 – 1890 : Scientific expeditions = = =
From the early 1860s whaling declined rapidly with the increasing use of petroleum , the onset of the Californian goldrush , and the American Civil War – with unfortunate consequences for the island . To explore alternative means of income Thompson , in 1867 , purchased the Sylph which was the first local vessel to trade with Sydney ( mainly pigs and onions ) . It anchored in deep water at what is now Sylph 's Hole off Old Settlement Beach , but was eventually tragically lost at sea in 1873 which added to the woes of the island at this time .
In 1869 the island was visited by a magistrate P. Cloete aboard the Thetis investigating a possible murder . He was accompanied by Charles Moore , Director of the Botanic Gardens , Sydney and his assistant , William Carron who forwarded plant specimens to Ferdinand Mueller at the botanic gardens in Melbourne who , by 1875 , had catalogued and published 195 species . Also on the ship was William Fitzgerald a surveyor and Mr Masters from the Australian Museum . Together they surveyed the island with the findings published in 1870 when the population was listed as 35 people , their 13 houses built of split palm battens thatched on the roof and sides with palm leaves . At about this time there began a downturn of trade with the demise of the whaling industry and sometimes six or twelve months passed without a vessel calling . With the provisions rotting in the storehouses the older families lost interest in market gardening .
From 1860 to 1872 forty @-@ three ships had collected provisions , but from 1873 to 1887 there were fewer than a dozen . This prompted some activity from the mainland . In 1876 a government report on the island was submitted by surveyor William Fitzgerald based on a visit in the same year . He suggested that coffee be grown but the kentia palm was already catching world attention . In 1878 the island was declared a Forest Reserve and Captain Richard Armstrong became the first resident government administrator . He encouraged schools , tree @-@ planting and the palm trade , dynamited the north passage to the lagoon , and built roads . He also managed to upset the residents , and parliamentarian John Wilson was sent from the mainland in April 1882 to investigate the situation . With Wilson was a team of scientists that included H. Wilkinson from the Mines Department , W. Condor from the Survey Department , J. Duff from the Sydney Botanical Gardens and A. Morton from the Australian Museum . J. Sharkey from the Government Printing Office took the earliest known photographs of the Island and its residents . A full account of the island appeared in the report from this visit , published as " Lord Howe Island 1882 " , which recommended that Armstrong be replaced . Meanwhile , the population had increased considerably and included 29 children ; the report recommended that a schoolmaster be appointed . This study sealed a lasting relationship with three scientific organisations , the Australian Museum , Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens and Kew Royal Botanic Gardens .
= = = 1890 – 1999 = = =
In 1883 the company Burns Philp started a regular shipping service and the number of tourists gradually increased . By 1932 , with the regular tourist run of SS Morinda , tourism became the second biggest source of external income after palm sales to Europe . Morinda was replaced by Makambo in 1932 , and she in turn by other vessels . The service continues into the present day with the fortnightly Island Trader service from Port Macquarie .
The palm trade began in the 1880s when the lowland kentia palm ( Howea forsteriana ) was first exported to Britain , Europe and America but the trade was only placed on a firm financial footing when the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery was formed in 1906 ( see below ) .
The first plane to appear on the island was in 1931 when Francis Chichester alighted on the lagoon in a Gipsy Moth converted into a floatplane . It was damaged there in an overnight storm but repaired with the assistance of islanders and then took off successfully nine weeks later for a flight to Sydney . After World War II , in 1947 , tourists arrived on Catalina and then four @-@ engined Sandringham flying boats of Ansett Flying Boat Services operating out of Rose Bay , Sydney , and landing on the lagoon , the journey taking about 3 @.@ 5 hours . When the Lord Howe Island Airport was completed in 1974 , the seaplanes were eventually replaced with Qantaslink twin @-@ engined turbo @-@ prop Dash 8 @-@ 200 aircraft .
= = = 21st century = = =
In 2002 , the Royal Navy destroyer HMS Nottingham struck Wolf Rock , a reef at Lord Howe Island , and almost sank . In recent times tourism has increased and the government of New South Wales has been increasingly involved with issues of conservation .
On 17 October 2011 , a supply ship , M / V Island Trader with twenty tons of fuel ran aground in the lagoon . The ship refloated at high tide with no loss of crew or cargo .
= = Demographics = =
As at the 2011 census , the resident population was 360 people and the number of tourists was not allowed to exceed 400 . Early settlers were European and American whalers and many of their offspring have remained on the island for more than six generations . Residents are now involved with the kentia palm industry , tourism , retail , some fishing and farming . In 1876 it was observed that on Sundays although there was a suspension of games and labour , there were no religious services . Nowadays , in an area known locally as ' Church Paddock ' , there are Anglican , Catholic and Adventist churches , the religious affiliations on the island being 30 % Anglican , 22 % no religion , 18 % Catholic and 12 % Seventh Day Adventist . There is about an equal division of the sexes with 47 % of the population in the age group 25 – 54 and 92 % holding Australian citizenship .
= = Governance and land tenure = =
Official control of Lord Howe Island lay initially with the British Crown until it passed to New South Wales in 1855 , although until at least 1876 the islanders lived in " a relatively harmonious and self @-@ regulating community " . In 1878 Richard Armstrong was appointed administrator when the NSW Parliament declared the island a Forest Reserve . But as a result of ill feeling , and an enquiry , he was eventually removed from office on 31 May 1882 ( he returned later that year though to view the transit of Venus from present @-@ day Transit Hill ) . After his removal the island was administered by four successive magistrates until 1913 when a Sydney @-@ based Board was formed until 1948 when a resident superintendent was appointed . In 1913 the three @-@ man Lord Howe Island Board of Control was established , mostly to regulate the palm seed industry , but also administering the affairs of the island from Sydney until the present Lord Howe Island Board was set up in 1954 .
The Lord Howe Island Board is a NSW Statutory Authority established under the Lord Howe Island Act , 1953 , to administer the island as part of the state of New South Wales . It reports directly to the state 's Minister for Environment and Heritage , and is responsible for the care , control and management of the island . Its duties include : the protection of World Heritage values ; the control of development ; the administration of Crown Land , including the island 's protected area ; provision of community services and infrastructure ; and regulating sustainable tourism . In 1981 the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act gave islanders the administrative power of three members on a five @-@ member Board . The Board also manages the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery which , together with tourism , provides the island 's only sources of external income . Under an amendment bill in 2004 the Board now comprises seven members , four of whom are elected from the islander community , thus giving about 350 permanent residents a high level of autonomy . The remaining three members are appointed by the Minister to represent the interests of business , tourism and conservation . The full Board meets on the island every three months while the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of the island are managed by the Board 's administration , with a permanent staff that had increased to 22 people by 1988 .
Land tenure has been an issue since first settlement as island residents repeatedly requested freehold title or an absolute gift of cultivated land . Original settlers were squatters . The granting of a 100 @-@ acre ( 40 ha ) lease to Richard Armstrong in 1878 drew complaints and a few short @-@ term leases ( Permissive Occupancies ) were granted . In 1913 , with the appointment of a Board of Control , permissive occupancies were revoked and the Board itself given permissive occupancy of the island . Then the Lord Howe Island Act of 1953 made all land the property of the Crown . Direct descendants of islanders with permissive occupancies in 1913 were granted perpetual leases on blocks of up to 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) for residential purposes . Short @-@ term special leases were granted for larger areas used for agriculture , so in 1955 , 55 perpetual leases and 43 special leases were granted . The 1981 amendment to the act extended political and land rights to all residents of 10 years or more . There remains an active debate concerning the proportion of residents with tenure and the degree of influence on the Board of resident islanders in relation to long @-@ term planning for visitors , and issues relating to the environment , amenity and global heritage .
= = Economy = =
Trading vegetables , meat , fish and other perishables with visiting ships ceased in the 1870s when the whaling industry collapsed . With such a small population , Lord Howe Island 's economy is now extremely simple with external income derived from only two significant sources : tourism and the overseas sale of kentia palm seeds and seedlings .
= = = Kentia palm industry = = =
The first exporter of palm seeds was Ned King , a mountain guide for the Fitzgerald surveys of 1869 and 1876 , who sent seed to the Sydney Botanic Gardens . Overseas trade began in the 1880s when it was found that one of the four palms endemic to the island , kentia palm ( Howea forsteriana ) , which grows naturally in the lowlands , was ideally suited to the fashionable conservatories of the well @-@ to @-@ do in Britain , Europe and the United States , but the assistance of mainland magistrate Frank Farnell was needed to put the business on a sound commercial footing when in 1906 he became Director of a company , the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery , whose shareholders included 21 islanders and a Sydney @-@ based seed company . However , the formation of the Lord Howe Island Board of Control was needed in 1913 to resolve outstanding issues .
The native kentia palm ( known locally as the thatch palm as it was used to thatch the houses of the early settlers ) is now the most popular decorative palm in the world . The mild climate of the island has evolved a palm which can tolerate low light , a dry atmosphere and lowish temperatures – ideal for indoor conditions . Up to the 1980s the palms were only sold as seed but from then onwards only as high quality seedlings . The nursery received certification in 1997 for its high quality management complying with the requirements of Australian Standard AS / NZS ISO 9002 .
Seed is gathered from natural forest and plantations , most collectors being descendants of the original settlers . Seed is then germinated in soil @-@ less media and sealed from the atmosphere to prevent contamination . After testing they are picked , washed ( bare @-@ rooted ) , sanitised and certified then packed and sealed into insulated containers for export . They grow both indoors and out and are popular for hotels and motels world @-@ wide . Nursery profits are returned to enhance the island ecosystem . The nursery plans to expand the business to include the curly palm and other native plants of special interest .
= = = Tourism = = =
Lord Howe Island is known for its geology , birds , plants , and marine life . Popular tourist activities include scuba diving , birdwatching , snorkelling , surfing , kayaking , and fishing . To relieve pressure on the small island environment only 400 tourists are permitted at any one time . The island is reached by plane from Sydney or Brisbane in less than two hours . The Permanent Park Preserve declared in 1981 has similar management guidelines to a National Park .
= = = = Facilities = = = =
With fewer than 800 people on the island at any time , facilities are limited ; they include a bakery , butcher , general store , liquor store , restaurants , post office , museum and information centre , a police officer , a ranger , and an ATM at the bowling club . Stores are shipped to the island fortnightly by the Island Trader from Port Macquarie . There is a small four @-@ bed hospital and dispensary . A small botanic garden displays labelled local plants in its grounds . Diesel @-@ generated power is 240 V AC , as on the mainland . There is no public transport or mobile phone coverage , but there are public telephones , fax facilities and internet access as well as a local radio station and newsletter , The Signal .
Tourist accommodation ranges from luxury lodges to apartments and villa units . The currency is the Australian dollar and there are two banks . There are no camping facilities on the island and remote @-@ area camping is not permitted . To protect the fragile environment of Balls Pyramid ( which carries the last remaining wild population of the endangered Howe Island stick insect ) , recreational climbing there is prohibited . No pets are allowed without permission from the Board . Islanders use tanked rainwater , supplemented by bore water for showers and washing clothes .
= = = = Activities = = = =
As distances to sites of interest are short , cycling is the main means of transport on the island . Tourist activities include golf ( 9 @-@ hole ) , lawn bowls , tennis , fishing ( including deep @-@ sea game fishing ) , yachting , windsurfing , kite surfing , kayaking , and boat trips ( including glass @-@ bottom tours of the lagoon ) . Swimming , snorkelling and scuba diving are also popular in the lagoon , as well as off Tenth of June Island , a small rocky outcrop in the Admiralty group where an underwater plateau drops 36 metres to reveal extensive gorgonia and black corals growing on the vertical walls . Other diving sites are found off Ball 's Pyramid , 26 km away , where there are trenches , caves and volcanic drop @-@ offs .
Bushwalking , natural history tours , talks , and guided walks take place along the many tracks , the most challenging being the eight @-@ hour guided hike to the top of Mount Gower . There are 11 beaches and hand @-@ feeding the metre @-@ long kingfish ( Seriola lalandi ) and large wrasse at Ned 's Beach is very popular . Walking tracks cover the island with difficulty graded from 1 – 5 , they include – in the north : Transit Hill 2 hours return , 2 km ; Clear Place , 1 – 2 hours return ; Stevens Reserve ; North Bay , 4 hours return , 4 km ; Mount Eliza ; Old Gulch , 20 minutes return , 300 m ; Malabar Hill and Kims Lookout , 3 hours , or 5 hours return , 7 km and – in the south : Goat House Cave , 5 hours return , 6 km ; Mount Gower , 8 hours return , 14 km ; Rocky Run and Boat Harbour ; Intermediate Hill , 45 minutes return , 1 km ; Little Island , 40 minutes return , 3 km . Recreational climbers must obtain permission from the Lord Howe Island Board .
= = Geography = =
Lord Howe Island is an irregularly crescent @-@ shaped volcanic remnant in the southwest Pacific Ocean . Lying in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand the island is 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) east of mainland Port Macquarie , 702 kilometres ( 436 mi ) northeast of Sydney , and about 772 kilometres ( 480 mi ) from Norfolk Island to its northeast . The island is about 10 km long and between 2 @.@ 0 km and 0 @.@ 3 km wide with an area of 14 @.@ 55 km2 . Along the west coast there is a semi @-@ enclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon with white sand , the most accessible of the island 's eleven beaches . Both the north and south sections of the island are high ground of relatively untouched forest , in the south comprising two volcanic mountains , Mount Lidgbird ( 777 m or 2 @,@ 549 ft ) and Mount Gower which , rising to 875 m ( 2 @,@ 871 ft ) , is the highest point on the island . The two mountains are separated by the saddle at the head of Erskine Valley . In the north , where most of the population live , high points are Malabar ( 209 m or 686 ft ) and Mount Eliza ( 147 m or 482 ft ) . Between these two uplands is an area of cleared lowland with some farming , the airstrip , and housing . The Lord Howe Island Group of islands comprises 28 islands , islets and rocks . Apart from Lord Howe Island itself the most notable of these is the pointed rocky islet Ball 's Pyramid , a 551 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 1 @,@ 808 ft ) eroded volcano about 23 km to the south @-@ east , which is uninhabited but bird @-@ colonised . It contains the only known wild population of the Lord Howe Island stick insect , formerly thought to be extinct . To the north there is the Admiralty Group , a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands . Just off the east coast is 4 @.@ 5 ha Mutton Bird Island , and in the lagoon is 3 ha Blackburn ( Rabbit ) Island .
= = = Geological origins = = =
Lord Howe Island is the highly eroded remains of a 7 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old shield volcano , the product of eruptions that lasted for about a half @-@ million years . It is one of a chain of islands that occur on the western rim of an undersea shelf , the Lord Howe Rise , which is 3000 km long and 300 km wide extending from New Zealand to the west of New Caledonia and consisting of continental rocks that separated from the Australian plate 60 to 80 million years ago to form a new crust in the deep Tasman Basin . The shelf is part of Zealandia , a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent . The Lord Howe seamount chain is defined by coral @-@ capped guyots stretching to the north of the island for 1000 km ( 600 mi ) and including the Middleton 220 kilometres ( 140 mi ) and Elizabeth ( 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) away ) reefs of the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve . This chain of nine volcanic peaks was probably produced by the northward movement of the Indo @-@ Australian Plate over a stationary hotspot so the oldest guyots were the first formed and most northerly as the plate moved northward at a rate of 6 cm per year ( see plate tectonics ) .
= = = Basalts and calcarenite = = =
Two periods of volcanic activity produced the major features of the island . The first about 6 @.@ 9 million years ago produced the northern and central hills while the younger and highly eroded Mount Gower and Mount Lidgbird were produced about 6 @.@ 3 million years ago by successive basalt ( an extrusive igneous rock ) lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera ( crater ) and can now be seen as horizontal basalt strata on mountain cliffs ( at Malabar and Mount Gower ) occasionally interspersed with dikes ( vertical lava intrusions ) . Geological pyroclastic remnants of volcanic eruption can be seen on 15 ha Roach Island ( where the oldest rocks occur ) and Boat Harbour as tuff ( ash ) , breccia ( with angular blocks ) , and agglomerate ( rounded ' bombs ' ) . Offshore on the Lord Howe Rise water depths reach 2000 m falling to 4000 m to the west of the rise . From the dimensions of the rock on which the island stands it has been calculated that the island has eroded to one fortieth of its original size .
Rocks and land at the foot of these mountains is calcarenite , a coral sand , blown inland during the Pleistocene between 130 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 years ago and cemented into stratified layers by water percolation . In this rock are fossils of bird bones and eggs , land and marine snails and the extinct endemic horned turtle ( Meiolania platyceps ) now thought to be an ancient relictual non @-@ swimming tortoise with relatives in South America . The crescent of the island protects a coral reef and lagoon , the barrier reef , at 31 ° S , is the most southerly in the world . Beach sands , rather than consisting of quartz grains derived from granite , as on the mainland , are made of fragments of shell , coral and coralline algae , together with basalt grains , and basaltic minerals like black diopside , and green olivine . The lowland consists of alluvial soils .
The island continues to erode rapidly and is expected to be fully submerged within 200 @,@ 000 years taking an appearance akin to the Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs .
= = = Climate = = =
Lord Howe Island has a subtropical climate . Under the Köppen climate classification , Lord Howe Island has a Humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) .
In general the summers are mild or warm with rainfall erratic but occasionally heavy while in winter it is cool with rainfall more or less uniform . There is a gradual transition from summer to winter conditions and vice versa . Winds are frequent and salt @-@ laden being moderate easterlies in the summer and fresh to strong westerlies in the winter . July is the windiest month , and the winter months are subject to frequent gales and strong winds . The island has 67 @.@ 8 clear days , annually .
Storms and occasional cyclones also affect the island . Rainfall records are maintained in the north where rainfall is less than in the frequently cloud – shrouded mountains of the south . There can be wide variation in rainfall from year to year . July and August are the coldest months with average minimum temperatures of about 13 ° C and no frost . Average maximum temperatures range from between 17 ° C and 20 ° C in the winter to between 24 ° C and 27 ° C in the summer . The humidity averages in the 60 % to 70 % range year round becoming more noticeable on warmer summer days than in the cooler winter months .
= = Flora and fauna = =
= = = Plants = = =
Lord Howe Island is a distinct terrestrial ecoregion known as the Lord Howe Island subtropical forests . It is part of the Australasia ecozone and shares many biotic affinities with Australia , New Guinea , and New Caledonia . Almost half of the island 's native plants are endemic and many of the island 's unique plants grow on or around the mountain summits where the height has allowed the development of a true cloud forest and many different microhabitats from sealevel to the summits . One of the best known is Howea , an endemic genus of palms ( Arecaceae ) that are commonly known as kentia palms and make handsome houseplants . Annual exports provide a revenue of over A $ 2 million , providing the only major industry on the island apart from tourism .
= = = = Origin = = = =
In geological terms at 7 million years old Lord Howe Island is relatively young and was never part of any continent , its flora and fauna colonising the island from across the sea , carried by wind , water or birds , possibly assisted at a geological time when other islands were exposed , enabling island hopping . Nevertheless , it is far enough away and has had sufficient time to evolve endemic species . The high degree of endemism is emphasised by the presence of five endemic genera : Negria , Lordhowea , Howea , Lepidorrhachis , and Hedyscepe . Island plants are similar to those of Norfolk Island , the two islands sharing some endemic species , for example , the critically endangered species of creeping vine Calystegia affinis . The combined flora of these two islands is more closely related to that of New Zealand and New Caledonia than to that of Australia . There is also a small but clear link with the plants of Vanuatu . The closest mainland affinities are with the vegetation of subtropical south @-@ eastern Queensland . A link with Gondwanaland is indicated by the presence of endemic species like the wedding lily ( Dietes robinsoniana ) whose only living relatives occur in South Africa .
The flora of the island is relatively untouched with a large number of rare plants , 44 % being endemic to the island . With a diversity of conditions ranging from valleys , to ridges , plains and misty mountain tops there is habitat for a wide range of plant communities which have been comprehensively analysed and mapped . There are 57 species of fern of which 25 are endemic : they are most abundant in the moist environments of the southern island , especially the higher parts of Mount Gower , perhaps the most apparent being the four endemic tree ferns in the genus Cyathea that occur on the southern mountains .
= = = = Communities and special plants = = = =
Plant communities have been classified into nine categories : lowland subtropical rainforest , submontane rainforest , cloud @-@ forest and scrub , lowland swamp forest , mangrove scrub and seagrass , coastal scrub and cliff vegetation , inland scrub and herbland , offshore island vegetation , shoreline and beach vegetation , and disturbed vegetation .
Several plants are immediately evident to the visitor . Banyan ( Ficus macrophylla subsp. columnaris ) is a remarkable tree with a buttressed trunk and pendulous aerial roots : it can be seen on the track to Clear Place and near Ned 's Beach . Pandanus tree ( Pandanus forsteri ) has spectacular teepee @-@ like prop roots and pineapple @-@ like fruits that are orange @-@ red when mature , the tough leaves being used for basketry . It occurs in damp areas like creek beds and fine specimens can be seen along the Boat Harbour track . There are ten species of orchid on the island , the most noticeable being the bush orchid ( Dendrobium macropus subsp. howeanum ) on lowland trees and rocks , bearing cream flowers from August to September . Other prominent flowering plants in the summer include , on the mountain slopes , the whiskery red flowers of mountain rose ( Metrosideros nervulosa and Metrosideros sclerocarpa ) , the massed small yellow flowers of corokia ( Corokia carpodetoides ) , orange plump flowers of pumpkin tree ( Negria rhabdothamnoides ) , and white spikes of Fitzgerald tree ( Dracophyllum fitzgeraldii ) . The kava bush has large , aromatic , heart @-@ shaped leaves . After heavy rain the endemic glowing mushrooms Mycena chlorophanos and Omphalotus nidiformis can be found in the palm forests .
It is the palms that are the signature plants of the island as the kentia and curly palms especially dominate the landscape in many places , the kentia being of special economic importance . All four species are endemic to the island , often occurring in dense pure stands , the one that has proved such a world @-@ wide success as an indoor plant being the kentia or thatch palm ( Howea forsteriana ) . This is a lowland palm with drooping leaflets and seed branches in ' hands ' of 3 – 5 while the curly palm ( Howea belmoreana ) , which occurs on slightly higher ground , has upwardly directed leaflets and solitary ' hands ' . Natural hybrids between these species occur on the island and there is a mature specimen of one growing in the island nursery . On the mountain sides higher than about 350 m there is the big mountain palm ( Hedyscepe canterburyana ) ; it has large golf @-@ ball @-@ sized fruits while the little mountain palm ( Lepidorrhachis mooreana ) has marble @-@ sized fruits and is only found on the mountain summits .
= = = = = Images of native flora = = = = =
= = = Animals = = =
There are no snakes , no venomous or stinging insects , animals or plants , and no dangerous daytime sharks off the beaches .
= = = = Birds = = = =
A total of 202 different birds have been recorded on the island . Eighteen species of land birds breed on the island and there are many more migratory species that occur on the island and its adjacent islets , many tame enough that it is possible for humans to get quite close . The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an Endemic Bird Area , and the Permanent Park Preserve as an Important Bird Area , because it supports the entire population of Lord Howe woodhens , most of the breeding population of providence petrels , over 1 % of the world population of another five seabird species , and the whole populations of three endemic subspecies .
Fourteen species of seabirds breed on the island . Red @-@ tailed tropicbirds can be seen in large numbers circling the Malabar cliffs where they perform acrobatic courting rituals . Between August and May thousands of flesh @-@ footed and wedge @-@ tailed shearwaters return to the island at dusk each day . From the Little Island Track between March and November one of the world 's rarest birds , the providence petrel also performs courtship displays during winter breeding and it is extremely tame . The island was its only breeding location for many years after the breeding colony on Norfolk Island was exterminated in the late 19th century ; though a small population persists on the adjacent Phillip Island . The Kermadec petrel was discovered breeding on Mount Gower in 1914 by ornithologist Roy Bell while collecting specimens for Gregory Mathews and the black @-@ winged petrel was only confirmed as a breeder in 1971 ; its numbers have increased following the elimination of feral cats from the island .
The flesh @-@ footed shearwater , which breeds in large numbers on the main island in spring @-@ autumn , used to have its chicks harvested for food by the islanders . The wedge @-@ tailed and little shearwaters breed on the main island and surrounding islets ; though only a small number of the latter species can be found on the main island . Breeding white @-@ bellied storm petrels were another discovery by Roy Bell . Masked boobies are the largest seabirds breeding on Lord Howe and can be seen nesting and gliding along the sea cliffs at Mutton Bird Point all year round . Sooty terns can be seen on the main island at Ned 's and Middle Beaches , North Bay , and Blinkey Beach ; the most numerous of the island 's breeding seabirds , their eggs were formerly harvested for food . Common and black noddies build nests in trees and bushes , while white terns lay their single eggs precariously in a slight depression on a tree branch , and grey ternlets lay their eggs in cliff hollows .
Three endemic passerine subspecies are the Lord Howe golden whistler , Lord Howe silvereye and Lord Howe currawong . The iconic endemic rail , the flightless Lord Howe woodhen , is the only surviving member of its genus : its ancestors could fly but with no predators and plenty of food on the island this ability was lost . This made it easy prey for islanders and feral animals and by the 1970s the population was less than 30 birds . From 1978 to 1984 feral animals were removed and birds raised in captivity to be successfully reintroduced to the wild . The population is now relatively safe and stable .
= = = = Mammals , reptiles and amphibians = = = =
Only one native mammal remains on the islands , the large forest bat . The endemic Lord Howe long @-@ eared bat is known only from a skull and is now presumed extinct , possibly the result of the introduction of ship rats .
Two terrestrial reptiles are native to the island group : the Lord Howe Island skink and the Lord Howe Island gecko . Both are rare on the main island but more common on smaller islands offshore . The garden skink and the bleating tree frog have been accidentally introduced from the Australian mainland .
= = = = Invertebrates = = = =
The Lord Howe Island stick insect disappeared from the main island soon after the introduction of rats in 1918 . In 2001 a tiny population was discovered in a single Melaleuca howeana shrub on the slopes of Ball 's Pyramid , has been successfully bred in captivity , and is nearing re @-@ introduction to the main island . The Lord Howe stag beetle is a colourful endemic beetle seen during summer months . Another endemic invertebrate , the Lord Howe flax snail ( or Lord Howe Placostylus ) , has also been affected by the introduction of rats . Once common , the species is now endangered and a captive breeding program is under way to save the snail from extinction .
= = = = Marine life = = = =
Marine environments are near @-@ pristine with a mixtures of temperate , subtropical and tropical species derived from cool @-@ temperate ocean currents in the winter and the warm East Australian Current , which flows from the Great Barrier Reef , in summer . Of the 490 fish species recorded 13 are endemic and 60 % are tropical . The main angling fish are yellowtail kingfish and New Zealand bluefish while game fish include marlin , tuna and giant kingfish called " greenbacks " . Over 80 species of coral occur in the reefs surrounding the islands . Australian underwater photographer Neville Coleman has photographed various nudibranchs at Lord Howe Island .
Various species of cetaceans inhabit or migrate through the waters in vicinity , however very little about their biology in the area is known due to lack of studies and sighting efforts caused from locational conditions . Bottlenose dolphin is the most commonly observed and is the only species confirmed to be seasonal or yearly residents while some other dolphin species have also been observed . Humpback whales are the only of large whales showing slow but steady recoveries as their numbers annually migrating the island of Lord Howe are much smaller than that of those migrating along Australian continent .
Historically , migratory whales such as blue , fin , sei were very abundant in the island waters , but were severely reduced in numbers to near @-@ extinction by commercial and illegal hunts including the mass illegal hunts by Soviet Union and Japan in 1960s to 1970s . Southern right and sperm were most severely hunted among these , hence the area was called the Middle Ground by whalers . It is likely that these two were once seasonal residents around the island where right whales prefer sheltered , very shallow bays while sperm whales mainly inhabit deep waters .
= = = Conservation = = =
About 10 percent of Lord Howe Island 's forests have been cleared for agriculture , and another 20 percent has been disturbed , mostly by domestic cattle and feral sheep , goats and pigs . As a result , 70 % of the island remains relatively untouched with a variety of plants and animals , many of which are endemic , some of which are rare or threatened . Two species of plants , nine terrestrial birds , one bat and at least four invertebrates have become extinct since 1778 . Endemism at the generic level includes the palms Howea , Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis , a woody daisy Lordhowea , the tree Negria , the leech Quantenobdella howensis , three annelid worm genera ( Paraplutellus , Pericryptodrilus and Eastoniella ) , an isopod shrimp Stigmops , a hemipteran bug Howeria and a cricket Howeta .
The Lord Howe Island Board instigated an extensive biological and environmental survey ( published in 1974 ) , which has guided the island conservation program . In 1981 , the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act proclaimed a ' Permanent Park Preserve ' over the north and south ends of the island . Administration of the preserve was outlined in a management plan for the sustainable development of the island prepared by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service , which has a ranger stationed on the island . The Island was cited under the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982 .
Offshore environmental assets are protected by the Lord Howe Island Marine Park . This consists of a State Marine Park managed by the Marine Parks Authority of New South Wales in the waters out to 3 nautical miles around the island and including Ball 's Pyramid . It also includes a Commonwealth Marine Park extending from 3 to 12 nautical miles out and managed by the federal Department of the Environment and Heritage . In total the Marine Park covers about 3 @,@ 005 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 160 sq mi ) .
= = = = Feral animals and plants = = = =
Pigs and goats were released on the island as potential food in the early 1800s , the goats destroying shrubs and grasses used as nesting sites and the pigs eating eggs and chicks and disturbing the land by nuzzling for food . Several birds have become extinct on the island since the arrival of humans . The first round of extinctions included the Lord Howe swamphen or white gallinule , white @-@ throated pigeon , red @-@ crowned parakeet and the Tasman booby , which were eliminated by visitors and settlers during the nineteenth century either from overhunting for food or protection of crops . Black rats were released from provisioning whaling ships in the 1840s and mice from Norfolk Island in 1860 . In 1918 the black rat was accidentally introduced with the shipwreck of the SS Makambo which ran aground at Ned 's Beach . This triggered a second wave of extinctions , including the vinous @-@ tinted thrush , robust white @-@ eye , Lord Howe starling , Lord Howe fantail and the Lord Howe gerygone as well as the destruction of the native phasmid and decimation of palm fruits . Bounties were offered for rat and pig tails and ' ratting ' became a popular pursuit . Subsequent poisoning programs have kept populations low . The Lord Howe boobook may have become extinct through predation by , or competition with , the Tasmanian masked owls which were introduced in the 1920s in a failed attempt to control the rat population . Stray dogs are also a threat as they could harm the native wood hen and other birds .
Invasive plants such as Crofton weed and Formosa lily occur in inaccessible areas and probably cannot be eradicated but others are currently being managed . In 1995 the first action was taken to control the spread of introduced plants of the island , chiefly ground asparagus and bridal creeper , but also cherry guava , Madeira vine , Cotoneaster , Ochna and Cestrum . This has been followed by weeding tours and the formation of the Friends of Lord Howe Island group in 2000 . Programs have also been started to remove weeds from private properties and revegetate some formerly cultivated areas . An Environmental Unit was created by the Board and it includes a Flora Management Officer and a permanent Weed Officer . Weeds have been mapped and an eradication program is in place , supported by improved education and quarantine procedures .
Despite the large number of introduced species that harm Lord Howe 's native flora and fauna , feral pigs and cats were eradicated by the early 2000s . The goat population has been reduced to just a few animals , and there are ongoing efforts to control rodents and introduced plants . In July 2012 it was announced by the Australian federal Environment Minister Tony Burke and the New South Wales Environment Minister Robyn Parker that the Australian and NSW Governments would each contribute 50 % of the estimated A $ 9 million cost of implementing a rodent eradication plan for the island , using aerial deployment of poison baits . The plan was put to a local vote and is considered controversial . A recovery program has restored the Lord Howe woodhen numbers from only 20 in 1970 to about 200 in 2000 , which is close to carrying capacity .
= = = = Climate change = = = =
According to an analysis by Tim Flannery , the ecosystem of Lord Howe Island is threatened by climate change and global warming , with the reefs at risk from rises in water temperature . The Great Barrier Reef is specifically identified as being at risk to the effects of global warming on Australia , and the same analysis applies to the reefs of Lord Howe Island . Cool climate flora and fauna are at risk from rises in temperature , because there is limited scope for migration to higher altitudes .. The first international conference on global artificial photosynthesis as a climate change solution occurred at Lord Howe island in 2011 , the papers being published by the Australian Journal of Chemistry .
= = In fiction = =
Improbable Rendezvous , a novel by Tom Ferry , 2013 ISBN 978 @-@ 192221954 @-@ 1
Virus , a 1999 sci @-@ fi horror film : the titular computer virus sets a course for Lord Howe Island to seize a British intelligence facility from which it can control the world 's military .
= Romance ( Luis Miguel album ) =
Romance is the eighth studio album by Mexican singer Luis Miguel . It was released by WEA Latina on 19 November 1991 . Although the production was originally intended as another collaboration with Juan Carlos Calderón , that plan was scrapped when Calderón was unable to compose songs for the album . Facing a new @-@ material deadline in his recording contract , at his manager 's suggestion Miguel chose bolero music for his next project . Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Armando Manzanero was hired by WEA Latina to co @-@ produce the album with Miguel . Recording began in August 1991 at Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood , California , with Bebu Silvetti the arranger .
On the album Miguel covers twelve boleros , originally recorded from 1944 to 1986 . The first two singles , " Inolvidable " and " No Sé Tú " , reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States and spent six months atop the Mexican charts . " Mucho Corazón " and " Cómo " were in the top five of the Hot Latin Songs chart , and " Usted " and " La Barca " received airplay throughout Latin America . Miguel promoted the record with a tour of the United States and Latin America . The album was generally well received by music critics , who praised Miguel 's singing and the record 's production . The singer received several accolades , including a Grammy nomination for Best Latin Pop Album .
Romance was a commercial success , selling over seven million copies worldwide . In the United States , it spent 32 weeks at number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart , and was the first Spanish @-@ language album by a non @-@ crossover Latin artist to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) ; it was also certified gold in Brazil and Taiwan , firsts for a Spanish @-@ speaking artist . Romance is the third @-@ bestselling album of all time in Mexico , and the bestselling record in Argentina by a non @-@ native artist . The album was noted by critics as reviving interest in bolero music . Its success encouraged Miguel to release three more bolero records : Segundo Romance ( 1994 ) , Romances ( 1997 ) and Mis Romances ( 2001 ) .
= = Background and recording = =
Since Miguel signed with WEA Latina in 1986 , his albums Soy Como Quiero Ser ( 1987 ) , Busca una Mujer ( 1988 ) , and 20 Años ( 1990 ) have sold over three million copies cumulatively in Mexico . His early recordings consisted of soft rock and pop ballad tunes , which led to Miguel becoming a teen idol . On 14 January 1991 , WEA Latina announced a new album with longtime producer and composer Juan Carlos Calderón , who produced the three previous records by Miguel . Wanting to replicate the success of 20 Años , Calderón would compose pop songs and ballads and find tracks for Miguel to cover in Spanish . Production was scheduled to begin in April , with Italian- and English @-@ language studio albums to follow . The record label was unconvinced by Calderón 's pre @-@ selected songs ; he had to write more compositions , and production halted indefinitely . Ultimately , he was unable to compose songs for the album .
Miguel had a contractual deadline with his label to record new material , and considered recording boleros ( slow ballads " endowed with romantic lyrics " ) after meeting Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Armando Manzanero during a televised interview . The singer had performed boleros ( including compositions recorded by Manzanero ) during his 1991 tour . At the suggestion of manager Hugo López , and realizing that he could appeal to an older audience , Miguel chose boleros for his next album and WEA Latina hired Manzanero to take over its production . Manzanero was enthusiastic , hoping that Miguel 's popularity would introduce the genre to young listeners . On 25 October 1991 , the album 's title was announced as a homage to boleros ; it was Miguel 's first as a producer .
Recording began on 24 August 1991 , at Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood , California . Miguel and Manzanero produced the album , with Bebu Silvetti arranging the strings with additional contributions from 32 violinists under the direction of American conductor Ezra Kliger . On Romance Miguel covers twelve boleros ( with each track being described as love numbers ) , which were selected by Manzanero from five hundred songs including his " Te Extraño " and " No Sé Tú " . Seven of the twelve tracks were recorded by 13 September when production was suspended the following day when Miguel was hospitalized with appendicitis . The album 's planned late @-@ October release was postponed until 19 November and recording resumed two weeks after Miguel was hospitalized .
= = Singles and promotion = =
" Inolvidable " was released as Romance 's lead single in November 1991 . It reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States the week of 25 January 1992 , topping the chart for five weeks . Its second single , " No Sé Tú " , was released in February 1992 and reached number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart the week of 18 April , topping the chart for seven weeks . The music video for " No Sé Tú " was directed by Pedro Torres and filmed in Miami , it features Miguel and an orchestra performing in front of a building . The video premiered on 16 February on the Mexican variety show Siempre en Domingo . " Inolvidable " and " No
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Celtics broadcaster Johnny Most to shout out one of his most famous calls :
According to Johnson this was his favorite play of all @-@ time . Games 6 and 7 also featured a feud , this time between Pistons forward Dennis Rodman and Johnson . In Game 6 , which the Pistons won , Rodman taunted Johnson in the closing seconds by waving his right hand over his head . When the Celtics took Game 7 , Johnson went back at Rodman in the last moments of the game and mimicked his taunting gesture . In the 1987 NBA Finals , however , the Celtics succumbed to the Los Angeles Lakers 4 – 2 as Lakers playmaker and Finals MVP Magic Johnson put up a great performance , averaging 26 points and 13 assists throughout the series .
The next three seasons were disappointing for the aging Celtics . In the 1987 – 88 season , Johnson averaged 12 @.@ 6 points and 7 @.@ 8 assists , but in the 1988 Playoffs , the Celtics were unable to beat the Detroit Pistons in the Eastern Conference Finals . In the next season , Johnson ( who statistically declined to 10 @.@ 0 points and 6 @.@ 6 assists per game ) and his team made the 1989 NBA Playoffs on a meager 42 – 40 record ( largely due to the absence of star forward Larry Bird for almost the entire season ) , but were immediately eliminated in the first round ( again , largely due to the absence of the injured Larry Bird . ) The following 1989 – 90 NBA season was Johnson 's last . The now 35 @-@ year @-@ old playmaker relinquished his starting point guard role to younger John Bagley , but when Bagley dislocated his shoulder , Johnson returned with high level of performance and was lovingly called " our glue man " by coach Jimmy Rodgers . In that season , Johnson started in 65 of his 75 games , averaging 7 @.@ 1 points and 6 @.@ 5 assists , but the Celtics failed to survive the first round of the 1990 NBA Playoffs .
Johnson retired after the Celtics did not offer him a new contract at the beginning of the 1991 season . During his retirement ceremony , his perennial Los Angeles Lakers opponent Magic Johnson telegraphed him and lauded him as " the best backcourt defender of all @-@ time " . In addition Celtics colleague and triple NBA Most Valuable Player award winner Larry Bird called Johnson the best teammate he ever had .
= = = Post @-@ player career = = =
After retiring as a player , Johnson worked as a scout for the Celtics . In 1993 he became an assistant coach for the Celtics , a position he held until 1997 . After spending several years outside the limelight , he returned as an assistant coach for the Los Angeles Clippers in 2000 , and spent four seasons there . For 24 games toward the end of the 2002 – 03 season , Johnson served as interim head coach after the departure of Alvin Gentry . Johnson later worked as a scout for the Portland Trail Blazers , and in 2004 he was named head coach of the NBA Development League 's Florida Flame . He became head coach of the NBADL 's Austin Toros a year later , and held that position until his death two years later .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = Legacy = =
In 1 @,@ 100 games , Johnson scored 15 @,@ 535 points , grabbed 4 @,@ 249 rebounds and gave 5 @,@ 499 assists , translating to career averages of 14 @.@ 1 points , 3 @.@ 9 rebounds and 5 @.@ 0 assists per game . Known as a defensive stalwart , he was elected into nine straight All @-@ Defensive First or Second Teams . NBA legend George Gervin said in a podcast with journalist Bill Simmons that Johnson was the hardest defender he ever played against . Johnson is also acknowledged by the NBA as a " money player " who was clutch in decisive moments , such as scoring 32 points for his team in a Game 4 overtime victory in the 1979 NBA Finals , playing smothering defense on Magic Johnson in the 1984 NBA Finals , and converting a last @-@ second layup in Game 5 of the 1987 Eastern Conference Finals after a Larry Bird steal .
Furthermore , Johnson is lauded by the NBA as a versatile all @-@ around weapon who played with " contagious competitiveness " and was known for his durability : in 14 NBA seasons , he played in 1 @,@ 100 of a possible 1 @,@ 148 games and participated in 180 playoff games , the latter figure the 11th highest number of all time . At his retirement , Johnson was only the 11th NBA player to amass more than 15 @,@ 000 points and 5 @,@ 000 assists .
On December 13 , 1991 , the Celtics franchise retired his number 3 jersey . Johnson said he would always be a Boston Celtic , and remarked that seeing his number in the rafters gave him a " special feeling " . However , Johnson did not live to see an induction into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame , a fact that has been a considerable point of debate with sports journalists . Bill Simmons of ESPN called his Hall of Fame snub an " ongoing injustice " , stating that according to him , Joe Dumars – a Hall of Famer known for strong defense rather than spectacular scoring , like Johnson – was no better [ a basketball player ] than him . Colleague Ken Shouler called Johnson " one of the first guys I 'd give a Hall [ of Fame ] pass " . Contemporary Boston Celtics Hall of Fame forward Larry Bird gave Johnson ultimate praise , calling him the best teammate he ever had in his autobiography Drive , which is especially significant considering Bird 's teammates included Hall of Famers Kevin McHale , Robert Parish , Bill Walton , and Tiny Archibald . On April 3 , 2010 , ESPN Boston reported that Johnson was posthumously elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame . This was officially confirmed two days later when the Hall released the list of 2010 inductees .
On October 26 , 2007 , a learning center was dedicated in Johnson 's name in the Central Branch of the YMCA of Greater Boston . The center was made possible by the donations and effort of Larry Bird and M.L. Carr . Johnson 's family , Danny Ainge , Carr , and members of the YMCA and local community were present for the ribbon cutting ceremony . Donna Johnson said on behalf of her husband , " If Dennis were alive he would really appreciate the thought and love the idea of the Learning Center . "
The NBA D @-@ League Coach of the Year award is named after Johnson .
= = Personal life = =
Dennis Johnson was married to Donna , his wife of 31 years , and had three children named Dwayne , Denise , and Daniel . Johnson also was known for his appearance : he had freckles and reddish hair . Dennis 's brother , Joey , is a former Arizona State Sun Devils basketball star . And Dennis 's nephews , Nick , who was drafted by the Houston Rockets in the 2nd Round of the 2014 NBA Draft , and Chris Johnson who currently plays with the Arizona Wildcats , are well @-@ known basketball stars .
On October 20 , 1997 , he was arrested and detained overnight for allegedly holding a knife to his wife 's throat and threatening his 17 @-@ year @-@ old son . Johnson was later charged with aggravated assault and was ordered to stay away from his family . The prosecutors dropped the case several months later after his wife declined to press charges . Johnson reportedly went to counseling to repair his marriage .
= = = Death = = =
On February 22 , 2007 , at the Austin Convention Center , Johnson had a heart attack and collapsed at the end of the Toros ' practice . After being rushed to a nearby hospital , he could not be revived and was later pronounced dead . Johnson was survived by his wife and his children . Johnson 's death was met with shock throughout the NBA . Among others , contemporary Celtics colleague Danny Ainge called him one of " the most underrated players of all time [ ... ] and one of the greatest Celtics acquisitions " , and one @-@ time rival Bill Laimbeer called him " a great player on a great ballclub " .
= The World Before the Flood =
The World Before the Flood is an oil painting on canvas by English artist William Etty , first exhibited in 1828 and currently in the Southampton City Art Gallery . It depicts a scene from Paradise Lost in which , among a series of visions of the future shown to Adam , he sees the world immediately before the Great Flood . The painting illustrates the stages of courtship as described by Milton ; a group of men select wives from a group of dancing women , drag their chosen woman from the group , and settle down to married life . Behind the courting group , an oncoming storm looms , a symbol of the destruction which the dancers and lovers are about to bring upon themselves .
When first exhibited at the 1828 Royal Academy Summer Exhibition the painting attracted large crowds , and strongly divided critical opinion . It was greatly praised by many critics , who counted it among the finest works of art in the country . Other reviewers condemned it as crude , tasteless , offensive and poorly executed .
The painting was bought at the Summer Exhibition by the Marquess of Stafford , which greatly pleased Etty . It was sold in 1908 , long after Etty had fallen out of fashion , for a substantial loss , and sold again in 1937 for a further substantial loss to the Southampton City Art Gallery , where it remains . Another work by Etty , sold as A Bacchanalian Scene in 1830 and later renamed Landscape with Figures , was identified in 1953 as a preliminary oil sketch for The World Before the Flood and purchased by the York Art Gallery . The two paintings were exhibited together as part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work in 2011 – 12 .
= = Background = =
William Etty was born in 1787 , the son of a York baker and miller . He began as an apprentice printer in Hull . On completing his seven @-@ year apprenticeship he moved at the age of 18 to London " with a few pieces of chalk crayons " , with the intention of becoming a history painter in the tradition of the Old Masters . Strongly influenced by the works of Titian and Rubens , he submitted paintings to the Royal Academy of Arts and the British Institution , all of which were either rejected or received scant attention when exhibited .
In 1821 the Royal Academy accepted and exhibited one of Etty 's works , The Arrival of Cleopatra in Cilicia ( also known as The Triumph of Cleopatra ) . The painting was extremely well received , and many of Etty 's fellow artists greatly admired him . He was elected a full Royal Academician in 1828 , at that time the most prestigious honour available to an artist . He became well respected for his ability to capture flesh tones accurately in painting , and for his fascination with contrasts in skin tones . Following the exhibition of Cleopatra , over the next decade Etty tried to replicate its success by painting nude figures in biblical , literary and mythological settings .
While some nudes by foreign artists were held in private English collections , the country had no tradition of nude painting and the display and distribution of nude material to the public had been suppressed since the 1787 Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice . Etty was the first British artist to specialise in the nude , and the reaction of the lower classes to these paintings caused concern throughout the 19th century . Many critics condemned his repeated depictions of female nudity as indecent , although his portraits of male nudes were generally well received .
= = Subject = =
The World Before the Flood illustrates lines 580 – 97 from Book XI of John Milton 's Paradise Lost . Among the visions of the future shown to Adam by the Archangel Michael , Michael shows Adam the world after the expulsion from the Garden of Eden but before the Great Flood . This section of Paradise Lost reflects a passage from the sixth chapter of the Book of Genesis : " That the sons of God saw the daughters of men that they were fair ; and they took them wives of all which they chose " , an act which would shortly cause God to regret creating humanity and to cleanse the earth in the Great Flood .
The World Before the Flood shows the stages of courtship as described by Milton , as men are seduced by women and pass from enjoying the company of other men into married life . Etty worked through a number of various configurations for the characters in the painting before settling on his final design .
= = Composition = =
The World Before the Flood is strongly influenced by A Bacchanalian Revel Before a Statue of Pan ( 1632 – 33 ) by Nicolas Poussin , whom Etty greatly admired and of whose works he had previously made several copies . Adam and Michael are not visible in the painting . Instead , the viewer sees the scene from Adam 's point of view . The painting is a Bacchanalian scene , centred on a group of six scantily @-@ clad women dancing , while a group of men watch . The women 's cheeks are flushed both with the exertion of their dancing and with their lustful attempts to seduce the watching men . The men " let their eyes rove without rein " , each choosing the woman he wants to be with .
At the left , five men eye the six dancing women , with " grave " expressions as described by Milton . Three of the men discuss their choice of women , while the other two watch the dancing group alone . A sixth man has made his choice , and lunges forward to grab the arms of a bare @-@ breasted dancing woman .
In the centre , the women dance . Their interlocked arms and hands create a pattern at the centre of the canvas , which acts as the focus of the painting . To the right of the central group of dancers a young man drags another woman away from the group of dancers , to join a pair of lovers who lie down together at the right of the painting .
Across the entire width of the background , a darkening sky and oncoming storm clouds presage the destruction that the dancers are unwittingly about to bring upon themselves .
In a preliminary study for the The World Before the Flood now in the York Art Gallery , while the broad structure of the piece is similar to that of the finished work the focus is more strongly on the central group of women . In early versions the right @-@ most of the dancing figures , wearing a green skirt , faces outward with her arms behind her back , forming a closed circle together with the central group of dancers . In the finished work , she gestures outwards from the circle , creating a clear narrative flow in the positions of the figures : from the single men on the left , to the man choosing a wife , to the group of dancing women , to the couple leaving the circle of dancers to join the reclining lovers on the far right .
As was the case with most of his works , Etty did not give the painting a title . It was initially exhibited as A Composition , taken from the Eleventh Book of Milton 's Paradise Lost , and was referred to by Etty himself as The Bevy of Fair Women and The Origin of Marriage .
= = Reception = =
Critical opinion concerning The World Before the Flood was divided when the painting , along with two other of Etty 's works , was exhibited at the 1828 Royal Academy Summer Exhibition . Some reviewers were intensely critical of the piece . A writer in the Literary Gazette called the painting a " deadly sin against good taste " , describing the background as " unnecessarily harsh and crude " with " much to blame and lament " and the dancing figures " outrageous " , complaining that the women reminded him not of Paradise Lost , but of the scantily clad witches in Robert Burns 's Tam o ' Shanter . An anonymous critic in the Monthly Magazine disparaged the " writhings and twinings " of the painting 's subjects , describing them as " as close to the unpardonable limits as anything that has lately appealed to the public eye " . This same writer disapproved of the dark skin tones of some of the figures , arguing that " the brown visage of the gipsey gives but a dingy image of the roses and lilies that , from time immemorial , have made the charm of British beauty " . The correspondent for The London Magazine felt that while the painting was " in many respects worthy of admiration ... [ there ] is a spirit , a boldness , and a startling effect " , the work was poorly executed overall . Its depiction of women drew particular ire : " the expression of the faces is vapid ; the features rather homely ; the limbs , though not ill @-@ drawn , have not that finish and play of the muscles , which alone give lightness and elasticity . They seem lifted up with difficulty , and ready to fall . " The review upbraided Etty as an artist who had " advanced half way on his road to classic excellence ; and there , when he should have proceeded with increased ardour and more careful exactness from being in view of his object , he has stopped short . " Etty 's fellow artist John Constable privately described the work as " a revel rout of Satyrs and lady bums as usual " .
Other critics offered a more positive impression of the piece . The Examiner celebrated Etty 's having " outdone his former self , and most of his contemporaries " . A reviewer in The Mirror of Literature , Amusement , and Instruction said that " few pictures have attracted or deserved more attention than this masterly production , " describing the figures as " graceful and elegant " . The Athanaeum considered it " decidedly the most attractive picture in the whole Exhibition " , noting that their review was delayed because in the opening week of the exhibition , " the crowds which continually stood in front of it rendered it quite impossible to get such a view of it as would enable us to do it justice " . Colburn 's New Monthly Magazine considered it " another instance of the rapid advances which this rising artist is making towards perfection . " The most effusive praise was offered in poetic form by John Taylor , who in September 1828 imagined that if Milton and Nicolas Poussin were both alive to see the painting , Milton would view it with " proud delight " , while Poussin would suffer an " envious thorn " with the realization that Etty 's abilities had surpassed his own .
= = Legacy = =
The World Before the Flood was bought at its 1828 exhibition by The Marquess of Stafford for 500 guineas ( about £ 39 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) , to add to his private collection of nudes by Titian . Etty was delighted with his success at the exhibition , at which all three of the paintings he had exhibited were successfully sold to prestigious buyers .
I know you will rejoice with us all , when I tell you that the principal part of the cargo of the ship " William Etty " ( of whose arrival you had been advised ) , now landed at the Royal Academy Wharf , has been consigned to the Right Honourable the Marquis of Stafford , for five hundred guineas : the rest of the cargo being already owned by Lord Normanton and Digby Murray , Esq . ... After clearing out , we shall again put to sea and hope for equally favouring gales next voyage .
From 1832 onwards , needled by repeated attacks from the press on his supposed indecency and tastelessness , Etty often made a conscious effort to project a moral dimension into his work , although he continued to be a prominent painter of nudes . He died in 1849 , working and exhibiting up until his death despite consistently being regarded by many as a pornographer . Charles Robert Leslie observed shortly after Etty 's death that " [ Etty ] himself , thinking and meaning no evil , was not aware of the manner in which his works were regarded by grosser minds " . Interest in his work declined as new movements came to characterise painting in Britain , and by the end of the 19th century the cost of all his paintings had fallen below their original prices .
The World Before the Flood was sold to F. E. Sidney in 1908 for 230 guineas ( about £ 22 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) , and sold on to the Southampton City Art Gallery in 1937 for 195 guineas ( about £ 11 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) , where as of 2015 it remains . In addition to its initial exhibition in 1828 , the painting was exhibited at a number of significant exhibitions throughout the 19th century . Etty 's preliminary oil sketch entered the collection of Etty 's former mentor Sir Thomas Lawrence . Following Lawrence 's death in 1830 , it was sold as A Bacchanalian Scene for 27 guineas ( about £ 2 @,@ 200 in 2016 terms ) , and sold on as Landscape with Figures in 1908 . In 1953 it was identified as a study for The World Before the Flood , and purchased by the York Art Gallery , where as of 2015 it remains . Both versions of the painting were shown together as part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .
= When Love Takes Over =
" When Love Takes Over " is a song by French DJ @-@ music producer David Guetta with vocals by Kelly Rowland from his fourth studio album , One Love . It was released as the lead single from the album on 21 April 2009 by Virgin Records ( EMI France ) . The song was conceived when Guetta played the instrumental version during one of his DJ sets in summer 2008 ; American recording artist Kelly Rowland , who fell in love with the track , convinced Guetta to allow her to take it so that she could write and record vocals for it . It was co @-@ written by Nervo .
According to Rowland , the song inspired her to pursue a more dance @-@ oriented sound for her album Here I Am ( 2011 ) , while Guetta noted " When Love Takes Over " for providing the framework for his future musical explorations and inspiring him to experiment with more urban sounds . Guetta and Frédéric Riesterer produced the song with piano riffs and a melodic backing track . Veronica Ferraro mixed the song , focussing primarily on giving Rowland 's vocals a magical and inspiring tone . Critics would later state that Rowland 's vocals on " When Love Take Over " helped to establish herself as a solo vocalist . The song 's lyrics carry a message of the euphoria one feels when in love with a significant other , while the production bears some similarities to Coldplay 's 2002 hit single , " Clocks " , particularly the opening riff .
" When Love Takes Over " has been praised by many critics . Most noted the addition of Rowland 's powerful and emotionally charged vocals which made the single the most memorable song from One Love . The production was praised for its lush production and euphoric sentiments . It achieved worldwide success by topping the charts in ten countries , including in the United Kingdom , Republic of Ireland , Italy and Switzerland . At the time of release , it became Guetta 's highest charting single on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and Rowland 's second number one single in the United Kingdom . " When Love Takes Over " ranked at number one on Billboard 's Best of 2009 Dance Club Songs chart . In 2013 , Billboard named " When Love Takes Over " its number one dance @-@ pop collaboration of all time , in addition to noting the lasting cultural impact that the collaboration would have on dance music and its indication of the emerging electronic dance music trend in America at its time of release .
In the song 's accompanying music video , Rowland and Guetta reminisce of how the song came together . It follows the duo as they prepare for a party before coming together for the final result . " When Love Takes Over " was promoted mainly at award shows , including the MTV Latin Music Video Awards , NRJ Music Awards and the World Music Awards . Guetta and Rowland reunited in late 2009 to perform " When Love Takes Over " for the annual Miss Universe competition . The single earned seven Platinum certifications as well as five Gold certificates , selling over 5 @,@ 5 million copies worldwide . Additionally , it earned Guetta two Grammy Award nominations for " Best Dance Recording " and " Best Non @-@ Classical , Remixed Recording " , the latter of which Guetta won for his " Electro Extended Mix " of " When Love Takes Over " .
= = Background = =
Rowland has acknowledged on several occasions that although she loved dance music , it was not really the type of music she would record . While in Europe in 2008 , she met Guetta at one of his DJ shows in Southern France , and commented that " Listening to him was just crazy . " Guetta was playing the instrumental version of " When Love Takes Over " . Recalling that it brought tears to her eyes , Rowland remarked , " I felt so much emotion from the track ; something happened the first time I heard it , and it was just beautiful . And I remember thinking ' Why is this touching me like this ? ' You know , it was like there was a kinda soul @-@ tie to it ! " Upon meeting Guetta , she asked him for the song so she could write its lyrics . " So I met David and asked him for the track ... He gave it to me , and I brought it back here to London , UK and wrote the actual song " . At a writing session in a London hotel room , Rowland and songwriting duo Nervo wrote the lyrics and melody over Guetta 's backing track . Rowland later joined Guetta and Julie Terry Lefèvre @-@ Han in the recording studio to finish off the song .
Later in a 2010 interview , The Nervo Twins revealed that Rowland 's record label were not keen on the song despite their and Rowland 's enthusiasm . Consequently , " When Love Takes Over " was shelved until Guetta rediscovered the song when compiling his fourth studio album , One Love . The finished song with Rowland 's vocals and Guetta 's production was premiered in March 2009 at the Ultra Music Festival in Miami . A month later on 21 April 2009 , the single was released in Europe , and the United States . In the UK , the single 's release had to be brought forward to 11 June 2009 to combat an " inferior " cover version released on 9 May 2009 . Additionally , beginning in July / August 2009 , American TV channel Bravo licensed the song for a two @-@ month period , to use for in @-@ house advertising .
= = Recording and production = =
The recording and mixing of " When Love Takes Over " took place in summer and autumn of 2008 . After Rowland heard the instrumental of " When Love Takes Over " — a piano loop @-@ based melody with throbbing percussion — she asked Guetta if she could take the demo and several other tracks to work on . She wrote the lyrics and recorded the vocals in London , within a day . She was aided by Australian songwriters and producers Miriam and Olivia Nervo ( The Nervo Twins ) . However the song remained unfinished until Guetta rediscovered the track while compiling his One Love album . After getting selected for the album , " When Love Takes Over " was given to Frédéric Riesterer who , aside from producing the song with Guetta , was tasked the final audio mixing of the song . However Riesterer decided to give the track to French mixing engineer Veronica Ferraro , who would later go on to say that " Reisterer was supposed to mix it , but he wanted me to do it and see how it turned out . The first time I heard the track I immediately knew it would be a huge hit . " The track was mixed in September 2008 , at Ferraro 's Super Sonic Scale studio near Paris , the day after her birthday .
Before working on the song 's individual elements , Ferraro converted the recording sessions from a generic digital audio workstation system to her programme of choice , Pro Tools . Following this , she decided that she would focus primarily on Rowland 's vocals .
" Frédéric had the right sounds on the drums and the keyboards , so I did not change very much . I just did some standard things , with EQ and compression and things like that . After that my obsession was to get the vocals to sound as good as possible . When I 'm mixing a track , I want something to happen , something that takes the listener somewhere . You want the right things in the right place , but it 's not a technical issue . It 's actually an artistic issue to have everything in the right place – the mixing has to be magic . It was not difficult in this case , because I knew the song would be a hit , but I did my best to make the vocal sound magical , like an angel singing , so that the hit quality of the song was immediately obvious . I wanted to make sure that the voice takes you from the beginning to the end and doesn 't lose you . "
Ferraro told Sound On Sound that she did add a bass drum sample , as she felt that the kick was missing something . " Rather than equalise it , I added a little bit of my sample to make the BD track sound bigger " . However she did alter the two piano elements of the song , using the Flex Studio Tool to widen the sound of the piano element without the delay . Additionally , Ferraro used a number of French plug @-@ in software to amplify many of the track 's instruments , including the violin , strings and guitar samples . She then moved on to Rowland 's vocals , which " were extensively processed " , including equalization and de @-@ essing . Then upon completion of her work on the song , Ferraro sent " When Love Takes Over " to her husband , Bruno Gruel , and his Elektra Mastering Suite which is located in the same building as the Super Sonic Scale Studio . Gruel received the song in a standard Pro Tools format , 24 @-@ bit / 44 @.@ 1 kHz . He used several pieces of software to realign all of the elements of the song , particularly the bass drums and low synths .
= = Composition = =
" When Love Takes Over " is a synthpop and " uplifting floor @-@ filler " produced by Guetta and his associate Frédéric Riesterer . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard magazine described it as a " pop number built around a lush piano loop and throbbing percussion " with trance elements . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song was written in the key of F Mixolydian with a time signature of common time and a tempo of 130 beats per minute . The chord progression is Cm / F – Gm / F – F4 – F. The final recording and mixing took place at Gum Prod Studios in Paris . Some elements of the song were compared to the riff and piano opener in the song " Clocks " by Coldplay .
After gaining Guetta 's approval to write vocals for the song , Rowland took the instrumental version to London , where she wrote the bulk of the lyrics with The Nervo Twins ( Miriam and Olivia Nervo ) before sending the song back to Guetta , who added his own contributions with Frédéric Riesterer . Rowland uses a vocal range of F3 to D5 . Guetta said that " Kelly [ ' s vocals ] had this Whitney Houston vibe and nailed it . " Critics agreed , noting that often her vocals were " powerful " and " grand " . Others called them " a diva masterclass " and " emotionally charged " . Fraser McAlpine from BBC Online compared Rowland 's vocals to those by Madonna in " Ray of Light " , for their " hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air pop song " qualities .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received critical acclaim from music critics for both Guetta 's catchy production and Rowland 's strong vocals . It was called the strongest and most commercial single choice from Guetta 's album , One Love . Critics noted that the song 's opening piano riff was similar to that from Coldplay 's hit single " Clocks " ( 2002 ) . David Jefferes of Allmusic gave the song a thumbs up saying , calling " When Love Takes Over " one of the strongest songs from One Love and praising the " [ addition of ] the powerful voice of Kelly Rowland for one grand , uplifting floor @-@ filler . " Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly agreed calling the song the " most memorable from the album " and recalling " Clocks " by Coldplay to make " a showstopper starring Kelly Rowland . " Michael Hibbard of MusicOMH was impressed with both the production and vocal work on " When Love Takes Over " . He pointed out the rarity in the amount of promotion given to the song , referring to " When Love Takes Over " being given " its own poster on the Tube . " He also described the song as a " euphoric masterpiece " backed by " at least eight remixes " and the accompany vocals from " Destiny 's Child songbird Kelly Rowland on hand for a diva masterclass . " Also agreeing with these comments was Fraser McAlpine from BBC Online who awarded the song four out of five stars . " The genius ingredients include a thinly reworked go at the piano riff to ' Clocks ' by Coldplay and handclaps ... And the fairy dust is ... well ... it 's your standard dance @-@ pop production , actually . " However he noted that the production was " tastefully done to make sure that the good bits are not spoilt " . Other elements of the song such as the " bed of synthistrings , a skippy beat , a breakdown , some riffing glassy electronics and a dramatic , cinematic bottom end drone " were praised . McAlpine also praised Rowland 's appearance on the track , commenting who she sounded " entirely unlike herself , so that even SHE is all buffed up and shiny . " He described the marriage of Rowland 's vocals and Guetta 's production by stating that " [ Rowland 's ] got a spiralling , sky @-@ scraping melody to sing too . "
Erin Martin of PopMatters said that " When Love Takes Over " had euphoric properties . Martin said the song was " a classic , triumphant dance number , and Rowland 's powerhouse vocals ensure that this song has anthemic potential for years to come . This song just feels good to listen to " . She also noted that the song was central to the concept and " love @-@ spreading message [ that ] Guetta delivers on the album as a whole . " David Balls of Digital Spy agreed with the song 's anthem credentials . " [ It ] is further evidence that Rowland may no longer be resigned to living in Beyoncé [ Knowles ' ] shadow . Fusing classic dance beats with a heady , emotionally charged vocal , it 's a world away from the mid @-@ tempo R & B numbers with which she started her solo career . In fact , this packs a punch from the very first listen , meaning it could well become one of the summer anthems of 2009 . " However , Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times was less impressed than the other critics , simply noting the song as " a cheesy synthpop makeover of Coldplay 's ' Clocks ' . " Wood did however state that it was among Guetta 's best work and was an example of when the DJ is " most commercial " .
The song was nominated for the Best Dance Recording award at the 52nd Grammy Awards ceremony . It lost out to " Poker Face " by Lady Gaga . The song 's Electro Extended Remix was successful at the ceremony , winning Guetta his first Grammy Award for the Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical . In 2013 , Billboard named " When Love Takes Over " their number one dance @-@ pop collaboration of all time .
= = Chart performance = =
In Guetta 's native France , " When Love Takes Over " debuted on the French Digital Chart at number 14 on 25 April 2009 before subsequently peaking at number three on 18 July 2009 . On the French Singles Chart , it debuted and peaked at number two . In August 2009 , Guetta had two simultaneous top 10 singles on the chart , the other being " Sexy Bitch " featuring Akon . Following is strong run on the charts the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) awarded the single a Gold certification for selling 150 @,@ 000 + copies . In Rowland 's native country of the United States the single was successful , topping both the Hot Dance Airplay and Hot Dance Club Songs charts , as well as reaching number 76 on the Billboard Hot 100 . This became Guetta 's highest Hot 100 chart position at the time . It was Rowland 's highest Hot 100 Chart entry since her feature of Trina 's 2005 single , " Here We Go " . " When Love Takes Over " ranked at number one on the Best of 2009 Dance Club Songs chart and number thirty @-@ three on the End of Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) Dance Club Songs Chart .
" When Love Takes Over " also achieved success in Europe , topping charts in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Slovakia , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . It also reached the top 10 in most other regions apart from Brasil Canada and the United States . By the end of 2009 it reached the top 30 on most year @-@ end charts , most notably reaching number two in Switzlerand , number five in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , and six on the European Hot 100 . It was certified Platinum in nine countries .
In the United Kingdom , Guetta and Rowland 's original version debuted at number seven on the UK Singles Chart , having sold 25 @,@ 000 copies . The following week Guetta 's version peaked at number one , beating his previous best chart peak of number three with 2006 's " Love Don 't Let Me Go " . It gave Rowland her second number one single in Britain , the first being " Dilemma " alongside Nelly in October 2002 . " When Love Takes Over " was awarded a Platinum certification by the British Phonographic Industry in July 2013 for shipping over 650 @,@ 000 copies . On The Official Charts Company 's official countdown of the Top 100 British Downloads of all time , " When Love Takes Over " ranks at number 58 , marking Rowland 's only entry on the chart . However it is Guetta 's second entry on the chart , behind " Sexy Bitch " ( with Akon ) which charted at number 27 . In total , the single has sold over 5 @,@ 5 million copies worldwide .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
The music video was filmed on 19 May 2009 at Venice Beach , Los Angeles , directed by Jonas Åkerlund . Guetta revealed that the video 's story and concept were designed to mimic the story behind the song 's creation . He said , " you see Kelly doing her thing and then me on the other side doing mine . Eventually we come together just like how we recorded the song . It 's all about sharing the love from this record and making a big party " . These reflections and more behind the scenes footage were revealed in the video clip " Making of When Love Takes Over " which was uploaded to Guetta 's official YouTube channel on 1 June 2009 . The music video itself premiered on 8 June 2009 on Guetta 's YouTube channel . The video premiered after the European and United States digital release but just before the single 's UK digital release on 10 June 2009 .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video focuses on Rowland walking through the streets of Venice Beach while Guetta gathers his DJ equipment and pushes it towards the beach . Through the video a number of street performers join the gathering crowd , including a motocross bicycler , a skateboarder , and a BBoy Cloud . The last scene , sees Rowland and Guetta unite on the beach for a late night party which sees the duo performing together . Capital FM described the video as " lots of shots of people having fun in the sun " . Melinda Newman from Hitfix praised Rowland 's role in the clip saying that
" [ Rowland ] is fierce throughout and it clearly experiencing a bit of a career resurgence after a dip . [ She ] gives her best Beyoncé @-@ type stares straight into the camera ( but we 're sure that 's just a coincidence ) ... Guetta , who is relegated to a supporting role in his own video , shows up pushing his gear on a cart , looking basically like any other homeless guy hanging out in Venice . "
Some criticism did follow the video . Capital FM radio station felt that Guetta 's appearance in the clip was slightly disappointing . " Guetta looks a bit like a binman pushing his gear round the streets in some of the earlier shots in the video " . Newman said that the video 's director , Jonas Åkerlund , had removed something from the song . " The video could have built on the great beat that builds within the song and the feeling of abandon that falling in love can bring you , but , instead , we get a telegenic couple making out who seem to drop in from nowhere . "
= = Performances and promotion = =
Guetta premiered the completed version of " When Love Takes Over " on 23 March 2009 at the Ultra Music Festival . Promotion of the single began in the UK with an acoustic performance of the single at the BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge on 10 May 2009 and then again on UK daytime show , This Morning , on 18 June 2009 . They also appeared at the Miss Universe 2009 contest in the Bahamas , where the duo performed the song live for the " Evening Gown " competition . Another major part of the promotion included appearances at the Loop Live 2009 music festival in Sofia , Bulgaria and Rowland 's appeared at the TAO Night Club in Las Vegas , where she hosted celebrations for " When Love Takes Over " reaching number one around the world . The duo returned to the UK to perform at Orange Rockcorps at London 's Royal Albert Hall in September 2009 , before performing at the 2009 MTV Latin America Music Video Awards on 15 October 2010 . It was by US TV channel , Bravo , during an internal advertising campaign . " When Love Takes Over " was still being promoted in 2010 when the pair performed at the French NRJ Music Awards on 24 January 2010 and at the 2010 World Music Awards on 5 June , one year after the song was released .
= = Cover versions = =
= = = Airi L version = = =
British dance music artist Airi L released a bootleg version of the song 9 May 2010 , several days before the Guetta and Rowland version was due to be released . EMI Music called Airi L 's version " inferior " and decided to combat her cover by releasing Guetta 's version on 11 June 2009 in the UK , earlier than originally planned . The cover debuted and peaked at number twenty @-@ two , selling 12 @,@ 000 copies whilst Guetta and Rowland 's version debuted at number seven with 25 @,@ 000 copies . According to Yahoo ! Music 's James Masterton , Rowland 's version would have debuted at a higher place had it not been for the " bootleg cover " . He said the single had to be rush released " when not one but two spoiler ( and indeed near @-@ identical ) cover versions started to race up the iTunes rankings and threatened to have a negatively impact on the ' official ' version . " The following week Guetta and Rowland 's version would debut at number one .
= = = Other cover versions = = =
British singer @-@ songwriter , Pixie Lott , covered the song for the re @-@ issue of her debut album , Turn It Up . Then in the second week of October 2010 , the song was covered twice by contestants on The X Factor . Matt Cardle performed his version on the opening show of the seventh series of the UK version , while Hayley Teal sang a version on the second series of the Australian version . Following Cardle 's performance , " When Love Takes Over " jumped twelve places on UK Dance Chart , to number seventeen . Baraa Qadoura performed his version on the third live show of the eighth season of the Danish version of X Factor .
In 2016 , American gospel singer Yolanda Adams covered the song for the US version of the musical The Passion .
= = Legacy = =
Rowland told MTV that " working with David is amazing . We have a great relationship , it 's so effortless . He 's such a talented individual . But most importantly he 's such a down to earth , nice guy and I really enjoy working with him . We have good musical chemistry together . " Guetta told Billboard that " the track with Kelly has made him experiment with a more American urban influence . Musically , it 's pure pop with a lot of detail . " Additionally British singer Cheryl Cole ( of Girls Aloud ) credited " When Love Takes Over " for inspiring her taste and preference in dance music , which in turn influenced her second solo single " 3 Words " ( featuring will.i.am ) .
Later in 2010 when recording her third album , Here I Am ( 2011 ) , Rowland credited both Guetta and the song for inspiring her to pursue a new sound . Rowland relates : " I spent about a year of my life in Europe really listening to a whole bunch of Europeans DJs and hearing dance music a lot on the radio and really loving it . ' When Love Takes Over ' it was my first introduction to dance music [ and ] it was a whole other monster . It 's really a culture and I love it . " In 2010 , following the success of " When Love Takes Over " and the duo 's musical chemistry , Guetta was asked to work on Rowland 's third studio album . He co @-@ produced a couple of the songs including the album 's first single , " Commander " .
Later in 2013 , Kerri Mason and Zel McCarthy compiled a list of the top @-@ ten dance @-@ pop collaborations of all time for Billboard magazine . In their article , the critics named " When Love Takes Over " at the top of the list , saying that the song " repositioned Kelly Rowland as a solo vocalist with chops on her own . " The duo also commented that subsequent collaborations between Guetta and Rowland were not as good as " When Love Takes Over " , also adding that Rowland 's vocal was firmly part of " dance music history " and were an indication of the growing electronic dance music ( EDM ) trend emerging in America at the time .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Recording
The instrumental for " When Love Takes Over " was recorded in 2008 at Gum Prod Studios , Paris .
The vocals were added in 2009 and the final version was mixed as Super Sonic Scale Studios .
Personnel
= = Charts and certificates = =
= = Release history = =
= Kepler @-@ 7 =
Kepler @-@ 7 is a star located in the constellation Lyra in the field of view of the Kepler Mission , a NASA operation in search of Earth @-@ like planets . It is home to the fourth of the first five planets that Kepler discovered ; this planet , a Jupiter @-@ size gas giant named Kepler @-@ 7b , is as light as styrofoam . The star itself is more massive than the Sun , and is nearly twice the Sun 's radius . It is also slightly metal @-@ rich , a major factor in the formation of planetary systems . Kepler @-@ 7 's planet was presented on January 4 , 2010 at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society .
= = Nomenclature and discovery = =
Kepler @-@ 7 received its name because it was the home to the seventh planetary system discovered by the NASA @-@ led Kepler Mission , a project aimed at detecting terrestrial planets that transit , or pass in front of , their host stars as seen from Earth . The planet orbiting Kepler @-@ 7 was the fourth planet to be discovered by the Kepler spacecraft ; the first three planets combed from Kepler 's data had been previously discovered , and were used to verify the accuracy of Kepler 's measurements . Kepler @-@ 7b was announced to the public on January 4 , 2010 at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Washington , D.C. along with Kepler @-@ 4b , Kepler @-@ 5b , Kepler @-@ 6b , and Kepler @-@ 8b . Kepler @-@ 7b was noted for its unusually and extremely low density .
The planet 's initial discovery by Kepler was verified by additional observations made at observatories in Hawaii , Texas , Arizona , California , and the Canary Islands .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 7 is a sunlike star that is 1 @.@ 347 Msun and 1 @.@ 843 Rsun . This means that the star is about 35 % more massive and 84 % wider than the Sun . The star is estimated to be 3 @.@ 5 ( ± 1 ) billion years old . It is also estimated to have a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 11 ( ± 0 @.@ 03 ) , meaning that Kepler @-@ 7 is approximately 30 % more metal @-@ rich than the Sun ; metallicity plays a significant role in the formation of planetary systems , as metal @-@ rich stars tend to be more likely to have planets in orbit . The star 's effective temperature is 5933 ( ± 44 ) K. In comparison , the 4 @.@ 6 billion @-@ year @-@ old Sun releases less heat , with an effective temperature of 5778 K.
The star has an apparent magnitude of 13 @.@ 3 , meaning that it is extremely dim as seen from Earth . It cannot be seen with the naked eye . It is estimated to lie between 1000 and 1400 light years from the Solar System .
= = Planetary system = =
Kepler @-@ 7b is the only planet that has been discovered in Kepler @-@ 7 's orbit . It is .433 MJ and 1 @.@ 478 RJ , meaning it is 43 % the mass of planet Jupiter , but is nearly three halves its size . With a density of .166 grams / cc , the planet is approximately 17 % the density of water . This is comparable to styrofoam . At a distance of .06224 AU from its host star , Kepler @-@ 7b completes an orbit around Kepler @-@ 7 every 4 @.@ 8855 days . Planet Mercury , however , orbits the Sun at .3871 AU , and takes approximately 87 @.@ 97 days to complete one orbit . Kepler @-@ 7b 's eccentricity is assumed to be 0 , which would give Kepler @-@ 7b a circular orbit by definition .
= Church of Saint Oswald , King and Martyr , Oswaldkirk =
The Church of Saint Oswald , King and Martyr is a Church of England church serving the village and parish of Oswaldkirk , North Yorkshire , England . It is located along the main road passing through the village ( Oswaldkirk Main Street ) , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of Ampleforth Abbey .
Dedicated to the Christian saint Saint Oswald , it is over 900 years old and run by the Church of England . It is part of a four @-@ parish benefice , and is in the archdeaconry of Cleveland , and the diocese of York . Notably , the future Archbishop of Canterbury and chaplain to King Charles II , John Tillotson , preached his first sermon at the church in 1661 . Major restoration work was done to the church in 1886 , and a large amount of the Chancel woodwork dates from this period . The church has been a Grade II * listed building since 1955 , and is the oldest building in the village by more than six centuries .
= = Etymology = =
The word " kirk " means church , so the village is literally called " Oswald 's church " , after the church , which is dedicated to Saint Oswald of Northumbria , a Christian king who spread Christianity throughout Northumbria in the 7th century AD .
= = History and architecture = =
Almost nothing of the original church — built on the site of a wooden Saxon church — remains , apart from unique examples of Celtic stonework , including a plait interweave and a bas @-@ relief of the Virgin and Child , which was carved around 1000 AD . The current building still has a quoin , which was probably a re @-@ cycled Anglo @-@ Saxon cross shaft . The stone southern entrance to the church still stands ; it was built in the 12th century and is a typical example of Norman stonework . The church was re @-@ consecrated in 1287 by the bishop of Candida Casa under the direction of John le Romeyn , Archbishop of York . The tall windows set in the church wall both north and south of the nave can be dated to approximately 1320 to 1330 , and in the top sections of two of the windows , small fragments of medieval glass can be found . A sideways orientated tombstone can be found under a low arch on the inside of the southern wall , generally believed to be that of Sir Richard Pickering ( d . 1441 ) , a member of the Pickering family who ruled the village of Oswaldkirk from the 14th century into the 16th century .
The church records include an unbroken list of rectors dating back to 1302 , during the reign of King Edward I. One notable rector was John Dee , who served from early 1568 until the year 1574 , although he was probably never a permanent resident . Dee , a noted mathematician , astrologer , alchemist and astronomer , was on friendly terms with the ruling monarch , Queen Elizabeth I , and had given her astrological advice for setting the date of her coronation .
The future Archbishop of Canterbury and chaplain to King Charles II , John Tillotson , preached his first sermon at the church of Saint Oswald in 1661 , because of his friendship with John Denton , who was rector of the church from 1658 until his expulsion in 1662 for non @-@ conformism .
Perhaps the most important event in the 17th century was the installation of two brand new bells , one bearing the inscription " Venite Exultemus Domino " , or " Come , let us rejoice in the Lord " ( dated 1684 ) , and the other bearing the inscription " Gloria in Altissimus Deo " , or " Glory to God in the highest " ( dated 1683 ) . These are still in use through bell @-@ ropes , which have been replaced several times in the intervening centuries and extend down to the floor next to the clock mechanism , which is dated 1898 and is wholly mechanical , powering a clock whose two faces can be seen on both the western and eastern sides of the bell tower .
There was major restoration work done to the church in 1886 , and a large amount of the Chancel woodwork dates from this period . During the restoration the east window was also replaced ; it now depicts the stylised form of Saint Oswald , flanked on either side by Saint Aidan , and Saint Cuthbert , both Christian saints of the same era , and who helped him in missionary work in the Kingdom of Northumbria . These windows are directly opposite the western window , above the font at the other end of the church , which depicts the queen at the time , Queen Victoria . Further modern additions to the church can be seen in the bell turret and organ chamber , as well as the south porch , which is currently the sole congregational entrance to the church . The church uses an electric organ during services . The church is a Grade II * listed building and has been so since 4 January 1955 .
= = Modern usage = =
St Oswald 's is part of a four @-@ church benefice , including the churches and parishes of Oswaldkirk , Ampleforth , Gilling , and Stonegrave . As of May 2012 , the vicar is the Reverend Susan Fraser Bond , who serves all four parishes , although services in the church occur weekly on Sunday and at other times during the week with the help of volunteers in the local community . There is also a " tea time club " , which is a club teaching Christian morals and biblical teachings to young people , as well as biblical role @-@ plays and " mini @-@ pilgrimages " . The church is host to a carol service each year on Christmas Eve , jointly undertaken by the Anglican congregation and that of Oswaldkirk 's Roman Catholic church , the church of Saint Aidan . The united churches of Oswaldkirk also have a harvest festival each year , hosted in the building of Saint Aidan 's church every other year , alternating with St Oswald 's church .
= = Gallery = =
= F @-@ Zero ( video game ) =
F @-@ Zero is a futuristic racing video game developed by Nintendo EAD and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) . The game was released in Japan on November 21 , 1990 , in North America in August 1991 , and in Europe in 1992 . F @-@ Zero is the first game of the F @-@ Zero series and was one of the two launch titles for the SNES in Japan , but was accompanied by additional initial titles in North America and Europe . It was re @-@ released for the Virtual Console service on the Wii in late 2006 , the Wii U in early 2013 , and on the New Nintendo 3DS in early 2016 .
The game takes place in the year 2560 , where multi @-@ billionaires with lethargic lifestyles created a new form of entertainment based on the Formula One races called " F @-@ Zero " . The player can choose between one of four characters in the game , each with their respective hovercar . The player then can race against computer controlled characters in fifteen tracks divided into three leagues .
F @-@ Zero is acknowledged by critics to be the game that set a standard for the racing genre and the creation of the futuristic subgenre . Critics lauded F @-@ Zero for its fast and challenging gameplay , variety of tracks , and extensive use of the graphical mode called " Mode 7 " . This graphics @-@ rendering technique was an innovative technological achievement at the time that made racing games more realistic , the first of which was F @-@ Zero . As a result , IGN credited it for reinvigorating the genre and inspiring the future creation of numerous racing games . In retrospective reviews of the game critics agreed that it should have used a multiplayer mode .
= = Gameplay = =
F @-@ Zero is a futuristic racing game where players compete in a high @-@ speed racing tournament called " F @-@ Zero " . There are four F @-@ Zero characters that have their own selectable hovercar along with its unique performance abilities . The objective of the game is to beat opponents to the finish line while avoiding hazards such as slip zones and magnets that pull the vehicle off @-@ center in an effort to make the player damage their vehicle or fall completely off the track . Each machine has a power meter , which serves as a measurement of the machine 's durability ; it decreases when the machine collides with land mines , the side of the track or another vehicle . Energy can be replenished by driving over pit areas placed along the home straight or nearby .
A race in F @-@ Zero consists of five laps around the track . The player must complete each lap in a successively higher place to avoid disqualification from the race . For each lap completed , the player is rewarded with an approximate four @-@ second speed boost called the " Super Jet " and a number of points determined by place . An on @-@ screen display will be shaded green to indicate that a boost can be used ; however , the player is limited to saving up to three at a time . If a certain amount of points are accumulated , an extra " spare machine " is acquired that gives the player another chance to retry the course . Tracks may feature two methods for temporarily boosting speeds ; jump plates launch vehicles into the air thus providing additional acceleration for those not at full speed and dash zones greatly increases the racer 's speed on the ground . F @-@ Zero includes two modes of play . In the Grand Prix mode , the player chooses a league and races against other vehicles through each track in that league while avoiding disqualification . The Practice mode allows the player to practice seven of the courses from the Grand Prix mode .
F @-@ Zero has a total of fifteen tracks divided into three leagues ordered by increasing difficulty : Knight , Queen , and King . Furthermore , each league has four selectable difficulty levels : beginner , standard , expert , and master . The multiple courses of Death Wind , Port Town , and Red Canyon have a pathway that is not accessible unless the player is on another iteration of those tracks , which then in turn closes the path previously available . Unlike most F @-@ Zero games , there are three iterations of Mute City that shows it in either a day , evening , or night setting . In BS F @-@ Zero 2 , Mute City IV continued the theme with an early morning setting .
= = Setting = =
F @-@ Zero is set in the year 2560 , when humanity 's multiple encounters with alien life forms had resulted in the expansion of Earth 's social framework . This led to commercial , technological and cultural interchanges between planets . The multi @-@ billionaires who earned their wealth through intergalactic trade were mainly satisfied with their lifestyles , although most coveted more entertainment in their lives . This resulted in a new entertainment based on the Formula One races to be founded with vehicles that could hover one foot above the track . These Grand Prix races were soon named " F @-@ Zero " after a rise in popularity of the races . The game introduced the first set of F @-@ Zero racers : Captain Falcon , Dr. Stewart , Pico , and Samurai Goroh . IGN claimed Captain Falcon " was thrust into the limelight " in this game since he was the " star character " . An eight @-@ page comic was included in its SNES manual that carried the reader through one of Captain Falcon 's bounty missions .
= = Development and releases = =
The game was released alongside the SNES in Japan on November 21 , 1990 , in North America in August 1991 , and in Europe in 1992 . Only it and Super Mario World were initially available for the Japanese launch . In North America , Super Mario World shipped with the console , and other initial titles included F @-@ Zero , Pilotwings , SimCity , and Gradius III . The game was produced by Shigeru Miyamoto . It was downloadable over the Nintendo Power peripheral in Japan and was also released as a demo onto the Nintendo Super System in 1991 . Takaya Imamura , one of the art designers for the game , was surprised to be able to so freely design F @-@ Zero 's characters and courses as he wanted since it was his first game .
Mode 7 is a form of texture mapping available on the SNES which allows a raster graphical plane to be rotated and scaled freely , simulating the appearance of 3D environments without processing any polygons . The Mode 7 rendering applied in F @-@ Zero consists of a single @-@ layer which is scaled and rotated around the vehicle . This pseudo @-@ 3D capability of the SNES was designed to be represented by the game . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish stated that F @-@ Zero and Pilotwings " existed almost entirely for the sake of showing [ the system 's pseudo @-@ 3D capabilities ] off " as they outclassed the competition .
An F @-@ Zero jazz album was released on March 25 , 1992 in Japan by Tokuma Japan Communications . It features twelve songs from the game on a single disc composed by Yumiko Kanki and Naoto Ishida , and arranged by Robert Hill and Michiko Hill . The album also features Marc Russo ( saxophones ) of the Yellowjackets and Robben Ford ( electric guitar ) . The game was re @-@ released for the Virtual Console service on the Wii in late 2006 , then on the Wii U in February 2013 , followed by its New Nintendo 3DS release in March 2016 .
= = Reception = =
F @-@ Zero was widely lauded by game critics for its graphical realism , and has been called the fastest and most fluid pseudo @-@ 3D racing game of its time . This has been mostly credited to the development team 's pervasive use of the " Mode 7 " system . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell commented " this abundance of Mode 7 was unheard of " for the SNES . This graphics @-@ rendering technique was an innovative technological achievement at the time that made racing games more realistic , the first of which was F @-@ Zero . Jeremy Parish of Electronic Gaming Monthly wrote that the game 's use of Mode 7 created the " most convincing racetracks that had ever been seen on a home console " that gave " console gamers an experience even more visceral than could be found in the arcades . " 1UP.com editor Ravi Hiranand agreed , arguing F @-@ Zero 's combination of fast @-@ paced racing and free @-@ range of motion were superior compared to that of previous home console games . IGN 's Peer Schneider assured readers F @-@ Zero was one of the few 16 @-@ bit era video games to " perfectly combine presentation and functionality to create a completely new gaming experience " .
The game was praised for its variety of tracks , and steady increase in difficulty . GameSpy 's Jason D 'Aprile thought the game " was something of a finesse racer . It took lots of practice , good memorization skills , and a rather fine sense of control . " Matt Taylor of The Virginian @-@ Pilot commented that the game is more about " reflexes than realism " , and it lacked the ability to save progress between races . F @-@ Zero 's soundtrack was lauded .
In GameSpot 's retrospective review by Greg Kasavin , he praised F @-@ Zero 's controls , longevity and track design . Kasavin felt the title offered exceptional gameplay , with " a perfect balance of pick @-@ up @-@ and @-@ play accessibility and sheer depth " . Retrospective reviews agreed that the game should have used a multiplayer mode . IGN 's Lucas Thomas criticized the lack of a substantial plot and mentioned F @-@ Zero " doesn 't have the same impact these days " suggesting " the sequels on GBA very much pick up where this title left off " .
IGN ranked F @-@ Zero as the 91st best game ever in 2003 , discussing its originality at time of release and as the 97th best game ever in 2005 , describing it as still " respected as one of the all @-@ time top racers " . ScrewAttack placed it as the 18th best SNES game .
= = = Legacy = = =
F @-@ Zero has been credited with being the game that set a standard for the racing genre and inventing the " futuristic racing " subgenre of video gaming . IGN credits the game for having inspired the future creation of numerous racing games inside and out of the futuristic subgenre , including the Wipeout series and Daytona USA . Amusement Vision 's President , Toshihiro Nagoshi , stated in 2002 that F @-@ Zero " actually taught me what a game should be " and that it served as an influence for him to create Daytona USA and other racing games . Amusement Vision collaborated with Nintendo to develop F @-@ Zero GX and AX , with Nagoshi serving as one of the co @-@ producers for these games .
= = = Sequels = = =
Nintendo initially developed the sequel of the first F @-@ Zero game for the SNES , although it was broadcast in several versions on the St.GIGA subscription service for the Satellaview attachment of the Super Famicom instead . Using this add @-@ on , gamers could download titles via satellite and save it onto a flash ROM cartridge for temporary play . The sequel was released under the Japanese names of BS F @-@ Zero Grand Prix and BS F @-@ Zero Grand Prix 2 during the mid @-@ 1990s . There are tracks named as a follow @-@ on from F @-@ Zero — such as " Mute City IV " , since Mute City I @-@ III appeared in the original game . BS F @-@ Zero Grand Prix contained a new track along with the original 15 tracks from the SNES game and four different playable vehicles . According to Nintendo Power , the game was under consideration for a North American release via Game Pak . IGN states BS F @-@
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Zero Grand Prix 2 features one new league containing five tracks , a Grand Prix and a Practice mode .
Although the F @-@ Zero franchise made the transition to 3D graphics on the Nintendo 64 with the release of F @-@ Zero X in 1998 , Mode 7 graphical effects continued to be used for the Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) installments Maximum Velocity and GP Legend . The third sequel F @-@ Zero : Maximum Velocity was released for the GBA in 2001 . This installment was described by GameSpy as a hard overhaul of F @-@ Zero and featured improvements to its graphical effects . F @-@ Zero GX and AX , were released for the Nintendo GameCube and the Triforce arcade system board respectively in 2003 , was the first significant video game collaboration between Nintendo and Sega . GX is the first F @-@ Zero game to include a story mode , while AX was called by GameSpot as the first to get a " proper arcade release " . The most recent installment in the series , F @-@ Zero Climax , was released for the GBA in 2004 and is the first F @-@ Zero game to have a built @-@ in track editor without the need for an expansion or add @-@ on .
= Richard Hutton Davies =
Major General Richard Hutton Davies CB ( 14 August 1861 – 9 May 1918 ) was an officer of the New Zealand Military Forces during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , the first New Zealander to command an independent force overseas and one of the most senior New Zealand officers during the First World War .
Born in London , he emigrated to New Zealand after leaving school , where he worked as a surveyor . He joined a volunteer militia unit in 1893 , and went to South Africa as an officer with the first New Zealand contingent sent to the Boer War in 1899 . He later commanded the third , fourth and eighth contingents , becoming the first New Zealand officer to command an independent unit on active service overseas . Following his return to New Zealand , he became inspector @-@ general of the New Zealand Military Forces , and in 1909 was attached to a British Army brigade to gain staff experience .
This led to him being offered command of 6th Brigade , a regular infantry brigade of British troops , in 1910 ; he was the first colonial officer to hold such a position . In the summer of 1914 the brigade was mobilised with the British Expeditionary Force , and he commanded it at the Battle of Mons and the First Battle of the Aisne before being invalided back to England due to exhaustion . He was given command of the newly formed 20th ( Light ) Division , which he took to France in 1915 , but was relieved of command early in 1916 . After a period in command of a reserve centre in Staffordshire , he was sent to hospital suffering from both mental and physical ill health , and committed suicide in May 1918 .
= = Early life and family = =
Davies was born in London , the son of a journalist , and was educated at Hurstpierpoint College . After leaving school , he emigrated to New Zealand , where he spent two years working for a relative before settling at Taranaki , setting up a farm and practising as a surveyor . He married Ida Mary Cornwall in February 1886 ; they had two sons and a daughter . One son , Henry Cornwall Davies , served with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force during the First World War , and , like his father , transferred to the British Army in 1915 , becoming a captain in the Royal Engineers . Ida died in pregnancy with their fourth child in December 1906 ; he remarried , to Ida 's sister Eileen Kathleen Cornwall , in May 1908 .
In October 1887 Davies became the surveyor to the Manganui Road Board . On 10 April 1893 , he joined the Hawera Mounted Rifle Volunteers , and was commissioned as a lieutenant in May 1895 ; he was quickly promoted to captain six weeks later , becoming the commander of the unit . He was also active in local government , and in February 1897 was elected a member of the New Plymouth Harbour Board , representing Taranaki North .
= = South Africa = =
On 3 October 1899 Davies transferred into the Permanent Force of the New Zealand Militia , where he was made responsible for the training of volunteer mounted units . The Boer War , however , was declared a week later ; Davies was quickly seconded to command a company of the volunteer First New Zealand Contingent being sent to the Cape . The contingent sailed on 21 October , arrived in late November , and was on active service within a week . Davies was promoted to Major in May 1900 , and in the same month was given temporary command of the Third New Zealand Contingent . He was transferred to the Rhodesian Field Force , where he commanded the Fourth New Zealand Contingent in August 1900 .
He established a high professional reputation commanding the unit , and was promoted to lieutenant colonel and made a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) , as well as winning the respect of his men – one described him as " not only liked but loved " . A soldier wrote home calling Davies , who stood five feet six inches tall , " a grand little chap " , whilst another noted with pleasure that Davies objected to " Imperial ideas of discipline " being forced upon his men .
After being mentioned in despatches in May 1901 he returned home to command the Auckland Military District , but was ordered back to South Africa in command of the eighth New Zealand Contingent , in February 1902 , with the brevet rank of colonel . The contingent operated as a single unit , unlike its predecessors , and Davies became the first officer from New Zealand to command an independent force on active service overseas .
= = Military reform = =
Returning to New Zealand in late 1902 , Davies resumed command of the Auckland military district . He held command until 1906 , when he was appointed inspector @-@ general of the New Zealand Military Forces and became a member of the Council of Defence , the body responsible for controlling the dominion 's military forces . The position of inspector @-@ general , newly created that year , was originally expected to go to an " Imperial " – that is , British – officer , but the government had announced it planned to rotate New Zealand officers in the role , on up to five @-@ year terms , so as to allow them to gain experience .
Davies threw himself into the role , travelling around the country and inspecting local units to gain an overall idea of their efficiency . Even under favourable circumstances , however , he found that only 54 % of the volunteers attended parades in 1906 ; at the annual camps , the proportion was as low as 45 % . He pressed for greater use of active day @-@ time tactical training rather than evening indoors drill , which he felt was key for a part @-@ time volunteer force , and for a greater emphasis on the training and standards of officers . By the end of his second year in office , he had organised local selection boards for appointing officers , and a central promotion board for senior field officers , as well as mandatory regular fitness and efficiency tests .
As a member of the Council of Defence , he strongly supported the movement for universal military training – not conventional conscription , but rather a form of basic military training on a part @-@ time basis for all adult men – arguing that it would mean " the flower of the nation would be the soldiers , not the weeds " .
= = British service = =
After three years as Inspector @-@ General , and in order to gain staff experience , Davies was attached as an observer to a number of units in the United Kingdom in 1909 – 10 . During this time , he also attended the Imperial Defence Conference and represented the New Zealand forces at the funeral of King Edward VII . At the end of the one @-@ year attachment , he had so impressed the British Army that they offered him an appointment as commander of 6th Brigade in October 1910 , with the temporary rank of brigadier general . As such , he became the first overseas officer to command a regular brigade , only eleven years after taking up a permanent military commission .
Davies ' tenure in command of 6th Brigade was due to expire in October 1914 , when he was to hand over command to John Keir , and it was rumoured in New Zealand that he might be appointed as General Officer Commanding the Home Forces in 1915 , succeeding Alexander Godley . However , with the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , his command was mobilised as part of 2nd Division in the British Expeditionary Force and sent to France . The brigade saw heavy combat at the Battle of Mons , where Davies was mentioned in despatches , but he was quickly worn down by his habit of always marching at the head of his brigade , which put him under heavy physical and mental strain , and from the lasting effects of an attack of pneumonia earlier in the year . One report described him as " much changed , full of nerves ... very jumpy " . He was relieved of command after the First Battle of the Aisne in September and ordered home , being replaced by Colonel Robert Fanshawe , formerly GSO 1 of 1st Division , on 20 September .
He was appointed a divisional commander , with the rank of temporary major general , on 19 October 1914 , and took command of the newly raised 20th ( Light ) Division at some point in September – October . This made him the first New Zealand officer to command a division in the war . On 18 February 1915 , he was formally transferred to the British Army , and promoted to major general . The 20th Division moved to France in July 1915 , and he commanded it during a minor operation in September , but handed over command on 8 March 1916 due to ill @-@ health . He was appointed to command a reserve centre at Cannock Chase , Staffordshire , where the arrival of elements of the New Zealand Rifle Brigade in September 1917 meant that he once again had the opportunity to command his own countrymen . He was relieved of command by General Robert Wanless O 'Gowan in March 1918 , and on 9 May 1918 , after a prolonged period of physical and mental ill health , he committed suicide at the Special Neurological Hospital for Officers , Kensington .
= Body Count ( album ) =
Body Count is the eponymous debut album of American heavy metal band Body Count . Released in 1992 , the album material focuses on various social and political issues ranging from police brutality to drug abuse . The album presents a turning point in the career of Ice @-@ T , who co @-@ wrote the album 's songs with lead guitarist Ernie C and performed as the band 's lead singer . Previously known only as a rapper , Ice @-@ T 's work with the band helped establish a crossover audience with rock music fans . The album produced one single , " There Goes the Neighborhood " .
Body Count is well known for the inclusion of the controversial song " Cop Killer " , which was the subject of much criticism from various political figures , although many defended the song on the basis of the group 's right to freedom of speech . Ice @-@ T eventually chose to remove the song from the album , although it continues to be performed live . It was voted the 31st best album of the year in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics poll , and is believed to have helped pave the way for the mainstream success of the rap metal genre , although the album itself does not feature rapping in any of its songs .
= = Conception = =
Ice @-@ T formed Body Count out of this interest . The band comprised musicians Ice @-@ T had known from Crenshaw High School . Ice @-@ T states that " I knew we didn 't want to form an R & B group . [ ... ] Where am I gonna get the rage and the anger to attack something with that ? [ ... ] We knew Body Count had to be a rock band . The name alone negates the band from being R & B. "
Ice @-@ T co @-@ wrote the band 's music and lyrics with lead guitarist Ernie C , and took on the duties of lead vocalist . Ice @-@ T states that " I knew I couldn 't sing , but then I thought , ' Who can sing in rock ' n ' roll ? ' " Aside from Ice @-@ T and Ernie C , the original line @-@ up consisted of Mooseman on bass , Beatmaster V on drums and D @-@ Roc on rhythm guitar . According to Ice @-@ T , " We named the group Body Count because every Sunday night in L.A. , I 'd watch the news , and the newscasters would tally up the youths killed in gang homicides that week and then just segue to sports . ' Is that all I am , ' I thought , ' a body count ? ' "
Ice @-@ T introduced the band at Lollapalooza in 1991 , devoting half of his set to his hip hop songs , and half to Body Count songs , increasing his appeal with both alternative rock fans and middle @-@ class teenagers . Many considered the Body Count performances to be the highlight of the tour . The group made its first album appearance on Ice @-@ T 's 1991 solo album O.G. Original Gangster . The song " Body Count " was preceded by a staged interview in which the performer referred to the group as a " black hardcore band , " stating that " as far as I 'm concerned , music is music . I don 't look at it as rock , R & B , or all that kind of stuff . I just look at it as music . [ ... ] I do what I like and I happen to like rock ' n ' roll , and I feel sorry for anybody who only listens to one form of music . "
Recording sessions for the group 's self @-@ titled debut took place from September to December 1991 . The album was released on March 31 , 1992 , on compact disc , vinyl , and audio cassette . Ice @-@ T states that Body Count was intentionally different from his solo hip hop albums in that " An Ice T album has intelligence , and at times it has ignorance . Sometimes it has anger , sometimes it has questions . But Body Count was intended to reflect straight anger . It was supposed to be the voice of the angry brother , without answers . [ ... ] If you took a kid and you put him in jail with a microphone and asked him how he feels , you 'd get Body Count : ' Fuck that . Fuck school . Fuck the police . ' You wouldn 't get intelligence or compassion . You 'd get raw anger . " From the album , " There Goes The Neighborhood " was released as a single , while " Body Count 's in the House " was featured in the film Universal Soldier .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Ernie C and Ice @-@ T conceived the album with the dark , ominous tone and Satanic lyrical themes of Black Sabbath in mind . However , Ice @-@ T felt that basing his lyrics in reality would be scarier than the fantasy basis in Black Sabbath 's lyrics ; the inner artwork depicts a man with a gun pointed at the viewer 's face . Ice @-@ T states , " To us that was the devil [ ... ] what 's more scary than [ ... ] some gangster with a gun pointed at you ? " Ice @-@ T defined the resulting mix of heavy metal and reality @-@ based lyrics as " a rock album with a rap mentality . " The album 's musical style is primarily described as speed metal , thrash metal and heavy metal . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that with Body Count , Ice @-@ T " has recognized a kinship between his gangster raps and post @-@ punk , hard @-@ core rock , both of which break taboos to titillate fans . But where rap 's core audience is presumably in the inner city , hard @-@ core appeals mostly to suburbanites seeking more gritty thrills than they can get from Nintendo or the local mall . "
Despite Ice @-@ T 's attempts to differentiate Body Count from his work in the hip hop genre , the press focused on the group 's rap image . Ice @-@ T felt that politicians had intentionally referred to the song " Cop Killer " as rap to provoke negative criticism . " There is absolutely no way to listen to the song ' Cop Killer ' and call it a rap record . It 's so far from rap . But , politically , they know by saying the word rap they can get a lot of people who think , ' Rap @-@ black @-@ rap @-@ black @-@ ghetto , ' and don 't like it . You say the word rock , people say , ' Oh , but I like Jefferson Airplane , I like Fleetwood Mac — that 's rock . ' They don 't want to use the word rock & roll to describe this song . " Body Count has since been credited for pioneering the rap metal genre popularized by groups such as Rage Against the Machine and Limp Bizkit , although Ice @-@ T does not rap on any of the album 's tracks . Ernie C stated that " A lot of rappers want to be in a rock band , but it has to be done sincerely . You can 't just get anybody on guitar and expect it to work . [ ... ] [ We ] really loved the music we were doing , and it showed . "
= = Lyrical themes = =
Like Ice @-@ T 's gangsta rap albums , Body Count 's material focused on various social and political issues , with songs focusing on topics ranging from police brutality to drug abuse . According to Ernie C , " Everybody writes about whatever they learned growing up , and we were no exception . Like The Beach Boys sing about the beach , we sing about the way we grew up . " Ice @-@ T states that " Body Count was an angry record . It was meant to be a protest record . I put my anger in it , while lacing it with dark humor . " The spoken introduction , " Smoked Pork " features Ice @-@ T taking on the roles of a gangster pretending to be seemingly stranded motorist and a police officer who refuses to aid . The track begins with Mooseman and Ice @-@ T driving their car towards a police car , and then Ice @-@ T asks for the gun Mooseman has and tells Mooseman to stay in the car , much to Mooseman 's chagrin , as Mooseman wanted to kill the cop in this round . Ice @-@ T then walks up to the policeman , pretending to be a stranded motorist , asking for help , but the policeman refuses , saying : " Nah , that 's not my job ! My job 's not to help your fuckin ' ass out ! " , then telling him that " my job is eatin ' these doughnuts " . When the officer recognizes Ice @-@ T , gunshots are heard . The final voice on the track is Ice @-@ T confirming his identity .
In the lyrics of " KKK Bitch , " Ice @-@ T describes a sexual encounter with a woman who he soon learns is the daughter of the Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan . The lyrics go on to describe a scenario in which members of Body Count " crash " a Klan meeting to " get buck wild with the white freaks " . Ice @-@ T makes humorous reference to " [ falling ] in love with Tipper Gore 's two twelve year old nieces " , and ponders the possibility of the Grand Wizard coming after him " when his grandson 's named little Ice @-@ T. " In The Ice Opinion : Who Gives a Fuck ? , Ice @-@ T wrote that " ' KKK Bitch ' was ironic because the sentiments were true . We 'd play Ku Klux Klan areas in the South and the girls would always come backstage and tell us how their brothers and fathers didn 't like black folks . [ ... ] We knew that ' KKK Bitch ' would totally piss off the Ku Klux Klan . There 's humor in the song , but it fucks with them . It 's on a punk tip . "
" Voodoo " describes a fictional encounter between Ice @-@ T and an old woman with a voodoo doll . " The Winner Loses " describes the downfall of a crack cocaine user . " There Goes the Neighborhood " is a sarcastic response to critics of Body Count , sung from the point of view of a racist white rocker who wonders " Don 't they know rock 's just for whites ? / Don 't they know the rules ? / Those niggers are too hardcore / This shit ain 't cool . " For the song 's music video , the word " nigger " was replaced with the phrase " black boys " . The music video ends with a black musician implanting an electric guitar into the ground and setting it on fire . The final image is similar to that of a burning cross .
" Evil Dick " focuses on male promiscuity . Its lyrics describe a married man who is led to seek strange women after his " evil dick " tells him " Don 't sleep alone , don 't sleep alone . " " Momma 's Gotta Die Tonight " follows the account of a black teenager who murders and dismembers his racist mother after she reacts negatively when he brings a white girl home . In The Ice Opinion : Who Gives a Fuck ? , Ice @-@ T wrote that the song 's lyrics are metaphorical , explaining that " Whoever is still perpetuating racism has got to die , not necessarily physically , but they have to kill off that part of their brain . From now on , consider it dead . The entire attitude is dead . "
Ice @-@ T referred to the album 's final track , " Cop Killer " as a protest song , stating that the song is " [ sung ] in the first person as a character who is fed up with police brutality . " The song was written in 1990 , and had been performed live several times , including at Lollapalooza , before it had been recorded in a studio . The album version mentions then @-@ Los Angeles police chief Daryl Gates and the black motorist Rodney King , whose beating by LAPD officers was recorded on videotape . In The Ice Opinion : Who Gives a Fuck ? , Ice @-@ T wrote that the song " [ is ] a warning , not a threat — to authority that says , ' Yo , police : We 're human beings . Treat us accordingly . ' " In an interview for Rolling Stone , Ice @-@ T stated that " We just celebrated the fourth of July , which is really just national Fuck the Police Day [ ... ] I bet that during the Revolutionary War , there were songs similar to mine . "
= = Release and reception = =
Initial copies of the album were shipped out in black body bags , a promotional device that drew minor criticism . The album debuted at No. 32 on Billboard 's Top 50 albums , peaking at No. 26 on the Billboard 200 . By January 29 , 1993 , the album sold 480 @,@ 000 copies , according to Variety . However , according to the Recording Industry Association of America , Body Count was certified gold for sale shipments in excess of 500 @,@ 000 copies , with a certification date back to August 4 , 1992 .
In a positive review for The Village Voice , music critic Robert Christgau said Ice @-@ T " takes rap 's art @-@ ain 't @-@ life defense over the top " on a heavy metal album which utilizes and parodies " the style 's whiteskin privilege " . He wrote that the music is " flat @-@ out hard rock , short on soloistic intricacy and fancy structures " , but that it is set apart from other metal by Ice @-@ T , who " describes racism in language metalheads can understand , kills several policemen , and cuts his mama into little pieces because she tells him to hate white people . This can be a very funny record . " Greg Kot , writing in the Chicago Tribune , felt the lyrics on some songs are pathologically flawed and off @-@ putting , but the band 's take on metal styles is impressive and , " on the stereotype @-@ bashing ' There Goes the Neighborhood , ' the humor , message and music coalesce brilliantly " . Don Kaye of Kerrang ! called Body Count a " noisy , relentless musical attack " .
In a less enthusiastic review for Rolling Stone , J. D. Considine wrote that " messages " are less important here than " the sort of sonic intensity parental groups fear even more than four @-@ letter words , " while AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called the album " a surprisingly tepid affair " partly because " all of Ice @-@ T 's half @-@ sung / half @-@ shouted lyrics fall far short of the standard he established on his hip @-@ hop albums . " In the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of prominent critics published by The Village Voice , Body Count was voted the 31st best album of 1992 . Christgau , the poll 's supervisor , ranked it 22nd on his own year @-@ end list .
= = Controversy = =
The album was originally set to be distributed under the title Cop Killer , named for the song of the same name , which criticizes violent police officers . During the production of the album , Warner Bros. executives were aware of the potential controversy that the album and song could cause , but supported it . At a Time @-@ Warner shareholders ' meeting , actor Charlton Heston stood and read lyrics from the song " KKK Bitch " to an astonished audience and demanded that the company take action . Sire responded by changing the title to Body Count , but did not remove the song . In an article for the Washington Post , Tipper Gore condemned Ice @-@ T for songs like " Cop Killer , " writing that " Cultural economics were a poor excuse for the South 's continuation of slavery . Ice @-@ T 's financial success cannot excuse the vileness of his message [ ... ] Hitler 's anti @-@ Semitism sold in Nazi Germany . That didn 't make it right . " The Dallas Police Association and the Combined Law Enforcement Association of Texas launched a campaign to force Warner Bros. Records to withdraw the album . CLEAT called for a boycott of all products by Time @-@ Warner in order to secure the removal of the song and album from stores . Within a week , they were joined by police organizations across the United States . Ice @-@ T asserted that the song was written from the point of view of a fictional character , and told reporters that " I ain 't never killed no cop . I felt like it a lot of times . But I never did it . If you believe that I 'm a cop killer , you believe David Bowie is an astronaut , " in reference to Bowie 's song " Space Oddity " .
The National Black Police Association opposed the boycott of Time @-@ Warner and the attacks on " Cop Killer , " identifying police brutality as the cause of much anti @-@ police sentiment , and proposed the creation of independent civilian review boards " to scrutinize the actions of our law enforcement officers " as a way of ending the provocations that caused artists such as Body Count " to respond to actions of police brutality and abuse through their music . [ ... ] Many individuals of the law enforcement profession do not want anyone to scrutinize their actions , but want to scrutinize the actions of others . " Critics argued that the song could cause crime and violence . Others defended the album on the basis of the group 's right to freedom of speech , and cited the fact that Ice @-@ T had portrayed a police officer in the film New Jack City . Ice @-@ T is quoted as saying that " I didn 't need people to come in and really back me on the First Amendment . I needed people to come in and say ' Ice @-@ T has grounds to make this record . ' I have the right to make it because the cops are killing my people . So fuck the First Amendment , let 's deal with the fact that I have the right to make it . "
Over the next month , controversy against the band grew . Vice President Dan Quayle branded " Cop Killer " as being " obscene , " and President George H.W. Bush publicly denounced any record company that would release such a product . Body Count was removed from the shelves of a retail store in Greensboro , North Carolina after local police had told the management that they would no longer respond to any emergency calls at the store if they continued to sell the album . In July 1992 , the New Zealand Police Commissioner unsuccessfully attempted to prevent an Ice @-@ T concert in Auckland , arguing that " Anyone who comes to this country preaching in obscene terms the killing of police , should not be welcome here , " before taking Body Count and Warner Bros. Records to the Indecent Publications Tribunal , in an effort to get it banned under New Zealand 's Indecent Publications Act . This was the first time in 20 years that a sound recording had come before the censorship body , and the first ever case involving popular music . After reviewing the various submissions , and listening carefully to the album , the Tribunal found the song " Cop Killer " to be " not exhortatory , " saw the album as displaying " an honest purpose , " and found Body Count not indecent . The controversy escalated to the point where death threats were sent to Time @-@ Warner executives , and stockholders threatened to pull out of the company . Finally , Ice @-@ T decided to remove " Cop Killer " from the album of his own volition , a decision which was met by criticism from other artists who derided Ice @-@ T for " caving in to external pressure . " In an interview , Ice @-@ T stated that " I didn 't want my band to get pigeon @-@ holed as that 's the only reason that record sold . It just got outta hand and I was just tired of hearing it . I said , ' fuck it , ' I mean they 're saying we did it for money , and we didn 't . I 'd gave the record away , ya know , let 's move on , let 's get back to real issues , not a record but the cops that are out there killing people . "
" Cop Killer " was replaced by a new version of " Freedom of Speech , " a song from Ice @-@ T 's 1989 solo album The Iceberg / Freedom of Speech ... Just Watch What You Say . The song was re @-@ edited and remixed to give it a more rock @-@ oriented sound , using a looped sample from the Jimi Hendrix song " Foxy Lady . " Alongside the album 's reissue , Warner Bros. issued " Cop Killer " as a single . Ice @-@ T left Warner Bros. Records the following year because of disputes over his solo album Home Invasion , taking Body Count with him . The studio version of " Cop Killer " has not been re @-@ released , although a live version of the song appears on Body Count 's 2005 release Live in L.A. According to Ernie C , the controversy over the song " still lingers for us , even now . I 'll try to book clubs and the guy I 'm talking to will mention it and I 'll think to myself ' Man , that was 17 years ago . ' But I meet a lot of bands who ask me about it too and I 'm real respected by other artists for it . But it 's a love / hate thing . Ice gets it too , even though he plays a cop on TV now on Law & Order SVU . "
In Australia , the track listings on copies of the new version of the album sold there ended at track 16 , omitting " Freedom of Speech " ( or " Cop Killer " and its spoken word intro , " Out in the Parking Lot " ) . This was likely because the track " Freedom of Speech " refers to the speech protections of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , which Australia does not have an equivalent to in its own Constitution , thus the track is not as relevant to Australian audiences .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Ice @-@ T – lead vocals
Ernie C. – lead , rhythm and acoustic guitars
Mooseman – bass
D @-@ Roc – rhythm guitar
Beatmaster " V " – drums
= Turtles All the Way Down =
" Turtles All the Way Down " is the thirteenth and final episode of the American television police procedural fantasy drama Awake . It premiered on May 23 , 2012 in Canada on Global , and on May 24 , 2012 in the United States on NBC . " Turtles All the Way Down " was scheduled to air on May 17 , 2012 , as part two of a two @-@ hour finale . NBC had changed the order , and moved it to the following week . The teleplay of the episode was written by series creator Kyle Killen , from a story by Killen , and staff writers Leonard Chang and Noelle Valdivia . It was directed by Miguel Sapochnik . " Turtles All the Way Down " was well received by television critics , who praised its storylines . Commentators noted that the script was well @-@ written . Upon airing , " Turtles All the Way Down " obtained 2 @.@ 87 million viewers in the United States and 0 @.@ 9 million in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings .
The show centers on Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) a police detective living in two separate realities after a car accident . In the episode , Michael Britten finds out the truth about the car accident that caused his split realities , and seeks out those responsible for it . He finds out that Captain Tricia Harper ( Laura Innes ) caused the accident , alongside Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ) and Captain Carl Kessel ( Mark Harelik ) .
= = Plot = =
In his " green reality " ( where his son is alive and his wife is dead ) , Detective Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) sits in a prison cell temporary for killing Detective Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ) , who caused Michael 's car accident . Meanwhile , his partner in the " green reality " , Detective Isaiah " Bird " Freeman ( Steve Harris ) finds heroin that Hawkins , under orders from Captain Kessel ( Mark Harelik ) , had placed in a self storage unit . Meanwhile , Captain Tricia Harper ( Laura Innes ) shoots Carl Kessel in a hotel room , making it look like a suicide to cover up her involvement in Michael 's accident . Michael is freed from the cell and Kessel 's body is found .
Michael regains consciousness ( after having passed out from a gunshot wound when Ed Hawkins was chasing after him ) near a dumpster in the " red reality " ( where his wife is alive and son is dead ) . The still @-@ alive Detective Hawkins takes Michael to his car , but Michael flees after attacking Hawkins and causes a car accident . Michael finds his therapist in the " red reality " , Dr. John Lee ( BD Wong ) , forces him to sew up the bullet wound , and takes him to the self @-@ storage unit to show him the heroin stash . Seeing no heroin , Michael then locks Lee in the containment center and contacts his partner in the " red reality " , detective Efrem Vega ( Wilmer Valderrama ) . Vega secretly takes Britten to his house but , upon returning to the police station , is convinced that Michael is unstable and allows Michael to be captured . Michael is first taken to the hospital to receive medical treatment and then goes to jail .
Harper visits Michael in jail . When Michael notices the caller ID of an incoming call matching Kessel 's hotel room pseudonym , he realizes Harper is part of the conspiracy and attempts to strangle her . Later , Michael is visited by himself from the " green reality " who leads him to the jail door . Past the door , Michael first witnesses Kessel 's murder and Detective Vega , in a penguin suit , shows Harper 's heel breaking in the process hinting that this can be used as hard evidence to place Harper at Kessel 's murder . Next Michael briefly meets his wife , Hannah ( Laura Allen ) in a restaurant before he finds his " green reality " self sleeping in his bedroom . He – his " red reality " self – lays down in bed as well and merges with his " green reality " self before waking up in said " green reality " .
In Harper 's office , Michael confronts her about her involvement in his accident , pulling out his gun to shoot her . However , he instead lets Bird and another detective arrest her . Later , Dr. Evans applauds Michael 's apparent rejection of the " red reality " and , when Michael suggests his fantastic experiences may have simply been a dream of the " red reality , " Dr. Evans warns him not to create a third reality . She suddenly goes still . Michael , confused , goes through her office door and finds himself in his bedroom . He goes downstairs and finds both his son , Rex ( Dylan Minnette ) , and wife alive . Concerned about Michael 's odd behavior , Hannah asks if he is okay . He replies , " I 'm perfect , " and closes his eyes .
= = Production = =
The episode 's teleplay was written by series creator and executive producer Kyle Killen , from a story by Killen , and staff writers Leonard Chang and Noelle Valdivia ; it was Killen 's seventh writing credit , and Chang and Valdivia 's third writing credit each . It was directed by Miguel Sapochnik , his first directing credit for the series .
In January 2012 , it was announced that Kevin Weisman would appear in multiple episodes of Awake . The actor was later cast as Ed Hawkins , a cop who took over Michael 's spot at the police department after his crash . This is his third appearance on the series , with the first being " Say Hello to My Little Friend " , the eleven episode . Other guest stars included Laura Innes as Tricia Harper and Mark Harelik as Carl Kessel . The episode is rated TV @-@ 14 on television in the United States .
The episode featured the song " Montana " by Youth Lagoon during the final scene . Many viewers wondered if the series creator had changed the ending for the last episode , due to the cancellation of the series . This caused series creator and executive producer Killen to assure viewers that the episode would have been " exactly the same " if it had been renewed for a second season . In a pre @-@ broadcast interview by Entertainment Weekly with Killen and actor Jason Isaacs , Isaacs claimed that he found it " strangely ironic and amusing " to be promoting the series finale of the Awake series . Killen claimed that " When we wrote the episode , we didn 't know it would be the end of the series " . He stated that it had a " satisfying conclusion " , " and I think it will be a satisfying way to leave the show " .
" Turtles All the Way Down " was scheduled to air as part two of the scheduled two @-@ hour finale . NBC had changed the order , and aired it the following week .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Turtles All the Way Down " first premiered a day early in Canada on May 23 , 2012 on Global between 10 : 00 p.m. and 11 : 00 p.m. , due to the season premiere of the Canadian series Rookie Blue , which aired in Awake 's regular time slot on Thursdays at 10 : 00 p.m. The episode premiered on May 24 , 2012 in the United States on NBC between 10 : 00 p.m. and 11 : 00 p.m. Upon airing , " Turtles All the Way Down " obtained 2 @.@ 87 million viewers in the United States despite airing simultaneously with a rerun of The Mentalist on CBS and Rookie Blue on ABC . It acquired a 0 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings , meaning that it was seen by 0 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds . The episode marked the series ' highest ratings since the fifth episode " Oregon " which aired on March 29 , 2012 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Turtles All the Way Down " was well received by television commentators . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a positive review . He also noted that parts of the episode were " surprising " , and that " the show embraced some final insanity before the end , it ’ s more the illusion of depth than actual depth " . Handlen wrote that " it ’ s hard to ask for more from an hour of television " , despite noting that he was " glad the series got cancelled " . Handlen noted that he would " look forward to their next projects " . Handlen concluded his review by giving the episode a grade of " B " . Matt Fowler of IGN gave the episode a positive review and claimed that there were some " gut @-@ wrenching " scenes in the episode . Fowler also opined that the episode was " thrilling " , " frustrating " , " fascinating " , and " terrible " to see Hannah " crying over an arrested Britten " . Fowler wrote that he " love [ d ] the open ending " . Noting that Awake was " one of the good ones " , Fowler concluded his review by giving the episode a " 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 " classifying it as " amazing " . Nick McHatton of TV Fanatic gave the episode a positive review . He opined that Michael " has a unique ability to dream in a way that feels real , why not recreate what was once lost " . McHatton found it " fitting that the show ended with Michael closing his eyes . Despite the fact that he did not know what the phrase " turtles all the way down " meant , he concluded his review by giving the episode a score " 5 @.@ 0 out of 5 @.@ 0 " .
Ross Bonaime of Paste magazine gave the episode a complimentary review . He started by claiming that Awake was " the best drama to come out the 2011 – 12 season on television , and one of the finest NBC dramas in years " . He also wondered " what Awake would be like in a Michael Britten @-@ like alternate reality where the show lasted five seasons , or 10 , or even just one more year " , Could Awake maintain this story for long and still be compelling ? " Bonaime wrote that it was " better to have one great season and be remembered fondly " . Bonaime claimed that the " ending is quite smart , given that it never truly clarifies if Michael was dreaming the whole time , or if Dr. Lee was right and that he was on the verge of completely snapping , which makes much more sense " . He was also grateful that " Awake decided to just go completely nuts with the last half of this episode " . He claimed that the episode and series was " different , a rare move , especially on network television " . He claimed that " Once Awake arrives on Netflix and DVD , people will rush through in a matter of days and will say they enjoyed their experience with this short yet sweet treasure " . He claimed that works with Awake should be " rewarded " and " praised " . Bonaime concluded his review by giving the episode a " 9 @.@ 0 out of 10 " .
Screen Rant 's Kevin Yeoman , gave much praise in the episode . Like Paste magazine and other critics reviews , Yeoman claimed that " there was certainly disappointment in finding out that Awake wouldn 't see a second season , and would instead be looked at as a 13 @-@ episode miniseries " . He claimed that the episode has the puzzling and high points that are similar to " That 's Not My Penguin " and " Say Hello to My Little Friend " . Again , Screen Crush 's Kevin Fitzpatrick was also disappointed that there would not be a second season . Verne Gay of Newsday gave the episode a complimenting review . He called it " promising " . He noted that he could see " why Awake was canceled " . He blessed " the show for at least trying " . He called it " challenging " and " original " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix called the episode " fascinating " , " puzzling " and " moving " . Carl Cortez of Assignment X , again , enjoyed the episode . In his " B + " grade review , he noted that " you can view it as another missed opportunity " . He claimed that parts of the episode were " confusing " . He stated that he would " prefer to have more questions than answers " . He argued that the episode felt more like a " Series Finale , than Season Finale " , which he called " a good thing " , " Too many good shows go off into the sunset without a single resolution and this one at least strives for something more " . He also argued that NBC should have " put a little more promotional push " . He called it " challenging " and " interesting " .
= Report about Case Srebrenica =
Report about Case Srebrenica ( the first part ) was a controversial official report on the July 1995 Srebrenica massacre in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina . It was prepared by Darko Trifunović and published by the Republika Srpska Government Bureau for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) .
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ってきたマリオブラザーズ ) was released in Japan for the Family Computer Disk System , with added features and revisions to gameplay . It also featured cutscenes and even advertisements , being sponsored by the food company Nagatanien . Kaette Kita is very rare since it was only available as a Disk Writer promotion . A later NES port was released exclusively in Europe in 1993 , called Mario Bros. Classic ; this version had a more refined control and stage intermissions closer to the original arcade version .
In 1984 , Hudson Soft made two different games based on Mario Bros. The first was Mario Bros. Special ( マリオブラザーズスペシャル , Mario Burazāzu Supesharu ) , which was a re @-@ imagining of the original Mario Bros. with new phases , mechanics and gameplay . The second was Punch Ball Mario Bros. ( パンチボールマリオブラザーズ , Panchi Bōru Mario Burazāzu ) , which featured a new gameplay mechanic involving punching small balls to stun enemies . Both games were released for the PC @-@ 8801 , FM @-@ 7 , and X1 and have been described as average for the most part , neither the best or worst games in the series . Mario Clash , a game released in 1995 for the Virtual Boy , was developed as a straight remake of Mario Bros. , with the working title Mario Bros. VB . It was the first stereoscopic 3D Mario game . The objective of the game is to knock all the enemies in a particular phase off ledges . Instead of hitting them from below , like in Mario Bros. , the player must hit enemies using Koopa shells .
The Wii U game Super Mario 3D World contains Luigi Bros , a version of Mario Bros. starring Luigi . This game will be unlocked if the Wii U console contains save data from New Super Luigi U or the player completes World 8 .
= = Reception = =
Mario Bros. was only modestly successful in Japanese arcades . The arcade cabinets have since become mildly rare . To date in Japan , the NES version of Mario Bros. has sold more than 1 @.@ 63 million copies , and the Famicom Mini re @-@ release of the NES version has sold more than 90 @,@ 000 copies . Despite being released during the North American video game crash of 1983 , the arcade game , as well as the industry , were not affected . Video game author Dave Ellis considers it one of the more memorable classic games .
Opinions on the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) version of Mario Bros. have been mostly mixed , but does receive positive reviews from gamers . However , in a review of the Virtual Console game , GameSpot criticized the NES version for being a poor port of the arcade version . The Virtual Console version in particular was heavily criticized . GameSpot criticized it , saying that not only is it a port of an inferior version , but it retains all of the technical flaws found in this version . It also criticizes the Mario Bros. ports in general , saying that this is just one of many ports that have been made of it throughout Nintendo 's history.IGN complimented the Virtual Console version 's gameplay , even though it was critical of Nintendo 's decision to release an " inferior " NES port on the Virtual Console . IGN also agreed on the issue of the number of ports . They said that since most people have Mario Bros. on one of the Super Mario Advance games , this version is not worth 500 Wii Points . The Nintendo e @-@ Reader version of Mario Bros. was slightly more well received by IGN , who praised the gameplay , but criticized it for lack of multiplayer and for not being worth the purchase because of the Super Mario Advance versions .
The Super Mario Advance releases and Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga all featured the same version of Mario Bros. ( titled Mario Bros. Classic ) . The mode was first included in Super Mario Advance , and was praised for its simplicity and entertainment value . IGN called this mode fun in its review of Super Mario World : Super Mario Advance 2 , but complained that it would have been nice if the developers had come up with a new game to replace it . Their review of Yoshi 's Island : Super Mario Advance 3 criticizes it more so than in the review of Super Mario Advance 2 because Nintendo chose not to add multiplayer to any of the mini @-@ games found in that game , sticking instead with an identical version of the Mario Bros. game found in previous versions . GameSpot 's review of Super Mario Advance 4 : Super Mario Bros. 3 calls it a throwaway feature that could have simply been gutted . Other reviewers were not as negative on the feature 's use in later Super Mario Advance games . Despite its use being criticized in most Super Mario Advance games , a GameSpy review called the version found in Super Mario Advance 2 a blast to play in multi @-@ player because it only requires at least two Game Boy Advances , one copy of the game , and a link cable .
= Mary Isenhour =
Mary Isenhour is an American political strategist , campaign manager , and government official , currently serving as Chief of Staff for Pennsylvania Governor Tom Wolf . Prior to the Wolf administration , Isenhour served executive director of the Pennsylvania Democratic Party , was state director of Hillary Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign , and assisted with the successful campaigns of U.S. Senator Bob Casey , Jr. and Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell .
Isenhour also previously worked as executive director of the Pennsylvania House Democratic Campaign Committee , and started a political consulting firm with former state party chairman T.J. Rooney . In 2010 , PoliticsPA called her " one of the top consultants in the state " , and said , " few can move between the strategy of campaigning and its mechanics with the ease that she does " .
Starting her career working on the Kansas House of Representatives staff , Isenhour eventually becoming chief of staff to House Minority Leader Tom Sawyer , and then director of the Democratic Party 's Kansas Coordinated Campaign for legislative races . She worked as the national political director for the Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee before starting her Pennsylvania political career in 1999 .
= = Early career = =
A Kansas native , Isenhour attended the University of Kansas . She began her political career as a staffer in the Kansas House of Representatives . In 1990 she worked as a legislative aide to House Minority Leader Marvin Barkis , and the following year was an administrative assistant to House Majority Leader Donna Whiteman . From 1991 to 1995 , Isenhour served as Chief of Staff to House Minority Leader Tom Sawyer , where she worked with Democratic and Republican lawmakers alike to advance legislation , served as a liaison between Sawyer and other officials , and worked with members of leadership and committees to develop legislative strategies and build coalitions . In 1992 , Isenhour was the director of the Democratic Party 's Kansas Coordinated Campaign for legislative races , both in the state House and Senate . Those races included more than three dozen candidates by July 1992 .
From 1995 to 1999 , Isenhour served as the Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee 's national political director , based in Washington D.C. In that capacity , she worked with legislative leaders and caucus campaign staff in more 15 states to help win or preserve Democratic majorities in state legislatures . In 1996 , she worked in Iowa to help orchestrate the Democratic legislative campaigns in that the Iowa General Assembly , partnering with Iowa Senate Majority Leader Wally Horn and other key legislative Democrats to improving the party 's position . She described it as an attempt to avoid a repeat of 1994 elections , in which Democrats suffered major losses in both federal and state offices during the Republican Revolution . Isenhour said of those elections :
Isenhour also managed Sawyer 's campaign for the bid for Kansas governor in 1998 . Sawyer won the Democratic nomination , but ultimately lost in a landslide to the popular Republican incumbent , Bill Graves .
= = Pennsylvania career = =
Isenhour began her Pennsylvania political career in 1999 , when she became executive director of the Pennsylvania House Democratic Campaign Committee , helping to get Democratic candidates elected to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . She held the position until 2003 . Isenhour assisted with Bob Casey , Jr . ' s successful 2006 campaign against Republican incumbent Rick Santorum , served as political adviser to state House Democratic Leader Frank Dermody , and ran Governor Ed Rendell 's successful 2006 re @-@ election campaign against challenger Lynn Swann , after which she helped plan Rendell 's 2007 inauguration . Rendell appointed her to the Pennsylvania Community Service Advisory Board .
Isenhour worked for the Pennsylvania Democratic Party , serving as an aide and political adviser to T.J. Rooney , the state party chairman . In 2007 , she became executive director of the party , replacing Don Morabito , who took a position in the Rendell administration . The party enjoyed much success during her time there , controlling the Governor 's office , three of four statewide row offices , two U.S. Senators , a majority in the State House , and picking up five seats in the Congressional delegation . She served as director of PA Victory , a statewide coordinated campaign effort . Isenhour was also chosen as the Pennsylvania state director for Hillary Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign , after Rendell recommended her for the position . There was talk of Isenhour continuing to work with the Clinton administration after the primary , but she instead returned to her position with the Pennsylvania Democratic Party .
In 2008 , Isenhour and Rooney met with MSNBC news commentator Chris Matthews to discuss the possibility of Matthews running against Republican U.S. Senator Arlen Specter , although he ultimately did not run . Also that year , Isenhour and her Republican counterpart Luke Bernstein , executive director of the Republican Party of Pennsylvania , together taught a class about presidential elections at the Dickinson College in Carlisle , Pennsylvania . Isenhour and Bernstein both believed it was the first class of its type , and said the two had a very cordial relationship despite representing opposite political parties . Isenhour also taught about electoral politics at other educational institutions , including the University of Pennsylvania , Central Penn College and The Washington Center .
In July 2010 , after more than seven years leading the Pennsylvania Democratic Party , Isenhour and Rooney started the political consulting firm Isenhour Rooney Strategies , which later became Isenhour Rooney and Carey . Also in 2010 , Isenhour was the only woman named to the PoliticsPA 's Pennsylvania Top 10 Influencers List by Campaigns and Elections , PoliticsPA also called her " one of the top consultants in the state " , and said " few can move between the strategy of campaigning and its mechanics with the ease that she does " . Among the candidates she advised was Rob Teplitz in his successful campaign for Pennsylvania State Senate in 2012 . Eisenhour served on the board of Planned Parenthood of Pennsylvania .
= = Governor Wolf administration = =
Isenhour was an early supporter of Pennsylvania gubernatorial candidate Tom Wolf , and became Wolf 's senior campaign adviser during his 2014 campaign , at a time when state Representative Allyson Schwartz and state Treasurer Rob McCord were considered to have better chances of winning . Isenhour , who had long been acquainted with Wolf , had not intended to become involved with a lengthy and work @-@ intensive gubernatorial campaign , but said she was convinced to do so after an hour @-@ long phone conversation with Wolf in 2013 , after which she was convinced he was the right man for the job : " I 've been in politics 30 years and I 've never had a candidate like this . " Isenhour maintained other clients during his campaign , but said Wolf was " my main focus for the next year and a half " . After Wolf 's successful election , Isenhour co @-@ chaired his inaugural committee , then worked as his Secretary of Legislative Affairs , serving as a liaison during negotiating sessions at the Pennsylvania General Assembly , and providing key planning during the governor 's budget strategy . Political reporter John L. Micek wrote of Isenhour : " She is in the unique position of having to work with Republicans she once ran campaigns against . " Her annual salary in the position was $ 145 @,@ 018 . Isenhour developed a reputation for communicating and building relationships with legislative leaders and staff members from both parties .
In July 2015 , Isenhour replaced Kathleen McGinty as Wolf 's Chief of Staff , after McGinty resigned six months into her tenure to pursue a campaign for U.S. Senate . Wolf called Isenhour " one of my closest advisors " and " a valuable part of my administration " , and said she " really understands how the politics of this place actually works . " The selection was praised by both parties , including House and Senate Republicans , who expressed hope she would be less adversarial than McGinty . The Butler Eagle wrote an editorial criticizing the appointment due to her position on the Planned Parenthood of Pennsylvania board , in light of a national controversy over undercover videos about the group 's alleged sale of aborted fetal body parts . Isenhour came into the Chief of Staff position more than three weeks into a budget impasse between Wolf and the Republican @-@ controlled General Assembly .
In October 2015 , four months into the state budget impasse , Isenhour issued a memo notifying Wolf 's administration of a hiring freeze and travel ban . On February 3 , 2016 , Isenhour notified the state Public Employee Retirement Commission that , under Wolf 's orders , all employment of its staff would be discontinued . State Representatives Stephen Bloom of Cumberland County and Seth Grove of York County have filed a lawsuit against Wolf challenging that action , arguing the governor lacks the power to dissolve the commission and acted contrary to the Pennsylvania Constitution .
= = Personal life = =
Isenhour is married to Bill Patton , former chief of staff to Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives Dennis M. O 'Brien . They reside in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania . She has a cat named Ralph and enjoys cooking .
= Isle of Portland =
The Isle of Portland is a limestone tied island , 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) long by 2 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) wide , in the English Channel . Portland is 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) south of the resort of Weymouth , forming the southernmost point of the county of Dorset , England . A barrier beach over which runs the A354 road connects it to Chesil Beach and the mainland . Portland and Weymouth together form the borough of Weymouth and Portland . The population of Portland is 12 @,@ 400 .
Portland is a central part of the Jurassic Coast , a World Heritage Site on the Dorset and east Devon coast , important for its geology and landforms . Its name is used for one of the British Sea Areas , and has been exported as the name of North American and Australian towns . Portland stone , famous for its use in British and world architecture , including St Paul 's Cathedral and the United Nations Headquarters , continues to be quarried .
Portland Harbour , in between Portland and Weymouth , is one of the largest man @-@ made harbours in the world . The harbour was made by the building of stone breakwaters between 1848 and 1905 . From its inception it was a Royal Navy base , and played prominent roles during the First and Second World Wars ; ships of the Royal Navy and NATO countries worked up and exercised in its waters until 1995 . The harbour is now a civilian port and popular recreation area , and was used for the 2012 Olympic Games .
= = History = =
Portland has been inhabited since at least the Mesolithic period ( the Middle Stone Age ) — there is archaeological evidence of Mesolithic inhabitants at the Culverwell Mesolithic Site , near Portland Bill , and of habitation since then . The Romans occupied Portland , reputedly calling it Vindelis . The Vikings first raid on England occurred in Portland in 787 AD , as recorded in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . Three lost Viking ships landed at Portland Bill . The King 's reeve tried to collect taxes from them . They killed him and sailed on . They were Northmen from Hordaland ( the district around Hardanger fjord in west Norway ) . In 1539 King Henry VIII ordered the construction of Portland Castle for defence against attacks by the French ; the castle cost £ 4 @,@ 964 . It is one of the best preserved castles from this period , and is opened to the public by the custodians English Heritage .
In the 17th century , chief architect and Surveyor @-@ General to James I , Inigo Jones , surveyed the area and introduced the local Portland stone to London ; using it in his Banqueting House , Whitehall , and for repairs on St Paul 's Cathedral . His successor , Sir Christopher Wren , the architect and Member of Parliament for nearby Weymouth , used six million tons of white Portland limestone to rebuild destroyed parts of the capital after the Great Fire of London of 1666 . Well @-@ known buildings in the capital , including St Paul 's Cathedral and the eastern front of Buckingham Palace feature the stone . After the First World War , a quarry was opened by The Crown Estate to provide stone for the Cenotaph in Whitehall and half a million gravestones for war cemeteries , and after the Second World War hundreds of thousands of gravestones were hewn for soldiers who had fallen on the Western Front . Portland cement has nothing to do with Portland ; it was so named due to its similar colour to Portland stone when mixed with lime and sand .
There have been railways in Portland since the early 19th century . The Merchant 's Railway was the earliest — it opened in 1826 ( one year after the Stockton and Darlington railway ) and ran from the quarries at the north of Tophill to a pier at Castletown , from where the Portland stone was shipped around the country . The Weymouth and Portland Railway was laid in 1865 , and ran from a station in Melcombe Regis , across the Fleet and along the low isthmus behind Chesil Beach to a station at Victoria Square in Chiswell . At the end of the 19th century the line was extended to the top of the island as the Easton and Church Ope Railway , running through Castletown and ascending the cliffs at East Weares , to loop back north to a station in Easton . The line closed to passengers in 1952 , and the final goods train ( and two passenger ' specials ' ) ran in April 1965 .
The Royal National Institution for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck stationed a lifeboat at Portland in 1826 , which was withdrawn in 1851 . Coastal flooding has affected Portland 's residents and transport for centuries — the only way off the island by land is along the causeway in the lee of Chesil Beach . At times of extreme floods ( about every 10 years ) this road link is cut by floods . The low @-@ lying village of Chiswell used to flood on average every 5 years . Chesil Beach occasionally faces severe storms and massive waves , which have a fetch across the Atlantic Ocean . Following two severe flood events in the 1970s , Weymouth and Portland Borough Council and Wessex Water decided to investigate the structure of the beach , and coastal management schemes that could be built to protect Chiswell and the beach road . In the 1980s it was agreed that a scheme to protect against a one @-@ in @-@ five @-@ year storm would be practicable ; it would reduce flood depth and duration in more severe storms . Hard engineering techniques were employed in the scheme , including a gabion running 550 metres ( 600 yd ) to the north of Chiswell , an extended sea wall in Chesil Cove , and a culvert running from inside the beach , underneath the beach road and into Portland Harbour , to divert flood water away from low @-@ lying areas .
At the start of the First World War , HMS Hood was sunk in the passage between the southern breakwaters to protect the harbour from torpedo and submarine attack . Portland Harbour was formed ( 1848 – 1905 ) by the construction of breakwaters , but before that the natural anchorage had hosted ships of the Royal Navy for more than 500 years . It was a centre for Admiralty research into asdic submarine detection and underwater weapons from 1917 to 1998 ; the shore base HMS Serepta was renamed HMS Osprey in 1927 . During the Second World War Portland was the target of heavy bombing , although most warships had moved north as Portland was within enemy striking range across the Channel . Portland was a major embarkation point for Allied forces on D @-@ Day in 1944 . Early helicopters were stationed at Portland in 1946 – 1948 , and in 1959 a shallow tidal flat , The Mere , was infilled , and sports fields taken to form a heliport . The station was formally commissioned as HMS Osprey , which then became the largest and busiest military helicopter station in Europe . The base was gradually improved with additional landing areas and one of England 's shortest runways , at 229 metres ( 751 ft ) . There are still two prisons on Portland : HMP The Verne , which until 1949 was a huge Victorian military fortress , and a Young Offenders ' Institution ( HMYOI ) on the Grove clifftop . This was the original prison built for convicts who quarried stone for the Portland Breakwaters from 1848 . For a few years until 2005 Britain 's only prison ship , HMP The Weare , was berthed in the harbour .
The naval base closed after the end of the Cold War in 1995 , and the Royal Naval Air Station closed in 1999 , although the runway remains in use for Her Majesty 's Coastguard Search and Rescue flights as MRCC Portland . MRCC Portland 's area of responsibility extends midway across the English Channel , and from Start Point in Devon to the Dorset / Hampshire border , covering an area of around 10 @,@ 400 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The 12 Search and Rescue teams in the Portland area dealt with almost 1000 incidents in 2005 .
= = Governance = =
Portland is an ancient Royal Manor , and until the 19th century remained a separate liberty within Dorset for administration purposes . It was an urban district from 1894 to 1974 , until the borough of Weymouth and Portland formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 . This merged the borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis with Portland urban district . For local elections the borough is divided into 15 wards , and three of them cover Portland . Elections take place in a four @-@ year cycle ; one third of the councillors in all but three wards retire or seek re @-@ election in years one , two and three , and county council elections are held in year four .
The Mayor of Weymouth and Portland is Ray Banham ( Liberal Democrat ) , Kate Wheller ( Labour Party ) is Deputy Mayor . Weymouth , Portland and the Purbeck district are in the South Dorset parliamentary constituency , created in 1885 . The constituency elects one Member of Parliament ; the current MP is Richard Drax ( Conservative ) . South Dorset , the rest of the South West England , and Gibraltar are in the South West England constituency of the European Parliament .
Weymouth and Portland have been twinned with the town of Holzwickede in North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , Germany since 1986 , and the French town of Louviers , in the department of Eure in Normandy , since 1959 . The borough and nearby Chickerell have been a Fairtrade Zone since 2007 .
= = Geography = =
The Isle of Portland lies in the English Channel , 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) south of Wyke Regis , and 200 km ( 120 mi ) west @-@ southwest of London , at 50 ° 33 ′ 0 ″ N 2 ° 26 ′ 24 ″ W ( 50 @.@ 55 , − 2 @.@ 44 ) . Portland is situated approximately halfway along the UNESCO Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site ; the site includes 153 kilometres ( 95 mi ) of the Dorset and east Devon coast that is important for its geology and landforms . The South West Coast Path runs around the coast ; it is the United Kingdom 's longest national trail at 1 @,@ 014 kilometres ( 630 mi ) . Portland is unusual as it is connected to the mainland at Abbotsbury by Chesil Beach , a tombolo which runs 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) north @-@ west to West Bay . Portland is sometimes defined incorrectly as a tombolo — in fact Portland is a tied island , and Chesil Beach is the tombolo ( a spit joined to land at both ends ) .
There are eight settlements on Portland , the largest being Fortuneswell in Underhill and Easton on Tophill . Castletown and Chiswell are the other villages in Underhill , and Weston , Southwell , Wakeham and the Grove are on the Tophill plateau . Many old buildings are built out of Portland Stone ; Several parts have been designated Conservation Areas to preserve the unique character the older settlements which date back hundreds of years . The architecture ; the natural and man @-@ made environment and the proximity to the sea give Portland overall character which is quite distinct .
The Isle of Portland has been designated by Natural England as National Character Area 137 . It is adjoined by the Weymouth Lowlands to the north .
= = = Geology = = =
Geologically , Portland is separated into two areas ; the steeply sloping land at its north end called Underhill , and the larger , gently sloping land to the south , called Tophill . Portland stone lies under Tophill ; the strata decline at a shallow angle of around 1 @.@ 5 degrees , from a height of 151 metres ( 495 ft ) near the Verne in the north , to just above sea level at Portland Bill . The geology of Underhill is different to Tophill ; Underhill lies on a steep escarpment composed of Portland Sand , lying above a thicker layer of Kimmeridge Clay , which extends to Chesil Beach and Portland Harbour . This Kimmeridge Clay has resulted in a series of landslides , forming West Weares and East Weares .
2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) underneath south Dorset lies a layer of Triassic rock salt , and Portland is one of four locations in the United Kingdom where the salt is thick enough to create stable cavities . Portland Gas applied to excavate 14 caverns to store 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 3 @.@ 5 × 1010 cu ft ) of natural gas , which is one percent of the UK 's total annual demand . It was proposed that the caverns should be connected to the National gas grid at Mappowder via a 37 @-@ kilometre ( 23 mi ) pipeline . Plans had it that the surface facilities should be complete to store the first gas in 2011 , and the entire cavern space available for storage in winter 2013 . As part of the £ 350 million scheme , the Grade II listed former Old Engine Shed would be converted into a £ 1 @.@ 5 million educational centre with a café and an exhibition space about the geology of Portland . However , as of 2014 , these plans are on hold .
= = = Portland Bill = = =
Portland Bill is the southern tip of the island of Portland . The Bill has three lighthouse towers : The Higher Lighthouse is now a dwelling and holiday apartments ; the Lower Lighthouse is now a bird observatory and field centre which opened in 1961 . The white and red lighthouse on Bill Point replaced the Higher and Lower Lighthouses in 1906 . It is a prominent and much photographed feature ; an important landmark for ships passing the headland and its tidal race . The current lighthouse was refurbished in 1996 and became remotely controlled . It now contains a visitors ' centre giving information and guided tours of the lighthouse . As of June 2009 , the lighthouse uses a 1 kW metal @-@ halide US @-@ made lamp with an operational life of about 4000 hours , or 14 months . Two earlier lighthouses stand further inland : one is an important observatory used by ornithologists , providing records of bird migration and accommodation for visitors .
Portland Ledge ( the Shambles ) is an underwater extension of Portland Stone into the English Channel at a place where the depth of Channel is 20 to 40 metres ( about 10 to 20 fathoms ) . Tidal flow is disrupted by the feature ; at 10 metres ( about 5 fathoms ) deep and 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 3 nmi ) long , it causes a tidal race to the south of Portland Bill , the so @-@ called Portland Race . The current only stops for brief periods during the 12 ½ hour tidal cycle and can reach 4 metres per second ( 8 kn ) at the spring tide of 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) .
= = = Ecology = = =
Due to its isolated coastal location , the Isle of Portland has an extensive range of flora and fauna ; the coastline and disused quarries are designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest . Sea and migratory birds occupy the cliffs in different seasons , sometimes these include rare species which draw ornithologists from around the country . Rare visitors to the surrounding seas include dolphins , seals and basking sharks . Chesil Beach is one of only two sites in Britain where the Scaly Cricket can be found ; unlike any other cricket it is wingless and does not sing or hop . Ten British Primitive goats were introduced to the East Weares part of the island to control scrub in 2007 .
The comparatively warm and sunny climate allows species of plants to thrive which do not on the mainland . The limestone soil has low nutrient levels ; hence smaller species of wild flowers and grasses are able to grow in the absence of larger species . Portland Sea Lavender can be found on the higher sea cliffs — unique to Portland it is one of the United Kingdom 's rarest plants . The wild flowers and plants make an excellent habitat for butterflies ; over half of the British Isles ' 57 butterfly species can be seen on Portland , including varieties that migrate from mainland Europe . Species live on Portland that are rare in the United Kingdom , including the limestone race of the Silver Studded Blue .
= = = Climate = = =
The mild seas which almost surround the tied island produce a temperate climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) with a small variation in daily and annual temperatures . The average annual mean temperature from 1981 to 2010 was 11 @.@ 2 ° C ( 52 @.@ 2 ° F ) . The warmest month is August , which has an average temperature range of 14 @.@ 5 to 19 @.@ 3 ° C ( 58 @.@ 1 to 66 @.@ 7 ° F ) , and the coolest is February , which has a range of 4 @.@ 0 to 8 @.@ 0 ° C ( 39 @.@ 2 to 46 @.@ 4 ° F ) . Maximum and minimum temperatures throughout the year are above England 's average , and Portland is in AHS Heat zone 1 . Mean sea surface temperatures range from 7 @.@ 0 ° C ( 44 @.@ 6 ° F ) in February to 17 @.@ 2 ° C ( 63 @.@ 0 ° F ) in August ; the annual mean is 11 @.@ 8 ° C ( 53 @.@ 2 ° F ) .
The mild seas that surround Portland act to keep night @-@ time temperatures above freezing , making winter frost rare : on average 9 @.@ 6 days per year — this is far below the United Kingdom 's average annual total of 55 @.@ 6 days of frost . Days with snow lying are equally rare : on average zero to six days per year ; almost all winters have one day or less with snow lying . It may snow or sleet in winter , yet it almost never settles on the ground — coastal areas in South West England such as Portland experience the mildest winters in the UK . Portland is less affected by the Atlantic storms that Devon and Cornwall experience . The growing season lasts for more than 310 days per year , and the borough is in Hardiness zone 9b .
Weymouth and Portland , and the rest of the south coast , has the sunniest climate in the United Kingdom . Portland averaged 1798 @.@ 9 hours of sunshine annually between 1981 and 2010 , which is 41 % of the maximum possible , and 34 % above the United Kingdom average of 1339 @.@ 7 hours . December is the cloudiest month ( 59 @.@ 7 hours of sunshine ) , October and November the joint wettest ( 81 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) of rain ) and July is the sunniest and driest month ( 236 @.@ 9 hours of sunshine , 35 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) of rain ) . Sunshine totals in all months are well above the United Kingdom average , and monthly rainfall totals throughout the year are less than the UK average , particularly in summer ; this summer minimum of rainfall is not experienced away from the south coast of England . The average annual rainfall of 667 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 26 @.@ 3 in ) is well below the UK average of 1 @,@ 125 millimetres ( 44 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Demography = =
The mid @-@ year population of Portland in 2010 was 12 @,@ 400 ; this figure has remained around twelve to thirteen thousand since the 1970s . In 2010 there were 5 @,@ 786 dwellings in an area of 11 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 840 acres ) , giving an approximate population density of 1100 people per km2 ( 4 @.@ 5 per acre ) . The population is almost entirely native to England — 94 @.@ 9 percent of residents are of white British ethnicity , well above the England and Wales average of 80 @.@ 5 percent . The average price of a detached house on Portland in 2010 was £ 194 @,@ 200 ; terraced houses are cheaper , at £ 149 @,@ 727 , and an apartment or maisonette costs £ 110 @,@ 500 .
Crime rates are below average — there were 5 @.@ 4 burglaries per 1000 households in 2009 and 2010 ; which is lower than South West England ( 7 @.@ 6 per 1000 ) and significantly lower than England and Wales ( 11 @.@ 6 per 1000 ) . Unemployment levels are very low , at 1 @.@ 9 percent in July 2011 , compared to the United Kingdom average of 7 @.@ 7 percent . The most common religious identity in Weymouth and Portland is Christianity , at 61 @.@ 0 percent , which is slightly above the England and Wales average of 59 @.@ 3 percent . The next @-@ largest sector is those with no religion , at 29 @.@ 3 percent , also slightly above the average of 25 @.@ 1 percent .
= = Transport = =
The A354 road is the only land access to Portland , via Ferry Bridge , connecting to Weymouth and to the wider road network at the A35 trunk road in Dorchester . It runs from Easton , splitting into a northbound section through Chiswell and a southbound section through Fortuneswell , then along Chesil Beach and across a bridge to the mainland in Wyke Regis . Formerly a branch line railway , connecting to the South West Main Line near Weymouth railway station , also crossed to the island . The corridor is now a cycle path connecting Fortuneswell with Weymouth and a wider network of traffic @-@ free cycle paths .
Local buses are run by FirstGroup , with services to Weymouth . Weymouth is the hub for south Dorset bus routes , with services to Dorchester and local villages . Weymouth is connected to towns and villages along the Jurassic Coast by the Jurassic Coast Bus service , which runs for 142 kilometres ( 88 mi ) from Exeter to Poole , through Sidford , Beer , Seaton , Lyme Regis , Charmouth , Bridport , Abbotsbury , Weymouth , Wool , and Wareham . Trains run from Weymouth to London , Southampton and Bristol , and ferries to the French port of St Malo and the Channel Islands of Guernsey and Jersey .
There is a short airstrip and heliport in Osprey Quay , just north of Fortuneswell .
= = Education = =
St George 's Community Primary School is located in Easton . The only other school on Portland is the Isle of Portland Aldridge Community Academy , an all @-@ through school and sixth form for pupils aged 3 to 19 based over 4 different sites . Isle of Portland Aldridge Community Academy was formed in 2012 by merging four primary schools and one secondary school .
Some students commute to Weymouth to study A @-@ Levels , or to attend other secondary schools nearby . Weymouth College in Melcombe Regis is the nearest further education college , which has around 7 @,@ 500 students from south west England and overseas , about 1500 studying A @-@ Level courses .
= = Culture = =
= = = Sport and recreation = = =
In 2000 , the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy was built in Osprey Quay in Underhill as a centre for sailing in the United Kingdom . Weymouth and Portland 's waters were credited by the Royal Yachting Association as the best in Northern Europe . Weymouth and Portland regularly host local , national and international sailing events in their waters ; these include the J / 24 World Championships in 2005 , trials for the 2004 Athens Olympics , the ISAF World Championship 2006 , the BUSA Fleet Racing Championships , and the RYA Youth National Championships .
In 2005 , the WPNSA was selected to host sailing events at the 2012 Olympic Games — mainly because the Academy had recently been built , so no new venue would have to be provided . However , as part of the South West of England Regional Development Agency 's plans to redevelop Osprey Quay , a new 600 @-@ berth marina and an extension with more on @-@ site facilities were built . Construction was scheduled between October 2007 and the end of 2008 , and with its completion and formal opening on 11 June 2009 , the venue became the first of the 2012 Olympic Games to be completed .
Weymouth Bay and Portland Harbour are used for other water sports – the reliable wind is favourable for wind and kite @-@ surfing . Chesil Beach and Portland Harbour are used regularly for angling , diving to shipwrecks , snorkelling , canoeing , and swimming . The limestone cliffs and quarries are used for rock climbing ; Portland has areas for bouldering and deep water soloing , however sport climbing with bolt protection is the most common style . Since June 2003 the South West Coast Path National Trail has included 21 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 13 @.@ 2 mi ) of coastal walking around the Isle of Portland , including following the A354 Portland Beach Road twice .
Isle of Portland has a Non @-@ League football club Portland United F.C. who play at Grove Corner . They also have a very successful youth set up called Portland United youth football Club who provide active team sport for over 170 children on the Island .
= = = Rabbits = = =
Rabbits have long been associated with bad luck on Portland ; use of the name is still taboo — the creatures are often referred to as " Underground Mutton " , " Long @-@ Eared Furry Things " or just " bunnies " . The origin of this superstition is obscure ( there is no record of it before the 1920s ) but it is believed to derive from quarry workers : they would see rabbits emerging from their burrows immediately before a rock fall and blame them for increasing the risk of dangerous , sometimes deadly , landslides . If a rabbit was seen in a quarry , the workers would pack up and go home for the day , until the safety of the area had been assured . Local fishermen too would refuse to go to sea if the word was mentioned .
Even today older Portland residents are ' offended ' ( sometimes for the benefit of tourists ) by the mention of rabbits ; this superstition came to national attention in October 2005 when a special batch of advertisement posters were made for the Wallace and Gromit film , The Curse of the Were @-@ Rabbit . In respect for local beliefs the adverts omitted the word ' rabbit ' and replaced the film 's title with the phrase " Something bunny is going on " .
= = = Literature = = =
Thomas Hardy described Portland as " the peninsular carved by Time out of a single stone " , and named it the Isle of Slingers and Isle of the Race in his Wessex novels ; it was the main setting of The Well @-@ Beloved ( 1897 ) , and was featured in The Trumpet @-@ Major ( 1880 ) . The cottage that now houses Portland Museum was the inspiration for the heroine 's house in The Well @-@ Beloved . Portlanders were expert stone @-@ throwers in the defence of their land , and Hardy 's Isle of Slingers is heavily based on Portland ; the Street of Wells representing Fortuneswell and The Beal Portland Bill . Hardy also called Portland the Gibraltar of the North , with reference to its similarities with Gibraltar ; its physical geography , isolation , comparatively mild climate , and Underhill 's winding streets .
Hilaire Belloc 's book The Cruise of the " Nona " is about sailing near Portland , and the reflections it occasions . He describes Portland Race as " the master terror of our world " , and says " ... if you were to make a list of all the things which Portland Race has swallowed up , it would rival Orcus " .
In Museums Without Walls , Jonathan Meades declares that " Portland is a bulky chunk of geological , social , topographical and demographic weirdness . It is the obverse of a beauty spot . ' Beauty ' in this construction implies the picturesque . Portland is gloriously bereft of this quality . It is awesome . There is nothing pretty about it . "
In The Warlord Chronicles ( 1995 – 97 ) , Bernard Cornwell makes Portland the Isle of the Dead , a place of internal exile , where the causeway was guarded to keep the ' dead ' ( people suffering insanity ) from crossing the Fleet and returning to the mainland . No historical evidence exists to support this idea .
The Portland Chronicles series of four children 's books , set on and around Portland and Weymouth and written by local author Carol Hunt , draw on local history to explore a seventeenth century world of smuggling , witchcraft , piracy and local intrigue .
= = = Vernacular = = =
Bunnies : ( see above ) .
Kimberlin : slang for any ' strangers ' who live on the island but are not from the Island .
Portland screw : fossil mollusc ( Aptyxiella portlandica ) with a long screw @-@ like shell or its cast .
= = Notable persons born here = =
Lead singer of rock band Art Brut , Eddie Argos .
Edgar F. Codd ( 23 August 1923 – 18 April 2003 ) , British computer scientist and inventor of the relational model for database management .
Former Premier League referee Paul Durkin .
Former Queensland , Australia , politician Pat Comben
= Craig McAllister =
Craig McAllister ( born 28 June 1980 ) is a Scottish semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a striker for National League South club Sutton United .
McAllister started his career with Eastleigh as a youth player . He moved to Basingstoke Town towards the end of 2001 – 02 , making his debut in March 2002 . McAllister spent three seasons there , making 112 appearances , scoring 66 goals before moving up the national league system to Conference National club Stevenage Borough where he made six appearances , having loan spells at Eastleigh in 2004 and Gravesend & Northfleet in 2004 – 05 . He joined Woking in 2005 , spending two full seasons there , and making over 100 appearances . He had a short spell with Grays Athletic , being sent out on loan to Rushden & Diamonds and then another short spell at Oxford United , all during the 2007 – 08 season . After leaving Oxford in 2008 , he took a step up to the Football League for the first time in his career , signing for Exeter City . He went on to score seven goals in his first season , but was loaned out to Barnet and Rotherham United in his second and was eventually released by the club in May 2010 . McAllister then dropped back down to non @-@ League football , joining Crawley Town where he played at Old Trafford ; his team was defeated 1 – 0 by Manchester United in their FA Cup fifth round tie . He rejected a new contract from Crawley at the end of the 2010 – 11 season , subsequently joining Newport County .
McAllister won his first major honour in 2011 , helping Crawley Town win the Conference Premier for the first time in their history .
= = Career = =
= = = Non @-@ League = = =
Born in Glasgow , McAllister started his career in non @-@ League football at Eastleigh in 2001 . He later moved to Basingstoke Town . He made his debut in March 2002 , scoring in a 1 – 1 draw with Hampton & Richmond Borough . He played ten games in the 2001 – 02 season , scoring three goals . He started the 2002 – 03 season with a goal on the opening day , as Basingstoke drew 2 – 2 with Aylesbury United . In November , McAllister scored two hat @-@ tricks in two games , the first of which helped Basingstoke to a 3 – 1 win over Bishops Stortford , and the second helped his side to a 3 – 0 win over Braintree Town . He finished 2002 – 03 with 35 goals from 47 games . McAllister 's success continued into 2003 – 04 , where he scored another 28 goals in 35 appearances . This success earned him a trial with Queens Park Rangers in the Football League Championship , just one level down from the Premier League .
After scoring 66 times in 112 games for Basingstoke Town , he moved to the Conference National outfit Stevenage on a bosman transfer in May 2004 . He made his debut for Stevenage as a substitute , as they beat Crawley Town , 1 – 0 . After struggling to get in the starting line @-@ up for Stevenage , he was sent out on loan to his former club , Eastleigh , where he scored six goals in four games . In December 2004 , he was loaned out for the second time in that season , moving to Gravesend & Northfleet , where he made debut in a 1 – 0 defeat by Hereford United . In the second minute of Gravesend 's 1 – 1 draw with Crawley Town , he scored the first goal of this loan . He scored his second and last goal of this loan just two days later , which helped his team to a 2 – 2 draw with Accrington Stanley , before he returned to his parent club , Stevenage , in January 2005 . At the end of 2004 – 05 , he left Stevenage having only played 11 games in all competitions , with one goal .
Before the start of 2005 – 06 he signed for Woking on a permanent deal . He made his debut in August 2005 , starting in a 2 – 1 defeat by Kidderminster Harriers . McAllister finished his debut season with thirteen goals , eight of which were in the league . McAllister scored his first brace for Woking in September 2006 , as he helped his side to overcome Forest Green Rovers , 3 – 2 , away from home . After scoring 18 goals in 2006 – 07 , he attracted interest from several Conference sides and in May 2007 he signed for Grays Athletic . After making his debut for Grays Athletic in a 0 – 0 draw with Torquay United in August 2007 , he played only another eight times , scoring one goal against Droylsden , before being sent out on loan to league rivals Rushden & Diamonds in October . He returned from the loan in January 2008 , having only scored one goal , against Oxford United , who he then signed for on his return to Grays . Having joined Oxford on a contract until the end of the 2007 – 08 season , McAllister made his debut for the club in a 4 – 0 win over Altrincham ; he scored 22 minutes into the game . He made another 16 appearances , scoring one more goal , before leaving at the end of the season .
= = = Exeter City = = =
He completed a move to Football League Two side Exeter City in summer 2008 , signing for the first time for a club in the Football League . He made his first team debut in August 2008 , in a home match against Southampton , in the
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death . Lord Fairfax dispatched his first cousin William Fairfax ( 1691 – 1757 ) to replace Robert Carter I as the steward and land agent for the Northern Neck Proprietary , a position in which Fairfax served until his death in 1757 . In 1750 , Martin 's uncle Lord Fairfax established himself at his hunting plantation Greenway Court estate near present @-@ day White Post in Clarke County with the intention of administering the proprietary himself . Lord Fairfax had previously reserved this land as his private residence in 1747 , then known as " the Quarter " . With his cousin William Fairfax acting as land agent , Lord Fairfax sought additional assistance in managing the proprietary and scrutinized which of his family members from England would be up to the task . Lord Fairfax first considered his brother Robert , then his brother @-@ in @-@ law Denny Martin , and in 1751 , he finally decided upon enlisting the assistance of his twenty @-@ year @-@ old nephew and Denny Martin 's son , Thomas Bryan Martin .
Lord Fairfax sent for Martin , who arrived in Virginia from England aboard the Hatley on May 24 , 1751 , accompanied by William Fairfax , who had been seeking an appointment to a position in England . Martin and Fairfax arrived in Williamsburg , where they dined with Fairfax 's fellow Virginia Governor 's Council member John Blair , Sr. , and visited the Governor 's Palace and the Capitol before beginning their journey toward the Northern Neck on May 31 . Following his arrival at the Northern Neck Proprietary , Martin settled at Greenway Court with his uncle that autumn . Due to his humble upbringing , Martin quickly adapted to frontier life at Greenway Court . He soon earned the affections of Lord Fairfax on account of his energetic nature , his loyalty , and his good eyesight , which greatly assisted his myopic uncle . On May 21 , 1752 , shortly after Martin had come of age on his twenty @-@ first birthday , Lord Fairfax granted Greenway Court to his nephew , along with 8 @,@ 840 acres ( 35 @.@ 8 km2 ) of limestone lands on the west bank of the Shenandoah River across from Leeds Manor , which were " to be known and called by the name of the Manor of Greenway Court " and subject to an annual quit @-@ rent fee of " a good buck and doe " due on the feast day of Saint Michael the Archangel . Greenway Court had taken its name from the Culpeper family 's manor in Kent .
Desiring a larger role for himself in the proprietary 's administration , Martin sought to influence his uncle into reorganizing the management of the proprietary . At Martin 's suggestion , Lord Fairfax relocated the proprietary 's base of operations 56 miles ( 90 km ) northwest from Belvoir to an expressly built land office depository and archive at Greenway Court in 1762 . Prior to this move , a small land office had been in operation at Greenway Court . Following William Fairfax 's death in 1757 , his son George William Fairfax ( 1729 – 1787 ) had succeeded him as steward and land agent of the proprietary . Martin succeeded Fairfax as the steward and land agent of the proprietary in 1762 . Fairfax 's replacement by Martin , the transfer of the land office and Martin 's increased influence over Lord Fairfax caused bitter feelings from George William Fairfax , as evidenced by his letters during this period . Fairfax and his wife Sally Cary Fairfax returned to England in 1773 prior to the American Revolutionary War and did not return afterward .
While residing at Greenway Court , Martin would have preferred more comfortable quarters than the rustic estate , as their living situation there was originally supposed to have been only temporary until the construction of a grander estate . In 1767 , Martin wrote that plans for further construction and improvements at Greenway Court " remain in status quo and in quo state they are likely to remain , ... we are building castles , tho ' not on earth where one is greatly wanted , but castles in the air . " Martin 's uncle Robert Fairfax remarked on the primitive life at Greenway Court among " strange , brutish people ... past all conception " . For the next thirty years , until Lord Fairfax 's death in 1781 , Martin remained at Greenway Court and shared in the loneliness and solitude of his " self @-@ exiled " uncle . While established at Greenway Court , Martin engaged in agricultural pursuits . In 1768 , Martin described tobacco as the crop " which is our all " . Like many other planters and farmers in the Shenandoah Valley , Martin had transitioned to the farming of wheat by 1792 , at which time he wrote to his brother in England , " Are you all starving that you give such prices for our flour ; farming is now my object . "
= = Political and civic affairs = =
In addition to his management of the proprietary , Martin began taking an active role in political and civil affairs within his uncle 's domain . Following an act of the Virginia General Assembly in February 1752 , the Anglican Frederick Parish was authorized to hold an election for twelve parish vestrymen before June 15 of that year . Martin was elected as a vestryman , alongside his uncle Lord Fairfax and Gabriel Jones . Martin and his fellow vestrymen set about expanding and enlarging the Anglican presence within the parish .
In 1754 , upon the creation of Hampshire County , Martin presided as the inaugural justice of the county 's court . Under the act establishing the county , the first county court was to have been held in June 1754 ; however , the first court was not held until December 1757 . The first court to be held was , in addition to Martin , composed of justices James Simpson , William Miller , Solomon Hedges , and Nathaniel Kuykendall with Gabriel Jones serving as the Clerk of Court . In 1755 , Martin was further appointed as the County Lieutenant of Hampshire County . Martin was then elected alongside Thomas Walker to the House of Burgesses representing Hampshire County from 1768 to 1758 . In 1758 , Martin and George Washington challenged the incumbents and ran for election to represent Frederick County in the House of Burgesses against Hugh West and Thomas Swearingen . Martin and Washington received considerable support from Lord Fairfax , and the leading Anglican cleric in Frederick County , William Meldrum . Washington received the most votes with 310 , followed by Martin with 240 votes , 199 votes for West , and 45 votes for Swearingen . Martin and Washington served alongside one another representing Frederick County until 1761 . Martin chose not to run for reelection and retired from legislative politics in 1761 .
In September 1758 , the Virginia General Assembly appointed Martin as one of the trustees of Winchester . Martin was further appointed as a trustee of the town of Stephensburg ( present @-@ day Stephens City ) . His uncle Lord Fairfax , John Hite , Gabriel Jones , Robert Rutherford , Lewis Stephens , and James Wood were also appointed trustees of the towns alongside Martin . When the town of Bath ( present @-@ day Berkeley Springs ) received its charter from the Virginia General Assembly in October 1776 , Martin was appointed as a trustee alongside Bryan Fairfax , Philip Pendleton , Robert Rutherford , Samuel Washington , Warner Washington , Alexander White , and others .
Martin was also appointed as the colonel of the Frederick County militia . While Martin was not in the best of health , he could be relied upon by the settlers of the proprietary to use his considerable resources to act promptly during an emergency , especially in response to attacks by Native Americans .
By the outbreak of the American Revolution , Martin was serving as an appointed justice on the Commission of Peace for Frederick County . Martin was reappointed as a justice of the peace by Governor Patrick Henry , along with William Booth and Warner Washington , but all three men declined to serve another term . Martin did not swear in to the committee because he refused to serve under the new revolutionary regime , initially believing that American independence from Great Britain was a futile effort . The committee had also been actively arresting Loyalists , which may have influenced Martin 's decision to turn down his reappointment . Martin retreated from performing civil service entirely , and afterward retired to Greenway Court . Prior to his death , Martin became an active Freemason .
= = American Revolution and Lord Fairfax 's death = =
As a Loyalist , Martin maintained a low profile following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War . By 1778 , the Virginia General Assembly had abolished quit @-@ rents , but in recognition of Lord Fairfax 's loyalty , the Northern Neck Proprietary was made an exception . Lord Fairfax was treated with respect and consideration by the assembly , and despite being the only resident peer in the American colonies , he was accorded all the privileges of a Virginia citizen . Following the death of Lord Fairfax in 1781 , his will was recorded on March 5 , 1782 , and conveyed his title to the remnants of his American properties , including the Northern Neck Proprietary , to Martin 's elder brother Reverend Denny Martin , who then assumed the surname and coat of arms of Fairfax . Lord Fairfax devised his property and title to Denny Martin on the condition that he apply to the Parliament of Great Britain for an act to authorize him to inherit the title of Lord Fairfax of Cameron . Martin was appointed by his uncle , along with Gabriel Jones and Peter Hog , as an executor of his will and estate . Martin inherited the plantation Lord Fairfax had purchased from John Borden consisting of 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) . Martin was also bequeathed the Greenway Court estate and " all the stock of cattle , sheep , hogs , implements of husbandry , household goods and furniture " there . Martin and his brothers Denny and Philip also inherited all Lord Fairfax 's slaves . Martin 's uncle and Lord Fairfax 's brother Robert Fairfax appealed his claim to the title of Lord Fairfax of Cameron to Parliament , and succeeded as the 7th Lord Fairfax of Cameron .
On account of his residency in England , Denny Fairfax appointed Martin and Jones as managers of the proprietary . Martin and Jones placed advertisements in newspapers petitioning proprietary tenants to bring their claims against the Lord Fairfax estate forward and prove them . The descendants of William Fairfax continued to assert back claims against the estates of Lord Fairfax , which had been rendered by William Fairfax prior to 1757 . In order to absolve himself of these back claims , Denny Fairfax renounced his appointments of Martin and Jones , and instead appointed Bryan Fairfax , 8th Lord Fairfax of Cameron as the sole steward of the proprietary in an official transposition in London on September 21 , 1784 .
Because Denny Fairfax was a British subject residing in England , he had no legal rights under American jurisdiction ; thus , he and his British relatives were considered " alien enemies " and his landholdings were confiscated under escheat laws . In 1785 , the Virginia General Assembly ordered that all records , books , and documents pertaining to the proprietary 's lands be confiscated by the state of Virginia and removed to the Virginia State Land Registrar 's Office in Richmond . Virginia seized the remaining proprietary lands that had not yet been granted , and citizens that had already acquired grants from the proprietary were permitted to keep their land . Land values in the Northern Neck continued to increase in value , which Martin noted in a 1790 letter . The higher land prices caused many residents of the proprietary to sell their lands and relocate further into the frontier , which Martin commented : " The emigration of inhabitants is ... astonishing . "
= = Later life and death = =
Following the death of Lord Fairfax in 1781 , Martin took his uncle 's housekeeper Mrs. Crawford as his mistress , and fathered a daughter by her . Mrs. Crawford remained Martin 's mistress for several years until her death . Their daughter married British captain Francis Geldart ; however , she died without issue soon after their marriage , and Martin gave Geldart 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) of Greenway Court and a number of slaves . Following the death of his daughter , Martin employed housekeeper Betsy Powers at Greenway Court . Martin died unmarried in 1798 , and his will dated July 24 , 1794 , was proved on October 1 , 1798 . In it , he bequeathed his Greenway Court estate and an adjoining 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) to his housekeeper Betsy Powers . Powers also inherited " all houses thereon , household goods ( except plate and watch ) , one half of stock of horses , cattle , sheep and hogs and choice of ten slaves " . Martin 's living sisters Frances , Sybilla , and Anna Susanna Martin received " all moneys , and remainder of personal property " not bequeathed to Powers . Each of the executors of Martin 's will received ten guineas . Martin bequeathed the remainder of his property and the 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) of Greenway Court , should Powers have predeceased him , to his will executors Gabriel Jones , Robert Mackey , and John Sherman Woodcock to divide into parcels and sell , the profits from which were to be given to Martin 's sisters . Powers also received a chariot , harness , and 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 65 km2 ) in Stafford County near Falmouth . Following Martin 's death , Powers married W. Carnagy .
Due to his advanced age and his inability to relocate to America , Martin 's brother Denny Fairfax was unable to properly protect and maintain his American possessions and conveyed by deed on August 30 , 1797 , to James Markham Marshall " all and every of those divers tracts , pieces and parcels of land , being part and parcel of the proprietary of the Northern Neck of Va . , with all beneficial right and interest of whatsoever nature the same may be " . This conveyance thus terminated the Fairfax and Martin families ' interest in the proprietary . In 1799 , the Virginia General Assembly authorized Marshall as the legal titleholder of Fairfax 's remaining landholdings . The Northern Neck Proprietary was officially dissolved in 1806 when Virginia again became its legal owner .
The legality of Virginia 's confiscation of the Northern Neck Proprietary lands continued to be contested in state and federal courts long after Denny Martin Fairfax 's death in 1800 . The Virginia Supreme Court upheld the state 's confiscation and conveyance of the proprietary 's lands , arguing that the terms of the Jay Treaty with the Kingdom of Great Britain did not address the disputed proprietary . In 1813 , the United States Supreme Court reviewed the Virginia Supreme Court 's decision in Fairfax 's Devisee v. Hunter 's Lessee , 11 U.S. 603 , and ruled that the treaty did in fact cover the dispute , and remanded the case back to the state supreme court . The Virginia Supreme Court ruled that the U.S. Supreme Court did not have authority over cases originating in state courts . The state supreme court 's refusal to accept the U.S. Supreme Court 's mandate was appealed in 1816 in Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee , 14 U.S. 304 . The U.S. Supreme Court reversed the state court 's decision on appeal and ruled that Article Three of the United States Constitution granted the U.S. Supreme Court jurisdiction and authority over state courts on matters involving federal law . Chief Justice John Marshall was forced to recuse himself from ruling in Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee as he and his brother James had previously contracted with Denny Martin Fairfax to purchase the disputed proprietary lands .
= = Legacy = =
Proprietor Adam Stephen , a close personal friend of Martin , had the town of Martinsburg in Berkeley County formally established by the Virginia General Assembly in 1778 . Stephen named the town in honor of his friend Martin .
= John Maulbetsch =
John F. " Johnny " Maulbetsch ( June 20 , 1890 – September 14 , 1950 ) was an All @-@ American football halfback at Adrian College in 1911 and for the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1914 to 1916 . He is also a member of the College Football Hall of Fame .
After playing with an independent football team in Ann Arbor and at Adrian College , Maulbetsch became one of the most famous American football players in 1914 while playing for the University of Michigan . Maulbetsch became known as the " Human Bullet " because of his unusual low , line @-@ plunging style of play , and was also known as the " Featherweight Fullback " because of his light weight and small size . After his performance against Harvard in 1914 , in which some reports indicated he gained more than 300 yards , eastern writers , including Damon Runyan , wrote articles touting Maulbetsch . Maulbetsch was also selected by Walter Camp to his All @-@ American team .
In 1915 , Maulbetsch underwent surgery for appendicitis and did not perform to the same level as he had in 1914 . He made a comeback as a senior in 1916 and was again one of the leading players in college football .
Between 1917 and 1920 , Maulbetsch was the head football coach at Phillips University . With Maulbetsch 's name recognition , he was able to recruit big name talent to Phillips , including future Pro Football Hall of Famer Steve Owen , and future United States Olympic Committee President Doug Roby . Maulbetsch quickly turned Phillips into one of the top programs in the southwest , as his teams beat Oklahoma and Texas and lost only one game in the 1918 and 1919 seasons . Maulbetsch was later the football coach at Oklahoma A & M ( later known as Oklahoma State ) and Marshall College in the 1920s . He has been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame , and the University of Michigan awards the John F. Maulbetsch Award each year to a freshman football player based on desire , character , and capacity for leadership and future success both on and off the football field .
= = Ann Arbor High School and the Independents = =
Maulbetsch was born and grew up in Ann Arbor , Michigan . He attended Ann Arbor High School where he led the football team to consecutive state championships in 1908 and 1909 . One account of the 1908 playoffs noted : " Ann Arbor 's smashing play in the first half was wholly due to Maulbetsch , Ann Arbor 's fullback , and his terrific line bucking . He clearly outshone his team mates . "
After graduating from high school , Maulbetsch joined the Ann Arbor Independents , a football team made up of Michigan " varsity eligibles " and " townies . " Maulbetsch was once reportedly called upon to drive across the goal line for the Independents in a game in which a large crowd , including a farmer with his plow @-@ horse , gathered in the end zone . " Head down and legs working like piston rods , Maulbetsch plowed ahead until head struck the plow horse amidships . Down went the horse Mauly on top of him . "
= = College football player = =
= = = Transfer from Adrian College = = =
Maulbetsch started his college football career at age 21 , leading Adrian College to an 8 – 0 record in 1911 , including a 15 – 0 win over the University of Michigan freshman team . Maulbetsch 's performance drew the attention of Michigan Coach Fielding H. Yost . After watching Maulbetsch dominate Michigan 's freshman team , Yost concluded : " If I could get that kid into Michigan and keep him up in his studies I ’ d make an All @-@ American place for him his first year . " Yost persuaded Maulbetsch to transfer , and he played with " the scrubs " in 1912 . Yost told the press at the time he had " another ( Willie ) Heston " in Maulbetsch .
= = = 1914 season = = =
Maulbetsch did not play for the varsity team until the fall of 1914 when he was 24 years old . Before the season began , Maulbetsch was " touted as one of the fastest halfbacks who ever donned moleskins . He weighs 155 pounds , is built low , has a powerful pair of shoulders and his dashes are characterized by lightning speed . " Another pre @-@ season account said he was " a wonder as a line plunger and a wizard in the open field . " From the outset , considerable attention was paid to his unusual running style . Observers noted " the peculiar manner in which he runs . . . . He has a corkscrew style of dashing , and even when tackled squarely has such a sturdy pair of legs that his assailant is usually carried back several yards . "
Michigan opened the season with a 58 – 0 win over DePauw , followed by a 69 – 0 victory over Case Institute of Technology . Maulbetsch was the offensive star against Case , as he twice " carried several would @-@ be tackles across the goal . " Playing Vanderbilt the following week , Maulbetsch had runs of 25 and 35 yards , scored two touchdowns , " was worked overtime and probably advanced the pigskin more than any two other players . " After starting the season 5 – 0 , Michigan lost three of four games against top eastern schools : Syracuse , Harvard , Penn , and Cornell .
= = = 1914 Harvard game = = =
Maulbetsch 's breakthrough came on October 31 , 1914 , in front of 30 @,@ 000 fans at Harvard . The game was one of the most anticipated matches of the year . A special train brought Michigan fans to Cambridge , Massachusetts , and hundreds of Michigan alumni from the East were on hand as " reinforcements . " Though Harvard prevailed , 7 – 0 , Maulbetsch was the big story in papers across the country . Writers from Ring Lardner to Damon Runyon told the story of Maulbetsch 's performance . Lardner said : " If anyone tells you the East plays the best brand of football , Maulbetsch shot that theory full of holes . " According to Runyon , the Wolverines used " the mighty Maulbetsch as their battering ram " , and he " gained enough ground against Harvard to bury a German army corps . " Football writer Frank G. Menke said : " No westerner ever created half the stir in the east as did this Michigander . . . His peculiar , baffling style of attack , backed by phenomenal strength almost always earned for him gains of 5 to 20 yards every time he was called upon to carry the ball . " Another writer noted Maulbetsch 's skill as a " line breaker " as he " carried the ball repeatedly through the Harvard line and into the secondary defense with bullet @-@ like rushes that upset tackler after tackler . " Maulbetsch was responsible for four @-@ fifths of Michigan 's ground gains , and on several occasions his dives reportedly " had so much power that he dove right through a double line of crimson players and went sprawling on the ground twelve to twenty feet clear of the double line . "
While every report indicates that Maulbetsch had a big day , the accounts vary dramatically as to exactly how many yards he gained . Frank Menke reported after the game that Maulbetsch gained 300 yards . A 1938 newspaper account said he " gained 350 yards from scrimmage . " Yet , his 1951 obituary indicated he gained 133 yards in 30 attempts .
Despite Maulbetsch 's efforts , Michigan was never able to punch the ball across the goal line . Many blamed Michigan 's quarterback who switched to another back every time after Maulbetsch " took the ball to the shadow of the Crimson goal posts . " In answer to the question why Michigan was unable to score , Frank Menke said : " Ask the fellow who quarterbacked for Michigan that day . His actions were too mystifying for the spectators to figure out . "
When Harvard reneged on an agreement to play a game in Ann Arbor in 1915 , sports writers concluded it was to avoid facing Maulbetsch again . Said one reporter : " When faih Hahvahd [ sic ] saw what Maulbetsch did in the first clash , it decided it cared to see no more of him . He was too rough . "
= = = " Human Bullet " = = =
Much of the attention on Maulbetsch focused on his diminutive size and unique running style . At 5 ft 7 in ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) , and 155 lb ( 70 kg ) , Maulbetsch was a small back , even by the standards of his day . And his running style saw him bend his torso and propel himself like a projectile into the opposing line . Indeed , he won several nicknames based on his size , running style , and fighting spirit , including the " Human Bullet , " " Mauly " , the " Human Shrapnel " , the " Featherweight Fullback " , the " Michigan Cannon Ball , " and the " German bullet . " Comparisons of Maulbetsch to military armaments were common . In addition to the " bullet " , " shrapnel " , and " cannonball " nicknames , the Syracuse Herald observed : " Standing up in front of a Krupp gun has its dangers , but it is not to be compared with the dangers of standing in front of Maulbetsch when he is going full speed ahead . "
Maulbetsch 's style was described as " line @-@ plunging . " A New York newspaper noted : " When the ball is snapped to him he almost doubles himself up , and , with his head aimed at the knees of the opposing line , he dives head first . Those who have seen Maulbetsch in action marvel at the great momentum he can get up in two or three steps . " Noted football writer Walter Eckersall said : " Mauly is a little fellow , being built close to the ground . They say that when he plunges at the line his head is almost on a level with his shoe tops – that he hits so low that it 's well nigh impossible to stop him . " An Iowa newspaper wondered how it was possible " for a man to smash into a line of human bodies with the force that Maulbetsch does and come out of the game without a broken neck . "
Maulbetsch was said to run " so low that he could dash under an ordinary table without losing his feet . " At a coaching conference in the 1920s , a coach doubted the table @-@ ducking story and challenged Maulbetsch . The doubter later recalled : " I began ribbing him about this table @-@ ducking stuff and finally offered to bet him he couldn ’ t do it . Well , we got a table up in a room , Johnny tucked a water pitcher under his arm and backed against the wall . Darned if he didn ’ t do it , the only thing , that water pitcher broke in a million pieces . " Asked about the incident , Maulbetsch said it was true , except one part . Maulbetsch insisted there wasn ’ t a nick on the pitcher .
= = = Maulbetsch makes All @-@ American = = =
After the loss to Harvard in 1914 , Michigan rebounded with a 34 – 3 win over Penn . Walter Eckersall reported that the Wolverines were " led by the redoubtable Johnny Maulbetsch . " Despite being " a marked man " by the Penn defense , he was not thrown for a loss in the entire game , and he scored three touchdowns . Before Michigan lost to Cornell in the final game of the season , a scandal arose when it was revealed that the owner of an Ann Arbor pool room , Joe Reinger , had written a letter intimating that he could buy Maulbetsch and Michigan 's quarterback to throw the Cornell game , and win US $ 50 @,@ 000 from students willing to bet on Michigan . The letter was turned in to the Michigan athletic officials , and Reinger went to the athletic office " to try to hush the matter up . " Reinger became abusive and was thrown out of the office by Coach Yost . The incident caused " the biggest stir of the season on the campus , " as students demolished Reinger 's pool room , and police had to guard Reinger 's residence against threatening demonstrations that continued to " a late hour . " Although Michigan did lose to Cornell , Maulbetsch was said to be " practically the only successful ground gainer for Michigan . " Over the course of the 1914 season , Maulbetsch was said to have scored about half of Michigan 's 252 points . A Wisconsin newspaper noted that , " when it comes time to write a resume of the 1914 football season " , Maulbetsch 's play " will live in the minds of men . . . for years to come . " As a reward for his efforts , Maulbetsch was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American at the end of the 1914 season .
= = = Pie and coffee diet = = =
As public attention focused on Maulbetsch as " the greatest line @-@ plunger of a decade , " the press could not get enough of Maulbetsch , even interviewing his family . His sister revealed that Maulbetsch had a fondness for home cooking and received permission from the team trainer to eat at his family 's Ann Arbor home . " Now , Johnny 's sister explains that each day his mother baked two pies for the athlete 's supper , and that in addition he had everything else his appetite craved , including coffee . " Confronted by reporters about the revelation , Maulbetsch replied : " The story was slightly exaggerated . I rarely ate more than one and one half pies for dinner . " Joking references to Maulbetsch 's diet continued when it was reported in 1915 that he was suffering from " acute indigestion . " One reporter quipped , " Those much advertised pies of his maw 's evidently aren ’ t as great training dope as they were cracked up to be . " It turned out that the indigestion was appendicitis , and Maulbetsch was hospitalized at St. Joseph 's Sanitarium in Ann Arbor in April 1915 , where he underwent an operation .
= = = 1915 season = = =
As the 1915 season was set to get underway , Coach Yost reported , " Johnny told me he was feeling fine when I saw him recently , although he doesn ’ t weigh as much as he used to . " Despite Yost 's hopes , Maulbetsch fell far short of the prior year 's performance in 1915 . He was several pounds lighter after the illness and surgery , and it was noted that " a few pounds means much to a man of Maulbetsch 's weight . " In the opening game against Lawrence , Maulbetsch scored three touchdowns , but he was " woefully weak on interference . " Playing against Mount Union , Maulbetsch made several big gains , including a 50 @-@ yard touchdown run in the third quarter . His difficulties returned in the season 's third game against Marietta , as " Maulbetsch was powerless to stop the Marietta forward pass , all of the successful ones being directed toward his side of the line . "
After The Michigan Daily criticized his performance following the Marietta game , Maulbetsch " threatened to desert the Michigan squad and give up football for good . " It reportedly took Yost several hours to coax Maulbetsch to report for practice again , and in the next game against Case , Maulbetsch did not play until the third quarter . In the season 's first big game , Michigan was soundly beaten by Michigan Agricultural College , 24 – 0 , and most of Maulbetsch 's runs " didn ’ t even get as far as his own line . " In the final four games of the season , matters got worse for Michigan and Maulbetsch , as the team went 0 – 3 – 1 , scoring only 14 points in four games .
In Maulbetsch 's defense , some writers noted the weakness of the Michigan line , often allowing rushers into the backfield before Maulbetsch even had the ball . But some of those same observers noted that " Mauly " was not carrying the ball " at his usual pace . " Sports writer Frank Menke described Maulbetsch 's 1915 performance this way : " [ The ] Wolverine halfback skidded from the heights of greatness to the level of mediocre . . . . The lines that he had crumpled like eggshells a year before stood up under his charges , often dumping him back for losses . The once ' unstoppable ' Maulbetsch not only was stopped but forced to retract . " Despite the subpar performance in 1915 , Michigan 's varsity letter @-@ winners elected him captain of the team for 1916 .
= = = 1916 comeback = = =
Maulbetsch made a strong comeback in 1916 . Instead of spending the summer recovering from appendicitis , he spent the summer working as an assistant barkeeper on a steamship plying between Chicago and St. Joseph , Michigan . Maulbetsch spent his afternoons swimming and running sprints up and down the beach . On one trip , a giant coal passer claimed to be the strongest man in the world , and Maulbetsch agreed to a wrestling match on the boat . " The coal passer rushed the stripling , who ducked , caught his opponent about the waist and crushed him to the deck . When the giant woke , he wanted to know if the boat hit a rock . " As the season started , The New York Times wrote : " Michigan 's come @-@ back football team , headed by Bullet Maulbetsch , is going to be an eleven to be reckoned with on the gridiron this Fall . " Maulbetsch returned to his prior form , and one of the writers who had criticized him in 1915 said " the great Michigander using the same method of attack , has repeatedly broken in fragments this year the lines that he couldn ’ t dent in 1915 . "
= = Professional football = =
After the 1916 football season ended , Maulbetsch considered his options . There was a report that he had been engaged as a high school football coach ( and math instructor ) in Toledo , Ohio . Even more prevalent were reports that he had signed to play for a professional football team . Professional football was still in its infancy in 1917 , and landing a well @-@ known star would have been a boost to any of the budding franchises . In January 1917 newspapers reported that Maulbetsch had signed a contract to play professional football for Detroit Tigers owner , Frank Navin . Navin was supporting efforts to organize a professional football league in all the important Midwestern cities , including a Detroit franchise to play at Navin Field . As late as November 1917 , newspapers reported Maulbetsch had played professional football after graduating and was offered " a handsome fee " to play with the Akron Burkhardts in November 1917 . Although professional football records prior to 1920 are scarce , it appears unlikely that Maulbetsch played professional football , as press accounts show he was working as a college football coach starting in 1917 .
= = Head football coach = =
= = = Building Phillips University into a football power ( 1917 – 1920 ) = = =
In June 1917 , Maulbetsch announced that he had accepted a position as the football coach ( and professor of chemistry ) at Phillips University in Enid , Oklahoma . Phillips was a small , private school without a well @-@ known athletic program . In the fall , Enid residents were " leaving their work every afternoon to watch [ Maulbetsch ] and his husky young Oklahoma youths work out on campus . " Within a year , Maulbetsch turned Phillips into one of the strongest teams in the southwest .
Maulbetsch landed his first big recruit before leaving Ann Arbor . While playing at Michigan , Maulbetsch became friends with Doug Roby , a football player at the Michigan Military Academy , and one of the state 's top recruits . Roby followed Maulbetsch to Phillips and later went on to become a member of the International Olympic Committee in the 1950s and 1960s and president of the United States Olympic Committee from 1965 to 1968 . Maulbetsch 's next find was future Pro Football Hall of Famer Steve Owen , who later spent 23 years with the New York Giants . Maulbetsch saw Owen watching football practice from under a tree and told him : " A fellow your size ought to be out for the squad . " Owen showed up the next day and , when Maulbetsch used him to illustrate blocking fundamentals , Owen threw a block into Maulbetsch that threw him five yards through the air . Maulbetsch was satisfied , and Owen had a spot on the team . Because Phillips was not part of a conference , it was not subject to any eligibility limitations , an advantage Maulbetsch was accused of exploiting . A third key player recruited by Maulbetsch was an Native American halfback named Levi , and dubbed " Big Chief " by Phillips fans .
Having recruited top talent to Enid , Maulbetsch 's teams lost only one game in 1918 and 1919 , including a 10 – 0 – 1 record in 1919 . In 1917 and 1918 , Phillips came into the limelight when they beat the Oklahoma Sooners and the Henry Kendricks College team that had swept the west without allowing another team to score . Maulbetsch arranged a game against the Texas Longhorns in 1919 , the first meeting between the schools . When the game was announced The San Antonio Light reported : " Phillips University has one of the strongest teams in the Southwest . The only team to beat them in the past two years is Oklahoma and last year Phillips beat the Sooners 13 – 7 . " The report credited Maulbetsch for securing success at an institution little known in athletics before he arrived . The University of Texas had not lost a game since 1917 when the Phillips " Haymakers " arrived in Austin , Texas on October 11 , 1919 . Maulbetsch 's team shocked the Longhorns , holding them scoreless and winning the contest , 10 – 0 . One Texas newspaper reported that Phillips had " whitewashed the Longhorns in their own corral . "
Others in Texas concluded that Phillips ’ success was the result of lax or non @-@ existent eligibility policies . The lack of eligibility rules almost certainly did play a part in Phillips ’ success . When Phillips joined the Southwest Conference in 1920 , it became bound by the conference 's eligibility rules , and the team was outscored 97 – 0 in conference play against Texas A & M ( 47 – 0 ) , Texas ( 27 – 0 ) , Arkansas ( 20 – 0 ) , and Texas Christian ( 3 – 0 ) . The Galveston Daily News noted that Maulbetsch 's 1920 team could not " compare with the strong team " he surprised Texas with in 1919 . At the end of the 1920 season , Phillips withdrew from the Southwest Conference , and Maulbetsch accepted a new position at Oklahoma A & M.
= = = Head coach at Oklahoma A & M ( 1921 – 1928 ) = = =
In January 1921 , Maulbetsch was hired as the head coach at Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College ( now Oklahoma State ) in Stillwater , Oklahoma . He served as the coach at Oklahoma A & M from 1921 to 1928 , where his teams posted a 28 – 37 – 6 ( .437 ) record . In 1924 , his team went 6 – 1 – 2 and shut out Oklahoma ( 6 – 0 ) , Arkansas ( 20 – 0 ) and Kansas ( 3 – 0 ) . Maulbetsch 's Aggies also shut out Phillips that year , 13 – 0 . After the season , attempts were made to lure him to Washington University in St. Louis , Missouri , but Maulbetsch said he was satisfied with his position in Stillwater .
Maulbetsch arranged a game in Ann Arbor against his alma mater to start the 1926 season . Michigan beat the Aggies , 42 – 3 . Despite an overall record of 3 – 4 – 1 , Oklahoma A & M won its first conference football championship by going 3 – 0 – 1 in games against Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association opponents . Maulbetsch also drew attention in 1926 for his disciplinary methods . When the team lost two games due to fumbles , he ordered eight of his backfield players to carry footballs with them to classes throughout the week and instructed other team members to try knocking the balls from under their arms . The penalty for losing a ball was " a hard run around the stadium . " He also ordered one of his ends to wear boxing gloves after he poked an opposing player in the eye .
The Aggies won only one game against seven defeats in 1928 . In late November , the day after a 46 – 0 loss to Oklahoma , newspapers reported that " reliable sources " had said Maulbetsch intended to resign . Maulbetsch immediately denied the rumor , saying : " I have not resigned . I am aware that a faction here is trying to get me out , but I do not intend to throw up the sponge . " In December , pressure to fire Maulbetsch grew , and one Oklahoma newspaper observed : " Coach Maulbetsch of the A. & M. football team is the object of attacks from many sides because of the rather poor showing made by his team during the past season . They are looking for a goat and just now Johnnie is cast in that role . Regardless of his past record , those who demand victory at any price and by any means whatsoever , are insisting that he be fired forthwith and a man be placed in the position who , by fair means or foul , will gather in a team that will win victories and never lose a game . " Ultimately , Maulbetsch resigned at the end of May 1929 as Oklahoma A & M 's coach in football , baseball , and basketball . It was announced that he would spend the remaining year of his contract on a leave of absence at half pay .
= = = Head coach at Marshall College ( 1929 – 1930 ) = = =
In July 1929 , Maulbetsch was hired by Marshall College in Huntington , West Virginia to become head coach in charge of football and track . When Marshall 's " Thundering Herd " got off to a 4 – 1 start , Maulbetsch won praise in the West Virginia press , but Marshall finished the season 1 – 2 – 1 in the second half . And in 1930 , the Marshall team went 3 – 5 – 1 , including a 65 – 0 loss to Penn State . Maulbetsch resigned as Marshall 's coach in January 1931 ; his only comment at the time was that he had " other plans . "
= = Later years and legacy = =
After retiring from football , Maulbetsch bought a drug store in Huntington , West Virginia . During World War II , Maulbetsch took a job building B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers at Ford Motor Company 's famed Willow Run Plant near Ypsilanti , Michigan . From 1946 until his death , he owned an automobile sales company in Adrian , Michigan . Maulbetsch died of cancer in 1950 at his home in Ann Arbor . He was survived by his widow , Ida , a son John Maulbetsch , and a daughter Barbara . Maulbetsch had been married to Ida ( maiden name Ida Elizabeth Cappon ) since May 27 , 1917 .
Maulbetsch was inducted posthumously into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1973 . Since 1956 , the John F. Maulbetsch Award has been given at the University of Michigan after spring practice to a freshman football candidate on the basis of desire , character , capacity for leadership and future success both on and off the football field . The award was established by Frederick C. Matthaei – a former classmate of Maulbetsch who went on to become a Regent of the University . The award has been a good indicator of future success , as past recipients include Jim Mandich ( 1967 ) , Rick Leach ( 1976 ) , Charles Woodson ( 1996 ) , Marlin Jackson ( 2002 ) , and Jake Long ( 2004 ) . Maulbetsch Avenue in Ypsilanti Township is presumably named after Maulbetsch .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = = Football = = =
= = = Baseball = = =
= Order of Canada =
The Order of Canada ( French : Ordre du Canada ) is a Canadian national order , admission into which is the second highest honour for merit in the system of orders , decorations , and medals of Canada . It comes second only to membership in the Order of Merit , which is the personal gift of Canada 's monarch .
To coincide with the centennial of Canadian Confederation , the three @-@ tiered order was established in 1967 as a fellowship that recognizes the outstanding merit or distinguished service of Canadians who make a major difference to Canada through lifelong contributions in every field of endeavour , as well as the efforts by non @-@ Canadians who have made the world better by their actions . Membership is accorded to those who exemplify the order 's Latin motto , desiderantes meliorem patriam , meaning " they desire a better country " , a phrase taken from Hebrews 11 : 16 . The three tiers of the order are Companion , Officer , and Member ; specific individuals may be given extraordinary membership and deserving non @-@ Canadians may receive honorary appointment into each grade .
The monarch — at present Elizabeth II — is Sovereign of the order and the serving governor general , currently David Lloyd Johnston , is its Chancellor and Principal Companion and administers the order on behalf of the reigning king or queen . Appointees to the order are recommended by an advisory board and formally inducted by the governor general or the sovereign . As of October 2015 , 6 @,@ 531 people have been appointed to the Order of Canada , including scientists , musicians , politicians , artists , athletes , business people , and film stars , benefactors , and others . Some have resigned or have been removed from the order , while other appointments have been controversial . Appointees are presented with insignia and receive the right to armorial bearings .
= = Creation = =
The process of founding the Order of Canada began in early 1966 and came to a conclusion on 17 April 1967 , when the organization was instituted by Queen Elizabeth II , on the advice of the Canadian prime minister , Lester B. Pearson , who was assisted with the establishment of the order by John Matheson . The association was officially launched on 1 July 1967 , the 100th anniversary of Canadian Confederation , with Governor General Roland Michener being the first inductee to the order — to the level of Companion — and on 7 July of the same year , 90 more people were appointed , including Vincent Massey , Louis St. Laurent , Hugh MacLennan , David Bauer , Gabrielle Roy , Donald Creighton , Thérèse Casgrain , Wilder Penfield , Arthur Lismer , M. J. Coldwell , Edwin Baker , Alex Colville , and Maurice Richard . During a visit to London , United Kingdom , later in 1967 , Michener presented the Queen with her Sovereign 's badge for the Order of Canada , which she first wore during a banquet in Yellowknife in July 1970 .
From the Order of Canada grew a Canadian honours system , thereby reducing the use of British honours ( i.e. those administered by the Queen in her British privy council ) . Among the civilian awards of the Canadian honours system , the Order of Canada comes third , after the Cross of Valour and membership in the Order of Merit , which is within the personal gift of Canada 's monarch . By the 1980s , Canada 's provinces began to develop their own distinct honours and decorations .
= = Grades = =
The Canadian monarch , seen as the fount of honour , is at the apex of the Order of Canada as its Sovereign , followed by the governor general , who serves as the fellowship 's Chancellor . Thereafter follow three grades , which are , in order of precedence : Companion , Officer , and Member , each having accordant post @-@ nominal letters that members are entitled to use ; each incumbent governor general is also installed as the Principal Companion for the duration of his or her time in the viceregal post . Additionally , any governor general , viceregal consort , former governor general , former viceregal consort , or member of the Canadian Royal Family may be appointed as an extraordinary Companion , Officer , or Member . Promotions in grade are possible , though this is ordinarily not done within five years of the initial appointment , and a maximum of five honorary appointments into any of the three grades may be made by the governor general each year . As of March 2016 , there have been twenty one honorary appointments .
There were originally , in effect , only two ranks to the Order of Canada : Companion and the Medal of Service . There was , however , also a third award , the Medal of Courage , meant to recognize acts of gallantry . This latter decoration fell in rank between the other two levels , but was anomalous within the Order of Canada , being a separate award of a different nature rather than a middle grade of the order . Without ever having been awarded , the Medal of Courage was on 1 July 1972 replaced by the autonomous Cross of Valour and , at the same time , the levels of Officer and Member were introduced , with all existing holders of the Medal of Service created as Officers . Lester Pearson 's vision of a three @-@ tiered structure to the order was thus fulfilled .
Companions of the Order of Canada ( post @-@ nominals : CC , in French : Compagnon de l 'ordre du Canada ) have demonstrated the highest degree of merit to Canada and humanity , on either the national or international scene . Up to 15 Companions are appointed annually , with an imposed limit of 165 living Companions at any given time , not including those appointed as extraordinary Companions or in an honorary capacity . As of October 2015 , there are 143 living Companions , none being honorary . Since 1994 , substantive members are the only regular citizens who are empowered to administer the Canadian Oath of Citizenship .
Officers of the Order of Canada ( post @-@ nominals : OC , in French : Officier de l 'ordre du Canada ) have demonstrated an outstanding level of talent and service to Canadians , and up to 64 may be appointed each year , not including those inducted as extraordinary Officers or in an honorary capacity , with no limit to how many may be living at one time . As of October 2015 , there were 1 @,@ 123 living Officers , none being honorary .
Members of the Order of Canada ( post @-@ nominals : CM , in French : Membre de l 'ordre du Canada ) have made an exceptional contribution to Canada or Canadians at a local or regional level , group , field or activity . As many as 136 Members may be appointed annually , not including extraordinary Members and those inducted on an honorary basis , and there is no limit on how many Members may be living at one time . As of October 2015 , there were 2 @,@ 225 living Members , none being honorary .
= = Insignia = =
Upon admission into the Order of Canada , members are given various insignia of the organization , all designed by Bruce W. Beatty , who " broke new ground in the design of insignia of Orders within The Queen 's realms " and was himself made a member of the order in 1990 ; Beatty attended every investiture ceremony between 1967 and early 2010 . The badge belonging to the Sovereign consists of a jewelled , 18 @-@ carat gold crown of rubies , emeralds , and sapphires , from which is suspended a white , enamelled , hexagonal snowflake design , with six equal leaves and diamonds between each . At the centre is a disc bearing a maple leaf in pavé @-@ laid rubies on a white enamel background , surrounded at its edge by a red enamel ring ( annulus ) bearing the motto of the order . The Chancellor wears the badge of a Companion and is , upon installation as governor general , granted a livery collar for wear at Order of Canada investiture ceremonies .
The badges for inductees are of a similar design to the sovereign 's badge , though without precious stones , and slight differences for each grade . For Companions , the emblem is gilt with a red enamel maple leaf in the central disk ; for Officers , it is gilt with a gold maple leaf ; and for Members , both the badge itself and the maple leaf are silver . All are topped by a St. Edward 's Crown , symbolizing that the order is headed by the sovereign , and the reverse is plain except for the word CANADA .
The ribbon is white and bordered in red stripes , similar to the Canadian national flag ; the chest ribbon is the same for each grade , save for a metallic maple leaf in the centre , the colour of which matches that on the badge of the grade that the wearer was appointed to . For civilian wear , a lapel pin is worn on the jacket , which is designed as a miniature of the medallion .
Wear of the insignia is according to guidelines issued by the Chancellery of Honours , which stipulate that the badges be worn before most other national orders — that is , at the end of an individual 's medal bar closest to the centre of the chest or at the wearer 's neck — with only the Victoria Cross , the Cross of Valour , and the badge of the Order of Merit permitted to be worn before the badges of the Order of Canada . Those in the grades of Companion or Officer may wear their badges on a neck ribbon , while those in the Member group display their insignia suspended by a ribbon from a medal bar on the left chest . Protocol originally followed the British tradition , wherein female appointees wore their Order of Canada emblem on a ribbon bow positioned on the left shoulder . These regulations were altered in 1997 , and women may wear their insignia in either the traditional manner or in the same fashion as the men .
With the patriation in 1988 of oversight of arms to Canada through the Canadian Heraldic Authority , the constitution of the Order of Canada was amended to include the entitlement of all inductees to petition the Chief Herald of Canada for personal armorial bearings , should they not already possess any . Companions may receive supporters , and all members may have the escutcheon ( shield ) of their arms encircled with a red ribbon bearing the order 's motto in gold , and from which is suspended a rendition of the holder 's Order of Canada badge . The Queen , Sovereign of the Order of Canada , approved the augmentation of her royal arms for Canada with the order 's ribbon in 1987 .
= = = Possession and sale = = =
The constitution of the Order of Canada states that the insignia remain property of the Crown , and requires any member of the order to return to the chancellery their original emblem should they be upgraded within the order to a higher rank . Thus , while badges may be passed down as family heirlooms , or loaned or donated for display in museums , they cannot be sold by any individual other than the monarch with the proper advice and consent of her ministers . Over the decades , however , a number of Order of Canada insignia have been put up for sale , the first being the Companion 's badge of Major Coldwell , who was appointed in 1967 ; his badge was sold at auction in 1981 , an act that received criticism from government officials .
In 2007 , it was revealed that one of the first ever issued insignia of the Order of Canada , a Medal of Service awarded originally to Quebec historian Gustave Lanctot , was put up for sale via e @-@ mail . Originally , the anonymous auctioneer , who had purchased the decoration for $ 45 at an estate sale in Montreal , attempted to sell the insignia on eBay ; however , after the bidding reached $ 15 @,@ 000 , eBay removed the item , citing its policy against the sale of government property , including " any die , seal or stamp provided by , belonging to , or used by a government department , diplomatic or military authority appointed by or acting under the authority of Her Majesty . " Rideau Hall stated that selling medals was " highly discouraged " , however the owner continued efforts to sell the insignia via the internet . Five years later , a miniature insignia presented to Tommy Douglas was put on auction in Ontario as part of a larger collection of Douglas artifacts . Douglas 's daughter , Shirley Douglas , purchased the set for $ 20 @,@ 000 .
= = Eligibility and appointment = =
Any of the three levels of the Order of Canada are open to all living Canadian citizens , except all federal and provincial politicians and judges while they hold office . The order recognizes the achievement of outstanding merit or distinguished service by Canadians who made a major difference to Canada through lifelong contributions in every field of endeavour , as well as the efforts made by non @-@ Canadians who have made the world better by their actions . Membership is thus accorded to those who exemplify the order 's Latin motto , taken from Hebrews 11 : 16 of the Bible , desiderantes meliorem patriam , meaning " they desire a better country . " Each of the six to eight hundred nominations submitted each year , by any person or organization , is received by the order 's Advisory Council , which , along with the governor general , makes the final choice of new inductees , typically by consensus rather than a vote ; a process that , when conceived , was the first of its kind in the world . Appointees are then accepted into the organization at an investiture ceremony typically conducted by the governor general at Rideau Hall , although the Queen or a provincial viceroy may perform the task , and the ceremony may take place in other locations . Since the 1991 investiture of Ted Rogers , Order of Canada instalment ceremonies have been broadcast on various television channels and the Internet ; recipients are given a complimentary video recording of their investiture ceremony from Rogers Cable .
= = = Advisory Council = = =
The task of the Advisory Council is to evaluate the nominations of potential inductees , decide if the candidates are worthy enough to be accepted into the order , and make recommendations to the governor general , who appoints the new members . The council is chaired by the Chief Justice of Canada , and includes the Clerk of the Queen 's Privy Council , the Deputy Minister of Canadian Heritage , the Chair of the Canada Council for the Arts , the President of the Royal Society of Canada , the Chair of the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada , and five members of the order who sit on the council for a three @-@ year period . If a nomination involves a non @-@ Canadian citizen , the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs is invited by the Advisory Council to offer evaluation . Decisions of the council and new appointments to and dismissals from the Order of Canada are announced to the Canada Gazette .
As of October 2015 , the members of the Advisory Council are :
The Right Honourable Beverley McLachlin PC – Chief Justice of Canada ( Chair )
Kim Baird CM
Dr. David Barnard – Chair , Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada
Dr. Graham Bell FRSC – President , Royal Society of Canada
Janice Charette , Clerk of the Privy Council and Secretary to the Cabinet
George T.H. Cooper CM QC
Graham Flack – Deputy Minister , Canadian Heritage
Monique Frize OC
Pierre Lassonde CM – Chair , Canada Council for the Arts
Monique F. Leroux CM OQ
H. Sanford Riley CM
W. Brett Wilson CM SOM
= = = Refusal = = =
Few have declined entry into the Order of Canada ; as of 1997 , 1 @.@ 5 percent of offered appointments to the order had been refused . The identities of those individuals who have declined induction since the 1970s are kept confidential , so the full list is not publicly known . Some , however , have spoken openly about their decisions , including Robert Weaver , who stated that he was critical of the " three @-@ tier " nature of the order ; Claude Ryan and Morley Callaghan , who both declined the honour in 1967 ; Mordecai Richler , who twice declined ; and Marcel Dubé , Roger Lemelin , and Glenn Gould , who all declined in 1970 . However , all the above individuals , save for Gould and Weaver , later did accept appointment into the order . Others have rejected appointment on the basis of being supporters of the Quebec sovereignty movement — such as Luc @-@ André Godbout , Rina Lasnier , and Geneviève Bujold — while Alice Parizeau , another supporter of Quebec sovereignty , was criticized for accepting entry into the order despite her beliefs .
Victoria Cross recipient Cecil Meritt cited the fact that he already held Canada 's highest decoration as a reason not to be admitted to the Order of Canada . Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , was in 1982 offered appointment to the order as an honorary Companion ; however , he refused on the grounds that , as the consort of the Queen , he was a Canadian and thus entitled to a substantive appointment . In 1993 , the Advisory Council proposed an amendment to the constitution of the Order of Canada , making the sovereign 's spouse automatically a Companion , but Prince Philip again refused , stating that if he was to be appointed , it should be on his merits . Congruent with these arguments , he in 1988 accepted without issue a substantive induction as a Companion of the Order of Australia . In 2013 , the constitution of the Order of Canada was amended in a way that permitted the substantive appointment of Royal Family members and Prince Philip accepted induction as the first extraordinary Companion of the Order of Canada on 26 April 2013 . Former Premier of Newfoundland Joey Smallwood declined appointment as a Companion because he felt that , as a self @-@ proclaimed Father of Confederation , he deserved a knighthood . Smallwood was never knighted and later accepted induction as a Companion .
= = = Resignation and removal = = =
Resignations from the order can take place only through the prescribed channels , which include the member submitting to the Secretary General of the Order of Canada a letter notifying the chancellery of his or her desire to terminate their membership , and only with the governor general 's approval can the resignation take effect . On 1 June 2009 , the governor general accepted the resignations of astronomer and inventor René Racine , pianist Jacqueline Richard , and Cardinal Jean @-@ Claude Turcotte ; on 11 January 2010 , did the same for Renato Giuseppe Bosisio , an engineering professor , and Father Lucien Larré ; and on 19 April 2010 for Frank Chauvin . It was also reported that other constituents of the Order of Canada had , in reaction to Henry Morgentaler 's induction into their ranks , indicated that they would return or had returned their emblems in protest , including organizations such as the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate and Madonna House Apostolate doing so on behalf of deceased former members .
Members may be removed from the order if the Advisory Council feels their actions have brought the society into disrepute . In order for this to be done , the council must agree to take action and then send a letter to the person both telling of the group 's decision and requesting a response . Anyone removed from the order is required to return their insignia . As of October 2015 , six people have been removed from the Order of Canada : Alan Eagleson , who was dismissed after being jailed for fraud in 1998 ; David Ahenakew , who faced calls for his removal due to anti @-@ Semitic comments he made in 2002 ; T. Sher Singh , after the Law Society of Upper Canada found him guilty of professional misconduct and revoked his license to practice law ; Steve Fonyo , due to " his multiple criminal convictions , for which there are no outstanding appeals " ; Garth Drabinsky , who was found guilty of fraud and forgery in Ontario and has been a fugitive from American law for related crimes ; and Lord Black of Crossharbour , who was convicted in the United States in 2007 of fraud and obstruction of justice . In 2013 , Norman Barwin resigned from the order as a result of the Advisory Council moving forward with his pending removal due to his being found guilty of professional misconduct .
= = = Controversial appointments = = =
The advisory board attempts to remain apolitical and pragmatic in its approach to selecting new members of the Order of Canada , generally operating without input from ministers of the Crown ; political interference has occurred only once , when in 1978 Paul Desmarais 's investiture was delayed for six months by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau . However , some of the committee 's selections have caused controversy . For instance , the admission in 2001 of sex educator Sue Johanson , host of the long @-@ running Sunday Night Sex Show , as a Member stirred controversy among some of Canada 's Christian organizations , as Johanson had taught teenagers methods of safe sex alongside abstinence . Similarly , the acceptance of birth control advocate Elizabeth Bagshaw and gay rights campaigner Brent Hawkes also incited debate .
Abortion activist Henry Morgentaler 's appointment to the order on 1 July 2008 not only marked the first time the Advisory Council had not been unanimous in its decision , but also proved to be one of the most controversial appointments in the order 's history , drawing both praise from abortion rights groups and the ire of Members of Parliament , groups opposing abortion , and religious leaders . The latter organized protests outside of Rideau Hall on 9 July , while compatriots did the same in front of Government House in St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador , the official residence of that province 's lieutenant governor . Several members of the order resigned or returned their insignia .
One former police detective , Frank Chauvin , along with a Catholic anti @-@ abortion activist , filed suit against the Order of Canada Advisory Council , demanding that the minutes of the meeting relating to Morgentaler be made public . The appointment of Morgentaler prompted former Liberal Member of Parliament Clifford Lincoln to write that the workings of the Advisory Council were " mysterious " , citing what he theorized to be inbuilt partiality and conflict of interest as reasons why Margaret Somerville , whom Lincoln had twice nominated to the Advisory Council , was turned down for appointment , yet Morgentaler was accepted . Journalist Henry Aubin in the Montreal Gazette opined that the council 's rejection of Somerville , her personal opposition to same @-@ sex marriage , and the acceptance of Brent Hawkes , Jane Rule , and Jean Chrétien , all regarded as supporting same @-@ sex unions , as well as the appointment of a controversial figure such as Morgentaler , were all signs that the Advisory Council operated with partisan bias . Aubin also pointed to the presence on the council of members of the Royal Society of Canada , an organization into which Somerville was received .
= = Proposed amendments = =
At a 2006 conference on Commonwealth honours , Christopher McCreery , an expert on Canada 's hon
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ours , raised the concern that the three grades of the Order of Canada were insufficient to recognize the nation 's very best ; one suggestion was to add two more levels to the order , equivalent to knighthoods in Australian and British orders . The order of precedence also came under scrutiny , particularly the anomaly that all three grades of the Order of Canada supersede the top levels of each of the other orders ( except the Order of Merit ) , contrary to international practice .
In June 2010 , McCreery suggested reforms to the Order of Canada that would avert the awkwardness around appointing those in Canada 's royal family as full members of the order : He theorized that the Queen , as the order 's Sovereign , could simply appoint , on ministerial advice , anyone as an extra member , or the monarch could issue an ordinance allowing for her relations to be made regular members when approved . Similarly , McCreery proposed that a new division of the order could be established specifically for governors general , their spouses , and members of the Royal Family , a version of which was adopted in 2013 .
= = Additional honours = =
At certain periods , holders of the order were presented with other awards , usually commemorative medals . Thus far , two commemoratives have been given automatically to every living member of the Order of Canada : the Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal in 1977 and the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal in 2012 .
= Ontario Highway 403 =
King 's Highway 403 ( pronounced " four @-@ oh @-@ three " ) , or simply Highway 403 , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that travels between Woodstock and Mississauga , branching off from and reuniting with Highway 401 at both ends and travelling south of it through Hamilton and Mississauga . It is concurrent with the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) for 22 km ( 14 mi ) from Burlington to Oakville . Highway 403 is also known as the Chedoke Expressway within Hamilton . Although the Highway 403 designation was first applied in 1963 to a short stub of freeway branching off of the QEW , the entire route was not completed until August 15 , 1997 , when the Brantford to the then @-@ still independent Town of Ancaster section was opened to traffic . The section of Highway 403 between Woodstock and Burlington was formally dedicated as the Alexander Graham Bell Parkway on April 27 , 2016 .
The majority of Highway 403 is surrounded by suburban land use , except west of Ancaster , where it passes through agricultural land ; Brantford is the only urban area through this section . In Hamilton , Highway 403 descends the Niagara Escarpment . It wraps around the northern side of Burlington Bay to encounter the QEW . From there , it travels straight through Burlington and Oakville with the QEW , departing to the north at the Mississauga – Oakville boundary . The freeway then crosses through the centre of Mississauga in an east – west direction , serving its city centre , before turning north . It continues north of Highway 401 as Highway 410 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Woodstock to Burlington = = =
Highway 403 begins at a junction with Highway 401 on the outskirts of Woodstock . The eastbound lanes split from eastbound Highway 401 , whereas the westbound lanes merge into westbound Highway 401 . It travels along the back lot lines of the second concession south of former Highway 2 . It passes beneath Oxford County Road 55 ( formerly Highway 53 ) and curves southeast . After crossing into the third concession , it curves back to the east . The highway travels straight for several kilometres , meeting with the southern leg of Highway 24 , which travels south to Simcoe .
The highway crosses the Grand River to the south of Paris , then passes over former Highway 2 as it enters into Brantford . As it passes through Brantford , the highway angles southeast and passes beneath the northern leg of Highway 24 and then the Wayne Gretzky Parkway . The route exits the small city to the east and curves northeast shortly thereafter . It travels between Jerseyville Road and former Highway 2 to Ancaster , jogging to avoid cutting through Dunmark Lake . As the freeway enters Ancaster , it once again crosses former Highway 2 and dips through the southern side of the town .
East of Ancaster , the freeway passes through a short greenbelt , with Hamilton Golf and Country Club lying to the north . A divided segment of Highway 6 meets the freeway and continues concurrently with it through Hamilton ; to the south , Highway 6 travels to John C. Munro International Airport , Caledonia and Jarvis at Highway 3 . Continuing east , Highway 403 and Highway 6 curve north into Hamilton and meet the Lincoln M. Alexander Parkway before abruptly curving to the east and descending the Niagara Escarpment . Scenic views of Hamilton , its harbour , and Lower Princess Falls are located along this steep descent . At the bottom of the escarpment the highway travels through a narrow , heavily developed corridor alongside former Highway 8 . It passes beneath multiple bridges in a depressed trench , eventually curving north at a sharp corner and passing beneath more bridges . This section features a reduced speed limit of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) as opposed to 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . The highway returns to ground level alongside the Chedoke Creek , a now @-@ channelized river from which the freeway may take its name .
As the freeway continues north , it crosses an isthmus between Hamilton Harbour and Cootes Paradise alongside several roads which it has served to replace . It circles around the northern shore of Hamilton Harbour and returns to an eastward orientation . The concurrency with Highway 6 ends at an interchange where Highway 403 continues east and Highway 6 travels north towards Guelph . The freeway continues straight for several kilometres and meets the Queen Elizabeth Way and Highway 407 at the Freeman Interchange .
= = = Oakville to Mississauga = = =
Highway 403 travels concurrently with the QEW for 22 @.@ 6 km ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) between Freeman and Oakville , a straight section surrounded almost entirely by commercial units and warehouses . At the Ford Assembly Plant near the Halton – Peel regional boundary , Highway 403 branches off from the QEW and heads north for 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) along the western edge of Mississauga . At that point it again meets Highway 407 . Both freeways interchange , but curve to avoid each other . Highway 407 continues to the north and west , while Highway 403 curves east to follow alongside a hydro corridor through the centre of Mississauga . From this interchange to Highway 401 , high @-@ occupancy vehicle ( HOV ) lanes are present in the shoulder lanes for vehicles with at least one passenger . Sandwiched between residential subdivisions on both sides , the freeway passes beneath Erin Mills Parkway and crosses the Credit River .
On the other side of the river , the freeway skirts to the north of downtown Mississauga , as well as the Square One Shopping Centre . It passes beneath Hurontario Street ( once a section of Highway 10 ) and begins to widen before abruptly curving to the north as it approaches Cawthra Road . As the curve ends , the freeway widens further into ten lanes . This short section of highway passes beneath Eglinton Avenue and begins to diverge into a sprawling interchange approaching Highway 401 . Access to Highway 410 , which continues northward to Brampton , is provided from the collector lanes .
= = History = =
Highway 403 , although one of the first divided highways conceived for Ontario , is one of the most recently completed freeways in the province ; the multiple segments of the route did not become continuous until 2002 . Planning for the route was underway by 1958 , with the completion of the Freeman Bypass along the QEW providing a three @-@ legged junction for the new freeway . Sections of Highway 403 through Hamilton opened between December 1963 and September 1969 . An isolated section known as the Brantford Bypass was opened in October 1966 , and would remain unconnected to other freeways for over 20 years . Plans for a third segment through Mississauga were contemplated throughout the 1960s , but were not finalized until late 1977 , after which construction began . Portions opened at both ends in 1980 and 1981 , while the central gap , crossing the Credit River , was completed in December 1982 .
Construction to bridge the gaps in Highway 403 between Ancaster and Woodstock was carried out over three major phases . The first phase was a short extension of the Brantford Bypass beginning in 1975 . Later , work began to connect that extension with Highway 401 near Woodstock , opening in 1988 . The last phase , between Ancaster and Brantford , was opened in 1997 . The final discontinuity , between Burlington and Oakville , was signed as a concurrency with the QEW in 2002 . Originally , this section was to have travelled along the corridor occupied by Highway 407 , until budget shortfalls in 1995 resulted in a change of plans .
= = = Predecessors = = =
The corridor that connects London and Hamilton has always been considered important to Ontario . In late October 1793 , Captain Smith and 100 Queen 's Rangers returned from carving The Governor 's Road 32 km ( 20 mi ) through the thick forests between Dundas and the present location of Paris . John Graves Simcoe was tasked with defending Upper Canada from America following the revolution and with opening the virgin territory to settlement . After establishing a " temporary " capital at York , Simcoe ordered an inland route constructed between Cootes Paradise at the tip of Lake Ontario and his proposed capital of London . By the spring of 1794 , the road was extended as far as La Tranche , now the Thames River . Today , most of this route forms part of former Highway 2 and former Highway 5 .
The paving of the divided four @-@ lane Middle Road , with gentle curves , a grass median and grade @-@ separated interchanges , would set the stage for the freeway concept . It was the first intercity freeway in North America when it opened in June 1939 . Thomas McQueston , the new minister of the Department of Highways and the man most responsible for the Middle Road , decided to apply the concept to sections of Highway 2 plagued with congestion . A portion east of Woodstock was rebuilt in this fashion , but World War II would put an end to the ambitions of McQueston , at least temporarily .
= = = Initial construction = = =
The end of the Korean War heralded the resuming of freeway construction in Ontario ; the advances in machinery more than made up for lost time . The construction of Highway 401 across the province took first priority . However , the opening of the section from Highway 4 near London to Highway 2 east of Woodstock on May 31 , 1957 would complete part of the route required between London and Hamilton . By 1958 , planning on the Chedoke Expressway , or Controlled Access Highway 403 was well underway , though plans for a four lane freeway between Woodstock and Hamilton were around as early as 1954 . The opening of the Freeman Bypass of the QEW in August 1958 provided a connection point for a new freeway , and construction began the same day that the Burlington Bay Skyway opened : October 31 , 1958 . Highway 403 between Longwood Road ( Highway 2 ) and the QEW was opened to traffic on December 1 , 1963 at a length of 9 @.@ 0 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) . Work was already underway on the next section of the route that would extend it to Aberdeen Avenue . That section opened on July 9 , 1965 , extending the freeway by 3 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) .
Meanwhile , to the west , work had begun on a bypass of Brantford . The new freeway passed north of the city between Paris Road in the west and the junction of Highway 2 and Highway 53 in the east , a distance of 10 @.@ 3 km ( 6 @.@ 4 mi ) ; it opened October 31 , 1966 . A portion of the Brantford Bypass was itself bypassed in 1997 when the final section of Highway 403 was completed and is known as Garden Avenue . However , the Brantford Bypass would remain an isolated section of Highway 403 for over 20 years .
In Hamilton , work was underway on an extension of the Chedoke Expressway to Mohawk Road , crossing the Niagara Escarpment . This tedious project , which required extensive rock blasting , was soon accompanied by further construction from Mohawk Road to Highway 2 near Ancaster . Both projects were completed together and originally scheduled to be opened with a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony on August 22 , 1969 . However , local residents complained that the new section lacked any barriers preventing children from wandering onto the highway , postponing the ceremony until August 27 as temporary snow fencing was erected . This proved inadequate and protests grew more vocal over the following week . Several petitions were presented to Deputy Highway Minister H. Howden on August 26 , and the ceremonies were promptly cancelled . Over the following week , the Minister of Highways George Gomme met with residents and reached a compromise whereby a 24 – hour patrol was established to watch for children until a proper fence could be constructed . The route was subsequently opened on September 3 , without any ceremony . This completed the Hamilton section of Highway 403 .
= = = Mississauga = = =
Planning for the segment of Highway 403 through Mississauga dates back to the late 1950s when the Hamilton Expressway appeared on the Metropolitan Toronto 's regional transportation plan . It was to be a continuation of the Richview Expressway , which was ultimately never built , continuing from Toronto to Hamilton . The plan featured the expressway 's eastern terminus at the Highway 401 and Highway 427 interchange . As Toronto 's anti @-@ expressway movement gained momentum , provincial plans shifted the Hamilton Expressway to the west near Etobicoke Creek . In 1962 , the right @-@ of @-@ way alongside the hydro corridor between Burlington and Etobicoke Creek was protected after traffic studies indicated the need for a future freeway . On May 25 , 1965 , the Department of Highways unveiled the Toronto Region Western Section Highway Planning Study . The plan designated Highway 403 north from Burlington and then parallel with the QEW to Highway 401 near Highway 27 .
By the time construction was actually underway , plans had been completely modified to connect the overburdened QEW at Oakville with Highway 401 at the new Highway 410 interchange . This interchange was a better connection point for Highway 403 , but would also require the widening of Highway 401 from six lanes to twelve . Plans were submitted and approved in December 1977 by Mississauga city council , and construction began .
The new freeway opened in sections during the early 1980s . The first section between Cawthra Road and Highway 401 was opened August 18 , 1980 . This was followed by a short section from Highway 5 ( Dundas Street ) south to the QEW at Ford Drive , which opened in mid @-@ 1981 . Later that year , an extension to Erin Mills Parkway was opened on November 17 , 1981 . The final section to be opened took the longest to complete , involving construction of two bridges over the Credit River valley ; it opened on December 2 , 1982 . The cost of the entire 22 km ( 13 @.@ 7 mi ) Mississauga segment was $ 87 million .
Around the same period , the Ministry of Transportation began to study upgrading Highway 401 to a collector – express system between Renforth Drive and Highway 403 , and along Highway 403 between Highway 401 and Highway 10 . This took place between late 1982 and the summer of 1985 ; the existing outermost ramps from Highway 403 to Highway 401 eastbound were re @-@ designated to serve collector traffic , as a pair of flyover ramps were added inside the interchange to serve motorists in the express lanes .
The right @-@ of @-@ way originally intended for Highway 403 between Cawthra Road and Etobicoke Creek was eventually used for a controlled access arterial extension called Eastgate Parkway , which was planned beginning in 1982 . The extension was built between 1988 and 1994 , incorporating a portion of Fieldgate Drive at the eastern end . The first section , between Cawthra Road and Dixie Road , opened in early 1991 . This was followed several years later by the section from Dixie Road to Eglinton Avenue that opened in late 1994 .
In the fall of 1991 , alongside the widening of Highway 410 into a full freeway , construction began on the connecting ramps between Highway 403 and Highway 410 , which pass under the existing bridge structures for Highway 401 collector traffic , while new overpasses were constructed in the centre for Highway 401 express lanes . The loop ramp from Highway 410 southbound to Highway 401 eastbound was replaced by a semi @-@ directional high @-@ speed flyover , while a new directional ramp and semi @-@ direction flyover were added to serve westbound Highway 401 commuters . Prior to the opening of this link , traffic from both freeways was forced onto eastbound Highway 401 . The 2 @.@ 2 km ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) link opened on November 2 , 1992 at a cost of $ 7 @.@ 3 million .
= = = Bridging the gaps = = =
In 1975 , construction began on a westward extension of the Brantford Bypass , from Highway 2 ( Paris Road ) to Rest Acres Road , which would become Highway 24 . This work consisted of the twin bridges over the Grand River and an interchange at Rest Acres Road . The Canadian National Railway underpass west of Highway 2 was built by the railway . By the beginning of 1978 , this work was completed . Work resumed west of Highway 24 during the spring of 1982 to connect with Highway 401 near Woodstock in order to relieve the high traffic volumes along Highway 2 . This included interchanges at Brant County Road 25 and Highway 53 . A section from Highway 24 to County Road 25 was opened in November 1984 , followed by the section west of there to Highway 53 one year later . Construction of the gap between Highway 53 and Highway 401 began in late 1985 , followed by the Highway 401 overpass for the westbound lanes , which began in 1987 . Transportation minister Ed Fulton ceremoniously opened the new freeway connection on September 26 , 1988 , completing the Woodstock to Brantford link .
Highway 403 was briefly left with three discontinuous sections : Woodstock – Brantford , Ancaster – Burlington , and Oakville – Mississauga . Between Brantford and Ancaster , traffic was defaulted onto Highway 2 , a four @-@ lane road with numerous private driveways and at @-@ grade intersections . On March 24 , 1987 , Chris Ward , MPP for Wentworth North officially announced that construction of the missing link between Brantford and Ancaster would begin in 1989 . Construction did not actually begin until the summer of 1990 . It included interchanges at Garden Avenue , Highway 52 and Highway 2 . A continuous construction program was carried out over the next seven years , with the link opening on August 15 , 1997 . Highway 2 , which was the only parallel route before the completion of Highway 403 , was subsequently downloaded to regional jurisdiction .
= = = Controversy = = =
Though some officials considered Highway 403 to be a perfect example of a freeway construction process , it was not built without its share of controversy . In addition to the previously mentioned issues that occurred in 1969 , portions of the freeway through Mississauga were built alongside established communities , leading to angry homeowners associations pressuring the province for noise mitigation measures and compensation .
In the late 1980s and early 1990s , the Mississauga section of Highway 403 was the site of more than two dozen fatal accidents over a five @-@ year period , one of the highest rates in North America at the time , despite being up to modern road standards . This led Peel Regional Police and the media to nickname it the ' Death Highway ' . In particular , the stretch from Mavis Road to Erin Mills Parkway has been the site of numerous accidents . Highway 403 features a downward slope as motorists head eastbound towards the Mavis Road interchange ; drivers complain of having to slam the brakes when traffic comes to a standstill , leading to rear @-@ end collisions . There is also glare from the sun that causes vision problems throughout the day .
= = = Recent construction = = =
The Hamilton @-@ Brantford and Mississauga sections of Highway 403 were initially planned to be linked up along the corridor that is now occupied by Highway 407 . However , these plans were altered by the Bob Rae government in 1995 , due to budgetary constraints . It was also announced that the Mississauga section of Highway 403 would be renumbered as Highway 410 . Ultimately , this never came to pass . Consequently , Highway 403 was signed concurrently along the Queen Elizabeth Way in 2002 , remedying the discontinuity .
In early 2001 , high @-@ mast lighting was scheduled to be added to the previously unlit Mississauga section between Highway 407 and Eastgate Parkway . In 2003 , the right shoulders between Erin Mills Parkway and Mavis Road were widened for GO Transit and Mississauga Transit to run express bus services . These projects preceded the widening of Highway 403 between Highway 407 and Highway 401 / 410 , through which a high @-@ occupancy vehicle ( HOV ) lane was added in each direction ; the project started in summer of 2004 and these opened on December 13 , 2005 . The HOV lanes and the dividing Ontario Tall Wall concrete barrier were constructed using the existing right @-@ of @-@ way provided by the grass median . Highway 403 between Woodstock and Burlington was formally dedicated as the Alexander Graham Bell Parkway on April 27 , 2016 .
Sufficient right @-@ of @-@ way exists at the Highway 401 / 403 / 410 junction for a loop ramp from Highway 403 eastbound to Highway 401 westbound , and a directional ramp for the opposite movement . This would give Highway 401 eastbound traffic direct access to Cawthra Road , making it a full four @-@ way interchange . These links are to be completed as Highway 401 is widened to a 12 @-@ lane collector @-@ express system west of the interchange .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 403 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Viewing Party =
" Viewing Party " is the eighth episode of seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 134th episode overall . Written by Jon Vitti and directed by Ken Whittingham , the episode aired on NBC in the United States on November 11 , 2010 .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) and Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) invite the office over to Gabe 's house for a Glee viewing party . Michael Scott cannot handle the fact that the office workers think of Gabe as their boss instead of him . Growing more jealous of Gabe and Erin 's relationship , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) goes to extremes in order to impress her . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) helps Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) with Cece , much to her husband Jim 's chagrin .
The episode featured several direct references to the Fox series Glee , in addition to various other cultural references . " Viewing Party " was viewed by 7 @.@ 15 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 6 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , marking a decrease in the ratings when compared to the previous week . The episode was also the highest @-@ ranked NBC series of the night , and it received moderately positive reviews from critics with one main detractor ; many reviewers enjoyed the character interaction and development , although Alan Sepinwall derided the entry for being dull .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) becomes frustrated when Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) refers to Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) as his boss . Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) and Gabe invite the office over to Gabe 's house for a Glee viewing party . When the show starts , Michael and Gabe get into an argument over how high the volume should be . After taking turns raising and lowering the volume , Michael retreats to Gabe 's bedroom , hoping that his employees will follow him there . Meanwhile , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) has been having a hard time with getting her daughter Cece to go to sleep at night , so Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) picks her up to try to calm her down . Pam is stunned that Cece becomes completely quiet in Dwight 's hands .
Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) changes the channel from the Glee episode so he can check sports scores . Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) asks Jim to change the channel back to Glee , but discovers that Erin had neglected to record the episode . To avoid his co @-@ workers ' anger , Jim goes into the bedroom to see Dwight holding a sleeping Cece . Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) comes in and demands that Dwight meet her outside for fulfillment of their sex contract . Determined to put an end to Cece 's " reverse cycling " , Pam persuades Dwight to stay with the baby under the condition that Jim feeds Dwight pizza and beer while Pam goes outside to tell Angela that Dwight cannot see her .
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) is growing increasingly jealous of Gabe 's relationship with Erin . While observing Gabe 's room , Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) tells him that a Chinese virility supplement that Gabe keeps in his room is incredibly potent . Once alone Andy drinks the entire bottle of the supplement , which makes him intoxicated , prompting him to admit his jealousy to Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) . Phyllis volunteers to talk to Erin and find out if she is having sex with Gabe , but as Phyllis is fairly intoxicated herself , her inquiries segue into an explicit account of her sexual experiences with her husband Bob , which mortifies Erin . Andy 's intoxication turns into sickness , and he ultimately retreats to Gabe 's room and vomits on the bed .
Becoming irritated that no one joined in him in walking out on Gabe , Michael goes outside and pulls the cable connection , causing it to turn off . Hysteria erupts , and Michael becomes self @-@ conscious over the commotion he has caused . He goes outside to fix the cable . There he is discovered by Erin , who throughout the evening has been trying to encourage Michael to bond with Gabe . Michael , still indignant over the idea that his office views Gabe as his boss , is initially irritated by her efforts , but eventually realizes that Erin views him as a father figure . He jokes around and tells her to go to her room , leading to a bonding moment between the two . As he leaves the party , Michael brings Gabe into the joke by threatening to kill him if he breaks Erin 's heart .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jon Vitti , a long @-@ time writer of The Simpsons . It was his first writing credit for The Office after joining the staff the show in the seventh season as a consulting producer . It was directed by Ken Whittingham , who has directed several episodes of The Office previously .
The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Gabe inviting Stanley to his party and Stanley 's reaction , Michael making fun of Gabe and then noting in a talking head that he does not really know Gabe , Michael raiding Gabe 's kitchen cabinet for additional items to add to his pizza , Michael comparing himself to Tom Hanks in the 1988 film Big and Gabe to Hanks in the 1993 film Philadelphia , Michael trying his pizza , only to spit it out , and Pam and Jim marveling at CeCe sleeping .
= = Cultural references = =
Gabe compares the Scranton Strangler to the Waco siege ; Erin incorrectly believes he is mispronouncing " wacko " . Jim notes that the Scranton Strangler car chase , witnessed in the episode 's cold opening , is on the same level as " Balloon Boy " and Michael Jackson 's funeral . The Glee episode viewed during the party was the season two episode " Duets " . When turning up the volume at the party , he comments , " Turn it up to eleven . Spinal Cord " , an obvious mis @-@ reference to This Is Spinal Tap . Michael comments that his favorite character on Glee is " the invalid " , a reference to character Artie Abrams . Abrams is played by Kevin McHale . McHale appeared in the season four episode of The Office , " Launch Party " , as the pizza delivery boy .
= = Reception = =
" Viewing Party " aired on NBC on November 11 , 2010 . In its original American broadcast , it was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 15 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 6 rating / 10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that 3 @.@ 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old households watched the episode , and ten percent of that demographic had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The Baltimore NBC affiliate carried the Ravens / Falcons NFL game , so ratings for the regular Thursday NBC programming were lower than usual .
Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " . He compared it to the earlier seventh season episode " Sex Ed " , writing that both featured " a Michael story wherein a large collection of unfortunate behaviors is capped off with a moment of sincerity " ; however , McNutt criticized this narrative structure , calling it " a bit cheap " . Despite this , he felt that Dwight 's subplot " was successful in that it strayed true to the office dynamic " , and that the actual viewing of the Glee episode was a " highlight " because it showcased the characters " fall [ ing ] into some really fun ( and familiar tropes . " Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste magazine awarded the episode an 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 , and called it " a solid episode " . She argued that " it left me wanting to tune in next week and see what ’ ll happen next " , largely because of the " surprising " amount of character development .
Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four out of five stars . He was complimentary towards the main plot , and he felt empathy towards Michael because he felt that " Gabe is the absolute worst " . In addition , Forcella wrote that Pam and Jim 's subplot " had its moments , as well " , and called the scene featuring Jim feeding Dwight pizza " fantastic " . Not all reviews were glowing , however . Alan Sepinwall gave the episode a critical review , calling it " dreadful " . Although he said it was better than " Christening " , he felt that " so , so much of the episode didn 't work " . Sepinwall felt that the major problem with the episode was that it was " lifeless " and " light on jokes " , and only featured " Michael being petulant and crabby for a whole episode " , rather than featuring him in a character study . He concluded that " Ellie Kemper and Steve Carell almost were able to save the episode in the closing moments with Erin 's reaction to Michael declaring that he 's not her father , [ but ] it came far too late in an episode that was more concerned with Andy vomit humor . "
= Bart Gets an " F " =
" Bart Gets an " F " " is the first episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 11 , 1990 . In the episode , Bart fails four consecutive history exams and the school psychiatrist recommends that Bart repeat the fourth grade . Bart vows that he will start to do better and attempts to get the resident class genius Martin Prince to help him , but after that backfires , Bart prays for help . That night , Springfield is hit with a massive blizzard and the school is closed , giving Bart another day to study .
The episode was written by David M. Stern and directed by David Silverman . Mayor Quimby makes his first appearance and the episode was the first to feature a new opening sequence . " Bart Gets an " F " " was the third episode produced for the second season , but it was chosen to be the season premiere because it prominently featured Bart.
Due to the success of the first season of The Simpsons , Fox decided to switch the show 's time slot to Thursday at 8 : 00 p.m. EST where it would air opposite of NBC 's The Cosby Show , the number one show at the time . Through the summer , several news outlets published stories about the supposed " Bill vs. Bart " rivalry and heavily hyped the first episode of the second season . Several critics predicted that " Bart Gets an " F " " would do considerably worse in the ratings than The Cosby Show . However , the final Nielsen rating for the episode was 18 @.@ 4 and a 29 % share of the audience , finishing second in its time slot behind The Cosby Show , which had an 18 @.@ 5 rating and 29 % share . It finished eighth in the weekly ratings , but was watched by an estimated 33 @.@ 6 million viewers , making it the number one show in terms of actual viewers that week . It became the highest rated and most watched program in the history of the Fox Network and remained in that position until January 1 , 1995 . As of 2016 it is still the highest rated episode in the history of The Simpsons .
The episode has received positive reviews from television critics and was ranked 31st on Entertainment Weekly 's 1999 list of " The 100 Greatest Moments in Television " .
= = Plot = =
Bart presents a book report at Springfield Elementary School on Treasure Island , but it is blatantly obvious he did not read the book . After school , Mrs. Krabappel tells Bart his grades have steadily gotten worse and warns him about an upcoming exam on Colonial America , but Bart does not pay attention , and puts off studying . The next day at school , Bart feigns illness and that night , Lisa warns Bart he cannot evade his responsibilities forever , but Bart calls Milhouse for the test answers . After school the next day , an overconfident Bart hands in his test , only to get a poor score that is even worse than Milhouse 's substandard test and have Mrs. Krabappel take remedial action .
Homer and Marge are called in to meet with Mrs. Krabappel and school psychiatrist Dr. J. Loren Pryor . Dr. Pryor says that Bart is an underachiever and recommends that he should repeat the fourth @-@ grade . Homer and Marge consider that holding Bart back might not be such a bad idea . However , Bart is against this idea , and vows that he will start to do better and will pass . Left with little time to study on his own , Bart prays to God and asks that something miraculous happen to make him miss school the next day so he can have more time to study . That night , Springfield is hit with a massive blizzard , and the schools are closed .
After receiving word of the school closures , Bart prepares for a fun snow day . However , Lisa reminds him of his prayer , and Bart decides to make good with God by studying while everyone is outside having fun . The next day , he finishes the test and asks Mrs. Krabappel to grade it immediately . She does so , and tells him that he gets a 59 , failing by just one point . However , Bart becomes upset at having failed despite all his efforts . Mrs Krabappel is initially stunned and tries to console him but Bart when compares his failure to George Washington 's surrender of Fort Necessity to the French in 1754 , Mrs. Krabappel is impressed at this obscure historical reference , realizes that Bart has put more effort and gives him an extra point for demonstrating applied knowledge , pushing his grade up to a D minus , enough to pass . Proud without thinking , Bart runs throughout Springfield , exclaiming to people that he actually passed .
= = Production = =
" Bart Gets an " F " " was the first episode of The Simpsons to be written by David M. Stern . It was directed by David Silverman . Over the summer of 1990 , Bart 's rebellious nature was characterized by some parents and conservatives as a poor role model for children while several American public schools banned T @-@ shirts featuring Bart next to captions such as " I 'm Bart Simpson . Who the hell are you ? " and " Underachiever ( ' And proud of it , man ! ' ) " Several critics thought that the episode was a response to these controversies . However , executive producer James L. Brooks responded that it was not , but added , " we 're mindful of it . I do think it 's important for us that Bart does badly in school . There are students like that . Besides , I 'm very wary of television where everybody is supposed to be a role model . You don 't run across that many role models in real life . Why should television be full of them ? " Sam Simon commented that " there are themes to the shows we did last year , important themes , I think it 's a tribute to how well we executed them that nobody realized we had a point . Bart says " Cowabunga " for the second time ( the first time being in " The Telltale Head " ) , which was commonly associated with Bart through its use as a T @-@ shirt slogan . Mayor Quimby makes his first appearance in this episode , without his trademark sash that says " Mayor " . The sash was later added because the writers feared that viewers would not recognize him .
The episode was the first to feature a new opening sequence , which was shortened by fifteen seconds from its original length of roughly 1 minute , 30 seconds . The opening sequence for the first season showed Bart stealing a " Bus Stop " sign ; whilst the new sequence featured him skateboarding past several characters who had been introduced during the previous season . Starting with this season , there were three versions of the opening : a full roughly 1 minute 15 second long version , a 45 @-@ second version and a 25 @-@ second version . This gave the show 's editors more leeway . David Silverman believes that the animators began to " come into their own " as they had gotten used to the characters and were able to achieve more with character acting . During the scene where Bart delivers a speech where he states he is " dumb as a post " , Silverman wanted to cut from several angles very quickly to give a sense of anxiety . Martin Prince 's design was changed several times during the episode . There was a different model that had larger eyes and wilder hair designed for the scene where Martin betrays Bart and runs off . Silverman describes the " Snow Day " sequence as one of the hardest things he ever had to animate . It features several long pans which shows many different characters engaging in various activities and was difficult to time correctly . Bart 's fantasy where he sees the founding fathers of the United States uses muted colors and variations of red , white and blue . Silverman also had to work hard to make Bart cry without making his design look too off @-@ putting , and this is the reason why he was shown covering his face with a piece of paper .
= = First broadcast = =
= = = Move to Thursday = = =
The first season of The Simpsons had finished as high as 4th in the weekly ratings and was the Fox network 's first series to rank among a season 's top 30 highest @-@ rated shows and Bart quickly became one of the most popular characters on television in what was termed " Bartmania " . Due to the success of the first season of the show , the Fox Network decided to switch The Simpsons ' timeslot in hopes that it would steal ratings from NBC 's " powerhouse " line up , generate more advertising revenue , and result in higher ratings for Beverly Hills , 90210 and Babes , which would follow the show . The show was moved from its from 8 : 00 p.m. EST Sunday night slot to the same time on Thursday , where it would compete with NBC 's The Cosby Show , the number one show at the time . Many of the producers of The Simpsons , including James L. Brooks , were against the move . The show had been in the top 10 while airing on Sunday and they felt the move would destroy its ratings . He commented that " Suddenly a show that was a hit is fighting for its survival , [ ... ] We 're not fighting ' Cosby , ' we just want to get healthy ratings . There have been two weeks in my life when a show I was associated with was number one in the ratings , and on Sunday night , we had a chance to be the number one show in the country . I don 't think we have a chance on Thursday night . "
" Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " was the first episode produced for the season , but " Bart Gets an " F " " aired first because Bart was popular at the time and the producers had wanted to premiere with an episode involving him . It aired opposite the fourth episode of the seventh season of The Cosby Show titled " Period of Adjustment " , which saw the addition of Erika Alexander to the cast . The first 13 episodes of The Simpsons had been rerun several times through the summer , and Fox heavily promoted the first new episode since May , and news outlets published stories about the supposed " Bill vs. Bart " rivalry .
= = = Nielsen rating = = =
Reruns of The Simpsons which aired in the Thursday time slot against new episodes of The Cosby Show were ranked as low as 73rd in the weekly ratings ( compared with third place for The Cosby Show ) . Several critics predicted that " Bart Gets an " F " " would do considerably worse in the ratings than The Cosby Show . Greg Dawson of the Orlando Sentinel wrote that he would " bet dollars to plain @-@ cake doughnuts ( a Homer pet peeve ) that even a fresh Simpsons won 't come within five rating points of Cosby , which could get a 30 share in a power blackout . " Fox executive Peter Chernin said that they were hoping to establish a foothold on Thursday night and that " if we 're really lucky and very fortunate , we 're going to come in second place . "
Early overnight ratings figures for the original broadcast of the episode in 24 cities projected that The Simpsons had a 19 @.@ 9 Nielsen Rating and 30 % share of the audience while The Cosby Show had a 19 @.@ 3 Nielsen Rating and 29 % share . However , the final rating for " Bart Gets an " F " " was an 18 @.@ 4 and a 29 % share of the audience , finishing second in its time slot behind The Cosby Show , which had an 18 @.@ 5 rating and 29 % share . At the time , NBC had 208 television stations , while Fox only had 133 . It finished eighth in the weekly ratings , tied with Who 's the Boss ? , while The Cosby Show finished seventh . The rating is based on the number of household televisions that were tuned into the show , but Nielsen Media Research estimated that 33 @.@ 6 million viewers watched the episode , making it the number one show in terms of actual viewers that week ( The Cosby Show was watched by 28 @.@ 5 million , finished seventh ) . It became the highest rated and most watched program in the history of the Fox Network . It remained in that position until January 1 , 1995 , when a National Football League playoff game between the Minnesota Vikings and Chicago Bears achieved a Nielsen Rating of 21 @.@ 0 . As of 2016 it is still the highest rated episode in the history of The Simpsons .
= = Cultural references = =
Bart 's slapdash book report was on the Robert Louis Stevenson novel Treasure Island , while Martin presents Ernest Hemingway 's The Old Man and the Sea . Later on , Martin makes remarks about the forecastle of the Pequod in reference to Moby Dick .
During " Snow Day " , the citizens of Springfield sing " Winter Wonderland " .
The scene where everyone in Springfield gathers around the town circle , holds hands and begins singing is a reference to How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! .
" Hallelujah " , the chorus from George Frideric Handel 's Messiah , can be heard when it starts snowing .
In Bart 's fantasy of the improbable snowing on the 4th of July , he imagines Benjamin Franklin proclaiming he has invented the " First Ever Sled " , on which it is painted " Don 't Sled on Me " , an obvious reference to the Don 't Tread on Me banner .
= = Reception = =
The episode has received positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " A cracking opener to the second season - especially memorable for the sequence in which Bart prays for school to be cancelled the following day only to find himself exiled from the ensuing winter wonderland . " Virginia Mann of The Record felt that it was " not as wildly funny as last season 's best episodes , [ but still ] well @-@ done , humorous , and , at times , poignant . " The episode was praised for its emotional scenes . Tom Shales wrote that the episode is " not only funny , it 's touching " and praised it for its scenes where Bart prays , writing " There are few if any other entertainment shows on television that get into philosophical matters even this deeply . The Simpsons can be as thoughtful as a furrow @-@ browed Bill Moyers pontification - yet infinitely more amusing . " Hal Boedeker of The Miami Herald felt that it " pulls off a finale that 's thoughtful without being preachy , tender without being sappy . Despite the tears , the show keeps its edge . And the way TV usually smears on the schmaltz , that 's quite an achievement . " Phil Kloer of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution wrote " The episode does a good job of emphasizing the importance of studying without getting gooky . For all the talk about the anarchy of " The Simpsons , " the show sometimes has smuggled in an occasional message , as it does again . " In his book The Gospel According to the Simpsons , Mark I. Pinsky writes that " Bart Gets an " F " " offers the most detailed portrayal of the dynamic of prayer on The Simpsons . " Steve L. Case later included the episode in his book Toons That Teach , a list of 75 cartoons that help teach biblical lessons . Internet comedian , Doug Walker , considers the episode to be the best of the entire series because he found it to be the most dramatic , funny , realistic , and relatable .
The episode was ranked 31st on Entertainment Weekly 's list of " The 100 Greatest Moments in Television " , writing that it " stands as classic irreverent family TV " . In 2007 , Larina Adamson , a supervising producer on The Simpsons , named " Bart Gets an ' F ' " as her favorite episode of the series . In 2010 BBC named " Bart Gets an " F " " as one of the ten most memorable episodes of the show , calling it " insightful and poignant " .
= MediEvil : Resurrection =
MediEvil : Resurrection is a 2005 Gothic action @-@ adventure video game developed by SCE Cambridge Studio and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation Portable . It is a re @-@ imagining of the first instalment in the series , MediEvil . It was first released as a launch title on 1 September 2005 in Europe and 13 September 2005 in North America . It was also re @-@ released for the PlayStation Network in 2008 . The game is set in the medieval Kingdom of Gallowmere and centres around the charlatan protagonist , Sir Daniel Fortesque , as he makes an attempt to stop antagonist Zarok 's invasion of the kingdom whilst simultaneously redeeming himself . The game also features a variety of voice talents , including Tom Baker as the narrator and the Grim Reaper .
Development of the game began in 2003 with the original intention of releasing the game for the PlayStation 2 . Sony Computer Entertainment Europe commissioned SCE Cambridge Studio to develop a launch title for the PlayStation Portable . Due to time constraints , the Cambridge studio was given only a year to develop the game , thus they decided to remake the original MediEvil . The game was met with mixed reviews upon release , with critics mainly praising the game 's humour , voice talent and graphics but was criticised for lack of innovation and cumbersome camera controls .
= = Gameplay = =
Gameplay is similar to that of the original game in which players control Sir Daniel Fortesque as he travels through Gallowmere to stop the evil Zarok . Dan can utilise a variety of weapons , including close range weapons such as swords and axes to long ranged weapons such as throwing knives and crossbows . If Dan defeats enough enemies to collect the Chalice of Souls hidden throughout each level , he will be able to travel to the Hall of Heroes , where a legendary hero rewards him by giving him a new weapon or other helpful items . Dan possesses a single life bar throughout the game , which can be sustained by collecting Life Bottles throughout the game which can be replenished by energy vials and Life Fountains . The remastered version also includes some exclusive arcade @-@ style minigames which can also be played over online multiplayer .
MediEvil : Resurrection features many alterations to the original structure and content , such as the addition of the " Anubis Stone " sub @-@ plot which has never appeared in the original . Various levels and characters designs are altered drastically from the original , with some levels removed altogether . Resurrection 's altered plot is given a much more humorous and light @-@ hearted setting as opposed to the Gothic horror @-@ comedy of the first instalment . Unlike the original , there is no alternate ending ; Dan still enters eternal slumber regardless of whether he collects all of the chalices .
= = Plot = =
In the year 1286 , an evil sorcerer named Zarok plotted to take over the kingdom of Gallowmere with his undead army . It is told in legend that the King of Gallowmere 's champion , Sir Daniel Fortesque , led his army to victory and managed to kill Zarok before succumbing to his mortal wounds . In reality however , Dan was in fact struck down by the first arrow fired in the battle , with the king choosing to cover it up and declare Dan the " Hero of Gallowmere " . Zarok , meanwhile , was forced into hiding and was presumed dead . 100 years later , in 1386 , Zarok reappears , casting a spell over Gallowmere to awake his undead army and steal the souls of the living . However , in the process , he unwittingly revives the corpse of Dan , who has over time become a skeletal corpse , missing his jaw and the eye he lost in the battle of Gallowmere . Shortly after waking up , Dan is accompanied by Al @-@ Zalam , a genie whose powers were robbed by Zarok . Having been unable to ascend to the Hall of Heroes due to his failures in life , Dan uses this opportunity to defeat Zarok , save Gallowmere and earn his place as a true hero .
As Dan travels across Gallowmere , collecting pieces of an artefact called the ' Anubis Stone ' along the way , fighting his way through Zarok 's hordes and confronting all manners of beasts , he soon arrives at Zarok 's lair , fighting off Zarok 's skeletal warriors using the souls of his old allies retrieved by collecting the Chalices . After also managing to defeat Zarok 's champion , Lord Kardok , Zarok turns into a powerful monster , but Dan manages to defeat him . As Zarok sets his lair to self @-@ destruct , Dan is rescued by Al @-@ Zalam and the two escape , leaving Zarok 's magical influence over the land thwarted . With the magic cast on him also wearing off as a result , Dan returns to his burial chamber where he once again enters eternal slumber .
= = Development = =
Development of MediEvil : Resurrection began in 2003 at SCE Cambridge Studio . The senior management team of Sony Computer Entertainment Europe wanted a launch game for the PlayStation Portable console and ordered the studio to develop the game in time for the console 's release . Due to the short notice , the studio was given only a year to develop a game , thus it was decided that a remake of the original MediEvil would be suitable as developing an original title would take more time to develop .
Despite the success of the previous games in the MediEvil series , only three original team members were involved in the making of MediEvil : Resurrection . Chris Sorrell , the creator of MediEvil , stressed in a retrospective interview that he would have preferred to direct Resurrection if he was not at the time instructed to direct the video @-@ game adaptation of 24 . Since the release of Resurrection , Sorrell expressed disappointment with the changes made to the game and the fact that his superiors did not allow him to direct it , but praised the team 's ability for working under a time constraint . Piers Jackson was instead appointed as the producer for Resurrection . He directed the overall development of the title , working closely with a new design team led by Dominic Cahalin . Mitch Phillips , who was the character animator for the previous two instalments , was appointed as lead artist for the game . Phillips , along with Paul Arnold and Andrew Barnabas , the musical duo more commonly known as " Bob & Barn " , who composed the original soundtrack for MediEvil , were the only people from the original team to return .
According to Piers Jackson , the thrust of the design was to produce a
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the necropsy reported there were " significant changes in the brain , which may be regarded as a reason for the sudden death " . Animal welfare organizations in Germany initially accused the Berlin Zoo of negligence , claiming that Knut died of stress caused by being forced to share his enclosure with three female polar bears . The zoo denied such claims . Bear curator Heiner Klös stated they " did everything to look after Knut — it 's normal for polar bears to live with other polar bears in a zoo , and the idea was that Knut should learn social behavior and other skills from the older females ... He played with the other bears , he was relaxed and strong . "
On 1 April , pathology experts announced that Knut 's immediate cause of death was from drowning . The bear 's apparent seizure was due to his suffering from Anti @-@ NMDA receptor encephalitis , a swelling of the brain likely triggered by an infection . It is unknown what infection caused the swelling , but pathologists believe it was a virus . Although Knut showed no symptoms of being ill , pathologists believe that " this suspected infection must already have been there for a long time ... at least several weeks , possibly months . " It was also announced that had Knut not drowned after collapsing , he would not have survived the encephalitis .
Knut 's sudden death caused an international outpouring of grief . Hundreds of fans visited the zoo after the bear 's death , leaving flowers and mementos near the enclosure . The mayor of Berlin , Klaus Wowereit , stated " We all held him so dearly . He was the star of the Berlin zoos . "
In January 2014 , Knut 's full autopsy results were published by the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research in the Journal of Comparative Pathology . It was the most in @-@ depth post @-@ mortem ever carried out on an animal . The autopsy revealed that the damage to the bear ’ s brain was so severe that even if he had not fallen into the water and drowned he would have died anyway . Experts hypothesized that he was suffering from a virus that caused the encephalitis .
In August 2015 , it was discovered that Knut died of Anti @-@ NMDA receptor encephalitis . This was the first case discovered in non human animals .
= = Memorialization = =
The zoo made plans to erect a monument in Knut 's honour , financed by donations from fans . Thomas Ziolko , the chairman of the Friends of the Berlin Zoo , was quoted as saying " Knut will live on in the hearts of many visitors , but it 's important to create a memorial for coming generations to preserve the memory of this unique animal personality . " On 24 October 2012 , the Berlin Zoo unveiled a bronze sculpture by Ukrainian artist Josef Tabachnyk . " Knut – The Dreamer " shows the bear " stretching out dreamily on a rock " .
Knut 's remains were exhibited in Berlin 's Museum of Natural History , although this decision has caused some controversy with fans . A full @-@ sized sculpture covered in Knut 's pelt was presented to the public on 16 February 2013 . It went on display in the entrance hall of the museum where it was viewed free of charge until 5 May . It will later be used for an exhibition on climate change and environment protection . Museum spokeswoman Gesine Steiner stated that " It 's important to make clear we haven 't had Knut stuffed . It is an artistically valuable sculpture with the original fur . "
From 13 June till 1 September 2013 , Knut went on display in the Naturalis Biodiversity Center , the Dutch national museum of natural history in Leiden , Netherlands .
Knut returned to Berlin 's Museum of Natural History on 28 July 2014 as an exhibit for a special exhibition on “ Highlights of Taxidermy ” . The museum has won world championship prizes for taxidermy and Knut ’ s remains will be the highlight of this exhibition for years to come .
= = Effects of popularity = =
= = = Commercial success = = =
The Berlin Zoo registered " Knut " as a trademark in late March 2007 . As a result , its shares more than doubled at the Berlin Stock Exchange ; previously worth around € 2 @,@ 000 , the value closed at € 4 @,@ 820 just a week later . The zoo reported that its attendance figures for 2007 increased by an estimated 30 percent , making it the most profitable it had been in its 163 @-@ year history . Knut earned the Berlin Zoo nearly € 5 million that year , mainly thanks to an increase in visitors as well as the amount of merchandise sold .
Various companies profited from the attention surrounding Knut by developing themed products such as ringtones and cuddly toys . Plush toy company Steiff produced several Knut @-@ based plush toys in three sizes and models : sitting , standing , and lying down . The first 2 @,@ 400 produced toys , which sold exclusively at the Berlin Zoo , sold out in only four days . The money raised from the Steiff deal was intended to be used to renovate the polar bear enclosure at the zoo . Candy company Haribo released a raspberry @-@ flavored gummy bear sweet called Cuddly Knut beginning in April 2007 . They pledged to donate ten cents to the zoo for every tub of Knut sweets it sold . The gummy bears sold so well that the Bonn @-@ based company had to expand production to a second factory to deal with demand .
Knut was the subject of several popular songs in Germany , the most successful of which were the singles " Knut is Cute " and " Knut , der kleine Eisbär " ( English : " Knut , the little polar bear " ) by nine @-@ year @-@ old Kitty from Köpenick . In Britain , musical comedian Mitch Benn has performed four songs about Knut for BBC Radio 4 satirical series The Now Show : " The Baby Bear Must DIE ! " , " Knut Isn 't Cute Anymore " , " Goodbye Knut " and " Panda in Berlin " . A blog with updates about the polar bear was maintained by a journalist at the regional public broadcaster Rundfunk Berlin @-@ Brandenburg ; it was available in German , English , and Spanish . RBB was also responsible for a weekly television program dedicated to the polar bear cub that was broadcast in Germany . Knut has also been the subject of several DVDs , including one entitled " Knut – Stories from a Polar Bear 's Nursery " . On 29 March 2007 he appeared on the cover of the German Vanity Fair magazine , which included a several page spread about the cub 's life .
On 1 May 2007 , it was announced that New York @-@ based Turtle Pond Publications and the Berlin Zoo had signed a deal for the worldwide publishing rights to Knut with the hopes of raising awareness of global warming issues . Written by Craig Hatkoff and his daughters Juliana and Isabella , the 44 @-@ page book entitled Knut , der kleine Eisbärenjunge ( Little Polar Bear Knut ) includes Knut 's life story as well as previously unpublished photographs . Although several books about Knut had already been published in Germany , this book was the first to be authorized by the Berlin Zoo .
The book was published in Germany by Ravensburger on 26 July 2007 and US publishing company Scholastic released the English version , entitled Knut : How one little polar bear captivated the world , in the United States in November of the same year . Rights to the book have also been sold to publishers in Japan , England , Mexico , China , and Italy .
On 31 December 2007 , the zoo 's director confirmed the zoo had received a proposal for a film deal from Hollywood film producer Ash R. Shah , whose films include Supernova and Shark Bait , to make an animated film about the bear 's life . Shah reportedly approached the Berlin Zoo with a purported € 3 @.@ 5 million film deal . Knut made his big screen debut in the German film Knut und seine Freunde ( Knut and His Friends ) , which premiered in Berlin on 2 March 2008 . Directed by Michael Johnson , the film depicts how Knut was rescued after his mother abandoned him and also features a polar bear family from the Arctic and two brown bear cubs from Belarus .
= = = Environmental causes = = =
Dr. Gerald Uhlich , of the Berlin zoo 's board of trustees , stated that because of his vast popularity , Knut had become a means of communication and that he had the ability to " draw attention to the environment in a nice way . Not in a threatening , scolding way . " As a result , the German Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel officially adopted Knut as the mascot for a conference on endangered species to be held in Bonn in 2008 . The minister met with Knut soon after his zoo debut , commenting that although Knut was in safe hands , " worldwide polar bears are in danger and if Knut can help the cause , then that is a good thing . "
Photographer Annie Leibovitz took pictures of Knut that were used for an environmental campaign , including Vanity Fair magazine 's May 2007 Green Issue in which he was superimposed into a photograph with American actor Leonardo DiCaprio . The polar bear has also been depicted on the logo for the German Environment Minister 's campaign to help stop global warming and a 2008 special issue stamp . Officially released on 9 April , the stamp shows the roughly one @-@ year @-@ old Knut with the slogan " Natur weltweit bewahren " ( " Preserve nature worldwide " ) .
= Michael John O 'Leary =
Major Michael John O 'Leary VC ( 29 September 1890 – 2 August 1961 ) was an Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross , the most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces . O 'Leary achieved his award for single @-@ handedly charging and destroying two German barricades defended by machine gun positions near the French village of Cuinchy , in a localised operation on the Western Front during the First World War .
At the time of his action , O 'Leary was a nine @-@ year veteran of the British armed forces and by the time he retired from the British Army in 1921 , he had reached the rank of lieutenant . He served in the army again during the Second World War , although his later service was blighted by periods of ill @-@ health . At his final retirement from the military in 1945 , O 'Leary was an Army major in command of a prisoner of war camp . Between the wars , O 'Leary spent many years employed as a police officer in Canada and is sometimes considered to be a Canadian recipient of the Victoria Cross . Following the Second World War he worked as a building contractor in London , where he died in 1961 .
= = Early life = =
O 'Leary was born in 1890 , one of four children of Daniel and Margaret O 'Leary , who owned a farm at Inchigeela , near Macroom in County Cork , Ireland . Daniel O 'Leary was a fervent Irish nationalist and keen sportsman who participated in competitive weightlifting and football . Aged 16 and unwilling to continue to work on his parent 's land , Michael O 'Leary joined the Royal Navy , serving at the shore establishment HMS Vivid at Devonport for several years until rheumatism in his knees forced his departure from the service . Within a few months however , O 'Leary had again tired of the farm and joined the Irish Guards regiment of the British Army .
O 'Leary served three years with the Irish Guards , leaving in August 1913 to join the Royal Northwest Mounted Police ( RNWMP ) in Saskatchewan , Canada . Operating from Regina , Constable O 'Leary was soon commended for his bravery in capturing two criminals following a two @-@ hour gunbattle , for which service he was presented with a gold ring . At the outbreak of the First World War in Europe during August 1914 , O 'Leary was given permission to leave the RNWMP and return to Britain in order to rejoin the army as an active reservist . On 22 October , O 'Leary was mobilized and on 23 November he joined his regiment in France , then fighting with the British Expeditionary Force , entrenched in Flanders .
= = First World War service = =
During December 1914 , O 'Leary saw heavy fighting with the Irish Guards and was Mentioned in Despatches and subsequently promoted to Lance Corporal on 5 January 1915 . Three weeks later , on 30 January , the Irish Guards were ordered to prepare for an attack on German positions near Cuinchy on the La Bassée Canal , a response to a successful German operation in the area five days before . The Germans attacked first however , and on the morning of 1 February seized a stretch of canal embankment on the western end of the 2nd Brigade line from a company of Coldstream Guards . This section , known as the Hollow , was tactically important as it defended a culvert that passed underneath a railway embankment . 4 Company of Irish Guards , originally in reserve , were tasked with joining the Coldstream Guards in retaking the position at 04 : 00 , but the attack was met with heavy machine gun fire and most of the assault party , including all of the Irish Guards officers , were killed or wounded .
To replace these officers , Second Lieutenant Innes of 1 Company was ordered forward to gather the survivors and withdraw , forming up at a barricade on the edge of the Hollow . Innes regrouped the survivors and , following a heavy bombardment from supporting artillery and with his own company providing covering fire , assisted the Coldstream Guards in a second attack at 10 : 15 . Weighed down with entrenching equipment , the attacking Coldstream Guardsmen faltered and began to suffer heavy casualties . Innes too came under heavy fire from a German barricade to their front equipped with a machine gun .
Michael O 'Leary had been serving as Innes 's orderly , and had joined him in the operations earlier in the morning and again in the second attack . Charging past the rest of the assault party , O 'Leary closed with the first German barricade at the top of the railway embankment and fired five shots , killing the gun 's crew . Continuing forward , O 'Leary confronted a second barricade , also armed with a machine gun 60 yards ( 55 m ) further on and again mounted the railway embankment , to avoid the marshy ground on either side . The Germans spotted his approach , but could not bring their gun to bear on him before he opened fire , killing three soldiers and capturing two others after he ran out of ammunition . Reportedly , O 'Leary had made his advance on the second barricade " intent upon killing another German to whom he had taken a dislike " .
Having disabled both guns and enabled the recapture of the British position , O 'Leary then returned to his unit with his prisoners , apparently " as cool as if he had been for a walk in the park . " For his actions , O 'Leary received a battlefield promotion to sergeant on 4 February and was recommended for the Victoria Cross , which was gazetted on 18 February :
= = = Michael O 'Leary song = = =
In 1915 , Jack Judge recorded Michael O 'Leary , V.C. , a song about O 'Leary 's role in the war effort .
= = = Later war service = = =
Returning to Britain to receive his medal from King George V at Buckingham Palace on 22 June 1915 , O 'Leary was given a grand reception attended by thousands of Londoners in Hyde Park on 10 July . He was also the subject of much patriotic writing , including a poem in the Daily Mail and the short play O 'Flaherty V.C. by George Bernard Shaw . Tributes came from numerous prominent figures of the day , including Sir Arthur Conan Doyle who said that " No writer in fiction would dare to fasten such an achievement on any of his characters , but the Irish have always had a reputation of being wonderful fighters , and Lance @-@ Corporal Michael O ’ Leary is clearly one of them . " and Thomas Scanlan who said : " I heard early this week of the great achievements of the Irish Guards . All Ireland is proud of O ’ Leary . He fully deserves the high honour that has been conferred upon him . Ireland is grateful to him . " His reception was repeated in Macroom when he visited Ireland , with crowds turning out to applaud him . Daniel O 'Leary was interviewed in a local newspaper regarding his son 's exploit but was reportedly unimpressed , commenting : " I am surprised he didn 't do more . I often laid out twenty men myself with a stick coming from Macroom Fair , and it is a bad trial of Mick that he could kill only eight , and he having a rifle and bayonet . "
O 'Leary was further rewarded for his service , being advanced to a commissioned rank as a second lieutenant with the Connaught Rangers , and he was also presented with a Russian decoration , the Cross of St. George ( third class ) . Despite his popularity with the crowds in London and Macroom , he was jeered by Ulster Volunteers at a recruitment drive in Ballaghaderrin during the autumn of 1915 . This treatment caused such a scandal that it was raised in the Houses of Parliament in December .
In 1916 , O 'Leary travelled to Salonika with the 5th battalion of the Connaught Rangers to serve in the Balkans campaign , remaining in theatre until the end of the war , following which he was stationed in Dover with the 2nd battalion until demobilised in 1921 . During his service in the Balkans , O 'Leary contracted malaria , which was to have severe negative effects on his health for the rest of his life .
He was in the same regiment as the British actor Stanley Holloway and both served together in France . After the war ended , they both remained close friends and Holloway often stayed in The May Fair where O 'Leary later worked as a concierge .
= = Later life = =
Leaving his wife Greta and their two children in Britain , O 'Leary returned to Canada in March 1921 with the purported intention of rejoining the RNWMP , newly renamed the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . For unknown reasons , this plan came to nothing and after some months giving lectures on his war service and working in a publishing house , O 'Leary joined the Ontario Provincial Police , charged with enforcing the prohibition laws . In 1924 , with his family recently arrived from England , O 'Leary left the Ontario police force and became a police sergeant with the Michigan Central Railway in Bridgeburg , Ontario , receiving £ 33 a month .
In 1925 , O 'Leary was the subject of several scandals , being arrested for smuggling illegal immigrants and later for irregularities in his investigations . Although he was acquitted both times , he spent a week in prison following the second arrest and lost his job with the railway . Several months later , the municipal authorities in Hamilton , Ontario loaned him £ 70 to pay for him and his family to return to Ireland . Although his family sailed on the SS Leticia , O 'Leary remained in Ontario , working with the attorney general 's office .
With his health in serious decline , the British Legion arranged for O 'Leary to return to Britain and work in their poppy factory . By 1932 , O 'Leary was living in Southborne Avenue in Colindale , had regained his health and found employment as a commissionaire at The May Fair in London , at which he was involved in charitable events for wounded servicemen . With the mobilisation of the British Army in 1939 , O 'Leary returned to military service as a captain in the Middlesex Regiment . O 'Leary was sent to France as part of the British Expeditionary Force but had returned to Britain before the Battle of France due to a recurrence of his malaria .
No longer fit for full active service , O 'Leary was transferred to the Pioneer Corps and took command of a prisoner of war camp in Southern England . In 1945 , he was discharged from the military as unfit for duty on medical grounds as a major and found work as a building contractor , in which career he remained until his retirement in 1954 . Two of O 'Leary 's sons had also served in the military during the war , with both receiving Distinguished Flying Crosses for their actions . As a Victoria Cross recipient , O 'Leary joined the VE day parade in 1946 , but at the 1956 Centenary VC review his place was taken by an imposter travelling in a bath chair . With his health again declining , O 'Leary moved to Limesdale Gardens in Edgware shortly before his death in 1961 at the Whittington Hospital in Islington .
O 'Leary was buried at Mill Hill Cemetery following a funeral service at the Roman Catholic Annunciation Church in Burnt Oak which was attended by an honour guard from the Irish Guards and six of his children . His medals were later presented to the Irish Guards , and are on display at the Regimental Headquarters . He is also remembered in his birthplace , the macroom @-@ online website listing him as a prominent citizen and states that " while many might consider he was fighting with the wrong army , in the wrong war , he was nevertheless a very brave , resourceful and capable soldieer [ sic ] who deserved the honours bestowed upon him . "
= Mari , Syria =
Mari ( modern Tell Hariri ) , was an ancient Semitic city in Syria . Its remains constitute a tell located 11 kilometers north @-@ west of Abu Kamal on the Euphrates river western bank , some 120 kilometers southeast of Deir ez @-@ Zor . It flourished as a trade center and hegemonic state between 2900 BC and 1759 BC . As a purposely built city , the existence of Mari was related to its position in the middle of the Euphrates trade routes ; this position made it an intermediary between Sumer in the south and the Levant in the west .
Mari was first abandoned in the middle of the 26th century BC but was rebuilt and became the capital of a hegemonic East @-@ Semitic state before 2500 BC . This second Mari engaged in a long war with its rival Ebla , and is known for its strong affinity with the Sumerian culture . It was destroyed in the 23rd century BC by the Akkadians who allowed the city to be rebuilt and appointed a military governor bearing the title of Shakkanakku ( military governor ) . The governors later became independent with the rapid disintegration of the Akkadian empire and rebuilt the city as a regional center in the middle Euphrates valley . The Shakkanakkus ruled Mari until the second half of the 19th century BC when the dynasty collapsed for unknown reasons . A short time after the Shakkanakku collapse , Mari became the capital of the Amorite Lim dynasty . The Amorite Mari was short lived as it was annexed by Babylonia in c . 1761 BC , but the city survived as a small settlement under the rule of the Babylonians and the Assyrians before being abandoned and forgotten during the Hellenistic period .
The Mariotes worshiped both Semitic and Sumerian deities and established their city as a center of old trade . However , although the pre @-@ Amorite periods were characterized by heavy Sumerian cultural influence , Mari was not a city of Sumerian immigrants but rather a Semitic speaking nation that used a dialect similar to Eblaite . The Amorites were West @-@ Semites who began to settle the area before the 21st century BC ; by the Lim dynasty 's era ( c . 1830 BC ) , they became the dominant population in the Fertile Crescent .
Mari 's discovery in 1933 provided an important insight into the geopolitical map of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria , due to the discovery of more than 25 @,@ 000 tablets that contained important information about the administration of state during the second millennium BC and the nature of diplomatic relations between the political entities in the region . They also revealed the wide trading networks of the 18th century BC , which connected areas as far as Afghanistan in Southern Asia and Crete in the Mediterranean region .
= = History = =
The name of the city can be traced to Mer , an ancient storm deity of northern Mesopotamia and Syria who was considered the patron deity of the city , Georges Dossin noted that the name of the city was spelled identically like the name of the storm god and concluded that Mari was named after him .
= = = The first kingdom = = =
Mari is not considered a small settlement that later grew , but rather a new city that was purposely founded during the Mesopotamian Early Dynastic period I c . 2900 BC , to control the waterways of the Euphrates trade routes that connect the Levant with the Sumerian south . The city was built about 1 to 2 kilometers away from the Euphrates river to protect it from floods , and was connected to the river by an artificial canal that was between 7 and 10 kilometers long depending on which old meander it used to be attached with , which is hard to identify today .
The city is difficult to excavate , as it is buried deep under the later layers of habitation . A defensive system against floods , composed of a circular embankment was unearthed , in addition to a circular 6 @.@ 7 m thick internal rampart to protect the city from enemies . An area of 300 meters long filled with gardens and craftsmen quarters , separated the outer embankment from the inner rampart which had a height of 8 to 10 meters , and was strengthened by defensive towers . Other findings includes one of the city gates , a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate , in addition to residential houses . Mari had a central mound , however no temple or palaces have been unearthed , although a large building that seem to have been an administrative one was unearthed , this building had stone foundations and dimensions of ( 32 meters X 25 meters ) , with rooms up to 12 meters long and 6 meters wide . The city was abandoned at the end of the Early Dynastic period II c . 2550 BC for unknown reasons .
= = = The second kingdom = = =
Around the beginning of the Early Dynastic period III ( earlier than 2500 BC ) , Mari was rebuilt and populated again . The new city kept many of the first city exterior features , including the internal rampart and gate . Also kept , the outer circular embankment measuring 1 @.@ 9 km in diameter , which was topped by a wall that is two meters thick , suitable for the protection of archers .
However , the internal structure was completely changed , the city was carefully planned ; first to be built were the streets that descends from the elevated center into the gates , assuring the drainage of rain water .
At the heart of the city , a royal palace was built which also served as a temple . Four successive architectural levels from the second kingdom 's palace have been unearthed ( the oldest is designated P3 , while the latest is P0 ) , and the last two levels are dated to the Akkadian period . The first two levels were excavated , the findings includes a temple named Enceinte Sacrée , which was the largest in the city but it is unknown for whom it was dedicated . Also unearthed , a pillared throne room and a hall that have three double wood pillars leading to the temple .
Six more temples were discovered in the city , including the temple called the Massif Rouge ( to whom it was dedicated is unknown ) , and temples dedicated for Ninni @-@ Zaza , Ishtarat , Ishtar , Ninhursag and Shamash . All the temples were located in the center of the city except for the Ishtar temple , the area between the Enceinte Sacrée and the Massif Rouge is considered the administrative center of the high priest .
The second kingdom appears to be a powerful and prosperous political center , kings held the title of Lugal , and many are attested in the city , but the most important source is the letter of king Enna @-@ Dagan c . 2350 BC , which was sent to Irkab @-@ Damu of Ebla , and in it , the Mariote king mentions his predecessors and their military achievements . However , the reading of this letter is still problematic and many interpretations have been presented by scholars .
= = = = Mari @-@ Ebla war = = = =
The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna @-@ Dagan is Ansud , who is mentioned as attacking Ebla , the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a long war , and conquering many of Ebla 's cities , including the land of Belan . The next king mentioned in the letter is Saʿumu , who conquered the lands of Ra 'ak and Nirum , but king Kun @-@ Damu of Ebla defeated Mari in the middle of the 25th century BC . The war continued with Išhtup @-@ Išar of Mari conquest of Emar , at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid @-@ 24th century BC . King Igrish @-@ Halam of Ebla had to pay tribute to Iblul @-@ Il of Mari , who is mentioned in the letter conquering many of Ebla 's cities and campaigning in the Burman region .
Enna @-@ Dagan also received tribute , and his reign fell entirely within the reign of Irkab @-@ Damu of Ebla , who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute . Mari defeated Ebla 's ally Nagar in year seven of the Eblaite vizier Ibrium 's term , causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia . The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizier Ibbi @-@ Sipish made an alliance with Nagar and Kish to defeat Mari in a battle near Terqa . Ebla itself suffered its first destruction a few years after Terqa in c . 2300 BC , during the reign of the Mariote king Hidar .
According to Alfonso Archi , Hidar was succeeded by Isqi @-@ Mari whose royal seal was discovered and it depicts battle scenes , causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general . Just a decade after Ebla 's destruction ( c . 2300 BC middle chronology ) , Mari itself was destroyed and burned by Sargon of Akkad , Michael Astour give the date as c . 2265 BC ( short chronology ) .
= = = The third kingdom = = =
Mari was deserted for two generations before being restored by the Akkadian king Manishtushu . A governor was appointed to govern the city who held the title " Shakkanakku " ( military governor ) . Akkad kept direct control over the city , which is evident by Naram @-@ Sin of Akkad 's appointment of two of his daughters to priestly offices in the city .
= = = = The Shakkanakku dynasty = = = =
The first member of the Shakkanakku dynasty on the lists is Ididish who was appointed in c . 2266 BC , according to the lists , Ididish ruled for 60 years , and was succeeded by his son making the position hereditary .
The third Mari followed the second city in terms of general structure , phase P0 of the old royal palace was replaced by a new palace for the Shakkanakku . Another smaller palace was built in the eastern part of the city , and contained royal burials that date to the former periods . The ramparts were rebuilt and strengthened while the embankment was turned into a defensive wall that reached 10 meters in width . The former sacred inclosure was maintained , so was the temple of Ninhursag . However , the temples of Ninni @-@ Zaza and Ishtarat disappeared , while a new temple called the " temple of lions " ( dedicated to Dagan ) , was built by the Shakkanakku Ishtup @-@ Ilum and attached to it , was a rectangular terrace ( ziggurat ) that measured 40 x 20 meters for sacrifices .
Akkad disintegrated following Shar @-@ Kali @-@ Sharri 's reign , and Mari gained its independence , but the use of the Shakkanakku title continued during the following Third Dynasty of Ur period . A princess of Mari married the son of king Ur @-@ Nammu of Ur , and Mari was nominally under Ur hegemony . However , the vassalage did not impede the independence of Mari , and some Shakkanakkus used the royal title Lugal in their votive inscriptions , while using the title of Shakkanakku in their correspondence with the Ur 's court . The dynasty ended for unknown reasons not long before the establishment of the next dynasty , which took place in the second half of the 19th century BC .
= = = = The Lim dynasty = = = =
The second millennium BC in the Fertile Crescent was characterized by the expansion of the Amorites , which culminated with them dominating and ruling most of the region , including Mari which in c . 1830 BC , became the seat of the Amorite Lim dynasty under king Yaggid @-@ Lim . However , the Epigraphycal and archaeological evidences showed a high degree of continuity between the Shakkanakku and the Amorite eras .
Yaggid @-@ Lim was the ruler of Suprum before establishing himself in Mari , he entered an alliance with Ila @-@ kabkabu of Ekallatum , but the relations between the two monarchs changed to an open war . The conflict ended with Ila @-@ kabkabu capturing Yaggid @-@ Lim 's heir Yahdun @-@ Lim and according to a tablet found in Mari , Yaggid @-@ Lim who survived Ila @-@ kabkabu was killed by his servants . However , in c . 1820 BC Yahdun @-@ Lim was firmly in control as king of Mari .
Yahdun @-@ Lim started his reign by subduing seven of his rebelling tribal leaders , and rebuilding the walls of Mari and Terqa in addition to building a new fort which he named Dur @-@ Yahdun @-@ Lim . He then expanded west and claimed to have reached the Mediterranean , however he later had to face a rebellion by the Banu @-@ Yamina nomads who were centered at Tuttul , and the rebels were supported by Yamhad 's king Sumu @-@ Epuh , whose interests were threatened by the recently established alliance between Yahdun @-@ Lim and Eshnunna . Yahdun @-@ Lim defeated the Yamina but an open war with Yamhad was avoided , as the Mariote king became occupied by his rivalry with Shamshi @-@ Adad I of Assyria , the son of the late Ila @-@ kabkabu . The war ended in a defeat for Mari , and Yahdun @-@ Lim was assassinated in c . 1798 BC by his possible son Sumu @-@ Yamam , who himself got assassinated two years after ascending the throne while Shamshi @-@ Adad advanced and annexed Mari .
= = = = = The Assyrian era and the Lim restoration = = = = =
Shamshi @-@ Adad appointed his son Yasmah @-@ Adad on the throne of Mari , the new king married Yahdun @-@ Lim 's daughter , while the rest of the Lim family took refuge in Yamhad , and the annexation was officially justified by what Shamshi @-@ Adad considered sinful acts on the side of the Lim family . To strengthen his position against his new enemy Yamhad , Shamshi @-@ Adad married Yasmah @-@ Adad to Betlum , the daughter of Ishi @-@ Adad of Qatna . However , Yasmah @-@ Adad neglected his bride causing a crisis with Qatna , and he proved to be an unable leader causing the rage of his father who died in c . 1776 BC , while the armies of Yarim @-@ Lim I of Yamhad were advancing in support of Zimri @-@ Lim , the heir of the Lim dynasty .
As Zimri @-@ Lim advanced , a leader of the Banu @-@ Simaal ( Zimri @-@ Lim 's tribe ) overthrew Yasmah @-@ Adad , opening the road for Zimri @-@ Lim who arrived a few months after Yasmah @-@ Adad 's escape , and married princess Shibtu the daughter of Yarim @-@ Lim I a short time after his enthronement in c . 1776 BC . Zimri @-@ Lim 's ascension to the throne with the help of Yarim @-@ Lim I affected Mari 's status , Zimri @-@ Lim referred to Yarim @-@ Lim as his father , and the Yamhadite king was able to order Mari as the mediator between Yamhad 's main deity Hadad and Zimri @-@ Lim , who declared himself a servant of Hadad .
Zimri @-@ Lim started his reign with a campaign against the
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authority of Ashur @-@ dan III , styled himself the governor of the lands of Suhu and Mari , so did his son Ninurta @-@ Kudurri @-@ Usur . However , by that time , Mari was known to be located in the so @-@ called Land of Laqe , making it unlikely that the Usur family actually controlled it , and suggesting that the title was employed out of historical reasons . The city continued as a small settlement until the Hellenistic period before disappearing from records .
= = People , language and government = =
The founders of the first city may have been Sumerians or more probably East Semitic speaking people from Terqa in the north . I. J. Gelb relates Mari 's foundation with the Kish civilization , which was a cultural entity of East Semitic speaking populations , that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to Ebla in the western Levant .
At its height , the second city was the home of about 40 @,@ 000 people . This population was East @-@ Semitic speaking one , and used a dialect much similar to the language of Ebla ( the Eblaite language ) , while the Shakkanakku period had an East @-@ Semitic Akkadian speaking population . West Semitic names started to be attested in Mari since the second kingdom era , and by the middle Bronze @-@ Age , the west Semitic Amorite tribes became the majority of the pastoral groups in the middle Euphrates and Khabur valleys . Amorite names started to be observed in the city toward the end of the Shakkanakku period , even among the ruling dynasty members .
During the Lim era , the population became predominantly Amorite but also included Akkadian named people , and although the Amorite language became the dominant tongue , Akkadian remained the language of writing . The pastoral Amorites in Mari were called the Haneans , a term that indicate nomads in general , those Haneans were split into the Banu @-@ Yamina ( sons of the right ) and Banu @-@ Simaal ( sons of the left ) , with the ruling house belonging to the Banu @-@ Simaal branch . The kingdom was also a home to tribes of Suteans who lived in the district of Terqa .
Mari was an absolute monarchy , with the king controlling every aspect of the administration , helped by the scribes who played the role of administrators . During the Lim era , Mari was divided into four provinces in addition to the capital , the provincial seats were located at Terqa , Saggaratum , Qattunan and Tuttul . Each province had its own bureaucracy , the government supplied the villagers with ploughs and agricultural equipments , in return for a share in the harvest .
= = = Kings of Mari = = =
The Sumerian King List ( SKL ) records a dynasty of six kings from Mari enjoying hegemony between the dynasty of Adab and the dynasty of Kish . The names of the Mariote kings were damaged on the early copies of the list , and those kings were correlated with historical kings that belonged to the second city . However , an undamaged copy of the list that date to the old Babylonian period was discovered in Shubat @-@ Enlil , and the names bears no resemblance to any of the historically attested monarchs of the second city , indicating that the compilers of the list had an older and probably a legendary dynasty in mind , that predate the second city .
The chronological order of the kings from the second kingdom era is highly uncertain ; nevertheless , it is assumed that the letter of Enna @-@ Dagan lists them in a chronological order . Many of the kings were attested through their own votive objects discovered in the city , and the dates are highly speculative .
For the Shakkanakkus , the lists are incomplete and after Hanun @-@ Dagan who ruled at the end of the Ur era c . 2008 BC ( c . 1920 BC Short chronology ) , they become full of lacunae . Roughly 13 more Shakkanakkus succeeded Hanun @-@ Dagan but only few are known , with the last known one reigning not too long before the reign of Yaggid @-@ Lim who founded the Lim dynasty in c . 1830 BC .
= = Culture and religion = =
The first and second kingdoms were heavily influenced by the Sumerian south . The society was led by an urban oligarchy , and the citizens were well known for elaborate hair styles and dress . The calendar was based on a solar year divided into twelve months , and was the same calendar used in Ebla " the old Eblaite calendar " . Scribes wrote in Sumerian language and the art was indistinguishable from Sumerian art , so was the architectural style .
Mesopotamian influence continued to affect Mari 's culture during the Amorite period , which is evident in the Babylonian scribal style used in the city . However , it was less influential than the former periods and a distinct Syrian style prevailed , which is noticeable in the seals of kings , which reflect a clear Syrian origin . The society was a tribal one , it consisted mostly of farmers and nomads ( Haneans ) , and in contrast to Mesopotamia , the temple had a minor role in everyday life as the power was mostly invested in the palace . Women enjoyed a relative equality to men , queen Shibtu ruled in her husband 's name while he was away , and had an extensive administrative role and authority over her husband 's highest officials .
The Pantheon included both Sumerian and Semitic deities , and throughout most of its history , Dagan was Mari 's head of the Pantheon , while Mer was the patron deity . Other deities included the Semitic deities ; Ishtar the goddess of fertility , Athtar , and Shamash , the Sun god who was regarded among the city most important deities , and believed to be all @-@ knowing and all @-@ seeing . Sumerian deities included Ninhursag , Dumuzi , Enki , Anu , and Enlil . Prophecy had an important role for the society , temples included prophets , who gave council to the king and participated in the religious festivals . Ornina , the singer of Ishtar temple , was one of the oldest multi @-@ talented women who has a prominent statue depicting her playing music during the reign of Iblul @-@ Il .
= = Economy = =
The first Mari provided the oldest wheels workshop to be discovered in Syria , and was a center of bronze metallurgy . The city also contained districts devoted to smelting , dyeing and pottery manufacturing , charcoal was brought by river boats from the upper Khabur and Euphrates area .
The second kingdom 's economy was based on both agriculture and trade . The economy was centralized and directed through a communal organization , where grains were stored in communal granaries , and distributed amongst the population according to social statues . The organization also controlled the animal herds in the kingdom . Some people were directly connected to the palace instead of the communal organization , those included the metal and textile producers and the military officials . Ebla was Mari 's most important trading partner and rival , Mari 's position made it an important trading center as it controlled the road linking between the Levant and Mesopotamia .
The Amorite Mari maintained the older aspects of the economy , which was still largely based on irrigated agriculture along the Euphrates valley . The city kept its trading role and was a center for merchants from Babylonia and other kingdoms , it received goods from the south and east through riverboats and distributed them north , north west and west . The main merchandises handled by Mari were metals and tin imported from the Iranian Plateau and then exported west as far as Crete . Other goods included copper from Cyprus , silver from Anatolia , woods from Lebanon , gold from Egypt , olive oil , wine , and textiles in addition to precious stones from modern Afghanistan .
= = Excavations and archive = =
Mari was discovered in 1933 , on the eastern flank of Syria , near the Iraqi border . A Bedouin tribe was digging through a mound called Tell Hariri for a gravestone that would be used for a recently deceased tribesman , when they came across a headless statue . After the news reached the French authorities currently in control of Syria , the report was investigated , and digging on the site was started on December 14 , 1933 by archaeologists from the Louvre in Paris . Discoveries came quickly , with the temple of Ishtar being discovered in the next month . Mari was classified by the archaeologists as the " most westerly outpost of Sumerian culture " .
Since the beginning of excavations , over 25 @,@ 000 clay tablets in Akkadian language written in cuneiform were discovered . Finds from the excavation are on display in the Louvre , the National Museum of Aleppo , the National Museum of Damascus , and the Deir ez @-@ Zor Museum . In the latter , the southern façade of the Court of the Palms room from Zimri @-@ Lim 's palace has been reconstructed , including the wall paintings .
Mari has been excavated in annual campaigns between 1933 @-@ 1939 , 1951 @-@ 1956 , and since 1960 , and the first 21 seasons up to 1975 were led by André Parrot , followed by Jean @-@ Claude Margueron ( until 2004 ) , and Pascal Butterlin ( starting in 2005 ) . A journal devoted to the site since 1982 , is Mari : Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires . Archaeologists have tried to determine how many layers the site descends , according to French archaeologist André Parrot , " each time a vertical probe was commenced in order to trace the site 's history down to virgin soil , such important discoveries were made that horizontal digging had to be resumed . "
= = = Mari tablets = = =
The tablets were written in Akkadian , and they give informations about the kingdom , its customs , and the names of people who lived during that time . More than 3000 are letters , the remainder includes administrative , economic , and judicial texts . The tablets , according to André Parrot , " brought about a complete revision of the historical dating of the ancient Near East and provided more than 500 new place names , enough to redraw or even draw up the geographical map of the ancient world . " Almost all the tablets found were dated to the last 50 years of Mari 's independence ( c . 1800 – 1750 BC ) , and most have now been published . The language of the texts is official Akkadian but proper names and hints in syntax show that the common language of Mari 's inhabitants was Northwest Semitic .
= = Current situation = =
As a result of the Syrian Civil War , excavations stopped , and the site came under the control of armed gangs , and witnessed a large scale looting . An official report revealed that the robbers are focusing on the royal palace , the public baths , the temple of Ishtar and the temple of Dagan .
= OMG ( song ) =
For other songs titled OMG , see OMG
" OMG " is a song by American recording artist Usher and American rapper will.i.am , who also wrote and produced the song . It uses the auto @-@ tune effect in several lines , as well as Jock Jams @-@ esque sports arena chanting . It was released on March 22 , 2010 as the first worldwide single off his sixth studio album , Raymond v. Raymond , and the fourth single overall , following the three US singles " Papers " , " Hey Daddy ( Daddy 's Home ) " , and " Lil Freak " . The song was met with a mixed reception from critics , who criticized the use of auto @-@ tune , but commended the song 's dance and club vibe . The song marks the second time that Usher has collaborated with will.i.am , following the single " What 's Your Name " , from his previous album Here I Stand ( 2008 ) .
" OMG " topped the charts in Australia , Ireland , New Zealand , the United Kingdom and the United States . The song became his ninth number @-@ one hit in the United States , making him the first 2010s artist to collect number @-@ one singles in three consecutive decades . He became only the fourth artist of all @-@ time to achieve that feat . Usher also became the third artist to have at least one number @-@ one song from five consecutive studio albums . The song 's choreography and dance @-@ heavy accompanying music video has been compared by critics to that of " Yeah ! " . Usher performed the song live several times including on the ninth season of American Idol with will.i.am. He also performed the song as a part of a medley during his critically acclaimed performance at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards . " OMG " , was named the fifth best selling song of 2010 in the US , selling 3 @.@ 8 million units . The song sold 6 @.@ 9 million copies worldwide during that year .
= = Production and composition = =
" OMG was written and produced by The Black Eyed Peas frontman , will.i.am. The tune was recorded at Chung King Studios , New York City . Dylan " 3 @-@ D " Dresdow mixed the record at Paper V.U. Studios , North Hollywood . The vocal sample of a crowd shouting " owowowo " used in the song was recorded by will.i.am while performing with The Black Eyed Peas on the French TV show Taratata .
" OMG " is a midtempo pop song , drawing from the subgenres of dance @-@ pop and synthpop , and is also influenced by R & B. The song also infuses hints of Eurodance . Several lines feature the Auto @-@ Tune vocal effect , and makes use of " hypnotic " hand claps , and Jock Jams @-@ esque arena chanting . The song is set in common time , and has a tempo of 130 beats per minute . It is written in the key of E minor , and Usher 's vocals span from the low note of G3 to high note of E5 . It follows the chord progression Em – D – Bm7 – C6 . According to James Reed of the Boston Globe , Usher is featured in a staccato delivery over the song 's minimalist dance beat . " will.i.am begins the song with the line , " Oh my gosh " then Usher starts singing the chorus . He performs his verse and the second chorus , before will.i.am gives his verse . " OMG " concludes with an extended final chorus . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times said that the lyrics of the song detail Usher 's encounter with a woman in a club .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
The song has garnered mixed reception , with most critics disapproving of the auto @-@ tuned vocals , and the production and appearance by will.i.am. Edna Gundersen of USA Today said that Usher seemed " disengaged " on the song , and allowed will.i.am. to " bludgeon " the song with auto @-@ tune . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said the song was one of the tracks where production fell short on Raymond v. Raymond , calling the song another auto @-@ tuned " formulaic chant " by will.i.am. The New York Daily News said that the song is " as annoying as the tech @-@ speak it mimics . " Andrew Winistorfer of Prefix Magazine preferred " Lil Freak " to be the album 's big single , stating that the song " doesn 't come close to matching the filthy heights of " Little Freak , " [ sic ] but the sports arena chanting thing hasn 't been done this well since the ' 90s when Jock Jams were enormous . " Winistorfer also said that Usher brought back his " bad taste " in collaborators since Lil Jon on " Yeah ! " , saying that having the latter on this song would be an improvement .
James Reed of the Boston Globe said that Usher " fares better " on the collaboration . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times commended the song 's " thumping " groove . Gail Mitchell of Billboard said that Usher " pumps up the beat on the infectious club anthem . " Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian , called the track " irresistible " . Monica Herrera of Billboard magazine said the song , like " Yeah ! " , appealed to a broader audience and attuned to clubs . Herrera also said that " the lyrics are hypnotic hand claps and soccer @-@ game chants that fade in and out to keep the party going " .
= = = Controversy = = =
In 2010 , WYOY disc jockeys compared part of Usher 's verse to a song sung by Homer Simpson in " Dude , Where 's My Ranch ? " , a 2003 episode of television comedy The Simpsons . The cadences of the line , " Honey got a booty like pow , pow , pow . Honey got some boobies like wow , oh wow " were compared to those of Simpson 's tune , " Christmas in December , wow wow wow . Give me tons of presents , now now now . " Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly disagreed , calling the likenesses " a random coincidence " .
= = Chart performance = =
The song debuted at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100 selling 130 @,@ 000 units in its first week . The song became the third @-@ highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100 of Usher 's career , behind 1997 's " Nice & Slow " at number nine , and 1998 's " My Way " at eight . For the week ending May 15 , 2010 , the song lifted to number one on the chart , becoming Usher 's ninth number @-@ one single and Will.i.am 's first number one single as a solo artist ( or without his group , The Black eyed Peas ) . The song collected airplay and digital gainer honors , moving fourteen to seven on the Hot 100 Airplay chart , and two to one on the Hot Digital Songs chart . The song later topped both charts . By March 2011 , the song has reached 4 million in sales , and as of May 2013 , the song has sold 4 @,@ 719 @,@ 000 copies .
With the song , Usher tied with the Bee Gees , Elton John , and Paul McCartney for ninth among artists all time with the most Hot 100 hits . Usher also became the third artist , behind McCartney and Michael Jackson to collect at least one number @-@ one single from five consecutive albums . The song made Usher the first artist in the 2010s to have a number @-@ one single in three consecutive decades , Usher 's being the 1990s , 2000s and 2010s . He became only the fifth artist of all time to accomplish this , the others being Stevie Wonder in the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s ; Michael Jackson in the 1970s , 1980s , and 1990s ; and Madonna and Janet Jackson in the 1980s , 1990s and 2000s . " OMG " was the second shortest title to lead the chart , tying Jackson 's " Ben " , " Bad " , and " ABC " with the Jackson 5 , with Britney Spears ' " 3 " being the chart @-@ topper with the shortest title .
The song charted at number three on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , two on the Pop Songs chart , and three on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . It also topped the Rhythmic Top 40 , making Usher the first artist to collect ten number ones on the chart , above 50 Cent , Beyoncé , Nelly , T @-@ Pain , and Mariah Carey , each with seven . Usher led first on the chart with " You Make Me Wanna " for thirteen weeks from 1997 – 1998 and " Love in This Club " featuring Young Jeezy in 2008 .
" OMG " reached number two in Canada , and was certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . It was later upgraded to 2x Platinum for shipments over 160 @,@ 000 copies . It sold 223 @,@ 000 copies during 2010 in Canada . Internationally , " OMG " charted across Europe , reaching number one in the Ireland , and United Kingdom where it became the third best selling song of 2010 . It also charted moderately in other countries , allowing it to reach a peak of six on the European Hot 100 . In Australia and New Zealand the song placed at the top of the charts . It was certified 2 × Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , and Platinum in New Zealand by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for shipments of 15 @,@ 000 units . It was later upgraded to 5 × Platinum in Australia for shipments over 350 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
Usher and will.i.am shot the video the weekend of March 6 , 2010 . The video was directed by Anthony Mandler . In an interview with Rap @-@ Up , Mandler said about the concept of the video : " ... The video is a spectacle . It really emphasizes what we love about Usher and the character and the icon that he is , and most importantly , it ’ s really a video that showcases his superstardom " . The video was released on March 30 , 2010 , on VEVO and AMTV . According to Mandler , the original idea for the video was citing Max Headroom , a fictional artificial intelligence character from 1980s British television and film . The reference is made when Usher is seen on a flickering television at the beginning of the video . Mandler specified , commenting , " Max Headroom was always in his room , " he continued , " this unidentifiable room , ' 80s shapes . I used that for inspiration . " Usher stated that he wanted to do something theatrical and fun , and that while will.i.am. brought the international sound , he wanted to bring the producer into his world , " working off of each other and playing off of each other as artists , but the cinematography would be artistic and incredible . " Mandler described the visuals in the clip as " Hitchcock @-@ ian " , as well as simply captuiring Usher in his element , as he said he wanted the R & B singer 's talent to take over . He further explained , stating ,
" The concept was to create a world where we put Usher in a space where he does what I think he does better than anyone else in the world , which is perform at a level and magnitude of a superstar and take us , the viewer , whether audible or visually , on a journey , not a ride . And , in that , I wanted to create an unpredictability , so one set leads to another and another , and you never know what 's gonna happen . Along the way , Usher becomes our guide . We 're so focused on him , we don 't notice the change . The thing is unfolding little by little , and you can 't quite see far enough ahead to know what 's gonna come next . "
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video begins with Usher flickering on a television in a room , before we see him in a scene dancing with blue flashing lights , and will.i.am. is shown in a similar room with red flashing lights . Usher is then shown with female background dancers in a white room . In the scene he dons a pair of glasses which show the dancers performing through the lens . Usher then dances outside in front of a concrete wall , with male background dancers appearing as shadows . As will.i.am. performs his verse , he and Usher are seen in their corresponding rooms with flashing lights . After this , Usher puffs a cigar and dances with male background dancers in an arena @-@ like area , whilst he is also joined by female dancers with flashing lights on the floor , with the video ending with Usher shown on the flashing television .
In a review of the video , Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly said , " For a song with such a title , it sure does take a minute for its video to build up to wow @-@ worthy moments . After some clean dance sequences , the magic begins . Usher grooves with shadows , puffs out O ’ s with cigar smoke , and then links back up with his ladies on a primary colored dance floor to show off his steps . " Chris Ryan of MTV News compared the video 's flashing lights to the music video for " Yeah ! " , and called the song an answer track to Trey Songz 's " LOL " . At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , the clip was nominated for Best Dance Video , Best Choreography , and Best Male Video .
= = Live performances = =
Usher performed the song with will.i.am. on the ninth season of American Idol , appearing in a black bowler and matching black suit with silver lapels , accompanied by flames and other pyrotechnics . They then performed the song together on The Oprah Winfrey Show on May 10 , 2010 . The song has also been performed live in Australia on Hey Hey it 's Saturday on May 19 , 2010 , as well as on Sunrise on May 21 , 2010 . Usher later performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , So You Think You Can Dance , Good Morning America and live in the United Kingdom on Britain 's Got Talent . On August 6 , 2010 , he performed the song alongside other hits at his New Look Foundation ’ s inaugural World Leadership Awards in Atlanta , where his protege Justin Bieber and R & B singer Ciara also performed . Another event the song was performed at was the Activision E3 Event . The song was performed alongside " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " during the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards . VMA executive producer Dave Sirulnick told MTV News , " We said to him , ' We want to do the best televised dance routine that you 've done in years . Let 's show why you 're the king . ' " MTV Buzzworthy writer , Tamar Antai was present at the rehearsal for the show , and commented that the VMA crew was about to " pull off visual feats not just previously unseen and unparalleled at the VMAs , but unseen and unparalleled on TV . "
The performance was received with critical acclaim . On Usher specifically Antai said the performance was like " liquid magic " , saying , " He took it to the level that comes after the next level . The penthouse level . " He was aided by about a dozen background dancers , the males in skeleton @-@ like costumets , and the females donning a one @-@ piece , gloves and boots . The " OMG " performance was accompanied by red laser lights , making an illusion as if the stage disappeared . The lights spelled out " O.M.G " as well as " Usher " , as dancers lowered from the ceiling . Jayson Rodrgiguez of MTV News commented , " The singer moved and grooved , proving that he 's the R & B star that everyone pays attention to for the big moments . " Rochell D. Thomas , also of the site said " Call it what you will : talent , swag , skills ... When he steps on the dance floor , some mysterious thing comes out of him and puts the G in groove . " Thomas went on to say that Usher 's dance moves would make " the late great Michael Jackson jealous " in the stage production " that included more special @-@ effects bells and whistles than a summer blockbuster . " Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy also compared the performance to Jackson , calling it overall , " One part " Tron , " one part laser show , one part Michael Jackson choreo tribute , and all spectacle . " Usher appeared with The Black Eyed Peas to perform the song during the halftime show of Super Bowl XLV .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Vocals - Usher
Lyrics , music , production , instruments , recording , engineering , vocals – will.i.am
Mixing – Dylan " 3 @-@ D " Dresdow
Source :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Clavaria fragilis =
Clavaria fragilis , commonly known as fairy fingers , white worm coral , or white spindles , is a species of fungus in the family Clavariaceae . It is synonymous with Clavaria vermicularis . The fungus is the type species of the genus Clavaria and is a typical member of the clavarioid or club fungi . It produces tubular , unbranched , white basidiocarps ( fruit bodies ) that typically grow in clusters . The fruit bodies can reach dimensions of 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) thick . Clavaria fragilis is a saprobic species , growing in woodland litter or in old , unimproved grassland . It is widespread throughout temperate regions in the Northern Hemisphere , but has also been reported from Australia and South Africa . The fungus is edible , but insubstantial and flavorless . There are several other small white coral @-@ like fungi with which C. fragilis may be confused .
= = History and taxonomy = =
Clavaria fragilis was originally described from Denmark in 1790 by Danish naturalist and mycologist Theodor Holmskjold , and was sanctioned under this name by Elias Magnus Fries in his 1821 Systema Mycologicum . The Latin epithet fragilis refers to the brittle fruit bodies . The species was redescribed by Swedish mycologist Olof Swartz in 1811 , using the name Clavaria vermicularis ( the epithet meaning " wormlike " ) . Though it is a later synonym — and thus obsolete according to the principle of priority — the latter name is still frequently used today . There are several other names considered to be synonymous with C. fragilis by the online taxonomical database MycoBank ( see the taxobox ) .
In North America , the fungus has colloquially been called " fairy fingers " or " white worm coral " . In the UK its recommended English name is " white spindles " . British naturalist Samuel Frederick Gray called it the " worm club @-@ stool " in his 1821 A Natural Arrangement of British Plants .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of C. fragilis are irregularly tubular , smooth to furrowed , sometimes compressed , very fragile , white , up to 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) thick , and typically grow in dense clusters . The tip of the fruit body tapers to a point , and may yellow and curve with age . There is no distinct stalk , although it is evident as a short , semitransparent zone of tissue at the base of the club . Microscopically , the hyphae of the flesh are swollen up to 12 µm wide and lack clamp connections . The spores are smooth , colourless , ellipsoid to oblong , measuring 5 – 7 by 3 – 4 µm . The spores are white in deposit . The basidia ( spore bearing cells ) measure 40 – 50 by 6 – 8 µm , and lack clamps at their bases .
= = = Edibility = = =
Clavaria fragilis is edible , but the fruit bodies are insubstantial and fragile . One field guide says " its flesh is tasteless and so delicate that it seems to dissolve in one 's mouth . " Its odor has been compared to iodine .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The species occurs throughout the Northern Hemisphere , in Europe , North America , and Asia . In North America , it is more common east of the Rocky Mountains . It has also been recorded from Australia and South Africa . In 2006 , it was reported from the Arctic zone of the Ural Mountains , in Russia .
The fungus grows in woodland and in grassland on moist soil , and is presumed to be saprobic , rotting fallen leaf litter and dead grass stems . The fruit bodies tend to grow in groups , tufts or clusters . Although they can grow singly , they are typically inconspicuous unless in clusters .
= = Similar species = =
Similar fungi with simple , white fruit bodies include Clavaria acuta , an equally widespread species that typically grows singly or in small groups rather than in dense clusters and can be distinguished microscopically by its clamped basidia and larger spores ; the morphologically similar , but rare C. atkinsoniana , found in the southwestern and central United States , which cannot be distinguished from C. fragilis by field characteristics alone but has larger spores — 8 @.@ 5 – 10 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 µm ; C. rubicundula , another North American species , which is similar in stature but has a reddish tint ; and Multiclavula mucida , a widespread lichenized species with smaller fruit bodies that occurs with its associated algae on moist wood .
= = Conservation status = =
In North America , Clavaria fragilis has been called " by far our most common Clavaria " . In northern Europe , it is one of a suite of " CHEG " fungi ( CHEG standing for " Clavarioid fungi @-@ Hygrocybe @-@ Entoloma @-@ Geoglossaceae " ) considered to be indicator species of old , unimproved grassland ( permanent grassland that has not been cultivated for some years ) . Though such grasslands are a threatened habitat in Europe , C. fragilis is one of the commoner CHEG species . It is , nonetheless , on the national red list of threatened fungi in the Netherlands and Slovenia .
= Natural dye =
Natural dyes are dyes or colorants derived from plants , invertebrates , or minerals . The majority of natural dyes are vegetable dyes from plant sources — roots , berries , bark , leaves , and wood — and other organic sources such as fungi and lichens
Archaeologists have found evidence of textile dyeing dating back to the Neolithic period . In China , dyeing with plants , barks and insects has been traced back more than 5 @,@ 000 years . The essential process of dyeing changed little over time . Typically , the dye material is put in a pot of water and then the textiles to be dyed are added to the pot , which is heated and stirred until the color is transferred . Textile fibre may be dyed before spinning ( " dyed in the wool " ) , but most textiles are " yarn @-@ dyed " or " piece @-@ dyed " after weaving . Many natural dyes require the use of chemicals called mordants to bind the dye to the textile fibres ; tannin from oak galls , salt , natural alum , vinegar , and ammonia from stale urine were used by early dyers . Many mordants , and some dyes themselves , produce strong odors , and large @-@ scale dyeworks were often isolated in their own districts .
Throughout history , people have dyed their textiles using common , locally available materials , but scarce dyestuffs that produced brilliant and permanent colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes , Tyrian purple and crimson kermes , became highly prized luxury items in the ancient and medieval world . Plant @-@ based dyes such as woad ( Isatis tinctoria ) , indigo , saffron , and madder were raised commercially and were important trade goods in the economies of Asia and Europe . Across Asia and Africa , patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control the absorption of color in piece @-@ dyed cloth . Dyes such as cochineal and logwood ( Haematoxylum campechianum ) were brought to Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets , and the dyestuffs of Europe were carried by colonists to America .
The discovery of man @-@ made synthetic dyes in the mid @-@ 19th century triggered a long decline in the large @-@ scale market for natural dyes . Synthetic dyes , which could be produced in large quantities , quickly superseded natural dyes for the commercial textile production enabled by the industrial revolution , and unlike natural dyes , were suitable for the synthetic fibres that followed . Artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement preferred the pure shades and subtle variability of natural dyes , which mellow with age but preserve their true colors , unlike early synthetic dyes , and helped ensure that the old European techniques for dyeing and printing with natural dyestuffs were preserved for use by home and craft dyers . Natural dyeing techniques are also preserved by artisans in traditional cultures around the world .
In the early 21st century , the market for natural dyes in the fashion industry is experiencing a resurgence . Western consumers have become more concerned about the health and environmental impact of synthetic dyes in manufacturing and there is a growing demand for products that use natural dyes . The European Union , for example , has encouraged Indonesian batik cloth producers to switch to natural dyes to improve their export market in Europe .
= = Dyes in use in the fashion industry = =
Fibre content determines the type of dye required for a fabric :
Cellulose fibres : cotton , linen , hemp , ramie , bamboo , rayon
Protein fibres : wool , angora , mohair , cashmere , silk , soy , leather , suede
Cellulose fibres require fibre @-@ reactive , direct / substantive , and vat dyes , which are colourless , soluble dyes fixed by light and / or oxygen . Protein fibres require vat , acid , or indirect / mordant dyes , that require a bonding agent . Each synthetic fibre requires its own dyeing method , for example , nylon requires acid , disperse and pigment dyes , rayon acetate requires disperse dyes , and so on . The types of natural dyes currently in use by the global fashion industry include :
= = = Animal = = =
Cochineal insect ( red )
Cow urine ( Indian yellow )
Lac insect ( red , violet )
Murex snail ( purple )
Octopus / Cuttlefish ( sepia brown )
= = = Plant = = =
Catechu or Cutch tree ( brown )
Gamboge tree resin ( dark mustard yellow )
Himalayan rubhada root ( yellow )
Indigofera plant ( blue )
Kamala tree ( red )
Larkspur plant ( yellow )
Madder root ( red , pink , orange )
Myrabolan fruit ( yellow , green , black )
Pomegranate peel ( yellow )
Weld herb ( yellow )
= = Origins = =
Colors in the " ruddy " range of reds , browns , and oranges are the first attested colors in a number of ancient textile sites ranging from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age across the Levant , Egypt , Mesopotamia and Europe , followed by evidence of blues and then yellows , with green appearing somewhat later . The earliest surviving evidence of textile dyeing was found at the large Neolithic settlement at Çatalhöyük in southern Anatolia , where traces of red dyes , possible from ochre ( iron oxide pigments from clay ) , were found . Polychrome or multicolored fabrics seem to have been developed in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE . Textiles with a " red @-@ brown warp and an ochre @-@ yellow weft " were discovered in Egyptian pyramids of the Sixth Dynasty ( 2345 – 2180 BCE ) .
The chemical analysis that would definitively identify the dyes used in ancient textiles has rarely been conducted , and even when a dye such as indigo blue is detected it is impossible to determine which of several indigo @-@ bearing plants was used . Nevertheless , based on the colors of surviving textile fragments and the evidence of actual dyestuffs found in archaeological sites , reds , blues , and yellows from plant sources were in common use by the late Bronze Age and Iron Age .
In the 18th century Jeremias Friedrich Gülich made substantial contributions to refining the dyeing process , making particular progress on setting standards on dyeing sheep wool and many other textiles . His contributions to refining the dying process and his theories on colour brought much praise by the well known poet and artist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe .
= = Processes = =
The essential process of dyeing requires soaking the material containing the dye ( the dyestuff ) in water , adding the textile to be dyed to the resulting solution ( the dyebath ) , and bringing the solution to a simmer for an extended period , often measured in days or even weeks , stirring occasionally until the color has evenly transferred to the textiles .
Some dyestuffs , such as indigo and lichens , will give good color when used alone ; these dyes are called direct dyes or substantive dyes . The majority of plant dyes , however , also require the use of a mordant , a chemical used to " fix " the color in the textile fibres . These dyes are called adjective dyes . By using different mordants , dyers can often obtain a variety of colors and shades from the same dye . Fibres or cloth may be pretreated with mordants , or the mordant may be incorporated in the dyebath . In traditional dyeing , the common mordants are vinegar , tannin from oak bark , sumac or oak galls , ammonia from stale urine , and wood @-@ ash liquor or potash ( potassium carbonate ) made by leaching wood ashes and evaporating the solution .
We shall never know by what chances primitive man discovered that salt , vinegar from fermenting fruit , natural alum , and stale urine helped to fix and enhance the colours of his yarns , but for many centuries these four substances were used as mordants .
Salt helps to " fix " or increase " fastness " of colors , vinegar improves reds and purples , and the ammonia in stale urine assists in the fermentation of indigo dyes . Natural alum ( aluminum sulfate ) is the most common metallic salt mordant , but tin ( stannous chloride ) , copper ( cupric sulfate ) , iron ( ferrous sulfate , called copperas ) and chrome ( potassium dichromate ) are also used . Iron mordants " sadden " colors , while tin and chrome mordants brighten colors . The iron mordants contribute to fabric deterioration , referred to as " dye rot " . Additional chemicals or alterants may be applied after dying to further alter or reinforce the colors .
Textiles may be dyed as raw fibre ( dyed in the fleece or dyed in the wool ) , as spun yarn ( dyed in the hank or yarn @-@ dyed ) , or after weaving ( piece @-@ dyed ) . Mordants often leave residue in wool fibre that makes it difficult to spin , so wool was generally dyed after spinning , as yarn or woven cloth . Indigo , however , requires no mordant , and cloth manufacturers in medieval England often dyed wool in the fleece with the indigo @-@ bearing plant woad and then dyed the cloth again after weaving to produce deep blues , browns , reds , purples , blacks , and tawnies .
In China , Japan , India , Pakistan , Nigeria , Gambia , and other parts of West Africa and southeast Asia , patterned silk and cotton fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques in which the cloth is printed or stenciled with starch or wax , or tied in various ways to prevent even penetration of the dye when the cloth is piece @-@ dyed . The Chinese ladao process is dated to the 10th century ; other traditional techniques include tie @-@ dye , batik , Rōketsuzome , katazome , bandhani and leheria .
The mordants used in dyeing and many dyestuffs themselves give off strong and unpleasant odors , and the actual process of dyeing requires a good supply of fresh water , storage areas for bulky plant materials , vats which can be kept heated ( often for days or weeks ) along with the necessary fuel , and airy spaces to dry the dyed textiles . Ancient large @-@ scale dye @-@ works tended to be located on the outskirts of populated areas , on windy promontories .
= = Common dyestuffs = =
= = = Reds and pinks = = =
A variety of plants produce red dyes , including a number of lichens , henna , alkanet or dyer 's bugloss ( Alkanna tinctoria ) , asafoetida and dyer 's madder Rubia tinctorum . Madder and related plants of the genus Rubia are native to many temperate zones around the world , and were already used as sources of good red dye , such as rose madder , in prehistory . Madder has been identified on linen in the tomb of Tutankhamun , and Pliny the Elder records madder growing near Rome . Madder was a dye of commercial importance in Europe , being cultivated in the Netherlands and France to dye the red coats of military uniforms until the market collapsed following the development of synthetic alizarin dye in 1869 . Madder was also used to dye the " hunting pinks " of Great Britain .
Turkey red was a strong , very fast red dye for cotton obtained from madder root via a complicated multistep process involving " sumac and oak galls , calf 's blood , sheep 's dung , oil , soda , alum , and a solution of tin . " Turkey red was developed in India and spread to Turkey . Greek workers familiar with the methods of its production were brought to France in 1747 , and Dutch and English spies soon discovered the secret . A sanitized version of Turkey red was being produced in Manchester by 1784 , and roller @-@ printed dress cottons with a Turkey red ground were fashionable in England by the 1820s .
Munjeet or Indian madder ( Rubia cordifolia ) is native to the Himalayas and other mountains of Asia and Japan . Munjeet was an important dye for the Asian cotton industry and is still used by craft dyers in Nepal .
Puccoon or bloodroot ( Sanguinaria canadensis ) is a popular red dye among Southeastern Native American basketweavers . Choctaw basketweavers additionally use sumac for red dye . Coushattas artists from Texas and Louisiana used the water oak ( Quercus nigra L. ) to produce red .
A delicate rose color in Navajo rugs comes from fermented prickly pear cactus fruit , Opuntia polyacantha . Navajo weavers also use rainwater and red dirt to create salmon @-@ pink dyes .
= = = Oranges = = =
Dyes that create reds and yellows can also yield oranges . Navajo dyers create orange dyes from one @-@ seeded juniper , Juniperus monosperma , Navajo tea , Thelesperma gracile , or alder bark .
= = = Yellows = = =
Yellow dyes are " about as numerous as red ones " , and can be extracted from saffron , pomegranate rind , turmeric , safflower , onionskins , and a number of weedy flowering plants . Limited evidence suggests the use of weld ( Reseda luteola ) , also called mignonette or dyer 's rocket before the Iron Age , but it was an important dye of the ancient Mediterranean and Europe and is indigenous to England . Two brilliant yellow dyes of commercial importance in Europe from the 18th century are derived from trees of the Americas : quercitron from the inner bark of Eastern Black Oak ( Quercus velutina ) , ] native to eastern North America and fustic from the dyer 's mulberry tree ( Maclura tinctoria ) of the West Indies and Mexico .
In rivercane basketweaving among Southeastern Woodlands tribes in the Americas , butternut ( Juglans cinerea ) and yellow root ( Xanthorhiza simplicissima ) provide a rich yellow color . Chitimacha basket weavers have a complex formula for yellow that employs a dock plant ( most likely Rumex crispus ) for yellow . Navajo artists create yellow dyes from small snake @-@ weed , brown onion skins , and rubber plant ( Parthenium incanum ) . Rabbitbush ( Chrysothamnus ) and rose hips produce pale , yellow @-@ cream colored dyes .
= = = Greens = = =
If plants that yield yellow dyes are common , plants that yield green dyes are rare . Both woad and indigo have been used since ancient times in combination with yellow dyes to produce shades of green . Medieval and Early Modern England was especially known for its green dyes . The dyers of Lincoln , a great cloth town in the high Middle Ages , produced the Lincoln green cloth associated with Robin Hood by dyeing wool with woad and then overdyeing it yellow with weld or dyer 's greenweed ( Genista tinctoria ) , also known as dyer 's broom . Woolen cloth mordanted with alum and dyed yellow with dyer 's greenweed was overdyed with woad and , later , indigo , to produce the once @-@ famous Kendal green . This in turn fell out of fashion in the 18th century in favor of the brighter Saxon green , dyed with indigo and fustic .
Soft olive greens are also achieved when textiles dyed yellow are treated with an iron mordant . The dull green cloth common to the Iron Age Halstatt culture shows traces of iron , and was possibly colored by boiling yellow @-@ dyed cloth in an iron pot . Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau in North America used lichen to dye corn husk bags a sea green .
Navajo textile artist Nonabah Gorman Bryan developed a two @-@ step process for creating green dye . First the Churro wool yarn is dyed yellow with sagebrush , Artemisia tridentata , and then it is soaked in black dye afterbath . Red onion skins are also used by Navajo dyers to produce green .
= = = Blues = = =
Blue colorants around the world were derived from indigo dye @-@ bearing plants , primarily those in the genus Indigofera , which are native to the tropics . The primary commercial indigo species in Asia was true indigo ( Indigofera tinctoria ) . India is believed to be the oldest center of indigo dyeing in the Old World . It was a primary supplier of indigo dye to Europe as early as the Greco @-@ Roman era . The association of India with indigo is reflected in the Greek word for the dye , which was indikon ( ινδικόν ) . The Romans used the term indicum , which passed into Italian dialect and eventually into English as the word indigo .
In Central and South America , the important blue dyes were Añil ( Indigofera suffruticosa ) and Natal indigo ( Indigofera arrecta ) .
In temperate climates including Europe , indigo was obtained primarily from woad ( Isatis tinctoria ) , an indigenous plant of Assyria and the Levant which has been grown in Northern Europe over 2 @,@ 000 years , although from the 18th century it was mostly replaced by superior Indian indigo imported by the British East India Company . Woad was carried to New England in the 17th century and used extensively in America until native stands of indigo were discovered in Florida and the Carolinas . In Sumatra , indigo dye is extracted from some species of Marsdenia . Other indigo @-@ bearing dye plants include dyer 's knotweed ( Polygonum tinctorum ) from Japan and the coasts of China , and the West African shrub Lonchocarpus cyanescens .
= = = = Natural dyeing with Indigo , Jaipur ( Rajasthan , India ) = = = =
= = = Purples = = =
In medieval Europe , purple , violet , murrey and similar colors were produced by dyeing wool with woad or indigo in the fleece and then piece @-@ dyeing the woven cloth with red dyes , either the common madder or the luxury dyes kermes and cochineal . Madder could also produce purples when used with alum . Brazilwood also gave purple shades with vitriol ( sulfuric acid ) or potash .
Choctaw artists traditionally used maple ( Acer sp . ) to create lavender and purple dyes . Purples can also be derived from lichens , and from the berries of White Bryony from the northern Rocky Mountain states and mulberry ( morus nigra ) ( with an acid mordant ) .
= = = Browns = = =
Cutch is an ancient brown dye from the wood of acacia trees , particularly Acacia catechu , used in India for dyeing cotton . Cutch gives gray @-@ browns with an iron mordant and olive @-@ browns with copper .
Black walnut ( Juglans nigra ) is used by Cherokee artists to produce a deep brown approaching black . Today black walnut is primarily used to dye baskets but has been used in the past for fabrics and deerhide . Juniper , Juniperus monosperma , ashes provide brown and yellow dyes for Navajo people , as do the hulls of wild walnuts ( Juglans major ) . Khaki , which translates a Hindustani word signifying " soil @-@ coloured " , was introduced into British uniforms in India , which were dyed locally with a dye prepared from the native mazari palm Nannorrhops .
= = = Greys and blacks = = =
Choctaw dyers use maple ( Acer sp . ) for a grey dye . Navajo weavers create black from mineral yellow ochre mixed with pitch from the piñon tree ( Pinus edulis ) and the three @-@ leaved sumac ( Rhus trilobata ) . They also produce a cool grey dye with blue flower lupine and a warm grey from Juniper mistletoe ( Phoradendron juniperinum ) .
= = = Lichen = = =
Dye @-@ bearing lichen produce a wide range of greens , oranges , yellows , reds , browns , and bright pinks and purples . The lichen Rocella tinctoria was found along the Mediterranean Sea and was used by the ancient Phoenicians . In recent times , lichen dyes have been an important part of the dye traditions of Wales , Ireland , Scotland , and among
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career , only behind his rookie season . Manning 's 17 interceptions were second to Jaguars quarterback Blake Bortles , who threw 18 interceptions but started all 16 games .
The Broncos , by virtue of having the AFC 's # 1 seed , earned home field advantage throughout the NFL playoffs . The Broncos defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers in the Divisional round to advance to the AFC Championship game to host the defending Super Bowl champions , the New England Patriots . It was the 17th , and ultimately final , meeting between Manning and his longtime rival Tom Brady . Despite a late comeback from the Patriots , the Broncos won 20 – 18 to advance to Super Bowl 50 . Manning threw two touchdowns and no interceptions in the win .
On February 7 , 2016 , the Broncos defeated the Carolina Panthers 24 – 10 in Super Bowl 50 as the Broncos ' defense shut down the heavily @-@ favored Panthers ' top @-@ ranked offense and regular season MVP Cam Newton . Manning finished the game 13 of 23 for 141 yards with one interception while being sacked five times , scoring his only passing points with 3 : 08 left in the 4th quarter when he connected with Bennie Fowler for a 2 @-@ point conversion , which ended up being the final pass of his career . Manning became the oldest starting quarterback to both play in and win a Super Bowl . Manning also became the first quarterback to start two Super Bowls with multiple franchises , with different head coaches each time ( Dungy , Caldwell , Fox and Kubiak ) and the first quarterback to lead two different franchises to a Super Bowl victory . The victory gave Manning his 200th overall win including regular season and playoffs , making him the starting quarterback with the most combined regular season and postseason wins in NFL history , snapping a tie with Brett Favre .
= = = Retirement = = =
Manning announced his retirement , after 18 seasons , on March 7 , 2016 . Manning 's final words of his retirement speech were , " I 've fought a good fight . I 've finished my football race and after 18 years , it 's time . God bless all of you and God bless football . "
After 18 seasons with the NFL , Peyton Manning received the 2016 ESPY Icon Award
= = = " The Manning Bowl " = = =
Peyton and Eli Manning played against each other three times in their professional careers . These encounters were colloquially dubbed " The Manning Bowl " , and Peyton 's teams ( twice with the Indianapolis Colts , once with the Denver Broncos ) held a 3 – 0 record over Eli 's team ( three games with the New York Giants ) . The first Manning Bowl was held on September 10 , 2006 , and Peyton 's Colts defeated Eli 's Giants by a score of 26 – 21 . The second Manning Bowl was held on September 19 , 2010 , with Peyton and the Colts besting Eli 's team again by a score of 38 – 14 . The third and final Manning Bowl took place on September 15 , 2013 , and Peyton and the Broncos beat Eli 's Giants , 41 – 23 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = College career statistics = = =
= = = NFL career statistics = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Post @-@ season = = = =
= = Career awards and records = =
= = = Major high school awards = = =
1992 , 1993 Louisiana Class 2A MVP
1993 Gatorade Circle of Champions Award
1993 Atlanta TD Club 's Bobby Dodd Award
1993 New Orleans Quarterback Club Player of the Year
1993 Columbus , Ohio Touchdown Club Offensive Player of the Year
1993 Gatorade High School Player of the Year ( National )
= = = College awards = = =
= = = College records = = =
= = = = Tennessee Volunteers records = = = =
= = = = SEC records = = = =
Lowest interception percentage ( season ) : 1 @.@ 05 % ( 1995 )
Highest completion percentage ( career ) : 62 @.@ 49 %
Lowest interception percentage ( career ) : 2 @.@ 39 %
Most 300 + passing yard games ( career ) : 18
= = = NFL awards = = =
5x NFL MVP ( 2003 ( shared with Steve McNair ) , 2004 , 2008 , 2009 , 2013 )
2x NFL Offensive Player of the Year ( 2004 , 2013 )
Best NFL Player ESPY Award ( 2004 , 2005 )
14 × Pro Bowl ( 1999 – 2000 , 2002 – 2010 , 2012 – 2014 )
7 × First @-@ team All @-@ Pro ( 2003 – 2005 , 2008 , 2009 , 2012 , 2013 )
3 × Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro ( 1999 , 2000 , 2006 )
2 × Bert Bell Award ( 2003 , 2004 )
8 × AFC Offensive Player of the Year Awards ( 1999 , 2003 – 2005 , 2008 , 2009 , 2012 , 2013 )
1998 NFL All @-@ Rookie First Team
2004 Fedex Express Player of the Year
Best Record @-@ Breaking Performance ESPY Award ( 2005 , 2014 )
2005 Walter Payton Man of the Year Award
2005 Byron " Whizzer " White Humanitarian Award
2005 Pro Bowl MVP
2007 Super Bowl MVP
2007 Best Championship Performance ESPY Award
2012 NFL Comeback Player of the Year
27 × AFC Offensive Player Of The Week
Additionally , Manning has been named the AFC Offensive Player of the Month a record eight times ( 9 / 2003 , 11 / 2004 , 10 / 2006 , 9 / 2009 , 9 / 2012 , 10 / 2012 , 9 / 2013 , 12 / 2013 ) and Offensive Player of the Week a record 26 times ( 25 AFC , 1 NFL / playoff ) .
= = = NFL records = = =
Manning holds a number of individual career records :
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoff records = = = =
Most 300 + yard passing games : 8
Most yards passing , 1st half of game : 360 vs. Denver Broncos , 1 / 9 / 05
Led the biggest comeback in conference championship game history ( 18 pts ) , 1 / 21 / 07 vs. New England
One of only four QBs to post a perfect 158 @.@ 3 passer rating in a game ( Don Meredith , Terry Bradshaw , Dave Krieg )
Most games with 20 + completions : 14 ( surpassed by Tom Brady in 2011 )
Most games with 30 + completions : 4 ( surpassed by Drew Brees in 2011 )
Most games with 30 + attempts : 17
Most games with 40 + attempts : 8 ( tied by Tom Brady in 2011 )
Most completions and attempts in a single postseason : 97 / 153 ( 2006 )
One of only 2 quarterbacks to complete 80 % of his passes in two playoff games ( tied with Kurt Warner )
Most consecutive postseasons with at least one start : 9 ( 2002 – 2010 )
Most postseason losses by a quarterback : 13
Most first @-@ round postseason losses by a quarterback : 9
= = = = Rookie records = = = =
Most touchdown passes : 26 ( tied by Russell Wilson in 2012 )
Most interceptions thrown : 28
Most consecutive games with a touchdown pass ( games 4 – 16 ) : 13
Most games with at least one touchdown pass : 15
Most games with 300 + yards passing : 4
= = = = With Marvin Harrison = = = =
Manning and former Colts wide receiver Marvin Harrison hold a number of QB @-@ WR tandem records :
Most completions / receptions ( career ) : 953
Most passing / receiving yards ( career ) : 12 @,@ 756
Most passing / receiving touchdowns ( career ) : 112
Most completions / receptions in a season , QB @-@ to @-@ WR duo : 143 ( 2002 )
= = = = Pro Bowl records = = = =
Most Pro Bowl selections ( tied with Tony Gonzalez , Bruce Matthews , and Merlin Olsen ) : 14
Most Pro Bowl selections for a QB : 14
Most consecutive Pro Bowl selections for a QB : 9 ( during the 2002 – 2010 seasons )
Most passing attempts ( career ) : 150
Most passing attempts ( game ) : 41 ( 2004 )
Most completions ( career ) : 92
Most completions ( game ) : 22 ( 2004 )
Most passing yards ( career ) : 1 @,@ 278
Most passing yards ( game ) : 342 ( 2004 )
Most passing touchdowns ( career ) : 13
= = = = Colts franchise records = = = =
= = = = Broncos franchise records = = = =
Highest completion percentage ( season ) : 68 @.@ 6 % ( 2012 )
Highest completion percentage ( career ) : 66 @.@ 5 %
Most completions ( season ) : 450 ( 2013 )
Most pass attempts ( season ) : 679 ( 2013 )
Most passing yards ( season ) : 5 @,@ 477 ( 2013 )
Most 300 + passing yard games ( season ) : 12 ( 2013 )
Most 400 + passing yard games ( season ) : 3 ( 2013 )
Highest average passing yards per game ( season ) : 342 @.@ 3 ( 2013 )
Highest average passing yards per game ( career ) : 295 @.@ 0
Most touchdown passes ( game ) : 7 ( September 5 , 2013 vs. Baltimore Ravens )
Most touchdown passes ( season ) : 55 ( 2013 )
Highest passer rating ( season ) : 115 @.@ 1 ( 2013 )
Highest passer rating ( career ) : 101 @.@ 7
Most seasons with 100 + passer rating : 3 ( 2012 @-@ 2014 )
Most touchdown passes without an interception ( game ) : 7 ( September 5 , 2013 vs. Baltimore Ravens )
Most seasons with at least 4 @,@ 000 passing yards : 3 ( 2012 @-@ 2014 )
Highest winning percentage as a starter ( career ) : 78 @.@ 9 % ( 45 @-@ 12 @-@ 0 )
= = Personal life = =
Manning was born in New Orleans , Louisiana , the son of Olivia ( née Williams ) and former NFL quarterback Archie Manning . He is the brother of two @-@ time Super Bowl Champion , Eli Manning . Some have described the Mannings as football 's " royal family " .
Manning married his wife , Ashley , in Memphis on St. Patrick 's Day , 2001 . A graduate of the University of Virginia , Ashley was introduced to him by her parents ' next @-@ door neighbor the summer before Manning 's freshman year in college . Peyton and wife Ashley have twins , a son , Marshal Williams , and a daughter , Mosley Thompson , born on March 31 , 2011 .
Manning is a Christian . At age 13 , he said , " I committed my life to Christ , and that faith has been most important to me ever since . " Manning said his priorities ranked in order are " ... faith , family , friends , and football . " Manning said he prays every night and before games and added , " I hope ( and pray ) I don 't do too many things that displease Him before I get to Heaven myself . I believe , too , that life is much better and freer when you 're committed to God in that way . "
Manning reportedly memorized the Colts ' playbook within a week after being drafted , and in 2012 was able to precisely recall the details and timing of a specific play he had used at Tennessee 16 years earlier . During the summer , Archie , Peyton , Eli , and eldest sibling Cooper run the Manning Passing Academy , a five @-@ day camp which aims to improve the offensive skills of quarterbacks , wide receivers , tight ends , and running backs . In addition to the Mannings , the camp has included many prominent players from football as coaches , such as Colts wide receivers Marvin Harrison and Reggie Wayne .
Manning , along with his father Archie , co @-@ authored a book titled , Manning : A Father , His Sons , and a Football Legacy , which was released in 2000 . The book covers Archie 's and Cooper 's lives and careers , and Manning 's life and career up to the time that the book was released , and examines football from both Archie 's and Manning 's points @-@ of @-@ view .
Mark Kiszla , a sports columnist for the Denver Post , in a column about Manning 's future plans , said that Manning 's net worth " is estimated to be in excess of $ 150 million " and " That 's not enough money to buy an NFL franchise by himself , although an ownership group that included Manning as president with a financial stake in the team would be led by a brilliant football mind . " He has donated over $ 8 @,@ 000 to Republican politicians , among them Fred Thompson , Bob Corker and former President George W. Bush . For the 2016 presidential race , Manning has contributed to the campaign of Jeb Bush . On October 26 , 2012 , Manning purchased 21 Papa John 's Pizza stores , all in Colorado .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Manning has been credited with helping to improve the image of the city of Indianapolis . A curator at the Indiana State Museum observed that " There is no Super Bowl held here without Peyton . There is no Lucas Oil Stadium without Peyton . Without Peyton , the Colts would probably be in L.A. right now . " He has become one of the NFL 's most marketable players , appearing in several television and printed advertisements for some of the NFL 's biggest sponsors .
Manning appeared in one of a series of DirecTV commercials where celebrities are seen in their element , then suddenly begin addressing the viewer . In his commercial , they parodied his pre @-@ snap audible routine , and known delay in calling for the ball by having him pitch NFL Sunday Ticket , instead of changing the play during a blowout game against the Tennessee Titans . Manning also appears in advertisements for St. Mary 's Medical Center in Knoxville , Tennessee .
Manning hosted Saturday Night Live on March 24 , 2007 , his 31st birthday . The episode earned the show 's highest household rating in more than 10 months in the metered markets . He also appeared on SNL in 2008 and on the 2015 Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special .
He has won the Favorite Male Athlete award for the Kids Choice Awards .
On May 27 , 2007 , Manning waved the green flag to begin the 91st Indianapolis 500 .
In 2009 , Manning guest @-@ voiced ( with his brothers , Eli and Cooper ) on an episode of The Simpsons called " O Brother , Where Bart Thou ? " in which Bart dreams of having a baby brother and sees such famous brothers as The Marx Brothers , The Blues Brothers , The Wright Brothers , The Mario Brothers , and The Manning Brothers .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Shortly after beginning his NFL career , Manning started his own charity called ' the Peyback Foundation ' . The Peyback Foundation 's mission is to help disadvantaged kids , and focuses its efforts in Louisiana , Tennessee , and Indiana . For his work with this foundation , Manning received the Samuel S. Beard Award for Greatest Public Service by an Individual 35 Years or Under , an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards .
Manning , along with his brother Eli , volunteered their assistance in the wake of Hurricane Katrina . Among the tasks performed , the Mannings assisted in the delivery of 30 @,@ 000 pounds of water , Gatorade , baby formula , diapers , and pillows to the people of New Orleans .
In September 2007 , St. Vincent Hospital in Indianapolis renamed its children 's hospital to " Peyton Manning Children 's Hospital at St. Vincent . " Manning and his wife made a donation of an undisclosed amount to St. Vincent 's and have had a relationship with the hospital since his arrival in Indianapolis .
= Grand Theft Auto IV =
Grand Theft Auto IV is an open world action @-@ adventure video game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games . It was released on 29 April 2008 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles , and on 2 December 2008 on Microsoft Windows . It is the eleventh title in the Grand Theft Auto series , and the first main entry since 2004 's Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas . Set within the fictional Liberty City ( based on New York City ) , the single @-@ player story follows a war veteran , Niko Bellic and his attempts to escape his past while under pressure from loan sharks and mob bosses . The open world design lets players freely roam Liberty City , consisting of three main islands .
The game is played from a third @-@ person perspective and its world is navigated on @-@ foot or by vehicle . Throughout the single @-@ player mode , players play as Niko Bellic . An online multiplayer mode is included with the game , allowing up to 32 players to engage in both co @-@ operative and competitive gameplay in a recreation of the single @-@ player setting . Two expansion packs were later released for the game , The Lost and Damned and The Ballad of Gay Tony , which both feature new plots that are interconnected with the main Grand Theft Auto IV storyline , and follow new protagonists .
Development began in 2004 , soon after the release of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas . As part of their research for the open world , the developers conducted field research around New York throughout development and captured footage for the design team . Development duties were shared between many of Rockstar 's studios worldwide . Following its announcement in May 2006 , Grand Theft Auto IV was widely anticipated . Upon release , the game received universal critical acclaim , with praise particularly directed at the game 's narrative and open world design . However , the game also generated controversy , with criticism directed at the game 's depiction of violence and ability to drive under the influence of alcohol . Grand Theft Auto IV broke industry sales records and became the fastest @-@ selling entertainment product in history at the time , earning US $ 310 million in its first day and US $ 500 million in its first week . Considered one of the most significant titles of the seventh generation of video games , and by many critics as one of the greatest video games of all time , it won year @-@ end accolades , including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications . Its successor , Grand Theft Auto V , was released in September 2013 .
= = Gameplay = =
Grand Theft Auto IV is an action @-@ adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . Players complete missions — linear scenarios with set objectives — to progress through the story . It is possible to have several active missions running at one time , as some missions require players to wait for further instructions or events . Outside of missions , players can freely roam the game 's open world , and have the ability to complete optional side missions . Composed of the fictional city of Liberty City , the world of Grand Theft Auto IV is larger in area than most earlier entries in the series . At the beginning of the game , players can only explore the first island – composed of Dukes and Broker – with all other islands unlocking as the story progresses .
Players use melee attacks , firearms and explosives to fight enemies , and may run , jump , swim or use vehicles to navigate the game 's world . There is a first @-@ person perspective option when using vehicles . In combat , auto @-@ aim and a cover system can be used as assistance against enemies . Should players take damage , their health meter can be fully regenerated using multiple techniques , such as eating , using medical kits , or calling for paramedics . If players commit crimes while playing , the game 's law enforcement agencies may respond as indicated by a " wanted " meter in the head @-@ up display ( HUD ) . On the meter , the displayed stars indicate the current wanted level ( for example , at the maximum six @-@ star level , efforts by law enforcement to incapacitate players become very aggressive ) . Law enforcement officers will search for players who leave the wanted vicinity . The wanted meter enters a cooldown mode and eventually recedes when players are hidden from the officers ' line of sight .
The game 's cover system allows players to deftly move between cover , to fire blindly , aim freely , and target a specific enemy . Individual body parts can also be targeted . Melee attacks include additional moves , such as dodging , blocking , disarming an opponent and counter @-@ attacking . Body armour can be used to absorb gunshots and explosive damage , but is used up in the process . When health is entirely depleted , gameplay stops , and players respawn at the nearest hospital .
The game 's single @-@ player mode lets players control a war veteran , Eastern European Niko Bellic . During the story , Niko meets various new characters , many of whom he befriends . These characters can then perform favours for Niko whenever he asks ; for example , his cousin Roman , who owns a taxi service , can send one of his cabs to Niko and take him to any destination around the city . Cabs are always available during gameplay , allowing players to quickly travel to a destination . Throughout the course of the game , players are also faced with morality choices , which alter the storyline appropriately depending on the player 's choice . While free roaming the game world , players may engage in context @-@ specific activities such as bowling or darts . Other available activities include a vigilante minigame , and in @-@ game television programming . Niko has a smartphone for contacting friends and starting activities . The smartphone is also used to access the game 's online multiplayer mode , and to enter cheat codes . To access the in @-@ game Internet , which allows Niko to send and receive emails and set up prospective dates with potential girlfriends , Niko can use Internet cafés located around the city . The game also features a subway system , allowing players to quickly traverse through the game world .
The online multiplayer mode for Grand Theft Auto IV allows up to 32 players to freely roam across a recreation of the single @-@ player world . Players decide which game mode that they wish to play , including deathmatches and street races . Both cooperative and competitive game modes are available . These game modes are split into ranked and unranked matches . For players to level up through ranks , in @-@ game money must be earned . The game also features a Free Mode , in which players have the entire map open to explore , with no end goal or mission to complete . Hosts of the game can control many variables , such as police presence , traffic , and weapons . LAN support is available in the Windows version of the game .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Grand Theft Auto IV takes place in 2008 , in a redesigned version of Liberty City consisting of four boroughs , based on four of the boroughs of New York City : Broker ( based on Brooklyn ) , Dukes ( Queens ) , Bohan ( The Bronx ) , and Algonquin ( Manhattan ) . Adjacent to the city is the independent state of Alderney ( Northern New Jersey ) . There are three minor islands present in the game : Charge Island ( Randall 's Island ) , Colony Island ( Roosevelt Island ) , and Happiness Island ( Liberty Island ) . Initially , bridges are locked down due to a terrorist threat , and players are constantly pursued by police if the bridges are crossed , but the blockades are lifted as the story progresses , allowing the player to traverse between islands . Grand Theft Auto IV takes place in a different storyline and timeline from the previous games in the series . However , the game takes place in the same canon as its expansion packs , The Lost and Damned and The Ballad of Gay Tony , and its successor , Grand Theft Auto V.
= = = Plot = = =
Following his cousin Roman 's request , Niko Bellic , an Eastern European , comes to Liberty City to pursue the American Dream , and to search for the man who betrayed his unit in a war fifteen years prior . Upon arrival , however , Niko discovers that Roman 's tales of riches and luxury were lies concealing struggles with gambling debts and loan sharks , and that Roman lives in a dirty apartment rather than a mansion .
Niko defends Roman from his loan sharks several times , eventually killing Vlad Glebov , Roman 's Russian loan shark . Niko was forced to work for Vlad to settle Roman 's debts but ended up killing him after learning that he had slept with Roman 's girlfriend , Mallorie . After Vlad 's murder , Niko and Roman are kidnapped by members of the Liberty City Bratva on order of Mikhail Faustin and his associate , Dimitri Rascalov . Faustin , not bothered by the murder of Vlad , hires Niko . Niko quickly learns that Faustin is a psychopath when he orders him to kill the son of Kenny Petrović , the most powerful man in the Liberty City Bratva . After the Petrović family threatens retaliation , Dimitri orders Niko to assassinate Faustin in order to prevent a gang war . When Niko meets with Dimitri to collect on the assassination , Dimitri brings Niko 's former employer Ray Bulgarin instead , the latter accusing Niko of stealing from him a few years earlier . When Niko truthfully denies the allegation , a firefight ensues , allowing Dimitri and Bulgarin to escape .
Immediately afterwards , Niko and Roman are forced to escape to Bohan when their apartment and taxi company are destroyed in arson attacks by Dimitri 's men . However , things go poorly as well in Bohan : Dimitri 's men kidnap Roman in a failed bid to ambush and kill Niko , who rescues Roman . Furthermore , Niko 's girlfriend Michelle reveals that she works for a government agency and entraps Niko into working for her agency , known only by its cover : United Liberty Paper . Niko kills several known or suspected terrorists for the agency in exchange for the file of the numerous crimes the police have on him and the promise of assistance in finding the traitor of his unit .
Eventually , United Liberty Paper tracks down the man responsible for Niko 's unit 's betrayal , Darko Brevic , and brings him into Liberty City . Niko confronts Darko and decides his fate . Having dealt with his past , Niko is summoned by one of his employers , Jimmy Pegorino , who demands one final favour : to help with an extremely lucrative deal on heroin in collusion with Dimitri Rascalov .
At this point , Niko is faced with two choices : strike a deal with Dimitri , or exact revenge on him . Should Niko go through with the deal , Dimitri sets up Niko by taking the heroin for himself . At Roman 's wedding , an assassin sent by Dimitri kills Roman with a stray bullet as Niko disarms and kills him . A devastated and vengeful Niko later tracks down , chases , and kills Dimitri , but not before witnessing Dimitri executing Pegorino . Should Niko choose to exact revenge , Niko ambushes and executes Dimitri . At Roman 's wedding , Pegorino , furious after Niko 's betrayal , commits a drive @-@ by shooting . He targets Niko , but ends up killing Niko 's girlfriend , Kate . Niko soon tracks down , chases , and kills Pegorino , who had become hated and targeted by the entire Liberty City underworld .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Work on Grand Theft Auto IV began in November 2004 , almost immediately after the release of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas ( 2004 ) . Around 150 game developers worked on Grand Theft Auto IV , led by core members of the team that previously worked on Grand Theft Auto III ( 2001 ) . For the game , Rockstar used their proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine ( RAGE ) , which was previously used in Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis ( 2006 ) , in combination with the Euphoria game animation engine . Instead of pre @-@ written animations , Euphoria uses procedural animation to control the way the player moves , enabling character movements to be more realistic . The Euphoria engine also enables NPCs to react in a realistic way to the player 's actions . In one preview , a player knocked an NPC out of a window and the character grabbed onto a ledge to stop himself from falling . The game also uses middleware from Image Metrics to facilitate intricate facial expressions and ease the process of incorporating lip @-@ synching . Foliage in the game is produced through SpeedTree .
Grand Theft Auto IV sees a shift in the series to a more realistic and detailed style and tone , partly a result of the transition to consoles which offered high @-@ definition graphics and the new and improved capabilities of such consoles . Rockstar co @-@ founder Dan Houser said " what we 're taking as our watchword on [ Grand Theft Auto IV ] is the idea of what high definition actually means . Not just in terms of graphics , which obviously we are achieving , but in terms of all aspects of the design . [ ... ] You know , trying to make something more realistic , more held together , but still retaining the overall coherence that the other games had . " Art director Aaron Garbut said one of the reasons they decided to set the game in New York because " we all knew what an amazing , diverse , vibrant , cinematic city it is , " and since they were hoping the push the " detail , variety and life " to a high level , it seemed that " basing the game in a city so synonymous with these things was a great fit . " Dan Houser added " because we were working in high definition and we knew we 'd need a shitload of research , we wanted to be somewhere where we had a foothold . " The developers consciously avoided creating a block for block recreation of New York City , Dan Houser said " what we 've always tried to do is make a thing that looks real and has the qualities of a real environment , but is also fun from a game design perspective . " The Grand Theft Auto IV rendition of Liberty City is far more detailed and larger in size than most earlier entries in the series Although smaller than San Andreas , the main setting for Grand Theft Auto IV 's predecessor Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas , Liberty City is comparable to it in terms of scope when " the level of verticality of the city , the number of buildings you can go into , and the level of detail in those buildings " are taken into account . The goal for Liberty City was to have no dead spots or irrelevant spaces , such as the wide open deserts in San Andreas . To achieve a realistic environment , the Rockstar North team , based in Edinburgh , Scotland , made two trips to New York for research , one at the start of the project ( which was done with every previous Grand Theft Auto game ) and another smaller one further into development . A full @-@ time research team , based in New York , handled further requests for information ranging from the ethnic minority of a neighbourhood to videos of traffic patterns .
The story of Grand Theft Auto IV was written by Dan Houser and Rupert Humphries . Unlike previous Grand Theft Auto games which have a strong cultural or cinematic influence , " [ Grand Theft Auto IV doesn 't ] really have any cinematic influences " , as explained by Houser . " We were consciously trying to go , well , if video games are going to develop into the next stage , then the thing isn 't to try and do a loving tribute or reference other stuff . It 's to reference the actual place itself " . Houser also said , " In terms of the character , we wanted something that felt fresh and new and not something that was obviously derived from [ a ] movie . [ ... ] Maybe [ we ] could do something ourselves that would live alongside that stuff " .
Music supervisor Ivan Pavlovich said " [ we had ] to pick the songs that make New York today what it is , but make sure they won 't feel dated by the time the game comes out . " The developers contacted over 2 @,@ 000 people in order to obtain recording and publishing rights . They even hired a private investigator to locate the relatives of late Skatt Bros. member Sean Delaney to license the band 's song , " Walk the Night " . Citing sources close to the deals , Billboard reported that Rockstar paid as much as $ 5 @,@ 000 per composition and another $ 5 @,@ 000 per master recording per track . Developers originally considered letting players purchase music by going to an in @-@ game record shop and for Niko to have an MP3 player , but both ideas were cut . DJ Green Lantern produced tracks exclusively for the game 's hip @-@ hop radio station The Beat 102 @.@ 7 . Record label owner and record producer Bobby Konders , who hosts the in @-@ game radio station Massive B Soundsystem 96 @.@ 9 , went through the extra effort of flying to Jamaica to get dancehall artists to re @-@ record tracks to make references to the boroughs of Liberty City .
The Corporate Vice @-@ President of Microsoft 's Interactive Entertainment Business division , Peter Moore , announced at E3 2006 that the game would appear on Xbox 360 , by rolling up his sleeve to reveal a Grand Theft Auto IV temporary tattoo . Rockstar Games initially appeared to be committed to the original 16 October 2007 release date ; however , Wedbush Morgan analyst Michael Pachter suggested that Take @-@ Two may choose to delay the release of the game in order to boost its financial results for 2008 and to avoid competing with the release of other highly anticipated titles , such as Halo 3 . Rockstar responded by saying that Grand Theft Auto IV was still on track for release in " late October " . On 2 August 2007 , Take @-@ Two announced that Grand Theft Auto IV would miss its original release date of 16 October 2007 contrary to their previous statements , and would be delayed to their second fiscal quarter ( February – April ) of 2008 . In a later conference call with investors , Take @-@ Two 's Strauss Zelnick attributed the delay to " almost strictly technological problems ... not problems , but challenges . " It was later revealed that technical difficulties with the PlayStation 3 version of the game contributed to the delay , along with storage problems on the Xbox 360 . On 24 January 2008 , Take @-@ Two announced that Grand Theft Auto IV would be released on 29 April 2008 . As the release date approached , Rockstar Games and Take @-@ Two marketed the game heavily through various forms , including television ads , Internet video , billboards , viral marketing , and a redesigned website . A special edition of the game was also released for both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . At a Take @-@ Two shareholder meeting on 18 April 2008 , Take @-@ Two CEO Ben Feder announced that Grand Theft Auto IV had already " gone gold " and was " in production and in trucks en route to retailers " . The game was eventually released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 video game consoles in Europe , North America , and Oceania on 29 April 2008 , and in Japan on 30 October 2008 . Overall , Grand Theft Auto IV took over 1000 people and more than three and a half years to complete , with a total cost estimated at approximately $ 100 million , making it , at the time , the most expensive video game ever developed .
On 6 August 2008 , Rockstar announced that a Microsoft Windows version of Grand Theft Auto IV was in development by Rockstar North and Rockstar Toronto . The game was originally announced for release in North America on 18 November 2008 and in Europe on 21 November 2008 but was later pushed back to 2 and 3 December 2008 , respectively . It contains expanded features , including traffic density control , draw distance configurations and a replay editor . The replay editor allows players to record and edit game clips , videos can then be uploaded to Rockstar 's Social Club website . It utilised Games for Windows - Live for online play and supports 32 players for multiplayer . SecuROM protection is utilised and a one time online activation is required in order to play the game . The game was made available on Steam on 4 January 2009 .
= = = Episodic content = = =
Two episodic packs for Grand Theft Auto IV have been released . These two episodes were first released separately , exclusively on Xbox Live , as downloadable content ( DLC ) , requiring the original game to play . They were later released together as part of a standalone game , titled Grand Theft Auto : Episodes From Liberty City , which does not require the original game to play . Dan Houser stated the episodes shows " a different side of Liberty City " .
The first expansion , titled Grand Theft Auto : The Lost and Damned , was originally released on 17 February 2009 . The protagonist of The Lost and Damned is Johnny Klebitz , a member of Liberty City 's biker gang The Lost . The second expansion , titled Grand Theft Auto : The Ballad of Gay Tony , was released on 29 October 2009 . The protagonist of The Ballad of Gay Tony is Luis Fernando Lopez , an assistant to nightclub owner Tony " Gay Tony " Prince , and follows him as he resolves the conflicts of his friends , family , and boss .
Jeronimo Barrera , Vice President of Product Development for Rockstar Games , said that the episodes were experiments because the team were not sure that there was enough users with access to online content on the Xbox 360 . Take @-@ Two Interactive 's Chief Financial Officer , Lainie Goldstein revealed that Microsoft was paying a total of $ 50 million for the first two episodes . In January 2010 , Rockstar announced that the DLC as well as Episodes From Liberty City would be made available for the PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows on 13 April 2010 in North America and 16 April 2010 in Europe .
Both episodes were released for PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows on 13 April 2010 in North America and on 16 April 2010 in Europe . Grand Theft Auto IV : The Complete Edition , including the original Grand Theft Auto IV and its two episodic expansions , was listed on online stores , before being confirmed by Rockstar . The compilation was released on PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Windows on 26 October 2010 in North America , and 29 October in Europe .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Like previous games in the Grand Theft Auto series , Grand Theft Auto IV features a soundtrack that can be heard through radio stations while the player is in a vehicle . Liberty City is serviced by 19 radio stations , three of which are talk radio stations . The other stations feature music from a large range of genres , including tracks from Genesis , David Bowie , Bob Marley , The Who , Queen , Kanye West and Elton John .
Grand Theft Auto IV uses a similar music system to that of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas ( 2004 ) . In other games in the series , each radio station was essentially a single looped sound file , playing the same songs , announcements and advertisements in the same order each time . With the radio stations in Grand Theft Auto IV , each sound file is held separately , and sequenced randomly , allowing songs to be played in different orders , announcements to songs to be different each time , and plot events to be mentioned on the stations . Certain songs are also edited to incorporate references to the fictional Liberty City .
A variety of real celebrities provide voices for the radio DJs in the game , including fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld , musicians Iggy Pop , Femi Kuti , Jimmy Gestapo and Ruslana , and real @-@ life radio talk show host Lazlow Jones . Saturday Night Live actors Bill Hader and Jason Sudeikis appear on the liberal and conservative radio talk shows respectively , with Fred Armisen playing several guests on Lazlow 's " Integrity 2 @.@ 0 " . Numerous other comedians , including Jim Norton , Patrice O 'Neal , Rick Shapiro , and Robert Kelly , as well as radio hosts Opie & Anthony appeared on the radio and / or as characters in @-@ game .
The Music of Grand Theft Auto IV is a 2008 soundtrack packaged with the special edition of Grand Theft Auto IV . The disc contains several soundtrack selections . The soundtrack features several genres , from hip hop to rock and reggae . Several artists re @-@ recorded their songs to make references to in @-@ game locations . Two songs , " Liberty City : The Invasion " and " No Sex for Ben " , were composed specifically for the game and the soundtrack . The theme song of Grand Theft Auto IV , " Soviet Connection " , was composed by Michael Hunter , who previously composed the theme for Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas .
= = Reception = =
= = = Initial release = = =
Grand Theft Auto IV was released to universal acclaim . Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating in the 0 – 100 range , calculated an average score of 98 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 64 reviews for the PlayStation 3 version and 86 reviews for the Xbox 360 version . It is the second @-@ highest rated game on Metacritic , tied with a number of other games . It is also one of the highest @-@ rated games on GameRankings . Reviewers liked the game 's narrative , open world design and combat system . Hilary Goldstein of IGN felt that the game " sets a new benchmark for open @-@ world games " , and Andrew Reiner of Game Informer wrote that the game " completely changes the landscape of gaming " .
Reviewers lauded the open world design , some further complimenting the freedom that it allows the player . Seth Schiesel of The New York Times named the city the " real star " of the game . Official Xbox Magazine 's Hicks was impressed by the city , attributing this to the game 's AI . Robinson of Computer and Video Games considered the environment believable , and felt that the world was " utterly unmatched " . Goldstein of IGN felt that , although Liberty City is inspired by New York , it is not beholden to it . He wrote that the city " exists in its own universe and rightfully so " . Crispin Boyer of 1UP.com directed praise at the city 's " breathtaking vistas , incredibly varied scenery , and lived @-@ in look . " Conversely , Jesse Costantino of Game Revolution felt that the game lacked important features common in other open world games .
Reviewers praised the game 's narrative . IGN 's Goldstein accepted that the darker tones to the story , a break from series tradition . Jon Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine felt surprised by the amount of depth to the story . Reiner of Game Informer wrote that the level of freedom in the game contributed to his enjoyment of the story . The morality choices faced by players throughout the narrative were also welcomed . 1UP.com 's Boyer felt that they gave the game an element of " replayability " . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell considered the morality choices a fair substitute over " bosses with large health bars " .
The game 's characters — particularly Niko — received positive reactions from critics . Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine and Andy Robinson of Computer and Video Games both called Niko " charismatic " and " likeable " , stating that they prefer him over previous protagonists of the series . George Walter of GamesRadar praised the depth of the character , and IGN 's Goldstein felt that the character of Niko feels relatable when faced with difficult decisions . Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb felt that Niko was a " the only thing that mattered to [ him ] " as he progressed through the story , with the character becoming one of his favourite features of the game . Schiesel of The New York Times named Niko one of the most realised video game characters attributing this to the game 's script , while 1UP.com 's Boyer commended the use of character bonding during the game 's missions .
Many reviewers found the combat system was more responsive than in previous games , particularly praising the addition of the cover system . Justin Calvert of GameSpot wrote that the cover system makes the game 's combat a " huge improvement " over previous games . Reiner of Game Informer agreed , writing that the targeting system makes players feel responsible for all deaths . IGN 's Goldstein praised the fluidity of the cover system , and felt that the auto aim mechanic is a " great help in larger battles " . GamesRadar 's Walter wrote that the cover system has " paved the way to a new style of mission " . David McComb of Empire called the combat " sharp and instinctive " , and Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine felt that the cover system allows players to execute an attack plan . In addition to the combat system , most reviewers noted the vehicle handling was more realistic than in previous games . Robinson of Computer and Video Games felt that the vehicle handling echoed realism , while Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine called the vehicle selection " excellent " . Costantino of Game Revolution praised the improvement of the game 's mechanics , particularly the physics engine 's advanced vehicle and character animations .
Reviewers praised the sound design . Goldstein of IGN praised the actors ' performances and the use of licensed music . GameSpot 's Calvert and GamesRadar 's Walter also commended the licensed music , the latter admiring the humour of the radio 's talk stations . Michael Pinson of The Pro Audio Files praised the separate features of the game 's sound design — including the city 's ambiance , licensed music , character dialogue , and vehicle and weapon sound effects — applauding the developer 's use of uniting the features together . Carolyn Gudmundson of GamesRadar also retroactively praised the game 's soundtrack , commending its suitability to the game 's setting .
The game 's online multiplayer mode received positive reactions from critics . Reiner of Game Informer praised the character customisation available in the multiplayer mode , and noted that it runs " just as smoothly " as the single @-@ player game . 1UP.com 's Boyer called the multiplayer modes " excellent " , and IGN 's Goldstein named it one of the best . Official Xbox Magazine 's Hicks dubbed the multiplayer as " hugely entertaining " , while Walter of GamesRadar praised the " seamless " process of entering a multiplayer match . Giant Bomb 's Gerstmann and Game Revolution 's Costantino felt divided about the multiplayer , the latter naming it a " fantastic idea " , but feeling as though connectivity problems resulted in a " broken " experience .
= = = Microsoft Windows version = = =
When Grand Theft Auto IV was released to Microsoft Windows in December 2008 , it received generally positive reviews . Metacritic calculated an average score of 90 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 40 reviews . Reviewers liked the enhanced visuals and the additional features , but criticised the port for its inferiority over the console versions .
The in @-@ game features added in the port were well received . The addition of the Video Editor was met with positive reactions ; GameSpot 's Calvert called it " a great way to get creative " , while Kieron Gillen of Eurogamer criticised the unpredictability in its timing . Critics also praised the addition of the customisable radio station , which allows players to listen to their own choice of music ; Tom Chick of 1UP.com named it the best feature of the port , and Steven Hopper of GameZone called it a " great touch " . The port 's upgrade to 32 concurrent players in the online multiplayer mode , as opposed to the console version 's 16 players , was also met with positive feedback ; Eurogamer 's Gillen said that the " possibility for mayhem ... increases " , while Will Tuttle of GameSpy felt that the player increase " changes the action significantly " .
The port 's enhanced visuals were commended by many reviewers . GameZone 's Hopper considered the visuals an improvement over the original versions . Andy Robinson of Computer and Video Games called the visuals " impressive " , while Tom Orry of VideoGamer.com called them " superb " . Conversely , the port 's system requirements , considered difficult to run with advanced settings , received criticism . Eurogamer 's Gillen said that , though the Windows version is " the most attractive version " , it 's " annoyingly fiddly to get there " . GameSpy 's Tuttle was able to overlook the demanding system requirements in exchange for the game 's other features .
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = Sales = = =
Within twenty @-@ four hours of its release , Grand Theft Auto IV sold over 3 @.@ 6 million copies , equating to approximately $ 310 million in revenue . Within a week , it generated more than $ 500 million in worldwide revenue , equating to approximately 6 million copies sold for Take Two . The numbers surpassed analysts ' expectations for the title . After one month of availability , the game had sold over 8 @.@ 5 million copies . It broke three Guinness World Records on 13 May 2008 : highest grossing video game in 24 hours , highest revenue generated by an entertainment product in 24 hours , and fastest @-@ selling video game in 24 hours . On 11 March 2011 , Take @-@ Two announced that the game had sold over 20 million copies , with the Grand Theft Auto series surpassing a collective total of 100 million copies . As of July 2013 , the game has sold over 25 million copies . All sales records broken by Grand Theft Auto IV were beaten by its successor , Grand Theft Auto V , upon release .
In the United Kingdom , the game became the fastest @-@ selling game of all time , selling over 631 @,@ 000 copies in twenty @-@ four hours . This broke the record set by Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas at 501 @,@ 000 copies over the same period . During the first five days of availability , the game sold over 927 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom . Over the same period , 2 @.@ 85 million units were sold in the United States . By the end of 2008 , the game had sold over 5 @.@ 18 million copies in the US . In its first four days of availability in Japan , it sold 133 @,@ 000 copies on the PlayStation 3 and 34 @,@ 000 on the Xbox 360 , according to Media Create .
In the first week of availability , the Windows version of Grand Theft Auto IV debuted at seventh place on the weekly charts ; by the second week , it had left the top @-@ ten . Based on unique user counts , the game was the most played Games for Windows – Live game in 2009 and 2012 , and the second @-@ most played in 2011 .
= = = Awards = = =
Following the critical acclaim it received on its release , Grand Theft Auto IV has received various awards from various critics and publications . It received several Game of the Year awards , from gaming media outlets such as Spike TV , Giant Bomb , Kotaku , and GameTrailers , as well as mainstream publications , like The New York Times , the Los Angeles Times , and Time magazine . Grand Theft Auto IV also received seven nominations at the 5th British Academy Video Games Awards ( BAFTA Games Awards ) , and three nominations at the 9th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards , but did not win any of them .
= = Controversies = =
Prior to and since the release of Grand Theft Auto IV , the game had been subject to a great deal of controversy , as was the case with previous Grand Theft Auto titles . Figures including George Galloway , Jack Thompson and Hillary Clinton have criticised the game , as have organisations including New York City officials and Mothers Against Drunk Driving ( MADD ) . MADD asked ESRB to change the rating of the game from " M " ( for ages seventeen and up ) to " AO " ( for adults only ) due to the player 's ability to drive under the influence of alcohol .
The initial version of Grand Theft Auto IV released in Australia and New Zealand was pre @-@ censored by Rockstar to allow the game to meet the perceived requirements of the Australian classification system . However , the game was resubmitted to the New Zealand OFLC by Stan Calif , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old student who was unhappy that New Zealand received an edited version of the game as a result of Australian censorship laws . The unedited version was subsequently given an R18 rating and cleared for sale in New Zealand . For the PC release , the uncensored version of the game was awarded MA15 + in Australia . Following the release of The Lost and Damned , Rockstar distributed a patch which uncensored the Australian release for consoles .
There have been reports in the United Kingdom and the United States of crimes perpetrated against people purchasing Grand Theft Auto IV , as well as employees of stores selling the game . One of these incidents , an attack near a Gamestation store in Croydon , London was later reported to be an unrelated argument between two groups of people leaving a pub and the story has been referred to as a " media panic . " Six teenagers were later arrested in June 2008 after engaging in a crime spree in New Hyde Park , New York , assaulting and robbing several people , and attempting a carjacking . According to police , the teens claimed that they were " inspired " by Grand Theft Auto IV .
= Norwood – 205th Street ( IND Concourse Line ) =
Norwood – 205th Street ( formerly 205th Street ) is the northern terminal station on the IND Concourse Line of the New York City Subway . Located at the intersection of 205th Street and Bainbridge Avenue in Norwood , Bronx , it is served by the D train at all times .
= = History = =
The station was built as part of the sixth and seventh sections of the IND Concourse Line beginning in the late 1920s . The station was built under East 205th Street at its eastern end , and underneath preexisting private property for most of its length . The station opened on July 1 , 1933 , along with the rest of the Concourse subway . On July 1 , 1937 , an escalator was opened in the station , the first of its kind in the Bronx .
On August 23 , 1954 , a D train relaying east of the station overshot the bumper blocks at the end of the track , crashing into the wall at the end of the line . The train motorman was trapped in the tunnel for seven hours , and when he was freed , his left foot had to be amputated .
= = Station layout = =
This underground station has two tracks and one island platform . Both track walls have a lime green trim line with a medium Kelly green border . Small " 205 " signs are placed below them at regular intervals . The platform has a row of concrete @-@ clad I @-@ beam columns on both sides ; these are painted medium Hunter green . There is clear evidence of water damage and mold due to poor drainage in numerous areas along the platform ceiling , the wall tiles , and to a number of the support columns . The station is also notorious for having piles of trash bags on the platform and at entrances , as well as for large amounts of litter on the tracks due to an absence of trash cans . 205th Street station was declared one of the five worst in the system in terms of maintenance and appearance by the New York City Transit Riders Council in 2005 , problems which have persisted into the 2010s .
Due to changes in the street grid of the neighborhood , the station is located at East 205th Street and Perry Avenue at its eastern end , and at East 206th Street and Bainbridge Avenue at its western end . 205th Street turns diagonally southwest at Perry Street , while the subway maintains its previous direction , lining up with Van Cortland Avenue before turning south onto Grand Concourse .
The station is located close to several Norwood landmarks , including the New York Public Library 's Mosholu Branch ; the Montefiore Medical Center and North Central Bronx Hospital , north of the station on East 210th Street ; St. Brendan 's Church and School ; the Valentine – Varian House ; and the Williamsbridge Oval , the former site of the Williamsbridge Reservoir .
= = = Fare control = = =
This station has two fare control areas . The full @-@ time side at the south ( geographical west ) end has a turnstile bank , token booth , and two staircases going up to the southeast and northwest corners of East 206th Street and Bainbridge Avenue . Because of the varying topography of the surrounding neighborhood , a single escalator was installed in 1937 in this fare control area , traversing an elevation difference of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) between the mezzanine and platform . Access to fare control otherwise requires walking up three flights of stairs from platform level .
The other fare control area at the station 's north ( geographical east ) end , accessed by a ramp to the platform , is unstaffed , containing full height turnstiles and two staircases going up to the northwest and southeast corners of East 205th Street and Perry Avenue . The token booth at this location was closed on July 30 , 2005 and removed sometime afterward .
= = Track layout = =
This station was not intended to be the terminus of the Concourse Line or the D train ; both were supposed to have been extended east past Bronx Park and the IRT White Plains Road Line along Burke Avenue to serve the northeast section of the Bronx . This idea was postponed due to lack of funding , and ultimately abandoned when the City of New York bought the right @-@ of @-@ way of the bankrupt New York , Westchester and Boston Railway and converted it for subway use in 1941 . Another proposal in the 1970s involved extending the Concourse Line to White Plains Road , but financial troubles caused the plan to be aborted .
As a result of the planned extension , the two tracks continue east of this station for about 700 feet along 205th Street to Webster Avenue , ending at a concrete wall , and this station does not have any crew quarters . Crews are changed at Bedford Park Boulevard , the next station south . Additionally , there is no diamond crossover between the tracks west of this station ; here , a center track forms leading west to the Concourse Yard . Because of this , terminating trains arrive on the southern ( railroad northbound ) track and discharge their passengers before continuing east to the end of the track . They then use the diamond crossover there to return to this station on the northern ( railroad southbound ) track and begin service to Manhattan and Brooklyn . Due to the track configuration , trains may reverse into the yard from the southern track , and trains from the yard may start service on the northern track .
= Corey Taylor =
Corey Todd Taylor ( born December 8 , 1973 ) is an American musician , author , and actor best known as the lead singer and lyricist of the heavy metal band Slipknot and hard rock / alternative metal band Stone Sour .
Taylor is a founding member of Stone Sour , and has released five studio albums with that band . Taylor joined Slipknot in 1997 to replace their original vocalist , Anders Colsefni . He has released five studio albums with them
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. He has worked with several bands , including Junk Beer Kidnap Band , Apocalyptica , Anthrax , Aaron Lewis of Staind , and Soulfly . Taylor was ranked number 86 in Hit Parader 's Top 100 Metal Vocalists of All Time . He was also named 7th greatest heavy metal frontman by NME . Taylor was also found , by VVN Music , to possess the second @-@ highest vocal range of any known singer in popular music with a range of 5 and a half octaves . He was beaten only by Mike Patton ( 6 octaves ) .
= = Personal life = =
Corey Todd Taylor was born in Des Moines , Iowa on December 8 , 1973 . Taylor was mostly raised by his mother in Waterloo , Iowa , a place described by Taylor as a " hole in the ground with buildings around it . " He is of German and Native American background from his father 's side and Irish and Dutch on his mother 's side . Taylor was raised by his single mother . He developed a fond feeling toward rock ' n ' roll after his grandmother introduced him to Elvis Presley .
In 1979 , Taylor and his mother saw the science fiction series Buck Rogers in the 25th Century . Before the series , there was a trailer for the 1978 horror film Halloween . Taylor said this " developed some sense of Slipknot in [ himself ] . " While Halloween introduced Taylor to masks and horror themes , Taylor 's grandmother introduced him to rock music , showing him a collection of Elvis Presley records from the mid @-@ fifties to late seventies . He especially found some songs like " Teddy Bear " , " In the Ghetto " , and " Suspicious Minds " , to appeal to his interests the most , describing them as " good times . " Taylor also began listening to Black Sabbath at a young age , beginning with their early work .
Taylor , along with his mother and sister , lived at one point in an " old dilapidated farmhouse , " which on days in late autumn would " look like Black Sabbath album covers . " By age fifteen , Taylor had developed a drug addiction and had overdosed on cocaine twice . By this time , Taylor was living in Waterloo , Iowa , but later set out on his own and ended up at his grandmother 's house in Iowa . She took legal custody of him and helped him buy musical equipment . When Taylor was eighteen , he left his grandmother 's home and went to various places , Des Moines being a place to which he frequently returned .
In his early twenties , when Taylor was living with his grandmother , he attempted suicide by way of overdose . Taylor 's ex @-@ girlfriend 's mother drove him to the hospital in Des Moines and doctors were able to resuscitate him . He describes this as the lowest point in his life .
Taylor and his father first met when Taylor was 30 years old , and now have a relationship , although he said their paths do not cross that often . On September 17 , 2002 , Taylor 's then @-@ fiancée , Scarlett Stone , gave birth to their son Griffin Parker . Taylor also has a daughter named Angeline from an earlier relationship . Taylor and Stone married on March 11 , 2004 , and divorced three years later .
Taylor has also had alcohol abuse problems , which his wife , Scarlett , helped him through as well as keeping him from committing suicide . In 2006 , Taylor told MTV that he had attempted to jump off a balcony of the eighth floor of the Hyatt on Sunset Boulevard in 2003 , but " somehow [ Scarlett ] stopped me " . This was later recanted by Taylor in an interview with Kerrang ! radio and stated that it was , in fact , his friend Thom Hazaert who stopped him from jumping . Scarlett then told him that either he would have to get sober or she would annul their marriage . Before Stone Sour started recording Come What ( ever ) May in January 2006 , Taylor was sober .
On August 3 , 2009 , he co @-@ hosted the 2009 Kerrang ! Awards alongside Scott Ian of Anthrax . The following year , they both once again co @-@ hosted The Kerrang Awards , where Corey collected the K ! Services to Metal award on behalf of Paul Gray who died after an accidental overdose of morphine and fentanyl .
In early September 2010 , Taylor announced that his book , Seven Deadly Sins : Settling The Argument Between Born Bad And Damaged Good would be released on July 12 , 2011 through Da Capo Press .
On November 13 , 2009 , Taylor married Stephanie Luby at the Palms Hotel in Las Vegas .
= = Music career = =
= = = Slipknot = = =
In Des Moines , Iowa , Joey Jordison , Shawn Crahan , and Mick Thomson approached him asking him to join Slipknot . He agreed to go to one of their practices , and ended up singing in front of them . Of Slipknot 's nine members , Corey was the sixth to join the band . Performing with Slipknot , he would also come to be known as " Number Eight " , being that the band follows a numbering scheme for its members , ranging from 0 – 8 . According to Shawn Crahan , Corey wanted number eight , because it symbolizes infinity .
Feeling he could expand more inside Slipknot than in Stone Sour , Taylor temporarily quit Stone Sour , even though they were recording an album with Sean McMahon . Taylor 's first gig with Slipknot was on August 22 , 1997 , which according to band members did not go well . During his first gig , Taylor did not perform wearing a mask ; however , for his second show nearly a month later , Corey wore a mask that resembles his debut album mask . Taylor 's current mask was described by MTV 's Chris Harris as looking " as though it were made of dried , human flesh — like Leatherface , if only he used moisturizer . "
Taylor has recorded with Slipknot since the release of their second demo album , a self @-@ titled demo used to promote the band to prospective labels and producers . As permanent vocalist , he recorded with Slipknot at Indigo Ranch in Malibu , California and released Slipknot , the band 's debut album that peaked number one on the Top Heatseekers chart , went 2 × Platinum in the United States , and was included in the 2006 book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . Taylor was accused of copyright infringement , regarding the lyrics of the song " Purity " , but no action was taken . Taylor began recording for their second studio album , Iowa , in 2001 at Sound City and Sound Image in Van Nuys , Los Angeles . It was released August 28 , 2001 and peaked number one on the UK Albums Chart , as well as number three on the Billboard 200 . While writing Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) , Taylor decided to write lyrics that would not warrant an explicit label . It peaked number two on the Billboard 200 . All Hope Is Gone was the first Slipknot album to peak number one on the Billboard 200 .
= = = Stone Sour = = =
Taylor is a founding member of the American hard rock band Stone Sour . After he formed the band with drummer Joel Ekman , Shawn Economaki joined filling in the bass position , leaving the electric guitar position to be filled by Josh Rand . Stone Sour recorded a demo album in 1993 , and another in 1994 . In 1997 , Taylor was approached by the metal band , Slipknot , resulting in him abandoning Stone Sour while they were recording a demo album with Sean McMahon at SR studios . Taylor did not return until five years later to record their debut album , Stone Sour in 2002 . Both Taylor and guitarist Josh Rand contacted Jim Root , Slipknot 's guitarist , and Shawn Economaki , Stone Sour 's original bassist , to begin writing songs for their debut album . Drummer Joel Ekman came back on board as well . This " reformation " later resulted in Stone Sour recording at Catamount Studios in Cedar Falls , Iowa .
Their self @-@ titled debut album was released August 27 , 2002 , and it debuted at number 46 on the Billboard 200 . Their second album , Come What ( ever ) May debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 . It was released August 1 , 2006 , and charted on several different charts . Live in Moscow is currently their only album specifically released only for music download . During the recording of the album , drummer Joel Ekman left the band for personal reasons . As a result , drummer Roy Mayorga was recruited , taking his place . The group released their third studio album , Audio Secrecy , on September 7 , 2010 .
Later , Corey Taylor has announced the release of a concept double album with Stone Sour . The albums are titled " House of Gold And Bones " . During the process of making the double album , bassist Shawn Economaki left the band . He was temporarily replaced for touring purposes by Johny Chow . The first part was released in October 2012 and the second part in April 2013 . There are 23 songs in total , 11 on the first part and 12 on the second . In addition to these two albums is a four @-@ part comic book series written by Taylor and published by Dark Horse Comics . They are set to go on sale in 2013 . With these albums came a story that was written by Taylor that coincide with the album . Fans can also construct a miniature " house of gold and bones " from the packaging design of the physical versions of the two albums . Taylor has also said that he would like to finish off the project by making the story into a movie but nothing has come of this yet .
= = = Other work = = =
Taylor has appeared as a guest musician on albums by Soulfly , Apocalyptica and Damageplan . At one point , he was heavily involved in the recording of thrash metal band Anthrax 's album , Worship Music , but the sessions remain unreleased . He also contributed to the Roadrunner United all @-@ star album in 2005 , providing vocals for the song " Rich Man " . Taylor has also made a brief appearance in Steel Panther 's singles " Death to All but Metal " , " Eyes of a Panther " , and " Asian Hooker " . In 2006 , Taylor founded the record company Great Big Mouth Records . Taylor has produced two albums : Face Cage 's self @-@ titled album and Walls of Jericho 's Redemption . Taylor provided guest narration on the track " Repentance " for Dream Theater 's 2007 album Systematic Chaos . In an interview with Billboard magazine , Taylor confirmed that on January 13 , 2009 , he was planning on making a solo album , as well as returning to his side project Stone Sour after Slipknot 's All Hope Is Gone World Tour . Taylor has stated that he was writing songs that " don 't fit either of his main bands . " He describes them as a cross between Foo Fighters , Johnny Cash , and Social Distortion , saying that there 's " a country background that comes built @-@ in with living in Iowa " .
On March 30 , 2009 , it was confirmed that Taylor and the Junk Beer Kidnap Band would be performing at Rockfest in 2009 . The group performed on April 24 , 2009 at People 's Court in Des Moines , Iowa , marking Taylor 's first official solo show . Taylor performs with his band the Dum Fux , who make covers for 1970s punk rock and 1980s hair metal . Taylor also performs with Audacious P , a band that is primarily a Tenacious D cover band . Rapper Tech N9ne confirmed that Taylor was to perform on his album K.O.D. , but was removed because Taylor did not submit his vocals in time . Taylor recently admitted that he tried out for the vacant singer spot in the band Velvet Revolver , but said that it just did not work out . However , according to a recent Billboard article , it seems likely that he may in fact become the vocalist for Velvet Revolver , though no official confirmation has been made . Duff McKagan added that they can neither " confirm or deny " Taylor 's membership in the band but believes that Taylor is the " real deal " . Slash has since ruled Corey out as the possible new vocalist explaining that " [ it ] just wasn 't right " although he does love him . He however , has recorded 10 new songs with the band , drummer Matt Sorum stated it 's unlikely it will ever be released . Taylor explained to Mark Hoppus on Hoppus on Music that McKagan and he were writing new music for a possible new supergroup .
In July 2011 Taylor collaborated with Aaron Lewis while promoting Lewis ' solo album , Town Line for a one night only acoustic duet show covering songs such as , Pearl Jam 's " Black " , Pink Floyd 's Comfortably Numb , and Alice in Chains ' Down in a Hole , videos from this show with Taylor and Lewis can be found on YouTube . Taylor also shared the stage with Aaron Lewis on August 16 , 2009 during the Ride For Dime memorial concert . They performed Pantera covers with a variety of other musicians .
As a solo artist he recorded a song , " X @-@ M @ $ " , for The Teenage Cancer Trust . The single was made available to digital retailers on December 12 , 2010 . It debuted at number thirty @-@ seven in the UK . Taylor clarified on YouTube that the song was just a joke about people who don 't enjoy Christmas . He personally loves Christmas especially due to the fact he gets to see his extended family but finds the frustration of people who don 't like it to be hilarious .
In 2011 , Taylor collaborated with Blink @-@ 182 drummer Travis Barker on Barker 's solo album Give the Drummer Some on the song " On My Own " .
in 2016 Taylor started to host " A Series of Bleeps " , a rocksentered radioshow on Beats 1 .
Taylor is confirmed to be a guest vocalist in Korn 's upcoming album .
= = Acting career = =
On December 4 , 2013 , Corey Taylor joined the cast of Fear Clinic with Robert Englund . He played Bauer , one of the employees of the clinic who struggles to keep things under control when all hell breaks loose . He played in a horror movie called Bullied that came out in 2013 . In October 2015 . Taylor provided the roars for The Fisher King in the Doctor Who episode " Before the Flood " .
= = Style and influence = =
The first two Slipknot albums with Taylor 's vocals , Slipknot and Iowa , both contain gratuitous explicit content . Many critics claimed Taylor relied on the profanity , which is why Slipknot 's third album , Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) is profanity @-@ free , ( with the exceptions of the word bitch on the song " Duality " and bastard on the spoken intro of " Pulse of the Maggots " ) , and did not warrant the explicit label . Compared with the previous vocalist for Slipknot , Anders Colsefni , Taylor has a vocal style that was characterized by drummer Joey Jordison as " really good melodic singing " . Taylor 's vocal style , which contains at times melodic singing , growling , screaming , shouting , and rapping , led him to place at number 86 on the Hit Parader 's Top 100 Metal Vocalists of All Time and is often compared to other vocalists such as Ivan L. Moody , John Bush , Phil Anselmo and Jamey Jasta .
Taylor 's two major projects have contrasting temperaments . Slipknot is considered to be heavy metal , nu metal and alternative metal , and expresses moods such as depression , hostility , anger , misanthropy , and rebellion . Stone Sour is classified as alternative metal , expressing moods of bleakness and somberness as well as anger and rebellion . Taylor cites Mötley Crüe , AC / DC , The Who , The Beatles , Led Zeppelin , The Doors , Pink Floyd , Faith No More , Van Halen , Aerosmith , Rush , Motörhead , Judas Priest , Iron Maiden , Metallica , Alice in Chains , Bon Jovi , Guns N ' Roses , Nine Inch Nails , Dokken , Misfits , Black Sabbath , Deep Purple , Queen , Anthrax , Black Flag , Slayer , Def Leppard , The Stooges , Sex Pistols , Lynyrd Skynyrd , Neil Young , Cheap Trick , Pearl Jam , The Damned , The Cramps , Soundgarden , Mr. Bungle , Megadeth , Nirvana , Journey , Bob Dylan , Kiss , ZZ Top , White Zombie , Pantera , Korn , and Marilyn Manson as influences .
= = Discography as featured artist = =
= = Filmography = =
= = Books and other writings = =
= = Equipment = =
= = Awards = =
Revolver Golden Gods Awards
Loudwire Music Awards
= International Association for Plant Taxonomy =
The International Association for Plant Taxonomy ( IAPT ) promotes an understanding of plant biodiversity , facilitates international communication of research between botanists , and oversees matters of uniformity and stability in plant names . The IAPT was founded on July 18 , 1950 at the Seventh International Botanical Congress in Stockholm , Sweden . Currently , the IAPT headquarters is located in Bratislava , Slovakia . Its current president , since 2011 , is Vicki Funk of the Smithsonian Institution , Washington , DC . ; vice @-@ president is Sandra Knapp of the Natural History Museum , London ; and secretary @-@ general is Karol Marhold of the Institute of Botany , Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava .
Both the taxonomic journal Taxon and the series Regnum Vegetabile are published by the IAPT . The latter series includes the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants , the Index Nominum Genericorum , and Index Herbariorum .
= = Purpose = =
The IAPT 's primary purpose is the promotion and understanding of biodiversity — the discovery , naming , classification , and systematics of plants — for both living and fossil plants . Additionally , it promotes the study and conservation of plant biodiversity , and works to raise awareness of the general public to this issue . The organization also facilitates international cooperation among botanists working in the fields of plant systematics , taxonomy , and nomenclature . This is accomplished in part through sponsorship of meetings and publication of resources , such as reference publications and journals .
The IAPT also seeks to achieve uniformity and stability in plant names . It accomplishes this through the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants , previously known as the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature , and through the oversight of the International Bureau for Plant Taxonomy and Nomenclature .
= = Publications and online resources = =
= = = Taxon = = =
Taxon is the bi @-@ monthly journal of the IAPT . The journal , which was initiated in 1951 , publishes original papers and reviews dealing with systematic botany in the broadest sense . Preference is given to integrative papers combining the results of modern analysis with their consequences for classification . Taxon also contains matters related to botanical nomenclature , and is the medium for the publication of both proposals to conserve or reject names and proposals to amend the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( ICN ) . Publication of such matters in Taxon satisfies the required submission to the General Committee . The journal also contains sections devoted to the International Organisation of Plant Biosystematics , reviews and notices of books and other publications , and news in the world of plant systematics . Although the journal is " devoted to systematic and evolutionary biology with emphasis on botany " , it has been in the past criticized for focusing overly on nomenclature and less on the principles and advancements made in the field of plant systematics .
= = = Regnum Vegetabile = = =
Regnum Vegetabile is a published series of books on topics of interest to plant taxonomists . Many of the volumes are literature surveys or monographs in the area of plant systematics . There are several volumes of general use :
International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( Vol . 154 , 2012 ) The ICN is a set of rules and recommendations dealing with the formal names that are given to plants . The current edition is known as the " Melbourne Code " , as it was drafted in 2011 at the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress in Melbourne , Australia .
International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants , 8th edition ( Vol . 151 , 2010 ) Companion to the ICN , this volume sets forth rules regarding the names of plant cultivars .
Index Nominum Genericorum ( Vols . 100 @-@ 102 & 113 ) An index of all published generic names covered by the ICN , including the place of publication and information about the type species . The index is prepared in collaboration with the Smithsonian Institution . An electronic version is available online .
Index Herbariorum , the first six editions ( Vol . 15 , 31 , 86 , 92 , 93 , 106 , 109 , 114 , 117 , 120 ) A directory and guide to the herbaria of the world , including contact information , abbreviation codes , and important collections located in each herbarium . Index Herbariorum is now an online database , managed by The New York Botanical Garden , and available for on @-@ line searching .
International Directory of Botanical Gardens ( Updated as Vol . 95 , 1977 ) A directory to botanical gardens and arboreta around the world .
The series includes many additional volumes of interest to specialists in specific subdisciplines of botany , in addition to the ones listed above .
= = = Databases = = =
In addition to electronic versions of its print publications , the IAPT maintains the following :
" Names in Current Use " - A database of scientific names of extant botanical genera .
= Lhasa ( prefecture @-@ level city ) =
Lhasa City , is a prefecture @-@ level city , formerly a prefecture until 7 January 1960 , one of the main administrative divisions of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China . It covers an area of 29 @,@ 274 square kilometres ( 11 @,@ 303 sq mi ) of rugged and sparsely populated terrain . The prefecture @-@ level city contains two districts Chengguan District and Doilungdêqên District .
The prefecture @-@ level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River , a major tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo River . It lies on the Lhasa terrane , the last unit of crust to accrete to the Eurasian plate before the continent of India collided with Asia about 50 million years ago and pushed up the Himalayas . The terrane is high , contains a complex pattern of faults and is tectonically active . The temperature is generally warm in summer and rises above freezing on sunny days in winter . Most of the rain falls in summer . The upland areas and northern grasslands are used for grazing yaks , sheep and goats , while the river valleys support agriculture with crops such as barley , wheat and vegetables . Wildlife is not abundant , but includes the rare snow leopard and black @-@ necked crane . Mining has caused some environmental problems .
The former prefecture is divided into seven mostly rural counties and one district , which contains the main urban area of Lhasa . The 2000 census gave a total population of 474 @,@ 490 , of whom 387 @,@ 124 were ethnic Tibetans . The Han Chinese population at the time was mainly concentrated in urban areas . The prefecture @-@ level city is traversed by two major highways and by the Qinghai – Tibet Railway , which terminates in the city of Lhasa . Two large dams on the Lhasa River deliver hydroelectric power , as do many smaller dams and the Yangbajain Geothermal Station . The population is well @-@ served by primary schools and basic medical facilities , although more advanced facilities are lacking . Tibetan Buddhism and monastic life have been dominant aspects of the local culture since the 7th century . Most of the monasteries were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution , but since then many have been restored and serve as tourist attractions .
= = Geography = =
= = = Location = = =
Lhasa lies in south @-@ central Tibet , to the north of the Himalayas . The prefecture @-@ level city is 277 kilometres ( 172 mi ) from east to west and 202 kilometres ( 126 mi ) from north to south . It covers an area of 29 @,@ 518 square kilometres ( 11 @,@ 397 sq mi ) . It is bordered by Nagqu Prefecture to the north , Nyingchi Prefecture to the east , Lhoka ( Shannan ) Prefecture to the south and Shigatse prefecture @-@ level city to the west . The prefecture @-@ level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River , which is the center of Tibet politically , economically and culturally . Chengguan District is also the center of Tibet in terms of transport , communications , education and religion , as well as being the most developed part of Tibet and a major tourist destination with sights such as the Potala Palace , Jokhang and Ramoche Temple .
= = = Lhasa River basin = = =
Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River , a major tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo River . Exceptions are the north of Damxung County , which crosses the watershed of the Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains and includes part of the Namtso lake , and Nyêmo County , which covers the basin of the Nimu Maqu River , a direct tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo . The river basin is separated from the Yarlung Tsangpo valley to the south by the Goikarla Rigyu range . The largest tributary of the Lhasa River , the Reting Tsangpo , originates in the Chenthangula Mountains in Nagqu Prefecture at an elevation of about 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) , and flows southwest into Lhasa past Reting Monastery .
The Lhasa River drains an area of 32 @,@ 471 square kilometres ( 12 @,@ 537 sq mi ) , and is the largest tributary of the middle section of the Yarlung Tsangpo . The average altitude of the basin is around 4 @,@ 500 metres ( 14 @,@ 800 ft ) . The basin has complex geology and is tectonically active . Earthquakes are common . Annual runoff is 10 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 3 @.@ 73 × 1011 cu ft ) . Water quality is good , with little discharge of sewage and minimal chemical pesticides and fertilizers .
The Lhasa River forms where three smaller rivers converge . These are the Phak Chu , the Phongdolha Chu which flows from Damxung County and the Reting Tsangpo , which rises beyond the Reting Monastery . The highest tributary rises at around 5 @,@ 290 metres ( 17 @,@ 360 ft ) on the southern slope of the Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains . In its upper reaches the river flows southeast through a deep valley . Lower down the river valley is flatter and changes its direction to the southwest , The river expands to a width of 150 to 200 metres ( 490 to 660 ft ) . Major tributaries in the lower reaches include the Pengbo River and the Duilong River . At its mouth the Lhasa Valley is about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) wide .
The bulk of the water is supplied by the summer monsoon rains , which fall from July to September . There are floods in the summer from July to September , with about 17 % of the annual runoff flowing in September . In winter the river has low water , and sometimes freezes . Total flow is about 4 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 96 cu mi ) , with average flow about 125 cubic metres per second ( 4 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ) . The total hydropower potential of the river basin is 2 @,@ 560 @,@ 000 kW . Zhikong Hydro Power Station in Maizhokunggar County delivers 100 MW . The Pangduo Hydro Power Station in Lhünzhub County has total installed capacity of 160 MW .
= = Geology = =
The former Lhasa prefecture lies in the Lhasa terrane , to which it gives its name . This is thought to be the last crustal block to accrete to the Eurasian plate before the collision with the Indian plate in the Cenozoic . The terrane is separated from the Himalayas to the south by the Yarlung @-@ Tsangpo suture , and from the Qiangtang terrane to the north by the Bangong @-@ Nujiang suture . The Lhasa terrane consisted of two blocks before the Mesozoic , the North Lhasa Block and the South Lhasa Block . These blocks were joined in the Late Paleozoic .
The Lhasa terrane moved northward and collided with the Qiangtang terrane along the Bangong suture . The collision began towards the end of the late Jurassic ( c . 163 – 145 Ma ) , and collision activity continued until the early Late Cretaceous ( c . 100 – 66 Ma ) . During this period the terrane may have been shortened by at least 180 kilometres ( 110 mi ) . The collision caused a peripheral foreland basin to form in the north part of the Lhasa terrane . In some parts of the foreland basin the north @-@ dipping subduction of the Neotethyan oceanic crust below the Lhasa terrane caused volcanism . The Gangdese batholith was formed as this subduction continued along the southern margin of the Lhasa terrane . The Gangdese intrudes the southern half of the Lhasa terrain .
Contact with India began along the Yarlung @-@ Zangbo suture around 50 Ma during the Eocene , and the two continents continue to converge . Magmatism continued in the Gangdese arc until as late as 40 Ma . There was significant crustal shortening as the collision progressed . The South Lhasa terrane experienced metamorphism and magmatism in the Early Cenozoic ( 55 – 45 Ma ) and metamorphism in the Late Eocene ( 40 – 30 Ma ) , presumably due to the collision between the continents of India and Eurasia .
Rocks in this region include sedimentary rocks from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic into which granite has intruded during the Cretaceous . The rocks have metamorphosed and are deeply eroded and faulted . The rocks exposed in the Reting Tsangpo canyon range in age from 400 Ma to 50 Ma . The result of faulting has been to often juxtapose relatively recent rocks with much older rocks . Some parts of the ocean floor were pushed up onto the Tibetan Plateau and formed marble or slate . Sea fossils from 400 Ma are found in the river 's canyons , and houses are roofed with slate .
The Yangbajing Basin lies between the Nyainquentanglha Range to the northwest and the Yarlu @-@ Zangbo suture to the south . The Yangbajain Geothermal Field is in the central part of a half @-@ graben fault @-@ depression basin caused by the foremontane fault zone of the Nyainqentanglha Mountains . The SE @-@ dipping detachment fault began to form about 8 Ma . The geothermal reservoir is basically a Quaternary basin underlaid by a large granite batholith . The basin has been filled with glacial deposits from the north and alluvial @-@ pluvial sediments from the south . Fluid flows horizontally into the reservoir through the faults around the basin . Chemical analysis of the thermal fluid indicate that there is shallow @-@ seated magmatic activity not far below the geothermal field .
During the ice ages of the last two million years the Tibetan plateau and the Himalayas have been covered by the expanded polar ice cap several times . As the ice moved it eroded the rock , filling the river canyons with gravel . In some sections the rivers have cut through the gravel and flow swiftly over bedrock , and in some areas large boulders have fallen into the rivers and formed rapids .
= = Climate = =
The Lhasa valley is roughly the same latitude as the southern United States , but at an altitude of 3 @,@ 610 metres ( 11 @,@ 840 ft ) or more it is of course cooler . The central river valleys of Tibet are warm in summer , and even in the coldest months of winter the temperature is above freezing on sunny days . The climate is semi @-@ arid monsoon , with a low average temperature of 1 @.@ 2 to 7 @.@ 5 ° C ( 34 @.@ 2 to 45 @.@ 5 ° F ) . Average annual precipitation is 466 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 18 @.@ 36 in ) , with 85 % falling in the June – September period . Typically there are 3 @,@ 000 hours of sunshine each year . It is cooler in the northern regions , warmer in the south . Annual figures :
Studies of temperature and precipitation data from 1979 to 2005 indicate that higher temperatures are leading to longer snow @-@ free periods at the lower elevations . However , at higher levels the amount of precipitation has increased , so despite warming the snow @-@ free period is shorter .
= = Environment = =
Most of the population of Tibet lives in the southern valleys , including those around Lhasa . The higher regions are used by nomadic drokpa who tend herds of yaks , sheep and goats on the steppe grasslands of the hills and high valleys . In the lower parts it is possible to cultivate products that include barley , wheat , black peas , beans , mustard , hemp , potatoes , cabbage , cauliflower , onions , garlic , celery and tomatoes . The traditional staple food is barley flour called tsampa , often combined with buttered tea and made into a paste .
A visitor described the valley around Lhasa in 1889 as follows ,
The plain over which we are riding is a wonderfully fruitful one . It is skirted on the south by the Kyi river , and is watered , moreover , by another smaller stream from the north , which flows into the Kyi ... some five miles west of Lhasa . All this land is carefully irrigated by means of dikes and cross @-@ channels from both rivers . Fields of buckwheat , barley , pea , rape , and lindseed lie in orderly series everywhere . The meadows near the water display the richest emerald @-@ green pasturage . Groves of poplar and willow , in shapely clumps , combine with the grassy stretches to give in places a parklike appearance to the scene . Several hamlets and villages , such as Cheri , Daru , and Shing Dongkhar , are dotted over these lands . A fertile plain truly for a besieging army !
The Lhasa region does not have abundant wildlife or great numbers of species , but the Lhasa valley does support wintering populations of hundreds of black @-@ necked cranes . Hutoushan Reservoir lies in Qangka Township , Lhünzhub County . The reservoir is bordered by large swamps and wet meadows , and has abundant plants and shellfish . The reservoir , which lies in the Pengbo valley , is the largest in Tibet , with total storage of 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 420 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) . Endangered black @-@ necked cranes migrate to the middle and southern part of Tibet every winter , and may be seen on the reservoir and elsewhere in the Lhasa region . Other wildlife includes bharal , pheasants , roe deer , Thorold 's deer , Mongolian gazelle , Siberian ibex , otter , brown bear , snow leopard and duck . Medicinal plants include fritillaries ( fritillaria ) , stonecrop ( rhodiola ) , Indian barberry ( berberis aristata ) , Chinese caterpillar fungus ( ophiocordyceps sinensis ) , codonopsis and Lingzhi mushroom ( ganoderma ) .
The dams on the Lhasa river built as part of the Three Rivers Development Project are unlikely to affect the flow of the Brahmaputra in India . However , the climate and soil are unsuitable for large @-@ scale irrigation . Where grasslands have been converted into irrigated farms fed by dams the result may damage the environment . Jama wetland in Maizhokunggar County is vulnerable to grazing and climate change . Extensive mining in some mountainous regions have turned areas of what was green pasturage into a grey wasteland . The authorities are reported to have suppressed protests by the local people . Military personnel have been involved in efforts to protect and improve the environment , including replanting programs .
A 2015 study reported that during the non @-@ monsoon season the levels of arsenic in the Duilong River , at 205 @.@ 6 μg / L were higher than the WHO guideline of 10 μg / L for drinking water . The source of the pollution seems to be untreated water from the Yangbajain Geothermal Field power station . It can be detected 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) downstream from this site .
= = Administrative divisions = =
Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city consists of two district and six counties . Chengguan District and Doilungdêqên District contains most of the urban area of Lhasa , which lies in the Lhasa River valley floor .
= = = Chengguan District = = =
Chengguan District is located on the middle reaches of the Lhasa River , with land that rises to the north and south of the river . It is 28 kilometres ( 17 mi ) from east to west and 31 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from north to south . Chengguan District is bordered by Doilungdêqên District to the west , Dagzê County to the east and Lhünzhub County
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969 acres of farmland . The county borders on the north Tibet grasslands in the northwest . The valley of the Duilong River leads south to the Lhasa River . The Duilong is 95 kilometres ( 59 mi ) in length . In the south the county occupies part of the south bank of the Lhasa River . The county has an average elevation of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) , with a highest elevation of 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) and a lowest point at 3 @,@ 640 metres ( 11 @,@ 940 ft ) .
There are about 120 frost @-@ free days annually . Annual mean temperature is 7 ° C ( 45 ° F ) , with temperatures in January falling below − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) Annual precipitation is about 440 millimetres ( 17 in ) , with autumn rainfall of 310 millimetres ( 12 in ) . The county is agriculturally rich and was used by the Tibetan kings as a source of food for Lhasa .
The seat of government is in the town of Donggar . This is just 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) from downtown Lhasa . In 1992 there were 33 @,@ 581 people in 6 @,@ 500 households , with 94 @.@ 28 % of the people engaged in farming . About 90 % of the people were ethnic Tibetan , with most people of other ethnicity living in Donggar . The main mineral resources are coal , iron , clay , lead and zinc . Tsurphu Monastery , built in 1189 , is treated as a regional cultural relic reserve . The Nechung Monastery , former home of the Nechung Oracle , is located in Naiquong township . Nechung was built by the 5th Dalai Lama ( 1617 – 82 ) .
= = = Dagzê County = = =
Dagzê County has a total area of 1 @,@ 373 square kilometres ( 530 sq mi ) . It has an average elevation of 4 @,@ 100 metres ( 13 @,@ 500 ft ) above sea level , and descends from higher ground in the north and south to 3 @,@ 730 metres ( 12 @,@ 240 ft ) in the lowest part of the Lhasa river valley . The average temperature is 7 @.@ 5 ° C ( 45 @.@ 5 ° F ) , with about 130 days free of frost . Average rainfall is 450 millimetres ( 18 in ) . About 80 % – 90 % of precipitation falls in the summer .
As of 2013 the total population was 29 @,@ 152 . The main occupation is agriculture . As of 2012 per capita income of farmers and herdsmen was 6 @,@ 740 yuan . In 2010 there were 28 schools in the county , including one junior high school and one kindergarten , with 276 full @-@ time teachers . There is a county hospital and five township hospitals . The Sichuan @-@ Tibet Highway ( China National Highway 318 ) runs through the county . The main monasteries in Dagzê are Ganden Monastery and Yerpa .
= = = Damxung County = = =
Damxung County has an area of 10 @,@ 036 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 875 sq mi ) , with rugged topography . As of 2013 the population was 40 @,@ 000 , up from 35 @,@ 000 in 1997 . It is tectonically active . On 6 October 2008 an earthquake measuring 6 @.@ 6 on the Richter magnitude scale was reported . In November 2010 a moderate quake in Damxung at 5 @.@ 2 on the Richter scale shook office windows in Lhasa . There were no casualties , but houses were damaged .
In the extreme northeast of the county , Namtso lake has an area of 1 @,@ 920 square kilometres ( 740 sq mi ) , of which 45 % lies in Damxung county . Namtso is one of the great lakes of the Tibetan plateau . The Nyenchen Tanglha ( or Nyainqentanglha ) mountains extend along the northwest of the county . Mount Nyenchen Tanglha is the highest peak in the region , at 7 @,@ 111 metres ( 23 @,@ 330 ft ) . The Nyainqêntanglha mountains define the watershed between northern and southern Tibet . A valley with elevation of about 4 @,@ 200 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) runs parallel to the mountains to their southeast , sloping from northwest to southeast . 30 % of the county 's total area is in the prairie of this valley .
Damxung is cold and dry in the winter , cool and wet in summer , with very variable weather . The average annual temperature is 1 @.@ 3 ° C ( 34 @.@ 3 ° F ) , with only 62 frost @-@ free days . The land is frozen from the start of November to the following March . Pasture has 90 – 120 days for growth . Average annual precipitation is 481 millimetres ( 18 @.@ 9 in ) . Natural grasslands cover 693 @,@ 171 hectares ( 1 @,@ 712 @,@ 860 acres ) , of which 68 % is considered excellent . Almost all the people are engaged in rearing livestock , including yaks , sheep , goats and horses .
The Qinghai @-@ Tibet Highway ( China National Highway 109 ) runs from east to west across the county . Damxung Railway Station links the county to the city of Lhasa to the south . There is a large geothermal field at Yangbajain harnessed by generating units that deliver 25 @,@ 181 kilowatts to the city of Lhasa to the south . The transmission line follows the Duilong River south through Doilungdêqên District . Kangma Monastery is 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) from the county seat . The meditation room has 1 @,@ 213 carved stone reliefs of Buddha that are about three hundred years old . Yangpachen Monastery in Yangbajain is historically the seat of the Shamarpas of Karma Kagyu . The monastery was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution , but later was rebuilt .
= = = Lhünzhub County = = =
Lhünzhub County is located around 65 km ( 40 mi ) northeast of metropolitan Lhasa . It includes the Pengbo River Valley and the upper reaches of the Lhasa River . It covers an area of 4 @,@ 512 km2 ( 1 @,@ 742 sq mi ) . The county is geologically complex , with an average elevation of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The administrative center is the town of Lhünzhub .
As of 2000 the county had a total population of 50 @,@ 895 , of which 8 @,@ 111 lived in a community designated as urban . 2 @,@ 254 had non @-@ agricultural registration and 48 @,@ 362 had agricultural registration . In the south the Pengbo valley has an average elevation of 3 @,@ 680 metres ( 12 @,@ 070 ft ) with a mild climate . The average temperature is 5 @.@ 8 ° C ( 42 @.@ 4 ° F ) . The northern " three rivers " section , crossed by the Lhasa River and its tributary the Razheng River , is mountainous and has an average elevation of 4 @,@ 200 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) . It has average annual temperature of 2 @.@ 9 ° C ( 37 @.@ 2 ° F ) and is mostly pastoral , with yak , sheep and goats .
The Pengbo valley is the main grain @-@ producing region of Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city and Tibet , with a total of 11 @,@ 931 hectares ( 29 @,@ 480 acres ) of arable land . Crops include barley , winter wheat , spring wheat , canola and vegetables such as potato . Livestock includes yak , sheep , goats and horses . In 2010 the per capita income of farmers and herdsmen was 4 @,@ 587 yuan . The Pengbo valley has a long history of pottery @-@ making . Products include braziers , flower pots , vases and jugs . Mining is an important source of income . In 2011 the government has plans to more actively promote tourism . The Pangduo Hydro Power Station became operational in 2014 . It has been called the " Tibetan Three Gorges " .
The county is a center of Tibetan Buddhism . There were thirty @-@ seven gompas including twenty @-@ five lamaseries with 919 monks and twelve nunneries with 844 nuns as of 2011 . Reting Monastery was built in 1056 by Dromtön ( 1005 – 1064 ) , a student of Atiśa . It was the earliest monastery of the Gedain sect , and the patriarchal seat of that sect .
= = = Maizhokunggar County = = =
Maizhokunggar County is located on the middle and upper sections of the Lhasa River and the west of Mila Mountain . Mila ( or Mira ) Mountain , at 5 @,@ 018 metres ( 16 @,@ 463 ft ) , forms the watershed between the Lhasa River and the Nyang River . The Gyama Zhungchu , which runs through Gyama Township , is a tributary of the Lhasa River . Maizhokunggar County is about 68 kilometres ( 42 mi ) east of Lhasa , has an area of 5 @,@ 492 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 120 sq mi ) with an average elevation of more than 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The annual average temperature is 5 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 1 ° C ( 41 @.@ 2 to 48 @.@ 4 ° F ) . There are about 90 frost @-@ free days each year . Annual rainfall is 515 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 20 @.@ 31 in ) . China National Highway 318 runs through the county from east to west . The 100 MW Zhikong Hydro Power Station on the Lhasa River came into operation in September 2007 .
The total population as of 2010 was 48 @,@ 561 people in 9 @,@ 719 households , the great majority engaged in farming and herding . 98 % of the population are ethnic Tibetan . The seat of government is in Kunggar in the west of the county . Many of the people depend on farming or herding . Development efforts include increased farm animal husbandry , feedstock production , greenhouses for vegetables , and breeding programs . Crops include barley , winter wheat , spring wheat , canola , peas , cabbage , carrots , eggplant , cucumbers , lettuce , spinach , green peppers , pumpkins , potatoes and other greenhouse crops . The economy is driven by mineral extraction , which was expected to account for 73 @.@ 85 % of total tax revenue in 2007 while employing 419 people .
Traditional folk handicrafts include pottery , willow basketwork , wooden objects , mats and gold and silver items . The county is especially noted for its pottery , which does not corrode , retains heat and has an ethnic style . It has a more @-@ than @-@ 1000 @-@ year @-@ old history . The Drikhung Thil Monastery of the Kagyu Sect was founded in 1179 by Lingchen Repa , a disciple of Phagmo Drupa . The monastery is the home of the Drikhung Kagyu School of the Kagyu sect . The ruined Gyama Palace , in the Gyama Gully in the south of the county , was built by Namri Songtsen in the 6th century after he had gained control of the area from Supi .
= = = Nyêmo County = = =
Nyêmo County is located in the middle section of the Brahmaputra , 140 kilometres ( 87 mi ) from Lhasa . It is mainly agricultural and pastoral , with an area of 3 @,@ 276 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 265 sq mi ) and an average elevation of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The Nimu Maqu River flows through the county from north to south . The Yarlung Tsangpo River forms its southern boundary . The highest point is a peak at 7 @,@ 048 @.@ 8 metres ( 23 @,@ 126 ft ) above sea level , and the lowest point is where the Maqu River empties into the Brahmaputra at an elevation of 3 @,@ 701 metres ( 12 @,@ 142 ft ) . The county has a temperate semi @-@ arid plateau monsoon climate , with about 100 frost @-@ free days . Annual rainfall is 324 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 12 @.@ 76 in ) .
Nyêmo County has its headquarters in Nyêmo Town . The county seat is 3 @,@ 809 metres ( 12 @,@ 497 ft ) above sea level . As of 2011 the total population was 30 @,@ 844 people , of whom 28 @,@ 474 were engaged in agriculture or herding . By 2012 the per capita income of farmers and herdsmen had reached 6 @,@ 881 yuan . In the 7th century Nyêmo was producing printing materials , clay @-@ based incense and wooden @-@ sole shoes . Nyêmo 's long tradition of making paper and printing texts using woodblocks dates back to this period . Nyêmo County has China 's first museum of Tibetan text . There are 22 temples . As of 2011 there were 118 monks and 99 nuns . The Nyêmo Chekar monastery is known for its 16th century murals depicting reincarnations of the Samding Dorje Phagmo .
= = = Qüxü County = = =
Qüxü County has a total area of 1 @,@ 680 square kilometres ( 650 sq mi ) , with an average elevation of 3 @,@ 650 metres ( 11 @,@ 980 ft ) . The county is in the Yarlung Tsangpo valley , and is mostly relatively flat , but rises to the Nyainqêntanglha Mountains in the north . The Lhasa River runs south through the eastern part of the county to its confluence with the Yarlung Tsangpo River , which forms the southern boundary of the county . The lowest elevation is 3 @,@ 500 metres ( 11 @,@ 500 ft ) , and the highest summit elevation is 5 @,@ 894 metres ( 19 @,@ 337 ft ) . Qüxü County has about 150 days a year without frost . Annual precipitation is 441 @.@ 9 millimeters ( 17 @.@ 40 in ) .
Qüxü County has its headquarters in Qüxü Town . The fifth census in 2000 recorded a population of 29 @,@ 690 . The county seat has been growing fast , and had 5 @,@ 000 people by 2002 . China National Highway 318 runs through Qüxü County from Lhasa towards the west . Bridges span the Lhasa River and the Yarlung Tsangpo River .
Qüxü County is semi @-@ agricultural and crops grown are mainly highland barley , winter wheat , spring wheat , peas and rapeseed . Apples and walnuts are also produced . Animal husbandry is also strong , with the main animals farmed including yak , cattle , goats , sheep , horses , donkeys , pigs , and chickens . As of 2002 the per capita net income of farmers and herdsmen was 1 @,@ 960 yuan . The Nyethang Drolma Lhakhang Temple is located in Qüxü County , said to have been founded in 1055 by Dromtön , a pupil of Atiśa .
= = Demographics = =
The demographics of Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city are difficult to define precisely due to the way in which administrative boundaries have been drawn , and the way in which statistics are collected . The population of Lhasa prefectural @-@ level city is about 500 @,@ 000 , of whom about 80 % are ethnic Tibetan and most of the others are ethnic Han Chinese . Approximately 250 @,@ 000 people live in the city and in towns , most of them in or near Chengguan District , and the remainder live in rural areas .
= = = Ethnicity = = =
The 2000 census give the following breakdown for the population of the prefecture @-@ level city as a whole :
The 2000 census counts more than 105 @,@ 000 people in Chengguan District who are registered elsewhere . Most of them are Han , with agricultural registrations . Outside Chengguan District , in 2000 the rural townships almost all had Han populations below 2 @.@ 85 % , other than one in Duilongdeqing County and one in Qushui County , both near the metropolitan district of Lhasa . Urban towns other than Yangbajain had Han populations of between 2 @.@ 86 % and 11 @.@ 25 % . Within the metropolitan district Han population ranged from 11 @.@ 26 % to 11 @.@ 25 % in the southern rural township to 46 @.@ 56 % to 47 @.@ 46 % in the city street offices . Han migrants accounted for 20 % of the population , but held a much higher percentage of the higher @-@ status office and service @-@ sector jobs . Hans also dominated construction , mining and trade .
According to the November 2000 census , the ethnic distribution in Lhasa Prefecture @-@ level City was as follows :
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Lhasa metropolitan district includes most of the built @-@ up area , which counts as urban , and four rural townships . The counties also contain urban towns , of which there are nine in the prefectural municipality .
Official census figures for 2000 are :
The census figures differ considerably from the Tibet Statistical Yearbooks for the same period , since the yearbook only includes the registered population and counts them based on place of origin rather than place of residence . The 1990 census used an approach similar to the yearbook , so the numbers are misleading , but the 2000 census tried to count people who had actually been present in Lhasa for over six months . The census distinguishes between " agricultural " and " non @-@ agricultural " registration , but this does not reflect the actual occupations of the people . Many with an " agricultural " registration may in fact work in the city or in a town . Also , the census was taken in November , when many of the ethnic Han workers in seasonal industries such as construction would have been away from Tibet . Finally , the census does not count the military .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Highways = = =
China National Highway 318 enters the prefecture @-@ level city from the east at Mila Mountain , where it reaches an elevation of 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) . The highway runs through Maizhokunggar County from east to west . It continues along the south bank of the Lhasa River through Dagzê County , then crosses to the north of the river in Chengguan District and runs through the center of the urban district . It turns south to cross Doilungdêqên District , where it is joined by 109 , and continues down the west side of the Lhasa River through Qüxü County , and then along the north shore of the Yarlung Tsangpo through Nyêmo County , and onward to the west .
China National Highway 109 ( the Qinghai – Tibet Highway ) runs through Damxung County from the northeast to southwest , then turns to the southeast at Yangbajain . It then runs through Doilungdêqên District along the Duilong River valley , to join China National Highway 318 just west of Lhasa . The Lhasa Airport Expressway from Lhasa to Lhasa Gonggar Airport in Lhoka ( Shannan ) Prefecture is the first expressway in the Tibet Autonomous Region . Construction began in April , 2009 . The expressway is 37 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 5 mi ) long and has four lanes .
= = = Railroad = = =
The Qinghai – Tibet Railway runs through the Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city beside the Qinghai – Tibet Highway through Damxung County and Doilungdêqên District . It terminates at Lhasa Railway Station in Niu New Area ( Liuwu Township ) . The terminus of the Qinghai – Tibet line , this station is over 3 @,@ 600 metres ( 11 @,@ 800 ft ) above sea level , and is its largest passenger transport station . It includes a clinic with oxygen treatment facilities . The station uses solar energy for heating . The Liuwu Bridge links central Lhasa to Lhasa Railway Station and the newly developed Niu New Area of Doilungdêqên District on the south bank of the Lhasa River . Residents in the area were resettled to make way for the new development .
= = = Power = = =
The Yangbajain Geothermal Station was established in 1977 to exploit the Yangbajain Geothermal Field in Damxung . It is the first geothermal power station to be built in Tibet and is the largest geothermal steam power plant in China . 4 @,@ 000 kW of electricity from Yangbajain began to be delivered to Lhasa in 1981 along a transmission line that followed the Doilung Qu River . It was the main power supply for Lhasa until the Yamdrok Hydropower Station came into operation . By the end of 2000 eight steam turbo generators had been installed at the Yangbajain Geothermal Station , each with capacity of 3 @,@ 000 kW , giving a total of 25 @,@ 000 kW . The geothermal field delivers 25 @,@ 181 kilowatts , or 100 million kilowatts annually , to the city of Lhasa to the south .
The Pangduo Hydro Power Station has been called " Tibet 's Three Gorges Dam " . It impounds the Lhasa River in Pondo Township of Lhünzhub County , about 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) from Lhasa . It is at an elevation of 13 @,@ 390 feet ( 4 @,@ 080 m ) above sea level , upstream from the 100MW Zhikong Dam at 12 @,@ 660 feet ( 3 @,@ 860 m ) . The rock @-@ fill dam impounds 1 @,@ 170 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 4 @.@ 1 × 1010 cu ft ) of water . The power station has total installed capacity of 160 MW .
The Zhikong Hydro Power Station lies between the middle and lower reaches of the Lhasa River , also called the Kyi River . It is about 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) northeast of Lhasa , in Maizhokunggar County . It is at an elevation of 12 @,@ 660 feet ( 3 @,@ 860 m ) above sea level , downstream from the Pangduo Hydro Power Station . The Zhikong Dam , a rock @-@ fill dam , is 50 metres ( 160 ft ) tall . It impounds 225 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 7 @.@ 9 × 109 cu ft ) of water . Installed capacity is 100 MW .
= = = Other facilities = = =
The rural counties generally have numerous primary schools at the village level , with high levels of attendance , and at least one secondary school . In 2010 there were 28 schools in Dagzê County , including one junior high school and one kindergarten . As of 2009 there were 37 primary and secondary school buildings in Damxung County . Maizhokunggar County has one high school , 14 full primary schools and 74 village schools . Nyêmo County has 24 primary and secondary schools , including one junior high school . As of 2002 Qüxü County had one County Middle School , and 18 primary schools . Outside Lhasa most of the Tibetans do not understand the Chinese language , so Tibetan is the natural language for basic instruction . However , this may be affected by the availability of teachers and the preference of the local administration . As of 2003 the former bilingual mode of instruction had been changed to giving instruction in Chinese in some of the counties near Lhasa . Examination results were already poor in subjects such as mathematics and physics . Marks dropped further after the change .
Some of the township seats have a small clinic . Most have only a health station , usually poorly supplied . There is a county hospital and five township hospitals in Dagzê County . There were seven hospitals in Damxung in 2009 , including a county hospital , with a total of 40 beds . The first drug rehabilitation center in Tibet was being constructed in Duilongdeqing County in 2009 . It was planned to provide physiological rehabilitation , psychological therapy and job training for up to 150 drug addicts . Lhünzhub County has 23 health care establishments , including a County People 's Hospital with 30 beds . Maizhokunggar has been selected as a Cooperative Medical System experimental site , which has resulted in a very high percentage of people with health care coverage . Nyêmo County has a county hospital with 42 medical staff , eight rural health centers and 26 village clinics .
The local television stations are Xizang TV ( XZTV ) and Lhasa Broadcasting and Television Center . Lhünzhub County has a local radio and television station . TV coverage is received by 72 @.@ 1 % of the population , and radio by 83 @.@ 4 % of the population . In Maizhokunggar County television is available to 36 % of the population and radio to 48 % . There is a county television station in Nyêmo County . As of 2002 in Qüxü County 98 % of the population received radio coverage and 94 % received television . In 2015 there were 359 @,@ 000 fixed line telephone subscribers in the whole of Tibet . The rugged high @-@ altitude terrain makes it expensive to provide telecommunications services . The first mobile phone service was launched in 1993 with just one base station in Lhasa , and as late as 2005 mobile phones were expensive status symbols . Since then both mobile phones and internet usage have grown fast .
As of 1996 the sole prison ( jianyu ) for judicially @-@ sentenced political prisoners in Tibet was TAR Prison No. 1 , also called Drapchi Prison after the neighborhood in Lhasa where it stands . It is for men serving sentences of five or more years . There is a labor camp ( laogai ) in Lhasa for men serving shorter sentences . There are various other institutions where prisoners from Lhasa shi are held while they are being investigated , or where they undergo reform @-@ through @-@ labor .
= = Temples and monasteries = =
Buddhism was adopted as the official religion of Tibet by king Songtsän Gampo ( died 649 ) at a time when the rise of Hinduism was sweeping away Buddhism in India , the land of its birth . Over the next two centuries Buddhism became established in Tibet , now the center of the religion . Tibetan Buddhism would become a pervasive influence on the lives of the people . The first monastery , Samyé , was founded by Trisong Detsen ( c . 740 – 798 ) . Its buildings were arranged in a mandala pattern after the Odantapuri monastery in Bihar . The three @-@ story monastery was completed in 766 and consecrated in 767 . Seven Tibetans took monastic vows in a ceremony that marked the start of the long Tibetan tradition of monastic Buddhism .
= = = Early foundations = = =
Yerpa , on a hillside in Dagze County , is known for its meditation cave connected with Songtsän Gampo . The cliffs contain some of the earliest known meditation sites in Tibet , some dating back to pre @-@ Buddhist times . There are a number of small temples , shrines and hermitages . Songtsän Gampo 's queen , Monza Triucham , founded the Dra Yerpa temple here . Jokhang in Chengguan District is the most sacred temple in Tibet , built in the 7th century when Songtsän Gampo transferred his capital to Lhasa . It was designed to house an image of Buddha that the Nepalese queen Tritsun had brought . Later rulers and Dalai Lamas enlarged and elaborated the temple .
Ramoche Temple to the north of Jokhang is considered the most important temple in Lhasa after Jokhang , and was completed about the same time . Muru Nyingba Monastery is a small monastery located between the larger Jokhang temple and Barkhor in the city of Lhasa . It was the Lhasa seat of the former State Oracle who had his main residence at Nechung Monastery . It was destroyed during the persecution of Buddhism under Langdarma ( c . 838 – 841 ) but rebuilt by Atiśa ( 980 – 1054 ) . The monastery was part of the Sakya sect at one time. but became Gelug under Sonam Gyatso , the 3rd Dalai Lama ( 1543 – 89 ) .
= = = Middle period = = =
The Nyethang Drolma Temple is southwest of Lhasa , 36 kilometres ( 22 mi ) from the county seat and 33 kilometres ( 21 mi ) from Lhasa . It is in Nyétang , Qüxü County . Some sources say that Atiśa ( 980 – 1054 ) built the monastery , which was expanded after his death by his pupil Dromtön ( 1004 – 64 ) . Another version says that Dromtön raised funds to build the temple to commemorate his old friend . Dromtön built Reting Monastery in Lhünzhub County in 1056 . It was the earliest monastery of the Gedain sect , and the patriarchal seat of that sect . In 1240 a Mongol force sacked Reting monastery and killed 500 people . The gompa was rebuilt . When the Gedain sect joined the Gelug sect in the 16th century the monastery adopted the reincarnation system .
Tsurphu Monastery in Doilungdêqên District was built in 1189 and is treated as a regional cultural relic reserve . The monastery was founded by Düsum Khyenpa , 1st Karmapa Lama , founder of Karma Kagyu school . It is the main Kagyu temple . The Drigung Monastery of the Kagyu Sect was founded in 1179 in Maizhokunggar County . It is the home of the Drikhung Kagyu School of the Kagyu sect . At one time Drigung was highly influential in both the political and religious spheres . It was destroyed in 1290 by Mongols led by a general from the rival Sakya sect , and although rebuilt was never able to regain its power .
Yangpachen Monastery in Yangbajain , Damxung County was historically the seat of the Shamarpas of Karma Kagyu . It is the main monastery of the Red Hat school of the Karma Kagyu sect . It was built in 1490 , and through extensive repairs and additions grew into a major architectural complex that contained a large collection of cultural relics . The Red Hat school of Karma Kagyu died out in 1791 . Other monasteries founded outside the Gelug tradition include Taklung Monastery of the Kagyu school , founded in 1180 in Lhünzhub County , and Nyêmo Chekar monastery of the Bodongpa school , founded in the 16th century in Nyêmo County .
= = = Gelug foundations = = =
Ganden Monastery was built after 1409 at the initiative of Je Tsongkhapa , founder of the Gelug sect , and is the most important of this sect . It is 57 kilometres ( 35 mi ) from Lhasa on the slopes of Wangbori Mountain at an elevation of 3 @,@ 800 metres ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) , on the south bank of the Lhasa River in Dagze County . The mountain is said to have the shape of a reclining elephant . The monastery includes Buddha halls , palace residences , Buddhist colleges and other buildings .
Drepung Monastery in Chengguan District was founded in 1416 by Jamyang Choge Tashi Palden ( 1397 – 1449 ) , one of Tsongkhapa 's main disciples . It was named after the sacred abode in South India of Shridhanyakataka . At one time Drepung Monastery , with up to 10 @,@ 000 resident monks , was the largest in the world . Sera Monastery was not much smaller . Sera Monastery , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Lhasa , was founded in 1419 by Jamchen Chöjé Shakya Yeshé ( 1354 – 1435 ) , a close disciple of Tsongkhapa . Ganden , Drepung and Sera are called the great " Three Seats of Learning " of the Gulugpa school .
The Nechung Monastery , former home of the Nechung Oracle , is located in Naiquong township , also in Duilongdeqing County . Nechung was built by the 5th Dalai Lama ( 1617 – 82 ) . Other Gelug foundations include Sanga Monastery ( 1419 , Dagzê County ) , Ani Tsankhung Nunnery ( 15th century , Chengguan District ) , Kundeling Monastery ( 1663 , Chengguan District ) , and Tsomon Ling ( 17th century , Chengguan District ) .
= = = Revolution and reconstruction = = =
Most of the monasteries in the prefecture @-@ level city suffered damage , and many were destroyed , before and during the Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 76 ) . Jokhang was used as a military barracks and a slaughterhouse during the Cultural Revolution , and then as a hotel for Chinese officials . Many of the statues were taken , or were damaged or destroyed , so most of the present statues are recent copies . Jokhang was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000 . Ramoche Temple was badly damaged during the Cultural Revolution but has been restored with assistance from the Swiss . The Nyethang Drolma Temple survived the Cultural Revolution without much damage , and was able to preserve most of its valuable artifacts , due to the intervention of Premier Zhou Enlai at the request of the government of what is now Bangladesh .
Reting Monastery was devastated by the Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution , and has only been partially restored . Tsurphu monastery was reduced to rubble , but the huge temples and chanting halls have been rebuilt . Before and during the Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 76 ) Drigung Monastery was looted of almost all its collection of statues , stupas , thangkas , manuscripts and other objects apart from a few small statues that the monks managed to hide . The buildings were severely damaged . Reconstruction began in 1983 and seven of the fifteen temples were rebuilt . Yangpachen Monastery was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution , but later was rebuilt .
Ganden Monastery was completely destroyed during the rebellion of 1959 . In 1966 it was severely shelled by Red Guard artillery , and monks had to dismantle the remains . The buildings were reduced to rubble using dynamite during the Cultural Revolution . Re @-@ building has continued since the 1980s . Nechung was almost completely destroyed but has been largely restored . There is a huge new statue of Guru Rinpoche ( Padmasambhava ) on the second floor .
Nine sites in the Lhasa valley were listed in 1985 by the TAR Cultural Relics Authority as " regionally protected buildings " . These were Tsangkung Nunnery , Meru Monastery and Great Kashmiri Mosque in the old city , and the Karmashar Temple , Meru Nyingba Monastery and Northern , Southern , Eastern and Western Rigsum Temples elsewhere in the former prefecture .
= 33 ( Battlestar Galactica ) =
" 33 " is the first episode of first season and the pilot episode of the reimagined military science fiction television program Battlestar Galactica , immediately following the events of the 2003 miniseries . " 33 " follows Galactica and her civilian fleet as they are forced to contend with constant Cylon pursuit for days without sleep ; they are forced to ultimately destroy one of their own ships to foil the Cylons and earn their first respite of the series .
The episode was written by series creator Ronald D. Moore , and the television directoral debut of Michael Rymer . Moore and executive producer David Eick made the decision to slot this episode as the first of the season because of its potential impact on the audience . " 33 " distinguished the themes of the new Battlestar Galactica series by following characters on the spaceships , on the planets that were fled , and in the minds of other characters . Attention to detail was prevalent in this first episode ; the production team , the editing team , and even the actors themselves strove for authenticity of specific portrayals and moments .
Though there were compromises made due to concerns of the episode being too dark for audiences , the episode was lauded by both cast and crew in addition to winning the 2005 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form . " 33 " originally aired on Sky One in the United Kingdom on October 18 , 2004 , and subsequently aired on the Sci Fi Channel in the United States on January 14 , 2005 , along with the following episode " Water " .
= = Plot = =
Having fled the besieged Ragnar Anchorage , the convoy of refugee spaceships is relentlessly pursued and attacked by Cylon Basestars . The colonial fleet must execute a faster @-@ than @-@ light ( FTL ) jump every 33 minutes to escape the Cylons , who consistently arrive at the new jump coordinates approximately 33 minutes later . After over 130 hours and 237 jumps , the fleet 's crew and passengers , particularly those aboard Galactica , have been operating without sleep while facing the strain of nearly constant military action .
Upon the 238th consecutive jump , the Olympic Carrier ( a commercial passenger vessel with 1 @,@ 345 souls aboard ) is accidentally left behind and the attacks unexpectedly cease , allowing the fleet some respite . When it arrives three hours later , President Laura Roslin and Commander Adama order Capt. Lee " Apollo " Adama and Lt. Kara " Starbuck " Thrace to destroy it , believing that it has been infiltrated by Cylons and now poses a threat to the fleet 's safety . The colonial officers destroy the ship while the rest of the colonial fleet jumps away . Baltar 's internal Number Six explains to him that God is looking after his interests , implying that a scientist on the Olympic Carrier was preparing to reveal Baltar 's unwitting collusion with the Cylon attack on the colonies . After the fleet 's last jump , the Cylons do not return , and the President 's survivor whiteboard aboard Colonial One , the result of a fleetwide census , is updated with one additional soul ( to 47 @,@ 973 ) with the birth of the fleet 's first child aboard the Rising Star — a boy .
Meanwhile , on Caprica , Lt. Karl Agathon ( call sign " Helo " ) is captured by a Cylon patrol and then " rescued " from his Cylon captors by a Number Eight in the guise of his crewmate Sharon " Boomer " Valerii , who shoots a Number Six to free him .
= = Writing = =
Preparing for production of Battlestar Galactica 's first season , writer and series creator Ronald D. Moore wrote a short list of potential storylines , one of which was " the fleet jumps every 33 minutes ; because the Cylons are relentlessly pursuing them , the crew gets no sleep . " Conferring with fellow executive producer David Eick , the two decided that this story would be " the best way to kick off the season " . Moore described writing " 33 " as a great experience ; he wrote the whole script without a story outline or much structure , excited to begin the first episode of the first season and start the first year already " at the end of the road " . Moore wrote the episode over his Christmas break before the series was officially picked up ; he later claimed that this aspect was what made the episode " one of the more fun projects that [ he ] wrote all of the first season . "
David Eick found the episode to be a " standalone concept " that did not require having seen the miniseries to understand it . Because the miniseries ended " at a very happy place " , starting the series in the middle of a crisis without explanation , and showing the audience that " actually , while you — the audience — were away , really bad things have been happening " made for a much more intriguing and interesting story . " 33 " ' s complex storyline was a harbinger for episodes to come , and laid the groundwork with the network and audiences alike .
Moore explained on his blog that the number 33 had no hidden meaning or significance , only that he felt it sufficiently long to allow minor functions like snacking , showering , or cat napping , but was too short to allow anybody to gain any meaningful sleep and recharge their batteries . Further , Moore intentionally gave the number no meaning to avoid creating and inserting unnecessary technobabble into a drama @-@ driven episode .
= = Production = =
" 33 " was director Michael Rymer 's first television episode . He accepted the job without reading the script , saying that based on his writing experience , " 33 " went well beyond his expectations and excited him . Bear McCreary originally composed the musical theme " Boomer Theme " for this episode ; it was later expanded for use with the Athena character , before becoming the de facto " Hera Theme " for the character Hera Agathon in the fourth season episode , " Islanded in a Stream of Stars " . Joel Ransom was the director of photography for the miniseries , but when Eick learned he was unavailable for the series , he turned to Stephen McNutt , with whom he had worked on American Gothic . In the interim , McNutt had moved on to shooting in high @-@ definition video ; this was fortuitous for the production team because , while Ransom had filmed the miniseries on 35 mm film , the production team was switching to high @-@ definition video for the series .
Executive producer David Eick opined that " 33 " was the " silver bullet " that ultimately tipped the scales in their favor and convinced the Sci Fi Channel to pick up the series . The network 's biggest concern in picking up the series was that Battlestar Galactica would fall victim to the same trappings of space opera as other television properties ( Star Trek , Andromeda , Stargate ) . Two aspects that assuaged these concerns were specifically discussed in the episode 's DVD commentary . First , " 33 " went into Gaius Baltar 's ( James Callis ) mind and visited his house on Caprica ( shot in Lions Bay , British Columbia ) ; being swept away by the blue skies and beaches in his fantasy was not the sort of imagery expected of space opera @-@ type shows . Second was going back to the devastated Caprica and following @-@ up with Helo 's ( Tahmoh Penikett ) story .
With sleep deprivation one of the major plot points of the episode , actor Edward James Olmos ( William Adama ) liaised with an expert on the subject and the crew to best depict the actual effects realistically . Following up , director Michael Rymer gave each main cast member a specific symptom to play up , so as to avoid repetition on screen . Olmos and several other cast members took their study a step further , to immerse themselves by restricting their sleep patterns to about three hours a night to emphasize what their expert was imparting .
In the episode 's DVD commentary , Moore and Rymer related how there were endless discussion about the clocks to feature in this episode . Concerns over digital versus analog , size and shape , the ratio of digital to analog clocks , whether they should run forwards or backwards , and whether any labels should be stenciled or hand @-@ drawn were all brought up . David Eick also noted that as of the commentary 's recording , the clock at Felix Gaeta 's ( Juliani ) station still had its " 33 " label affixed .
= = = Editing = = =
The first cut of " 33 " was ten minutes too long . Despite this , the production crew took extra care not to eliminate " human moments " in their efforts to trim the episode . These included a shot of Galen Tyrol ( Douglas ) and Cally Henderson ( Clyne ) walking across Galactica 's hangar bay , a shot of Crewman Socinus ( Oyarzun ) giving a bedraggled look over the shoulder of another crewmember , and a shot of PO2 Dualla ( McClure ) walking through Galactica 's remembrance corridor .
In a question @-@ and @-@ answer session , Moore revealed a scene written for , but cut from , the episode . In the cut scene , the recurring prop in the characters ' briefing room was to have been explicitly introduced and explained ; the prop remained in the series , but its backstory was cut .
There was a scene cut from " 33 " where we saw Laura being given her copy of the photo along with a card that said it was taken on the roof of the capitol building on Aerilon during the attack . The photo was inspired by the famous shot of the fire @-@ fighters raising the flag at Ground Zero that became iconic . I thought the Colonies would have their own version of this -- a snapshot taken in the moment that becomes a symbol of the day they can never forget and of all they had lost . The photo itself is of a soldier falling to his knees ( possibly shot or simply overcome by emotion ) as he stands on the rooftop over looking the devastation of his city , while the Colonial flag waves at the edge of frame . The inscription below the photo on Laura 's plaque reads , " Lest We Forget " in itself a reference to the inscription on the watch presented to John Wayne 's character in She Wore a Yellow Ribbon .
Other cut scenes included one shot in the pilots ' head , showing the pilots " wrecked and exhausted [ ... ] with an exchange between Starbuck and Apollo " , as well as several shots of Commander Adama ( Olmos ) gagging and vomiting because of acid reflux brought on by sleep deprivation . Another line of Olmos ' — an ad @-@ lib about suicides in the fleet — was cut so as not to alienate audiences by being " too dark " .
As originally written and shot , when Apollo ( Jamie Bamber ) fires on the Olympic Carrier , it was made clear that he sees people inside . Moore wrote the scene to be strong and clear that the characters were making the decision to fire on the passenger liner in full awareness of the consequences to illustrate and emphasize " the uncompromising nature of the show . " This was an " enormous fight " between Moore and the network , with the latter feeling this was another scene that was " too dark " and had the potential to turn away audiences ; the network further implied that if the scene were left intact , they may have been compelled to air the episodes out of order . To placate the network , Moore and Eick changed the ending of the episode and " cheated " ; instead , when Apollo flies by the Olympic Carrier , it is unclear whether or not there is anybody inside . In a " small act of defiance " , visual effects supervisor Gary Hutzel snuck in small , indeterminate movement behind one or two of the Olympic Carrier 's windows on behalf of the production and writing teams . The episode also originally ended with Helo 's escape from the Cylons on Caprica ; again tasked by the network to keep the episode from being " too dark " , Moore wrote in an additional scene — President Roslin ( Mary McDonnell ) learning of the newborn — upon which to end the episode on a hopeful note .
= = Release and reception = =
" 33 " first aired in the United Kingdom on October 18 , 2004 ( 2004 @-@ 10 @-@ 18 ) , and in the United States on January 14 , 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 01 @-@ 14 ) , almost three months later . UK viewers obliged US Battlestar Galactica fans by illegally copying the episode — uploading Torrents to the Internet — within hours of its Sky One airing . " 33 " has been released thrice on home video as part of the first season collected sets ; on July 26 , 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 07 @-@ 26 ) as a Best Buy exclusive , again on September 20 , 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 09 @-@ 20 ) , and finally as an HD DVD set on December 4 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 12 @-@ 04 ) . The episode was also released on July 28 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 07 @-@ 28 ) as part of the entire series ' home video set on both DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc .
Both series creator Ronald D. Moore and star Jamie Bamber ( Lee Adama ) claim " 33 " as their favourite episode . Bamber described it as " ... the perfect episode of Battlestar Galactica . " Emphasizing the dark , gritty , and nightmarish aspects of the episode , the actor felt it was a microcosm of the series as a whole . In interviews with Wired UK and the Los Angeles Times , Moore opined that the episode subverted viewers ' expectations and was a " fantastic way to open that first year . "
" 33 " won the 2005 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , and drew a 2 @.@ 6 household Nielsen rating , attracting 3 @.@ 1 million viewers and making it the # 2 program on cable ( 8pm @-@ 11pm ) . At the website Television Without Pity , the staff review rated the episode an " A + " , while ( as of November 2010 ) 546 of their readers awarded it an average grade of " B " . The New York Post 's " 10 Most Dramatic Moments of the ' 00s " included " 33 " in its # 10 spot , describing it as the premiere episode of " a sci @-@ fi show with high stakes and serious guts . "
= Ralph d 'Escures =
Ralph d 'Escures ( died 20 October 1122 ) was a medieval Abbot of Séez , Bishop of Rochester and then Archbishop of Canterbury . He studied at the school at the Abbey of Bec . In 1079 he entered the abbey of St Martin at Séez , and became abbot there in 1091 . He was a friend of both Anselm of Canterbury and Gundulf , Bishop of Rochester , whose see , or bishopric , he took over on Gundulf 's death .
Ralph was not chosen archbishop of Canterbury by the chapter of Canterbury alone . His election involved an assembly of the lords and bishops meeting with King Henry I of England . Ralph then received his pallium from Pope Paschal II , rather than travelling to Rome to retrieve it . As archbishop , Ralph was very assertive of the rights of the see of Canterbury and of the liberties of the English church . He claimed authority in Wales and Scotland . Ralph also quarrelled for a time with Pope Paschal II .
Ralph suffered a stroke on 11 July 1119 and was left partially paralysed and unable to speak clearly from that time until his death on 20 October 1122 . A surviving English translation of a sermon delivered by Ralph is preserved in a manuscript in the British Library . The sermon survives in some fifty Latin manuscripts .
= = Early life = =
Ralph was the son of Seffrid d 'Escures and his first wife Rascendis , and a half brother of Seffrid I , Bishop of Chichester from 1125 to 1145 . The surname of de Turbine , by which he is sometimes known in older scholarship , is only attested in the fourteenth century and possibly resulted from confusion with William de Corbeil , Ralph 's successor at Canterbury . Ralph studied at the school at the Abbey of Bec before entering the abbey of St Martin at Séez in 1079 . St. Martin was a house founded by the Montgomery and Bellême families , and was still under their lordship . He became abbot of the house in 1091 , and his election was attended by Anselm , abbot of Bec .
= = Time in England = =
Soon afterwards Ralph paid a visit to England , perhaps to visit Shrewsbury Abbey , which was a daughter house of Séez . He may have been involved in the mediating the surrender of Robert of Bellême at Shrewsbury in 1102 , for some chroniclers state that it was Ralph who delivered the keys of the castle to King Henry I of England . In 1103 he took refuge in England from the demands of Robert of Bellême for homage . Ralph declined to do homage because Pope Urban II had ordered that no clergy could do homage to the laity . Robert was also demanding heavy taxes , and Ralph fled with Serlo , Bishop of Séez , who was also subjected to Robert 's demands . He passed his time in England with his friends Saint Anselm and Gundulf the Bishop of Rochester . He attended the translation of Saint Cuthbert 's remains at Durham , where he was one of examiners of the body , and declared the saint 's remains uncorrupt . In 1106 he visited Anselm at the Abbey of Bec , but probably did not try to assert himself at Séez . After Anselm was elected to the see of Canterbury , Ralph appears to have become part of the archbishop 's household .
In June 1108 Ralph succeeded Gundulf as Bishop of Rochester , having been nominated by Gundulf before his death . Ralph was consecrated on 9 August 1108 . He was at Anselm 's deathbed in April 1109 , and , afterwards , Ralph acted as administrator of the see of Canterbury until 26 April 1114 , when he was chosen Archbishop at Windsor . The king had wanted his doctor , Faricus , who was an Italian and Abbot of Abingdon , but the nobles and the bishops objected to anyone but a Norman being appointed . The bishops also desired someone who was not a monk , or at least not one who was so close to Henry . As a compromise , Ralph was chosen , rather than the secular clergy that the bishops favoured . Although Ralph was a monk and had not served as a royal clerk , he was also a bishop , which seems to have reconciled the other bishops to his selection .
= = Archbishop of Canterbury = =
It is noteworthy that , while Ralph was not chosen by the chapter of Canterbury alone , his election involved an assembly of the magnates and bishops meeting with the king . He was not selected solely by the king , nor solely by the bishops or chapter . Ralph received his pallium from the pope , rather than travelling to Rome to retrieve it . It was only with difficulty , however , that Pope Paschal II was persuaded to grant the pallium , as the papacy was attempting to again assert papal jurisdiction over the English Church . It was Anselm of St Saba who brought the pallium to England , along with letters from Paschal complaining that the English Church was translating bishops from see to see without papal permission , that legates from the papacy were being refused entry to England and that the king was allowing no appeals to be made to the pope over ecclesiastical issues . In 1116 the pope even demanded the payment of Peter 's Pence , a payment direct to the papacy of a penny from every household in England . Ralph , when he took the pallium , professed " fidelity and canonical obedience " to the pope , but did not submit to the papal demands and , in fact , supported King Henry in opposing the pope 's demands .
As archbishop Ralph championed the rights of the see of Canterbury and the English church . He claimed authority in Wales and Scotland , writing to the pope that " the church of Canterbury has not ceased to provide pastoral care for the whole of Britain and Ireland , both as a benevolence and from its rights of primacy . " He advised the bishop of Llandaff that a new Llandaff Cathedral should be built and granted an indulgence to contributors . He even refused to consecrate Thurstan as Archbishop of York because Thurstan would not profess obedience to the Archbishop of Canterbury , part of the Canterbury @-@ York dispute . At first , Ralph depended only on the king to demand Thurstan to submit , but later he appealed to the popes to force Thurstan to obey . His refusal brought him into a dispute with the papacy , for Pope Paschal II supported Thurstan . Ralph visited Rome in 1117 , but was unable to obtain an interview with Paschal as the pope had fled the city in front of an invading imperial army . Ralph had taken ill with an ulcer on his face during the trip to Rome and , for a time , it was feared that he would die . He recovered enough to continue on to Rome , however , although it was a fruitless trip . Despite instructions from Paschal ’ s successors , Gelasius II and Calixtus II , the archbishop continued to refuse to consecrate Thurstan , and Thurstan was still unconsecrated when Ralph died . Thurstan was eventually consecrated at Rheims by Pope Calixtus II in May 1119 , although the issue of primacy remained unresolved .
Although he feuded with York over the primacy , it appears clear that Ralph considered the Investiture Crisis settled in England for , in 1117 while visiting Rome , he took a neutral position as regards the issues between the Pope and the Emperor . In 1115 , however , he refused to consecrate Bernard as Bishop of St David 's in the royal chapel , although Robert of Meulan , the king 's chief counsellor , advocated that the consecration must take place in the royal chapel according to ancient custom . The king did not insist and Ralph won the confrontation . He was also involved in ecclesiastical affairs in Normanday , as he attended the provincial synod , or Council of Rouen , held in 1118 .
= = Final years and legacy = =
Ralph suffered a stroke on 11 July 1119 as he was removing his vestments after celebrating Mass . From then until his death , Ralph was partially paralysed and unable to speak clearly . He was still involved in decision making and , in 1120 , he agreed to King Alexander I of Scotland 's suggestion that Eadmer become the next Bishop of St Andrew 's . Ralph was one of the lords consulted about the remarriage of Henry I to Adeliza of Leuven at London in 1121 . He also successfully asserted his right to celebrate the king 's new marriage , over attempts by Roger of Salisbury to officiate instead . Due to the damage from the stroke , Ralph was unable to perform the ceremony but , when Roger made an attempt to do so , Ralph successfully insisted on choosing the officiant and William Giffard the Bishop of Winchester performed the marriage . Ralph died on 20 October 1122 , at Canterbury . He was buried in the nave of Canterbury Cathedral on 23 October 1122 . His nephew , John , was a clerk under Ralph , and later Ralph appointed him Archdeacon of Canterbury . After Ralph 's death , John was elected to the see of Rochester .
Ralph was regarded as a " witty , easygoing " man . The struggle with York , however , along with his illnesses and the effects of the stroke , turned Ralph in his last years into a quarrelsome person . Orderic Vitalis said that he was well educated and well loved by people . Even William of Malmesbury , no lover of ecclesiastics and always ready to find fault with them , could only find fault with him for his occasional lapses into unbecoming frivolity .
Ralph wrote a sermon for the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin and it survives in some fifty Latin manuscripts , probably because it was thought to have been written by Anselm of Canterbury , until shown to be Ralph 's in 1927 . A surviving English translation of the sermon is also preserved in the manuscript British Library , Cotton Vespasian D. xiv . The Latin version , which Ralph was a translation of his originally spoken French version , has been edited and published in 1997 . Ralph also had the monks of Christ Church , Canterbury search for documents relating to the privileges of Canterbury and had those documents copied into a manuscript which still survives , BM MS Cotton Cleopatra E. His seal is one of the first to take the usual form for bishop 's seals , with Ralph standing , in full vestments including a mitre , and performing a benediction with his right hand while holding his crosier in his left . The seal took the form of a pointed oval .
= Bow Back Rivers =
Bow Back Rivers or Stratford Back Rivers is a complex of waterways between Bow and Stratford in east London , England , which connect the River Lea to the River Thames . Starting in the twelfth century , works were carried out to drain Stratford Marshes and several of the waterways were constructed to power watermills . Bow Creek provided the final outfall to the Thames , and the other channels were called Abbey Creek , Channelsea River , City Mill River , Prescott Channel , Pudding Mill River , Three Mills Back River , Three Mills Wall River and Waterworks River .
The rivers have been subject to change over centuries , with Alfred the Great diverting the river in 896 to create a second channel , and Queen Matilda bridging both channels around 1110 . Because the river system was tidal as far as Hackney Wick , several of the mills were tide mills , including those at Abbey Mills and those at Three Mills , one of which survives . Construction of the New River in the seventeenth century to supply drinking water to London , with subsequent extraction by waterworks companies , led to a lowering of water levels , and the river was gradually canalised to maintain navigation . Significant changes occurred with the creation of the Lee Navigation in 1767 , which resulted in the construction of the Hackney Cut and the Limehouse Cut , allowing barges to bypass most of the back rivers . A major reconstruction of the rivers took place in the 1930s , authorised by the River Lee ( Flood Relief ) Act , but by the 1960s , commercial usage of the waterways had largely ceased . Deteriorating infrastructure led to the rivers dwindling to little more than tidal creeks , and they were categorised in 1968 as having no economic or long @-@ term future .
However , British Waterways decided that their full restoration was an important aim in 2002 , and the construction of the main stadium for the 2012 Summer Olympics on an island formed by the rivers provided funding to construct a new lock and sluices which stabilised water levels throughout the Olympic site . It was hoped that significant amounts of materials for the construction of the Olympic facilities would be delivered by barge , but this did not happen . Improvements to the channels which form a central feature of the Olympic Park included the largest aquatic planting scheme ever carried out in Britain .
= = Name = =
It is unclear when the individually named rivers became known collectively as Bow Back Rivers . Charles Tween , writing on behalf of the Lee Conservancy , referred to them as both the Stratford Back Rivers and the Stratford Back Streams in 1905 . The section to the west of the more recent City Mills Lock was labelled Bow Back River on a map of 1895 , but had previously been part of Pudding Mill River . Powell , writing in 1973 , still referred to them as the Stratford Back Rivers .
The 1939 edition of " Inland Waterways of Great Britain " , an early attempt to provide a guide for the leisure use of canals , noted that the River Lee had " several subsidiary canalised waterways " , and listed Bow Creek , Old River Lee , City Mills River and Waterworks River , but did not describe them collectively . Boyes and Russell writing in 1977 referred to them as the Bow Back Rivers or Stratford Back Rivers , and by the sixth edition of " Inland Waterways of Great Britain " , published in 1985 , they were referred to as Bow Back Rivers .
The river which supplies the Bow Back Rivers has been known as the River Lee or River Lea , but modern usage tends to use " Lea " when referring to the natural river , and " Lee " when referring to the navigation , so that the Lee Navigation is a canalisation of the River Lea . The name Bow may derive from either an arched bridge over the River Lea in the 12th century or a bend in the road east of Bow Road station .
= = History = =
The Bow Back Rivers cross an area originally known as Stratford Marsh , an area of common Lammas land , where inhabitants had common rights to graze horses and cattle between Lammas Day ( 1 August ) and Lady Day ( 25 March ) , but which was used for growing hay for the rest of the year . The Marsh was between Stratford @-@ Langthorne and Stratford @-@ at @-@ Bow . Little remains from pre @-@ history , but the names suggest that the two settlements lay at either end of a stone causeway across the marsh . Remains of a stone causeway have been found , but no traces of an associated road . The ford at Old Ford is of pre @-@ Roman origin , part of a route from London to Essex which crossed Bethnal Green . In the Roman era , a new road was built from London to the ford , which carried the principal road to Colchester . There may also have been a ford further south at Bow , and a further causeway existed between Homerton and Leyton , known as Wanstead Slip .
These crossings passed across a true marsh , either side of the River Lea . This wide , fast flowing river was then tidal as far as Hackney Wick , and navigable as far as Hertfordshire . Dates for the earliest use of the rivers by boats are unknown , although a late Bronze Age dugout canoe and parts of a Saxon barge have been found in the marshes at Walthamstow . The first alteration to the natural river may have been made by Alfred the Great , who cut another channel to strand a force of Danes in 896 , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . This lowered the tide head to Old Ford , and prevented large boats sailing the river until the 15th century .
During the reign of King Henry I between 1100 and 1118 , his wife Queen Matilda ( or Maud ) , on hearing of the problems of crossing the river at Old Ford , directed that the road should be routed further south , and paid for two bridges , one to cross the Lee and the other to cross the Channelsea River , from her own funds . She also paid for the road to be built between them , and the location of the bridge became known as Stratford @-@ atte @-@ Boghe , later Stratford @-@ le @-@ Bow , and finally dropped Stratford to become Bow or Bow Bridge . John Leland , writing in the 1500s , gives a more fanciful account , in which the queen falling into the water prompted the action . The addition of le @-@ Bow probably had less to do with the shape of the bridge than the fact that arch was derived from arcus , meaning bow .
In 1135 , Stratford Langthorne Abbey was founded . The Abbey continued the process of draining Stratford marsh begun in the Middle Ages , and creating artificial channels to drive water and tide mills . A small river port developed at Stratford , mentioned in the 15th century , to serve the needs of Stratford Abbey and the mills at Stratford , and there is similar evidence
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first down at the Virginia Tech five @-@ yard line . Three plays later , running back Jay Graham crossed the goal line for the first Tennessee touchdown of the second quarter . The extra point was good , and with 13 : 23 remaining in the first half , Tennessee took a 21 – 0 lead .
Following Tennessee 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff and a short kick return , the Virginia Tech offense began at its 24 @-@ yard line . The first Tech play of the quarter , a run up the middle by Edmonds , resulted in a 17 @-@ yard gain and a first down . Dwayne Thomas followed Edmonds ' run with one of his own , advancing the ball to the 50 @-@ yard line . He pushed into Tennessee territory on the next play , a five @-@ yard run that gave the Hokies a first down at the Tennessee 45 @-@ yard line . DeShazo then ran nine yards , and Tech gained a first down on the next play . Inside the Tennessee 35 @-@ yard line , however , the Volunteers ' defense stiffened . DeShazo passed for a seven @-@ yard gain , but the Hokies were unable to gain a first down until DeShazo scrambled for a 13 @-@ yard gain on fourth down . The run kept the Tech drive alive as the Hokies now had a first down at the Tennessee 14 @-@ yard line . Tennessee forced another third @-@ down play , but the Hokies gained a first down at the Tennessee three @-@ yard line with a pass from DeShazo to Thomas . Four plays later , the Hokies scored their first points of the game as Thomas dove across the goal line on fourth down . The subsequent extra point was good , and the Hokies cut Tennessee 's lead to 21 – 7 with 5 : 17 remaining in the first half .
Virginia Tech 's kickoff was returned to the Tennessee 26 @-@ yard line , and the Volunteers ' offense returned to the field . Instead of Peyton Manning , backup quarterback Branndon Stewart came on the field to lead Tennessee . On the second play of the Tennessee drive , Stewart gained 24 yards on a quarterback scramble , giving the Volunteers a first down at the Tennessee 49 @-@ yard line . On the next play , he completed a 27 @-@ yard pass to Kent for another first down . Two plays later , James Stewart broke free for an 18 @-@ yard run that gave Tennessee a first down at the Virginia Tech one @-@ yard line . One play later , Stewart crossed the goal line for Tennessee 's second touchdown of the quarter . The extra point was good , and Tennessee 's lead was again 21 points , 28 – 7 , with 3 : 22 remaining in the quarter .
The Volunteers ' kickoff was returned to the Tech 22 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began another drive . On the first play of the drive , however , Maurice DeShazo scrambled for a ten @-@ yard gain but fumbled the ball . The loose ball was recovered by a Tennessee defender , and the Volunteers took over on offense from the Tech 32 @-@ yard line . Branndon Stewart came out onto the field in place of Manning , and completed an eight @-@ yard pass to James Stewart to begin the drive . James Stewart then ran to the 20 @-@ yard line for a first down . On the next play , Tennessee executed a trick play in which James Stewart received the ball via a hand @-@ off , imitating a running play , but threw the ball instead . The pass was caught by James Kendrick for a touchdown , and after the extra point , Tennessee had a 35 – 7 lead with 2 : 08 remaining in the first half .
The kickoff was returned to the Tech 27 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began the final drive of the second quarter . Antonio Freeman caught a six @-@ yard pass from DeShazo , then DeShazo completed a five @-@ yard pass to Shawn Scales . DeShazo completed a four @-@ yard pass , then Ken Oxendine had a seven @-@ yard catch from DeShazo at the Tech 49 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Oxendine caught a short pass that pushed the Hokies to the Tennessee 45 @-@ yard line , then DeShazo threw his first incomplete pass of the drive . The incompletion stopped the clock with 37 seconds remaining , allowing time for DeShazo to complete a 26 @-@ yard pass to Bryan Still on the next play . Now inside the Tennessee red zone , the Hokies continued to move the ball via short passes . Tech gained a first down at the Tennessee six @-@ yard line , and used a timeout to stop the clock in order to have a chance to earn a touchdown before halftime . On a subsequent play , however , Tech committed a five @-@ yard penalty , and Tech head coach Frank Beamer ordered kicker Ryan Williams into the game . Williams ' 27 @-@ yard field goal attempt was good , and Tech cut Tennessee 's lead to 35 – 10 at the end of the first half .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the game , Tennessee received the ball to begin the second half . Tech 's kickoff was returned to the Tennessee 13 @-@ yard line , and Peyton Manning returned to the field to lead the Volunteers ' offense . The first play of the second half was an eight @-@ yard run by James Stewart , which was followed by a six @-@ yard run by Stewart for a first down at the Tennessee 27 @-@ yard line . Another Stewart run was followed by two short completions from Manning , and the Volunteers had another first down at the 37 @-@ yard line . Tennessee 's next play was negated by an offensive pass interference penalty against the Volunteers , who were pushed back to the 22 @-@ yard line by the penalty . Though Manning gained 22 yards with a third @-@ down pass , Tennessee was unable to gain enough yards for a first down and punted . During the kick , Tennessee committed a penalty and had to kick again after the five @-@ yard penalty was assessed . The punt was fair caught at the Tech 25 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began their first offensive possession of the second half with 10 : 14 remaining in the third quarter .
On the first play , DeShazo completed an 18 @-@ yard pass to Still , who gave the Hokies a first down at their 43 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Tech wide receiver Antonio Freeman committed a pass interference penalty , pushing the Hokies back 15 yards . Dwayne Thomas made good the penalty by gaining 16 yards on an option run , which was followed by a 17 @-@ yard pass from DeShazo to Freeman , who kept the Hokies ' drive going with a first down at the Tennessee 39 @-@ yard line . After an incomplete pass , Thomas broke free for a 27 @-@ yard run along the left side of the field , giving Tech a first down at the Tennessee 13 @-@ yard line . Tennessee 's defense held for three plays , forcing a fourth down . Instead of kicking a field goal , the Hokies attempted to convert the fourth down by running the ball . DeShazo scrambled , broke free of the defense , and crossed the goal line for the first Tech touchdown of the second half . Williams missed the extra point kick , however , and Tech cut Tennessee 's lead to 35 – 16 with 7 : 03 remaining in the quarter .
The kickoff was returned to the Tennessee 17 @-@ yard line , and Tennessee 's offense began work . The Volunteers were aided by a five @-@ yard offsides penalty against Virginia Tech on the first play of the drive , but the Hokies stopped the Tennessee offense for losses or no gain until Manning threw a 14 @-@ yard pass on third down , pushing Tennessee to the 34 @-@ yard line . After two incomplete passes , Manning scrambled 27 yards for another first down , this time at the Tech 39 @-@ yard line . Once there , however , the Virginia Tech defense stiffened and did not allow another first down during the drive . Tennessee kicker John Becksvoort came into the game , seemingly to attempt a 48 @-@ yard field goal . The kick turned out to be a trick play — an attempted pass by the kick holder — but Hokie defender Mike Williams tackled the holder for a loss .
After the failed trick play , the Hokies ' offense started at their 44 @-@ yard line . The first Tech play of the drive was a 15 @-@ yard pass from DeShazo to Still for a first down . A three @-@ yard run by Thomas was followed by a seven @-@ yard reverse by Still for another first down at the Tennessee 29 @-@ yard line . On first down , Thomas pushed the Hokies eight yards forward with a run up the middle . This was followed by two incomplete passes , bringing up fourth down . Again , Tech head coach Frank Beamer elected to try to convert the fourth down rather than kick a field goal . Unlike Tech 's previous fourth down , however , the try was unsuccessful after DeShazo mishandled the snap and was tackled for a loss . Virginia Tech turned the ball over on downs , and Tennessee 's offense returned to the game with 1 : 31 remaining in the quarter .
The Volunteers started at their 27 @-@ yard line to begin the drive , but went three and out and punted back to the Hokies without gaining a first down . The kick was returned to the Tech 39 @-@ yard line , where the Hokies ' offense started with 31 seconds remaining in the quarter . On the first play of the drive , wide receiver Bryan Still broke away from the Tennessee defense and was wide open for a pass . Maurice DeShazo threw the ball to Still , but Still dropped the pass after it bounced off his chest , thus denying the Hokies a touchdown . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer later cited the dropped pass as a critical turning point in the game , saying , " I think if he could have made that catch , we could have gotten back in the game . " Tech player Torrian Gray agreed , saying , " When he dropped the ball , that took a lot out of us . " After Still 's dropped pass , DeShazo threw two incomplete passes and Virginia Tech punted back to Tennessee . The kick was caught by near the Tennessee 10 @-@ yard line , and returned all the way to the Virginia Tech 37 @-@ yard line . At the end of the third quarter , Tennessee still led , 35 – 16 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with Tennessee in possession of the ball and facing a first @-@ and @-@ 10 at the Virginia Tech 37 @-@ yard line after a long punt return . Stewart ran twice for six yards , then Manning completed a pass to Kent at the 20 @-@ yard line for a first down . Manning then completed a pass to Nash for another first down at the Tech five @-@ yard line . Two plays later , Stewart scored his third touchdown of the game with a five @-@ yard run to the right side of the field . The extra point was good , and with 13 : 17 remaining in the game , Tennessee took a 42 – 16 lead .
Bryan Still fielded the Tennessee kickoff and returned it to the 19 @-@ yard line of Virginia Tech . After a short pass , DeShazo threw his second interception of the game . Tennessee defender John Summers returned the catch to the Tech 19 @-@ yard line , and backup quarterback Branndon Stewart returned to the game for Tennessee 's offense . James Stewart took the first play of the Volunteers ' drive , an eight @-@ yard gain , then backup Jay Graham entered the game and ran to the five @-@ yard line for a first down . After the next play — , a two @-@ yard run by Graham — Tennessee committed a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty , pushing the Volunteers back to the 17 @-@ yard line . Branndon Stewart completed a pass to tight end David Horn , pushing Tennessee back to the three @-@ yard line , but not gaining enough for a first down . Tennessee kicker John Becksvoort returned to the game , and his 19 @-@ yard field goal attempt was good , giving the Volunteers a 45 – 16 lead with 9 : 41 to go in the game .
Following the kickoff and return , backup Virginia Tech quarterback Jim Druckenmiller entered the game to guide the Hokies ' offense . The first play of the drive , however , was a run by backup running back Ken Oxendine , who gained five yards . Two more runs by Oxendine failed to gain a first down , however , and Virginia Tech punted . Tennessee 's Sean Summers returned the kick to the Volunteers ' 40 @-@ yard line , and the Volunteers continued trying to run out the clock . Tennessee failed to gain a first down , and the resulting punt rolled into the end zone for a touchback .
From the Tech 20 @-@ yard line , Druckenmiller completed a 13 @-@ yard pass to Still for a first down at the Tech 33 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Druckenmiller completed a long pass to tight end Bryan Jennings , who carried the ball 41 yards . Following the play , the Volunteers completed a penalty , advancing the ball to the Tennessee 22 @-@ yard line . Two short runs advanced the Hokies to the 19 @-@ yard line , then Druckenmiller completed a 10 @-@ yard pass to Freeman for a first down . On the next play , Druckenmiller connected with Still for a nine @-@ yard touchdown pass . The extra point was good , and Tennessee 's lead was cut to 45 – 23 , but with only 4 : 13 remaining in the game , the game seemed out of reach for the Hokies .
Virginia Tech 's kickoff was recovered in the end zone for a touchback , and the Volunteers started at their 20 @-@ yard line . Tennessee resumed running out the clock via short runs up the middle of the field that kept the game clock ticking down . After not gaining a first down , Tennessee punted to the Hokies with less than two minutes remaining in the game . Tech wide receiver Antonio Freeman returned the kick to the Tech 42 @-@ yard line , and on the first play of the Hokie drive , Druckenmiller completed a 17 @-@ yard pass to the Tennessee 41 @-@ yard line . That completion was followed by a nine @-@ yard pass to Jermaine Holmes . After an incomplete pass that almost was intercepted , Druckenmiller threw an incomplete pass before Oxendine failed to gain enough yards for a first down and Tech turned the ball over on downs . With less than a minute remaining , Tennessee 's offense ran out the remaining seconds on the clock and secured a 45 – 23 victory .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of their performances during the game , Tennessee 's James Stewart and Virginia Tech 's Maurice DeShazo were named the game 's most valuable players . Stewart finished the game having carried the ball 22 times for 85 yards and three rushing touchdowns . Stewart also caught one pass for seven yards and threw a touchdown pass for 19 yards . On the other side , DeShazo completed 17 of his 30 passes for 140 yards and two interceptions . He also ran the ball 11 times for 39 yards and a rushing touchdown .
Though Stewart was named the most valuable player for the Volunteers , multiple Tennessee players had statistically significant games . Volunteer quarterback Peyton Manning finished the game having completed 12 of his 19 pass attempts for 189 yards , one touchdown , and one interception . Backup Tennessee quarterback Brandon Stewart completed all three of his pass attempts , accumulating 49 yards in the process . Tennessee receiver Joey Kent was the primary beneficiary of the Volunteer passing attack , leading all receivers during the game with six receptions for 116 yards . Tennessee 's passing touchdowns went to Kendrick Jones , who also had 37 receiving yards and 76 rushing yards ; and Marcus Nash , who caught three passes for 54 yards .
Virginia Tech 's offense , though far less successful than Tennessee 's , also had some high performers . Running Back Dwayne Thomas finished the game with 19 carries for 102 yards and a touchdown , becoming the game 's leading rusher in terms of yardage , if not points scored . The Hokies ' leading receiver , Bryan Still , caught five passes for 79 yards and a touchdown . The touchdown pass came from Tech backup quarterback Jim Druckenmiller , who finished the game having completed six of his eight pass attempts for 97 yards and the touchdown .
The 68 points scored in the game were a Gator Bowl record at the time , and Tennessee 's 35 first @-@ half points also were a Gator Bowl record . Kendrick Jones ' 76 @-@ yard run on the first play of the second quarter was the longest in Gator Bowl history at the time . Stewart 's three touchdowns and the Volunteers ' six touchdowns were Tennessee bowl game records at the time , and the Volunteers also set Tennessee bowl @-@ game records for most points and offensive yardage .
= = Postgame effects = =
With the win , Tennessee finished the 1994 college football season with an overall record of 8 – 4 . In the final Associated Press poll of the year , the Volunteers were ranked No. 22 . Virginia Tech 's also took it to a final record of 8 – 4 , and the Hokies fell from their No. 17 spot in the AP poll to being unranked . In the USA Today Coaches ' Poll , Tech dropped to No. 24 . This game was also the final meeting of the Hokies and the Volunteers until the 2009 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl . Despite their regional proximity to each other , there were numerous failed attempts at scheduling a game between the universities . These efforts finally paid off in October 2013 when the two schools announced the Battle at Bristol , which will be at the Bristol Motor Speedway in Bristol , Tennessee , on September 10 , 2016 . The game will feature the largest crowd in history to see a football game , i.e. approximately 150 @,@ 000 fans over the current record of 115 @,@ 109 fans who saw Michigan play Notre Dame in September 2013 .
This was the last appearance of an SEC team in the Gator Bowl until 2011 . Conversely , it was the last Gator Bowl which did not feature a team from the ACC ( which admitted Virginia Tech in 2004 ) for the same period . After this game , the Gator Bowl entered into exclusive tie @-@ in contracts with the ACC and the Big East until 2010 ( with the addition of the Big 12 and Notre Dame from 2006 @-@ 2010 ) .
= Baggage ( U.S. game show ) =
Baggage is an American dating game show hosted by Jerry Springer and broadcast by Game Show Network . The original series premiered on April 19 , 2010 , airing for four seasons . A spin @-@ off series , entitled Baggage on the Road , aired for one season , which debuted January 7 , 2015 . The show has earned high ratings by GSN 's standards ; despite this , it has also received mixed critical reception .
The series gives three contestants the chance to win the eye of a prospective date . The contestants carry three suitcases onstage : a small , medium , and large one . Each suitcase contains an embarrassing , gross , unique , or weird proposition the contestant may have . These cases represent the " baggage " to which they will confess and defend . The bigger the suitcase , the bigger the secret . Once the three contestants are pared down to one , the potential dater must admit to a fault of his or her own .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is played by first introducing the central character . Three contestants are then introduced , each accompanied by three pieces of baggage : a small one , a medium one , and a large one , with each one containing a corresponding secret . The central contestant also has a piece of baggage of his or her own , which is only revealed at the end of the show . During the show , three possible secrets about the central contestant are given , one of which is the actual secret contained in their baggage . These secrets can include bad habits , strange relationship preferences , issues with one 's past , or strange hobbies . After the three other contestants are introduced , they each open the smallest piece of baggage , and explain the secrets they contain .
In the second segment , Springer reveals the second piece of baggage , contained in the medium @-@ sized suitcase . The three contestants are placed on the other side of the stage , along with the central contestant . Only the three contestants know which piece of baggage belongs to whom . The main contestant chooses the one piece of baggage which is the " deal breaker " ( i.e. , the one secret that they cannot accept ) . After stating this , the contestants then return to the other side of the stage and reveal which suitcase belongs to them . The person who claims the deal breaker baggage is immediately eliminated , and reveals the largest piece of baggage that would have been shown in the final round . The central contestant and two remaining contestants discuss the secrets in the medium pieces of baggage ; the two contestants then plead their cases as to why they should be the central contestant 's choice . The two remaining contestants , one at a time , are then asked a few questions ( usually five or six each ) by Springer about their personal lives .
The two remaining contestants open their largest pieces of baggage and reveal the secrets they contain . Each contestant makes one final statement , and the main contestant eliminates a second contestant . The main contestant 's own baggage is then opened and the contents revealed to the remaining contestant . If the contestant accepts the secret belonging to the central character , the couple is given an expense @-@ covered evening together . However , if the contestant can not accept the secret , the pair part ways .
= = Production = =
The series was officially announced on March 23 , 2010 , with Jerry Springer being confirmed as the host . The original series was produced by Comcast Entertainment Group ; Jay James and Tim Puntillo served as executive producers . On July 26 , GSN announced plans to renew the show for a second season , which began airing on August 16 , 2010 . A syndication test run was shown on a select group of Sinclair Broadcast Group 's stations January 10 , 2011 . The series began airing in syndication in the United States in September 2012 , becoming to first original program the network 's history to achieve such a feat .
A third season began airing on June 6 , 2011 . During season three , a half @-@ hour special entitled Baggage First Dates aired during a five @-@ hour " Best of Baggage Marathon . " The special followed a couple who had previously appeared on the show talking to Springer about what happened on their first date following their appearance . A fourth season of the show premiered on March 14 , 2012 .
With GSN ’ s Executive Vice President of Programming , Amy Introcaso @-@ Davis , citing that the series continued to remain " extremely popular " in reruns , GSN announced plans to order twenty episodes of a traveling version of the series . The spin @-@ off , entitled Baggage on the Road , follows an identical format to its predecessor while traveling to tape episodes in various U.S. cities . Prior to the spin @-@ off , a one @-@ hour special entitled Baggage : Most Outrageous Moments aired on January 1 , 2015 , featuring highlights from the original series ' run . The spin @-@ off premiered on January 7 , 2015 ; Wilshire Studios produced the revival with Lisa Tucker serving as executive producer .
= = Reception = =
The show quickly became a ratings success for GSN , becoming the highest @-@ rated weekday series in the network 's history . The original series averaged 473 @,@ 000 viewers during its first season , while the 2015 version saw a season @-@ high of 524 @,@ 000 viewers for its only season . Despite earning respectable ratings by GSN 's standards , Baggage has received mixed critical reviews . Carrie Grosvenor of About Entertainment argued that the series " isn 't exactly must @-@ see TV , but it 's entertaining enough to catch an episode here and there . " Additionally , Josef Adalian of The Wrap gave a negative pre @-@ review of the show , calling it and Springer " GSN 's latest bad idea . " In 2012 , however , Baggage appeared in Entertainment Weekly as a " top guilty pleasure , " and was also featured in the HBO television series Girls . Writing for Yahoo ! , Gabrielle Rice called the series " very entertaining , " and argued Springer to be " the perfect host for the show . " June Thomas , writing for Slate , opened her review by calling the series " real , and ... spectacular . " Additionally , Jordan Carr of The Awl titled his review , " Jerry Springer 's Baggage Is The Greatest TV Show Ever . " Carr called the formula of the show " brilliant " despite it being " predictable and not that exciting . "
The series has also spawned Australian and British versions under the same title . The British series , hosted by Gok Wan , aired on Channel 4 in 2012 .
= Churchill War Rooms =
The Churchill War Rooms is a museum in London and one of the five branches of the Imperial War Museum . The museum comprises the Cabinet War Rooms , a historic underground complex that housed a British government command centre throughout the Second World War , and the Churchill Museum , a biographical museum exploring the life of British statesman Winston Churchill .
Construction of the Cabinet War Rooms , located beneath the Treasury building in the Whitehall area of Westminster , began in 1938 . They became operational in August 1939 , shortly before the outbreak of war in Europe . They remained in operation throughout the Second World War , before being abandoned in August 1945 after the surrender of Japan . After the war the historic value of the Cabinet War Rooms was recognised . Their preservation became the responsibility of the Ministry of Works and later the Department for the Environment , during which time very limited numbers of the public were able to visit by appointment . In the early 1980s the Imperial War Museum was asked to take over the administration of the site , and the Cabinet War Rooms were opened to the public in April 1984 . The museum was reopened in 2005 following a major redevelopment as the Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms , but in 2010 this was shortened to the Churchill War Rooms .
= = Construction = =
In 1936 the Air Ministry , the British government department responsible for the Royal Air Force , believed that in the event of war enemy aerial bombing of London would cause up to 200 @,@ 000 casualties per week . British government commissions under Warren Fisher and Sir James Rae in 1937 and 1938 considered that key government offices should be dispersed from central London to the suburbs , and non @-@ essential offices to the Midlands or North West . Pending this dispersal , in May 1938 Sir Hastings Ismay , then Deputy Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence , ordered an Office of Works survey of Whitehall to identify a suitable site for a temporary emergency government centre . The Office concluded the most suitable site was the basement of the New Public Offices , a government building located on the corner of Horse Guards Road and Great George Street , near Parliament Square . The building now accommodates HM Treasury .
Work to convert the basement of the New Public Offices began , under the supervision of Ismay and Sir Leslie Hollis , in June 1938 . The work included installing communications and broadcasting equipment , sound @-@ proofing , ventilation and reinforcement . Meanwhile , by the summer of 1938 the War Office , Admiralty and Air Ministry had developed the concept of a Central War Room that would facilitate discussion and decision @-@ making between the Chiefs of Staff of the armed forces . As ultimate authority lay with the civilian government the Cabinet , or a smaller War Cabinet , would require close access to senior military figures . This implied accommodation close to the armed forces ' Central War Room . In May 1939 it was decided that the Cabinet would be housed within the Central War Room . In August 1939 , with war imminent and protected government facilities in the suburbs not yet ready , the War Rooms became operational on 27 August 1939 , only days before the invasion of Poland on 1 September , and Britain 's declaration of war on Germany on 3 September .
= = Wartime use = =
During its operational life two of the Cabinet War Rooms were of particular importance . Once operational , the facility 's Map Room was in constant use and manned around the clock by officers of the Royal Navy , British army and Royal Air Force . These officers were responsible for producing a daily intelligence summary for the King , Prime Minister and the military Chiefs of Staff .
The other key room was the Cabinet Room . Until the opening of the Battle of France , which began on 10 May 1940 , Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain 's war cabinet met at the War Rooms only once , in October 1939 . Following Winston Churchill 's appointment as Prime Minister , Churchill visited the Cabinet Room in May 1940 and declared : ' This is the room from which I will direct the war ' . In total 115 Cabinet meetings were held at the Cabinet War Rooms , the last on 28 March 1945 , when the German V @-@ weapon bombing campaign came to an end .
On 22 October 1940 , during the Blitz bombing campaign against Britain , it was decided to increase the protection of the Cabinet War Rooms by the installation of a massive layer of concrete known as ' the Slab ' . Up to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 metres ) thick , the Slab was progressively extended and by spring 1941 the increased protection had enabled the Cabinet War Rooms to expand to three times their original size . While the usage of many of the War Rooms ' individual rooms changed over the course of the war , the facility included dormitories for staff , private bedrooms for military officers and senior ministers , and rooms for typists or telephone switchboard operators .
Two other notable rooms include the Transatlantic Telephone Room and Churchill 's office @-@ bedroom . From 1943 , a SIGSALY code @-@ scrambling encrypted telephone was installed in the basement of Selfridges , Oxford Street connected to a similar terminal in the Pentagon building . This enabled Churchill to speak securely with American President Roosevelt in Washington , with the first conference taking place on 15 July 1943 . Later extensions were installed to both 10 Downing Street and the specially constructed Transatlantic Telephone Room within the Cabinet War Rooms . Churchill 's office @-@ bedroom included BBC broadcasting equipment ; Churchill made four wartime broadcasts from the Cabinet War Rooms . Although the office room was also fitted out as a bedroom , Churchill rarely slept underground , preferring to sleep at 10 Downing Street or the No.10 Annexe , a flat in the New Public Offices directly above the Cabinet War Rooms . His daughter Mary Soames often slept in the bedroom allocated to Mrs Churchill .
= = Abandonment and preservation = =
After the end of the war , the Cabinet War Rooms became redundant and were abandoned . Their maintenance became the responsibility of the Ministry of Works . In March 1948 the question of public access to the War Rooms was raised in Parliament and the Minister responsible , Charles Key MP , considered that ' it would not be practicable to throw open for inspection by the general public accommodation which forms part of an office where confidential work is carried on ' . Even so , a tour was organised for journalists on 17 March , with members of the press being welcomed by Lord Ismay and shown around the Rooms by their custodian , Mr. George Rance .
While the Rooms were not open to the general public , they could be accessed by appointment , with access being restricted to small groups . Even so , by the 1970s ( with responsibility for the Rooms having passed to the Department for the Environment in 1975 ) tens of thousands of requests to visit the Rooms were being received every year , of which only 5 @,@ 000 were successful . Meanwhile , the atmospheric conditions of the site , being dry and dusty , were having a detrimental effect on the rooms ' furnishings and historic maps and other documents . The prospect was raised of decanting the contents of the Rooms to an established museum , with the National Army Museum and Imperial War Museum being suggested as candidates . In the event , £ 7 @,@ 000 was secured to conserve the material in situ .
= = Opening and redevelopment = =
In 1974 the Imperial War Museum was approached by the government and asked to consider taking over the administration of the site . A feasibility study was prepared but came to nothing , the museum feeling it did not have sufficient resources to commit to the War Rooms . In 1981 Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , known as an admirer of Winston Churchill , expressed the hope that the Rooms could be opened before the next general election . The Imperial War Museum was again approached . Initially still reluctant , the museum 's trustees decided in January 1982 that the museum would take over the site , on the understanding that the government would make the necessary resources available . The initial costs were to be met by the Department for the Environment , and the War Rooms intended to be self @-@ supporting thereafter . The Rooms were opened to the public by Thatcher on 4 April 1984 , in a ceremony attended by Churchill family members and former Cabinet War Rooms staff . At first the Rooms were administered by the museum on behalf of Department for the Environment ; in 1989 responsibility was transferred to the Imperial War Museum .
Following a major expansion in 2003 , a suite of rooms , used as accommodation by Churchill , his wife and close associates , was added to the museum . The restoration of these rooms , which since the war had been stripped out and used for storage , cost £ 7 @.@ 5 million . In 2005 the War Rooms were rebranded as the Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms , with 850m2 of the site redeveloped as a biographical museum exploring Churchill 's life . The museum , the development of which cost a further £ 6 million raised from private fundraising , makes extensive use of audiovisual technology . The centrepiece is a 15 @-@ metre interactive table that enables visitors to access digitised material , particularly from the Churchill Archives Centre , via an ' electronic filing cabinet ' . The Churchill Museum won the 2006 Council of Europe Museum Prize . During 2009 @-@ 2011 the museum received over 300 @,@ 000 visitors a year . In May 2010 the name of the museum was shortened to Churchill War Rooms .
In June 2012 the museum 's entrance was redesigned by Clash Architects with consulting engineers Price & Myers . Intended to act as a ' beacon ' for the museum , the new external design included a faceted bronze entranceway , while the interior showed the cleaned and restored Portland stone walls of the Treasury building and Clive Steps . The design was described as ' appropriately martial and bulldog @-@ like ' and as ' a fusion of architecture and sculpture ' .
= Plitvice Lakes incident =
The Plitvice Lakes incident ( Croatian : Krvavi Uskrs na Plitvicama or Plitvički krvavi Uskrs , both translating as " Plitvice Bloody Easter " ) was an armed clash at the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence . It was fought between Croatian police and armed forces from the Croatian Serb @-@ established SAO Krajina at the Plitvice Lakes in Croatia , on 31 March 1991 . The fighting followed the SAO Krajina 's takeover of the Plitvice Lakes National Park and resulted in Croatia recapturing the area . The clash resulted in one killed on each side and contributed to the worsening ethnic tensions .
The fighting prompted the Presidency of Yugoslavia to order the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) to step in and create a buffer zone between the opposing forces . The JNA arrived at the scene the following day and presented Croatia with an ultimatum requesting the police to withdraw . Even though the special police units which captured the Plitvice Lakes area did pull out on 2 April , a newly established Croatian police station , staffed by 90 officers , remained in place . The police station was blockaded by the JNA three months later , and captured in late August 1991 .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina regions and eastern Croatia . They established a Serbian National Council in July 1990 , to coordinate opposition to Croatian President Franjo Tuđman 's policy of pursuing independence for Croatia . Milan Babić , a dentist from the southern town of Knin , was elected president . Knin 's police chief , Milan Martić , established paramilitary militias . The two men eventually became the political and military leaders of the SAO Krajina , a self @-@ declared state incorporating the Serb @-@ inhabited areas of Croatia .
In the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . In an effort to bolster its defence , Croatia doubled the size of its police force to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the force was the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police that were deployed in 12 battalions adopting military organisation . In addition there were 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police . The reserve police were set up in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons .
In an effort to consolidate territory under their control , Croatian Serb leaders organised a political rally at the Plitvice Lakes on 25 March 1991 , demanding the area be annexed to the SAO Krajina . Three days later , on 28 March , SAO Krajina special police seized the area , and with the help of armed civilians , removed the Croatian management of the Plitvice Lakes National Park . The force deployed by the SAO Krajina to the Plitvice Lakes was estimated to be approximately 100 @-@ strong . The region was relatively sparsely populated and there was no obvious threat to Serbs there . Journalist Tim Judah suggests that the move may have been motivated by a desire to control a strategic road that ran north @-@ south through the park , linking the Serb communities in the Lika and Banovina regions .
= = Timeline = =
Croatia deployed special police forces , specifically the Lučko , Rakitje and Sljeme special police units based in and around Zagreb , supported by additional police forces drawn from Karlovac and Gospić to retake the Plitvice Lakes area . The Croatian police force , commanded by Josip Lucić , used several buses and passenger cars , as well as an armoured personnel carrier to approach the Plitvice Lakes area . The main 180 @-@ strong group of the Rakitje Special Police Unit ( SPU ) , directly commanded by Lucić , arrived in dense fog , along the main road from Zagreb via the Korana River bridge . The bridge was secured by the Lučko unit shortly before midnight on 30 / 31 March 1991 . An auxiliary force approached the Plitvice Lakes via Ličko Petrovo Selo , while the Kumrovec SPU was deployed in the area between the lakes and Gospić , where it captured the Ljubovo Pass to secure the right flank of the main effort . The total attacking force comprised approximately 300 troops .
The approaching convoy was ambushed at a barricade set up by the SAO Krajina force near Plitvice Lakes before 7 : 00 in the morning of Easter Sunday , 31 March 1991 . The SAO Krajina force attacked the vehicles carrying the Croatian police and held their position until they fell back to the national park post office two and a half hours later . The Croatian advance , additionally hindered by deep snow , was achieved at a cost of six wounded . The attacking force secured its objectives by 11 : 00 am . As the attacking operation reached its completion , the Croatian military sustained its first combat fatality of the Croatian War of Independence , when Josip Jović was killed by a machine gun covering retreating SAO Krajina troops . Shortly afterwards , the Yugoslav Air Force dispatched a Mil Mi @-@ 8 helicopter to attend to wounded on both sides , and it left the area after an hour and a half . The helicopter was dispatched by Colonel General Anton Tus , head of the Yugoslav Air Force at the time , following a request by Josip Boljkovac , Interior Minister of Croatia . As the fighting around Plitvice ended , sporadic gunfire was reported near Titova Korenica , to the south . The same afternoon , a Croatian police station was established at the Plitvice Lakes and Tomislav Iljić was appointed its commanding officer . The station was staffed by approximately 90 police officers who were redeployed from Gospić .
The Presidency of Yugoslavia met in an emergency session the same evening to discuss the clash . At the insistence of Serbia 's representative on the Presidency , Borisav Jović , the JNA was ordered to intervene , gain control in the area and prevent further combat . The Serbian parliament also met in an emergency session , treating the clashes as a virtual casus belli and voting to offer the Krajina Serbs " all necessary help " in their conflict with Zagreb . The following day , the SAO Krajina adopted a resolution to the effect that the territory was incorporated into Serbia , whose constitution and laws were adopted for use in the Serb @-@ held areas of Croatia . Croatian authorities accused Serbia 's president , Slobodan Milošević , of stage @-@ managing the unrest in order to break Croatia 's resolve to declare independence unless Yugoslavia was transformed into a loose confederation . They also accused him of attempting to coax the JNA to overthrow Croatian government .
= = = JNA intervention = = =
On 1 April , the JNA established a buffer zone to separate the belligerents at Plitvice Lakes , deploying elements of the 1st and the 5th Military Districts . Those were an armoured battalion of the 329th Armoured Brigade based in Banja Luka , a battalion of the 6th Mountain Brigade based in Delnice , a reconnaissance company and a mechanised battalion of the 4th Armoured Brigade based in Jastrebarsko and Karlovac , a battalion of the 306th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Artillery Regiment based in Zagreb , a signals company of the 367th Signals Regiment based in Samobor , a company of the 13th Military Police Battalion based in Rijeka and an anti @-@ aircraft artillery battery drawn from the 13th Proletarian Motorised Brigade based in Rijeka . Finally , the 5th Military District set up a forward command post at the Plitvice Lakes . The JNA force at the Plitvice Lakes was commanded by Colonel Ivan Štimac .
The commanding officer of the 5th Military District , Major General Andrija Rašeta , in overall command of the JNA intervention , told the media that his men were not protecting either side and were there only to prevent ethnic confrontations for an indeterminate period . However , the Croatian government reacted furiously to the JNA move . Tuđman 's aide , Mario Nobilo , claimed that the JNA had told Croatian officials that it would engage the police if they did not leave Plitvice . In a radio address , Tuđman said that the JNA would be regarded as a hostile army of occupation if its course of action remained unchanged . On 2 April , the JNA handed the Croatian authorities an ultimatum , requesting the police leave Plitvice . The special police left Plitvice the same day , but the 90 officers staffing the newly established police station remained in place .
= = Aftermath = =
Police officer Josip Jović was the only Croatian fatality in the incident . The SAO Krajina force also suffered one killed in the fighting — Rajko Vukadinović , who was the first Croatian Serb combat fatality in the war . A total of 20 people were wounded , seven of whom were the Croatian police . The Croatian forces captured 29 SAO Krajina troops , 18 of whom were formally charged with insurgency . Among the prisoners was Goran Hadžić , later to become the President of the Republic of Serbian Krajina , although he was quickly released . Hadžić 's release was explained as a goodwill gesture by the authorities , but Boljkovac claims he was released because he was collaborating with the Croatian authorities in 1991 . Approximately 400 tourists , most of them Italian , were evacuated from the Plitvice Lakes after the fighting .
The clash at the Plitvice Lakes worsened the overall situation in Croatia and led to an escalation of the conflict . Even though the Croatian and Serb forces were separated by the JNA at the Plitvice Lakes , the situation in the area continued to deteriorate following the clash . In nearby Plaški , Croatian police personnel left the local police station and were replaced by Serb officers . Both SAO Krajina and Croatian forces set up several roadblocks on the Saborsko – Lička Jasenica – Ogulin road . By summer , the blockades were extended to the north of Plaški and south of Saborsko , where Croatian authorities established another 30 @-@ strong police station on 2 April . Only JNA vehicles were permitted to pass the roadblocks , and that brought about a shortage of food , medicine and electricity in the area .
On 2 May , the Serb Democratic Party , the ruling party in the SAO Krajina , organised a protest march to the Plitvice Lakes
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controlled 47 percent of the console market , Nintendo controlled 40 percent , and Sega controlled only 12 percent . Neither price cuts nor high @-@ profile games were proving helpful to the Saturn 's success . Due to the Saturn 's poor performance in North America , Sega of America laid off 60 of its 200 employees in the fall of 1997 .
As a result of the company 's deteriorating financial situation , Nakayama resigned as president of Sega in January 1998 in favor of Irimajiri . Stolar would subsequently accede to president of Sega of America . Following five years of generally declining profits , in the fiscal year ending March 31 , 1998 Sega suffered its first parent and consolidated financial losses since its 1988 listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange . Due to a 54 @.@ 8 % decline in consumer product sales ( including a 75 @.@ 4 % decline overseas ) , the company reported a consolidated net loss of ¥ 35 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 269 @.@ 8 million ) . Shortly before announcing its financial losses , Sega revealed that it was discontinuing the Saturn in North America , with the goal of preparing for the launch of its successor . This decision effectively left the Western market without Sega games for over one year . Rumors about the upcoming Dreamcast — spread mainly by Sega itself — leaked to the public before the last Saturn games were released .
= = = Development = = =
As early as 1995 , reports surfaced that Sega would collaborate with Lockheed Martin , The 3DO Company , Matsushita , or Alliance Semiconductor to create a new graphics processing unit , which conflicting accounts said would be used for a 64 @-@ bit " Saturn 2 " or an add @-@ on peripheral . Development of the Dreamcast was wholly unrelated to this rumored project . In light of the Saturn 's poor market performance , Irimajiri decided to start looking outside of the company 's internal hardware development division to create a new console . In 1997 , Irimajiri enlisted the services of Tatsuo Yamamoto from International Business Machines to lead an 11 @-@ man team to work on a secret hardware project in the United States , which was referred to as " Blackbelt " . Accounts vary on how an internal team led by Hideki Sato also began development on Dreamcast hardware ; one account specifies that Sega of Japan tasked both teams , while another suggests that Sato was bothered by Irimajiri 's choice to begin development externally and chose to have his hardware team begin development . Sato and his group chose the Hitachi SH @-@ 4 processor architecture and the VideoLogic PowerVR2 graphics processor , manufactured by NEC , in the production of their mainboard . Initially known as " Whitebelt " , this project was later codenamed " Dural " , after the metallic female fighter from Sega 's Virtua Fighter series .
Yamamoto 's group opted to use 3dfx Voodoo 2 and Voodoo Banshee graphics processors alongside a Motorola PowerPC 603e central processing unit ( CPU ) , but Sega management later asked them to also use the SH @-@ 4 chip . Both processors have been described as " off the shelf " components . In 1997 , 3dfx began its IPO , and as a result of legal obligations unveiled its contracts with Sega , including the development of the new console . This angered Sega of Japan executives , who eventually decided to use the Dural chipset and cut ties with 3dfx . According to former Sega of America vice president of communications and former NEC brand manager Charles Bellfield , presentations of games using the NEC solution showcased the performance and low cost delivered by the SH @-@ 4 and PowerVR architecture . He further stated that " Sega 's relationship with NEC , a Japanese company , probably made a difference [ in Sega 's decision to adopt the Japanese team 's design ] too . " Stolar , on the other hand , " felt the US version , the 3Dfx version , should have been used . Japan wanted the Japanese version , and Japan won . " As a result , 3dfx filed a lawsuit against both Sega and NEC claiming breach of contract , which would eventually be settled out of court . The choice to use the PowerVR architecture concerned Electronic Arts ( EA ) , a longtime developer for Sega 's consoles . EA had invested in 3dfx but was unfamiliar with the selected architecture , which was reportedly less powerful . As recounted by Shiro Hagiwara ( a general manager at Sega 's hardware division ) and Ian Oliver ( the managing director of Sega subsidiary Cross Products ) , the SH @-@ 4 was chosen while it was still in development and following a lengthy deliberation process because it was the only available processor that " could adapt to deliver the 3D geometry calculation performance necessary . " By February 1998 , Sega had renamed the Dural " Katana " ( after the Japanese sword ) , although certain hardware specifications such as random access memory ( RAM ) were not yet finalized .
Knowing that the Sega Saturn had been set back by its high production costs and complex hardware , Sega took a different approach with the Dreamcast . Like previous Sega consoles , the Dreamcast was designed around intelligent subsystems working in parallel with one another , but the selections of hardware were more in line with what was common in personal computers than video game consoles , reducing the system 's cost . According to Damien McFerran , " the motherboard was a masterpiece of clean , uncluttered design and compatibility . " Chinese economist and future Sega.com CEO Brad Huang convinced Sega chairman Isao Okawa to include a modem with every Dreamcast despite significant opposition from Okawa 's staff over the additional $ 15 cost per unit . To account for rapid changes in home data delivery , Sega designed the Dreamcast 's modem to be modular . Sega selected the GD @-@ ROM media format for the system . The GD @-@ ROM , which was jointly developed by Sega and Yamaha Corporation , could be mass @-@ produced at a similar price to a normal CD @-@ ROM , thus avoiding the greater expense of DVD @-@ ROM technology . As the GD @-@ ROM format can hold about 1 GB of data , illegally copying Dreamcast games onto a 650 MB CD @-@ ROM sometimes required the removal of certain game features , although this did not prevent copying of Dreamcast software . Microsoft developed a custom Dreamcast version of Windows CE with DirectX API and dynamic @-@ link libraries , making it easy to port PC games to the platform , although programmers would ultimately favor Sega 's development tools over those from Microsoft .
Sega held a public competition to name its new system and considered over 5 @,@ 000 different entries before choosing " Dreamcast " — a combination of " dream " and " broadcast " . According to Katsutoshi Eguchi , Japanese game developer Kenji Eno submitted the name and created the Dreamcast 's spiral logo , but this claim has not been verified by Sega . The Dreamcast 's start @-@ up sound was composed by the Japanese musician Ryuichi Sakamoto . Because the Saturn had tarnished Sega 's reputation , the company planned to remove its name from the console entirely and establish a new gaming brand similar to Sony 's PlayStation , but Irimajiri 's management team ultimately decided to retain Sega 's logo on the Dreamcast 's exterior . Sega spent US $ 50 – 80 million on hardware development , $ 150 – 200 million on software development , and $ 300 million on worldwide promotion — a sum which Irimajiri , a former Honda executive , humorously compared to the investments required to design new automobiles .
= = = Launch = = =
Despite taking massive losses on the Saturn , including a 75 percent drop in half @-@ year profits just before the Japanese launch of the Dreamcast , Sega felt confident about its new system . The Dreamcast attracted significant interest and drew many pre @-@ orders . Sega announced that Sonic Adventure , the next game starring company mascot Sonic the Hedgehog , would arrive in time for the Dreamcast 's launch and promoted the game with a large @-@ scale public demonstration at the Tokyo Kokusai Forum Hall . However , Sega could not achieve its shipping goals for the Dreamcast 's Japanese launch due to a shortage of PowerVR chipsets caused by a high failure rate in the manufacturing process . As more than half of its limited stock had been pre @-@ ordered , Sega stopped pre @-@ orders in Japan . On November 27 , 1998 , the Dreamcast launched in Japan at a price of JP ¥ 29 @,@ 000 , and the entire stock sold out by the end of the day . However , of the four games available at launch , only one — a port of Virtua Fighter 3 , the most successful arcade game Sega ever released in Japan — sold well . Sega estimated that an additional 200 @,@ 000 @-@ 300 @,@ 000 Dreamcast units could have been sold with sufficient supply . Key Dreamcast software titles Sonic Adventure and Sega Rally Championship 2 , which had been delayed , arrived within the following weeks , but sales continued to be slower than expected . Irimajiri hoped to sell over 1 million Dreamcast units in Japan by February 1999 , but less than 900 @,@ 000 were sold , undermining Sega 's attempts to build up a sufficient installed base to ensure the Dreamcast 's survival after the arrival of competition from other manufacturers . There were reports of disappointed Japanese consumers returning their Dreamcasts and using the refund to purchase additional PlayStation software . Seaman , released in July 1999 , was considered the Dreamcast 's first major hit in Japan . Prior to the Western launch , Sega reduced the price of the Dreamcast to JP ¥ 19 @,@ 900 , effectively making the hardware unprofitable but increasing sales . The price reduction and release of Namco 's Soul Calibur helped Sega to gain 17 percent on its shares .
Working closely with Midway Games ( which developed four launch titles for the system ) and taking advantage of the ten months following the Dreamcast 's release in Japan , Sega of America worked to ensure a more successful U.S. launch with a minimum of 15 launch games . Despite lingering bitterness over the Saturn 's early release , Stolar successfully managed to repair relations with major US retailers , with whom Sega presold 300 @,@ 000 Dreamcast units . In addition , a pre @-@ launch promotion enabled consumers to rent the system from Hollywood Video in the months preceding its September launch . Sega of America 's senior vice president of marketing Peter Moore , a fan of the attitude previously associated with Sega 's brand , worked with Foote , Cone & Belding and Access Communications to develop the " It 's Thinking " campaign of 15 @-@ second television commercials , which emphasized the Dreamcast 's hardware power . According to Moore , " We needed to create something that would really intrigue consumers , somewhat apologize for the past , but invoke all the things we loved about Sega , primarily from the Genesis days . " On August 11 , Sega of America confirmed that Stolar had been fired , leaving Moore to direct the launch .
Prior to the Dreamcast 's release , Sega was dealt a blow when EA — the largest third @-@ party video game publisher — announced it would not develop games for the system . EA executive Bing Gordon claimed " [ Sega ] couldn 't afford to give us [ EA ] the same kind of license that EA has had over the last five years " , but Stolar recounted that EA president Larry Probst wanted " exclusive rights to be the only sports brand on Dreamcast " , which Stolar could not accept due to Sega 's recent $ 10 million purchase of sports game developer Visual Concepts . While the Dreamcast would have none of EA 's popular sports games , " Sega Sports " titles developed mainly by Visual Concepts helped to fill that void .
The Dreamcast launched in North America on September 9 , 1999 at a price of $ 199 — which Sega 's marketing dubbed " 9 / 9 / 99 for $ 199 " . Eighteen launch titles were available for the Dreamcast in the U.S. Sega set a new sales record by selling more than 225 @,@ 132 Dreamcast units in 24 hours , earning the company $ 98 @.@ 4 million in what Moore called " the biggest 24 hours in entertainment retail history " . Within two weeks , U.S. Dreamcast sales exceeded 500 @,@ 000 . By Christmas , Sega held 31 percent of the North American video game marketshare . Significant launch titles included Soul Calibur , an arcade fighting game that was graphically enhanced for the system and went on to sell one million units , and Visual Concepts ' high @-@ quality football simulation NFL 2K . On November 4 , Sega announced it had sold over one million Dreamcast units . Nevertheless , the launch was marred by a glitch at one of Sega 's manufacturing plants , which produced defective GD @-@ ROMs .
Sega released the Dreamcast in Europe on October 14 , 1999 , at a price of GB ₤ 200 . By November 24 , 400 @,@ 000 consoles had been sold in Europe . By Christmas of 1999 , Sega of Europe reported selling 500 @,@ 000 units , placing it six months ahead of schedule . Sales did not continue at this pace , and by October 2000 , Sega had sold only about 1 million units in Europe . As part of Sega 's promotions of the Dreamcast in Europe , the company sponsored four European football clubs : Arsenal F.C. ( England ) , AS Saint @-@ Étienne ( France ) , U.C. Sampdoria ( Italy ) , and Deportivo de La Coruña ( Spain ) .
= = = Competition = = =
Though the Dreamcast launch had been successful , Sony still held 60 percent of the overall video game market share in North America with the PlayStation at the end of 1999 . On March 2 , 1999 , in what one report called a " highly publicized , vaporware @-@ like announcement " Sony revealed the first details of its " next generation PlayStation " , which Ken Kutaragi claimed would allow video games to convey unprecedented emotions . The center of Sony 's marketing plan and the upcoming PlayStation 2 itself was a new CPU ( clocked at 294 MHz ) jointly developed by Sony and Toshiba — the " Emotion Engine " — which Kutaragi announced would feature a graphics processor with 1 @,@ 000 times more bandwidth than contemporary PC graphics processors and a floating @-@ point calculation performance of 6 @.@ 2 gigaflops per second , rivaling most supercomputers . Sony , which invested $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in two large @-@ scale integration semiconductor fabrication plants to manufacture the PlayStation 2 's " Emotion Engine " and " Graphics Synthesizer " , designed the machine to push more raw polygons than any video game console in history . Sony claimed the PlayStation 2 could render 75 million raw polygons per second with absolutely no effects , and 38 million without accounting for features such as textures , artificial intelligence , or physics . Even with such effects , Sony estimated the PlayStation 2 could render 16 million polygons per second , whereas independent estimates ranged from 3 million to 20 million , compared to the Dreamcast 's roughly 3 million . The system would also utilize the DVD @-@ ROM format , which could hold substantially more data than the Dreamcast 's GD @-@ ROM format . Because it could connect to the Internet while playing movies , music , and video games , Sony hyped PlayStation 2 as the future of home entertainment . Rumors spread that the PlayStation 2 was a supercomputer capable of guiding missiles and displaying Toy Story @-@ quality graphics , while Kutaragi boasted its online capabilities would give consumers the ability to " jack into ' The Matrix ' ! " In addition , Sony emphasized that the PlayStation 2 would be backwards compatible with hundreds of popular PlayStation games . Sony 's specifications appeared to render the Dreamcast obsolete months before its U.S. launch , although reports later emerged that the PlayStation 2 was not as powerful as expected and distinctly difficult to program games for . The same year , Nintendo announced that its next generation console would meet or exceed anything on the market , and Microsoft began development of its own console .
Sega 's initial momentum proved fleeting as U.S. Dreamcast sales — which exceeded 1 @.@ 5 million by the end of 1999 — began to decline as early as January 2000 . Poor Japanese sales contributed to Sega 's ¥ 42 @.@ 88 billion ( $ 404 million ) consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 2000 , which followed a similar loss of ¥ 42 @.@ 881 billion the previous year and marked Sega 's third consecutive annual loss . Although Sega 's overall sales for the term increased 27 @.@ 4 % , and Dreamcast sales in North America and Europe greatly exceeded the company 's expectations , this increase in sales coincided with a decrease in profitability due to the investments required to launch the Dreamcast in Western markets and poor software sales in Japan . At the same time , increasingly poor market conditions reduced the profitability of Sega 's Japanese arcade business , prompting the company to close 246 locations . Knowing that " they have to fish where the fish are biting " , Sega of America president Peter Moore ( who assumed his position after Stolar had been fired ) and Sega of Japan 's developers focused on the U.S. market to prepare for the upcoming launch of the PS2 . To that end , Sega of America launched its own Internet service provider , Sega.com , led by CEO Brad Huang . On September 7 , 2000 Sega.com launched SegaNet , the Dreamcast 's Internet gaming service , at a subscription price of $ 21 @.@ 95 per month . Although Sega had previously released only one Dreamcast title in the U.S. that featured online multiplayer ( ChuChu Rocket ! , a puzzle game developed by Sonic Team ) , the launch of SegaNet ( which allowed users to chat , send email , and surf the web ) combined with NFL 2K1 ( a football game including a robust online component ) was intended to increase demand for the Dreamcast in the U.S. market . The service would later support games including Bomberman Online , Phantasy Star Online , Quake III Arena , and Unreal Tournament . The September 7 launch coincided with a new advertising campaign to promote SegaNet , including via the MTV Video Music Awards of the same day , which Sega sponsored for the second consecutive year . Sega employed aggressive pricing strategies with relation to online gaming . In Japan , every Dreamcast sold included a free year of Internet access , which Okawa personally paid for . Prior to the launch of SegaNet , Sega had already offered a $ 200 rebate to any Dreamcast owner who purchased two years of Internet access from Sega.com. To increase SegaNet 's appeal in the U.S. , Sega dropped the price of the Dreamcast to $ 149 ( compared to the PS2 's U.S. launch price of $ 299 ) and offered a rebate for the full $ 149 price of a Dreamcast ( and a free Dreamcast keyboard ) with every 18 @-@ month SegaNet subscription .
Moore stated that the Dreamcast would need to sell 5 million units in the U.S. by the end of 2000 in order to remain a viable platform , but Sega ultimately fell short of this goal with some 3 million units sold . Moreover , Sega 's attempts to spur increased Dreamcast sales through lower prices and cash rebates caused escalating financial losses . Instead of an expected profit , for the six months ending September 2000 Sega posted a ¥ 17 @.@ 98 billion ( $ 163 @.@ 11 million ) loss , with the company projecting a year @-@ end loss of ¥ 23 @.@ 6 billion . This estimate was more than doubled to ¥ 58 @.@ 3 billion , and in March 2001 Sega posted a consolidated net loss of ¥ 51 @.@ 7 billion ( $ 417 @.@ 5 million ) . While the PS2 's October 26 U.S. launch was marred by shortages — with only 500 @,@ 000 of a planned 1 million units shipped due to a manufacturing glitch — this did not benefit the Dreamcast as much as expected , as many disappointed consumers continued to wait for a PS2 — while the PSone , a remodeled version of the original PlayStation , was the best @-@ selling console in the U.S. at the start of the 2000 holiday season . According to Moore , " the PlayStation 2 effect that we were relying upon did not work for us ... people will hang on for as long as possible ... What effectively happened is the PlayStation 2 lack of availability froze the marketplace " . Eventually , Sony and Nintendo held 50 and 35 percent of the US video game market , respectively , while Sega held only 15 percent . According to Bellfield , Dreamcast software sold at an 8 @-@ to @-@ 1 ratio with the hardware , but this ratio " on a small install base didn 't give us the revenue ... to keep this platform viable in the medium to long term . "
= = = Decline = = =
On May 22 , 2000 Okawa replaced Iramajiri as president of Sega . Okawa had long openly advocated that Sega abandon the console business . His sentiments were not unique ; Sega co @-@ founder David Rosen had " always felt it was a bit of a folly for them to be limiting their potential to Sega hardware " , and Stolar had previously suggested that Sega should have sold their company to Microsoft . In September 2000 , in a meeting with Sega 's Japanese executives and the heads of the company 's major Japanese game development studios , Moore and Bellfield recommended that Sega abandon its console business and focus solely on software — prompting the studio heads to walk out . Nevertheless , on January 31 , 2001 Sega announced the discontinuation of the Dreamcast after March 31 and the restructuring of the company as a " platform @-@ agnostic " third @-@ party developer . The decision was Moore 's . Sega also announced a Dreamcast price reduction to $ 99 to eliminate its unsold inventory , which was estimated at 930 @,@ 000 units as of April 2001 . After a further reduction to $ 79 , the Dreamcast was cleared out of stores at $ 49 @.@ 95 . The final Dreamcast unit to be manufactured was autographed by the heads of all nine of Sega 's internal game development studios as well as the heads of Visual Concepts and Wave Master and given away with 55 first @-@ party Dreamcast games through a competition organized by GamePro magazine . Okawa , who had previously loaned Sega $ 500 million in the summer of 1999 , died on March 16 , 2001 ; shortly before his death , he forgave Sega 's debts to him and returned his $ 695 million worth of Sega and CSK stock , helping the company survive the third @-@ party transition . As part of this restructuring , nearly one @-@ third of Sega 's Tokyo workforce was laid off in 2001 .
9 @.@ 13 million Dreamcast units were sold worldwide . After the Dreamcast 's discontinuation , commercial games were still developed and released for the system , particularly in Japan . In the United States , game sales continued until the end of the first half of 2002 . Sega of Japan continued to repair Dreamcast units until 2007 . As of 2014 , the console is still supported through various MIL @-@ CD independent releases . After five consecutive years of financial losses , Sega finally posted a profit for the fiscal year ending March 2003 .
Reasons cited for the failure of the Dreamcast include hype for the PS2 ; a lack of support from EA and Squaresoft , considered the most popular third @-@ parties in the U.S. and Japan respectively ; disagreement among Sega executives over the company 's future , and Okawa 's lack of commitment to the product ; Sega 's lack of advertising money , with Bellfield doubting that Sega spent even " half " the $ 100 million it had pledged to promote the Dreamcast in the U.S. ; that the market was not yet ready for online gaming ; Sega 's focus on " hardcore " gamers over the mainstream consumer ; and poor timing . Perhaps the most frequently cited reason is the damage to Sega 's reputation caused by several previous poorly supported Sega platforms . Writing for GamePro , Blake Snow stated that " The much beloved console launched years ahead of the competition but ultimately struggled to shed the negative reputation [ Sega ] had gained during the Saturn , Sega 32X , and Sega CD days . As a result , casual gamers and jaded third @-@ party developers doubted Sega 's ability to deliver . " Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead noted that the " wait and see " approach of consumers and the lack of support from EA were symptoms rather the cause of Sega 's decline , concluding " Sega 's misadventures during the 1990s had left both gamers and publishers wary of any new platform bearing its name . " According to 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish , " While it would be easy to point an accusatory finger at Sony and blame them for killing the Dreamcast by overselling the PS2 ... there 's a certain level of intellectual dishonesty in such a stance ... [ Sega ] ' s poor U.S. support for hardware like the Sega CD , the 32X , and the Saturn made gamers gun shy . Many consumers felt burned after investing in expensive Sega machines and finding the resulting libraries comparatively lacking " .
The announcement of Sega 's third @-@ party transition was met with widespread enthusiasm . According to IGN 's Travis Fahs , " Sega was a creatively fertile company with a rapidly expanding stable of properties to draw from . It seemed like they were in a perfect position to start a new life as a developer / publisher . " Former Working Designs president Victor Ireland wrote that " It 's actually a good thing ... because now Sega will survive , doing what they do best : software . " The staff of Newsweek remarked " From Sonic to Shenmue , Sega 's programmers have produced some of the most engaging experiences in the history of interactive media ... Unshackled by a struggling console platform , this platoon of world @-@ class software developers can do what they do best for any machine on the market " . Rosen predicted " they have the potential to catch Electronic Arts " . Game Informer , commenting on Sega 's tendency to produce under @-@ appreciated cult classics , stated : " Let us rejoice in the fact that Sega is making games equally among the current console crop , so that history will not repeat itself . "
= = Technical specifications = =
= = = Hardware = = =
Physically , the Dreamcast measures 190 mm × 195 @.@ 8 mm × 75 @.@ 5 mm ( 7 @.@ 48 in × 7 @.@ 71 in × 2 @.@ 97 in ) and weighs 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) . The Dreamcast 's main CPU is a two @-@ way 360 MIPS superscalar Hitachi SH @-@ 4 32 @-@ bit RISC clocked at 200 MHz with an 8 Kbyte instruction cache and 16 Kbyte data cache and a 128 @-@ bit graphics @-@ oriented floating @-@ point unit delivering 1 @.@ 4 GFLOPS . Its 100 MHz NEC PowerVR2 rendering engine , integrated with the system 's ASIC , is capable of drawing more than 3 million polygons per second and of deferred shading . Sega estimated that the Dreamcast was theoretically capable of rendering 6 – 7 million raw polygons per second , with the higher figure excluding textures and lighting , but the company conceded " game logic and physics reduce peak graphic performance . " Graphics hardware effects include trilinear filtering , gouraud shading , z @-@ buffering , spatial anti @-@ aliasing , per @-@ pixel translucency sorting and bump mapping . The system can output approximately 16 @.@ 77 million colors simultaneously and displays interlaced or progressive scan video at 640 × 480 video resolution . Its 67 MHz Yamaha AICA sound processor , with a 32 @-@ bit ARM7 RISC CPU core , can generate 64 voices with PCM or ADPCM , providing ten times the performance of the Saturn 's sound system . The Dreamcast has 16 MB main RAM , along with an additional 8 MB of RAM for graphic textures and 2 MB of RAM for sound . The system reads media using a 12x speed Yamaha GD @-@ ROM Drive . In addition to Windows CE , the Dreamcast supports several Sega and middleware application programming interfaces . In most regions , the Dreamcast included a removable modem for online connectivity , which was modular for future upgrades . The original Japanese model and all PAL models had a transfer rate of 33 @.@ 6 kbit / s , while consoles sold in the US and in Japan after September 9 , 1999 featured a 56 kbit / s dial @-@ up modem .
= = = Models = = =
Sega constructed numerous Dreamcast models , most of which were exclusive to Japan . A refurbished Dreamcast known as the R7 was originally used as a network console in Japanese pachinko parlors . Another model , the Divers 2000 CX @-@ 1 , possesses a shape similar to Sonic 's head and includes a television and software for teleconferencing . A Hello Kitty version , limited to 2000 units produced , was targeted at Japanese female gamers . Special editions were created for Seaman and Resident Evil Code : Veronica . Color variations were sold through a service called " Dreamcast Direct " in Japan . Toyota also offered special edition Dreamcast units at 160 of its dealers in Japan . In North America , a limited edition black Dreamcast was released with a Sega Sports logo on the lid , which included matching Sega Sports @-@ branded black controllers and two games .
= = = Accessories = = =
The Dreamcast controller includes both an analog stick and a digital pad , four action buttons , and two analog triggers . The system has four ports for controller inputs , although it was bundled with only one controller . The design of the Dreamcast 's controller , described by the staff of Edge as " an ugly evolution of Saturn 's 3D controller , " was called " [ not ] that great " by 1UP.com 's Sam Kennedy and " lame " by Game Informer 's Andy McNamara . The staff of IGN wrote that " unlike most controllers , Sega 's pad forces the user 's hands into an uncomfortable parallel position . " In contrast to the Sega CD and Sega Saturn , which included internal backup memory , the Dreamcast uses a 128 kbyte memory card called the VMU ( or " Visual Memory Unit " ) for data storage . The VMU features a small LCD screen , audio output from a one @-@ channel PWM sound source , non @-@ volatile memory , a directional pad , and four buttons . The VMU can present game information , be used as a minimal handheld gaming device , and connect to certain Sega arcade machines . For example , players use the VMU to call plays in NFL 2K or raise virtual pets in Sonic Adventure . Sega officials noted that the VMU could be used " as a private viewing area , the absence of which has prevented effective implementation of many types of games in the past . " After a VMU slot was incorporated into the controller 's design , Sega 's engineers found many additional uses for it , so a second slot was added . This slot was generally used for vibration packs providing force feedback like Sega 's " Jump Pack " and Performance 's " Tremor Pack " , although it could also be used for other peripherals including a microphone enabling voice control and player communication . Various third @-@ party cards provide storage , and some contain the LCD screen addition . Iomega announced a Dreamcast @-@ compatible zip drive that could store up to 100 MB of data on removable discs , but it was never released .
Various third @-@ party controllers from companies like Mad Catz include additional buttons and other extra features ; third @-@ parties also manufactured arcade @-@ style joysticks for fighting games , such as Agetech 's Arcade Stick and Interact 's Alloy Arcade Stick . Mad Catz and Agetec created racing wheels for racing games . Sega decided against releasing its official light gun in the U.S. , but some third party light guns were available . The Dreamcast supports a Sega fishing " reel and rod " motion controller and a keyboard for text entry . Although it was designed for fishing games such as Sega Bass Fishing , Soul Calibur was playable with the fishing controller , which translated vertical and horizontal movements into on @-@ screen swordplay in a manner that was retroactively cited as a predecessor to the Wii Remote . The Japanese Dreamcast port of Sega 's Cyber Troopers Virtual @-@ On Oratorio Tangram supported a " Twin Sticks " peripheral , but the game 's American publisher , Activision , opted not to release it in the U.S. The Dreamcast could connect to SNK 's Neo Geo Pocket Color , predating Nintendo 's GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable . Sega also produced the Dreameye , a digital camera that could be connected to the Dreamcast and used to exchange pictures and participate in video chat over the system 's Internet connection . Sega hoped developers would use the Dreameye for future software , as they later did with Sony 's similar EyeToy peripheral . In addition , Sega investigated systems that would have allowed users to make telephone calls with the Dreamcast , and discussed with Motorola the development of an Internet @-@ enabled cell phone that would have used technology from the console to enable quick downloads of games and other data .
The console can supply video through several different accessories . The console came with A / V cables , considered at the time to be the standard for video and audio connectivity . Sega and various third parties also manufactured RF modulator connectors and S @-@ Video cables . A VGA adapter allows Dreamcast games to be played on computer displays or Enhanced @-@ definition television sets in 480p .
= = Game library = =
Before the launch of the Dreamcast in Japan , Sega announced the release of its New Arcade Operation Machine Idea ( NAOMI ) arcade board , which served as a cheaper alternative to the Sega Model 3 . NAOMI shared the same technology as the Dreamcast — albeit with twice as much system , video , and audio memory and an 160 Mbyte flash ROM board in place of a GD @-@ ROM drive — allowing nearly identical home conversions of arcade games . Games were ported from NAOMI to the Dreamcast by several leading Japanese arcade companies , including Capcom ( Marvel vs. Capcom 2 and Project Justice ) , Tecmo ( Dead or Alive 2 ) , Treasure ( Ikaruga ) , and Sega itself ( F355 Challenge and Crazy Taxi ) .
In what has been called " a brief moment of remarkable creativity " , in 2000 Sega restructured its arcade and console development teams into nine semi @-@ autonomous studios headed by the company 's top designers . Studios included United Game Artists ( UGA ) ( headed by former Sega Rally Championship producer Tetsuya Mizuguchi ) , Hitmaker ( headed by Crazy Taxi creator and future Sega president Hisao Oguchi ) , Smilebit ( headed by Shun Arai and including many former Panzer Dragoon and future Yakuza developers from Team Andromeda ) , Overworks ( headed by Noriyoshi Oba and composed of developers from Sega franchises including Sakura Wars , Shinobi and Streets of Rage ) , Sega AM2 ( Sega 's most famous arcade studio and the developer of Sega 's Virtua Fighter fighting game series , headed by the company 's top developer , Yu Suzuki ) , and Sonic Team ( the developer of Sega 's flagship series , Sonic the Hedgehog , headed by Yuji Naka ) . Sega 's design houses were encouraged to experiment and benefited from a relatively lax approval process , resulting in titles such as Rez ( an attempt to simulate synaesthesia in the form of a rail shooter ) , The Typing of the Dead ( a version of The House of the Dead 2 remade into a touch typing trainer ) , Seaman ( a pet simulator in which players use a microphone to interact with a grotesque humanoid fish whose growth is narrated by Leonard Nimoy ) , and Segagaga ( a Japan @-@ exclusive role @-@ playing @-@ game employing commentary on the perceived over @-@ abundance of sequels produced by the video game industry , in which players are tasked with preventing Sega from going out of business ) . Sega also revived franchises from the Genesis era , such as Ecco the Dolphin . Sega 's internal studios were consolidated starting in 2003 , with Mizuguchi leaving the company following the merger of UGA with Sonic Team .
UGA created the music game Space Channel 5 , in which players help a female outer space news reporter named Ulala fight aliens with " groove energy " by dancing . Intended for a " female casual " audience , Space Channel 5 is considered one of Sega 's " most daring and beloved " original properties , combining a " defiantly retro " and " uplifting " soundtrack with " dazzling " and " colorful " visual presentation — despite " a lack of real gameplay substance . " Neither Space Channel 5 nor UGA 's Rez were commercially successful , and the latter title was only available in the U.S. market through a PS2 port released in limited quantities . Hitmaker 's arcade ports included Crazy Taxi — an open world arcade racing game known for its addictive gameplay , which sold over one million copies and has been frequently cited as one of the best Dreamcast games — and Virtua Tennis — which revitalized the tennis game genre with a simple two @-@ button control scheme and use of minigames to test the player 's technique . Smilebit 's Jet Set Radio — in which players control a Tokyo @-@ based gang of youthful , rebellious inline skaters called the " GGs " , who use graffiti to claim territory from rival gangs while evading an oppressive police force — has been cited as a major example of Sega 's commitment to original game concepts during the Dreamcast 's lifespan . Lauded for composer Hideki Naganuma 's " punchy , psychedelic " soundtrack incorporating elements of " J @-@ pop and electro @-@ funk " as well as its message of " self @-@ expression and non @-@ violent dissent " , the game also popularized cel shaded graphics . Despite wide praise for its style , some criticized Jet Set Radio 's gameplay as mediocre , and it failed to meet Sega 's sales expectations . Produced by Rieko Kodama , the Overworks @-@ developed traditional role @-@ playing game Skies of Arcadia was acclaimed for its surreal Jules Verne @-@ inspired fantasy world of floating islands and sky pirates , charming protagonists , unique emphasis on the environmental properties of weapons , exciting airship battles , and memorable plot ( including a sequence viewed from multiple perspectives ) .
AM2 developed what Sega hoped would be the Dreamcast 's killer app , Shenmue , a " revenge epic in the tradition of Chinese cinema . " The action @-@ adventure title involved the quest of protagonist Ryo Hazuki to avenge his father 's murder , but its main selling point was its rendition of the Japanese city of Yokosuka , which included a level of detail considered unprecedented for a video game . Incorporating a simulated day / night cycle with variable weather , non @-@ player characters with regular schedules , and the ability to pick up and examine detailed objects ( also introducing the Quick @-@ time event in its modern form ) , Shenmue went over budget and was rumored to have cost Sega over $ 50 million . Originally planned as the first installment in an 11 @-@ part saga , Shenmue was eventually downsized to a trilogy — and only one sequel was ever released . While Shenmue was lauded for its innovation , visuals and music , its critical reception was mixed ; points of criticism included " invisible walls " which limited the player 's sense of freedom , boredom caused by the inability to progress without waiting for events scheduled to occur at specific times , excessive in @-@ game cutscenes and a lack of challenge . According to Moore , Shenmue sold " extremely well " , but the game had no chance of making a profit due to the Dreamcast 's limited installed base . Shenmue II " was completed for a much more reasonable sum " , while Sato defended Shenmue as an " investment [ which ] will someday be recouped " because " the development advances we learned ... can be applied to other games " . In addition to the mixed reception for Shenmue , IGN 's Travis Fahs stated that " the [ Dreamcast ] era wasn 't as kind to [ AM2 ] as earlier years " — citing ( among others ) F355 Challenge as an " acclaimed " arcade title that " didn 't do much at home " , and Genki 's port of Virtua Fighter 3 as inferior to the arcade version , " which was already a couple years old and never as popular as its predecessors . " The Virtua Fighter series would experience a " tremendous comeback " with the universally acclaimed Virtua Fighter 4 — which saw a console release exclusively on PS2 .
As the first fully 3D platforming game starring Sega 's mascot , Sonic the Hedgehog , Sonic Team 's Sonic Adventure was considered " the centerpiece of the [ Dreamcast ] launch " . Adventure garnered criticism for technical problems including erratic camera angles and glitches , but was praised for its " luscious " visuals , " vast , twisting environments " and iconic set pieces — including
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a segment in which Sonic runs down the side of a skyscraper — and has been described as the Sonic series ' creative apex . However , it failed " to catch on with players in nearly the way that [ Nintendo 's ] Mario 64 had done " , perhaps due to a perceived lack of gameplay depth . Distinguished by its innovative use of multiple storylines with varied forms of play , Adventure sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies , making it the Dreamcast 's best @-@ selling title . Sonic Team also developed the Dreamcast 's first online game — ChuChu Rocket ! — which was widely complimented for its addictive puzzle gameplay and " frantic " multiplayer matches , and the critically successful music game Samba de Amigo , which was noted for its expensive maracas peripheral and colorful aesthetic . Perhaps the most influential of Sonic Team 's Dreamcast releases was Phantasy Star Online , the first online console RPG . Developed after Okawa requested an online game from Sonic Team , PSO was heavily influenced by the PC action RPG Diablo , but refined and simplified its style of gameplay to appeal to console audiences .
In sports , Visual Concepts ' NFL 2K football series and its NBA 2K basketball series were critically acclaimed . NFL 2K was considered an outstanding launch game for its high @-@ quality visuals and " insightful , context @-@ friendly , and , yes , even funny commentary " , while NFL 2K1 featured groundbreaking online multiplayer earlier than its chief competitor , EA 's Madden NFL series . Madden and 2K continued to compete on other platforms through 2004 — with the 2K series introducing innovations such as a first person perspective new to the genre , and eventually launching ESPN NFL 2K5 at the aggressively low price point of $ 19 @.@ 95 — until EA signed an exclusive agreement with the National Football League , " effectively putting every other pro @-@ football game out of business . " After Sega sold Visual Concepts for $ 24 million in 2005 , the NBA 2K series continued with publisher Take @-@ Two Interactive . During the Dreamcast 's lifespan , Visual Concepts also collaborated with Sonic the Hedgehog level designer Hirokazu Yasuhara on the action @-@ adventure game Floigan Bros. and developed the critically successful action game Ooga Booga .
To appeal to the European market , Sega formed a French affiliate called No Cliché , which developed titles such as Toy Commander . Sega Europe also approached Bizarre Creations to develop the critically successful racing game Metropolis Street Racer , which featured detailed recreations of London , Tokyo , and San Francisco — complete with consistent time zones and fictional radio stations — and 262 individual race tracks .
Although Acclaim , SNK , Ubisoft , Midway , Activision , Infogrames , and Capcom supported the system during its first year , third @-@ party developer support proved difficult to obtain due to the failure of the Sega Saturn and the profitability of publishing for the PlayStation . Namco 's Soul Calibur , for example , was released for the Dreamcast because of the relative unpopularity of the Soul series at the time ; Namco 's more successful Tekken franchise was associated with the PlayStation console and PlayStation @-@ based arcade boards . Nevertheless , Soul Calibur received overwhelming critical acclaim and has been frequently described as one of the best games for the system . Capcom produced a number of fighting games for the system , including the Power Stone series , in addition to a temporary exclusive in the popular Resident Evil series called Resident Evil Code : Veronica . The Dreamcast is also known for several shoot ' em ups , most notably Treasure 's Bangai @-@ O and Ikaruga .
In January 2000 , three months after the system 's North American launch , Electronic Gaming Monthly offered praise for the game library , stating , " ... with triple @-@ A stuff like Soul Calibur , NBA 2K , and soon Crazy Taxi to kick around , we figure you 're happy you took the 128 @-@ bit plunge . " In a retrospective , PC Magazine 's Jeffrey L. Wilson referred to Dreamcast 's " killer library " and emphasized Sega 's creative influence and visual innovation as being at its peak during the lifetime of the system . The staff of Edge agreed with this assessment on Dreamcast 's original titles , as well as Sega 's arcade conversions , stating that the system " delivered the first games that could meaningfully be described as arcade perfect . " GamePro writer Blake Snow referred to the library as being " much celebrated " . Damien McFerran of Retro Gamer praised Dreamcast 's NAOMI arcade ports , opining " The thrill of playing Crazy Taxi in the arcade knowing full well that a pixel @-@ perfect conversion ( and not some cut @-@ down port ) was set to arrive on the Dreamcast is an experience gamers are unlikely to witness again . " Nick Montfort and Mia Consalvo , writing in Loading ... The Journal of the Canadian Game Studies Association , argued that " the Dreamcast hosted a remarkable amount of videogame development that went beyond the odd and unusual and is interesting when considered as avant @-@ garde ... it is hard to imagine a commercial console game expressing strong resistance to the commodity perspective and to the view that game production is commerce . But even when it comes to resisting commercialization , it is arguable that Dreamcast games came closer to expressing this attitude than any other console games have . " 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish favorably compared Sega 's Dreamcast output , which included some of " the most varied , creative , and fun [ games ] the company had ever produced " , with its " enervated " status as a third @-@ party . Fahs noted " The Dreamcast 's life was fleeting , but it was saturated with memorable titles , most of which were completely new properties . " According to author Steven L. Kent , " From Sonic Adventure and Shenmue to Space Channel 5 and Seaman , Dreamcast delivered and delivered and delivered . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
In December 1999 , Next Generation rated the Dreamcast 4 out of 5 stars and stated , " If you want the most powerful system available now , showcasing the best graphics at a reasonable price , this system is for you . " However , Next Generation rated the Dreamcast 's future prognosis as 3 stars out of 5 in the same article , noting that Sony would ship a superior hardware product in the PlayStation 2 in the next year , and that Nintendo had said it would do the same with the GameCube . At the beginning of 2000 , Electronic Gaming Monthly had five reviewers score the Dreamcast 8 @.@ 5 , 8 @.@ 5 , 8 @.@ 5 , 8 @.@ 0 , and 9 @.@ 0 out of 10 points . By 2001 , the reviewers for Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the Dreamcast scores of 9 @.@ 0 , 9 @.@ 0 , 9 @.@ 0 , 9 @.@ 0 , and 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 . BusinessWeek recognized the Sega Dreamcast as one of the best products of 1999 .
In 2009 , IGN named the Dreamcast the 8th greatest video game console of all time , giving credit to the innovations and software for the system . According to IGN , " The Dreamcast was the first console to incorporate a built @-@ in modem for online play , and while the networking lacked the polish and refinement of its successors , it was the first time users could seamlessly power on and play with users around the globe . " In 2010 , PC Magazine 's Jeffrey L. Wilson named the Dreamcast the greatest video game console , emphasizing that the system was " gone too soon " . In 2013 , Edge named the Dreamcast the 10th best console of the last 20 years , highlighting innovations that it added to console video gaming , including in @-@ game voice chat , downloadable content , and second screen technology through the use of VMUs . Edge explained the system 's poor performance by stating , " Sega 's console was undoubtedly ahead of its time , and it suffered at retail for that reason ... [ b ] ut its influence can still be felt today . " Writing in 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die , Duncan Harris noted " One of the reasons that older gamers mourned the loss of the Dreamcast was that it signaled the demise of arcade gaming culture ... Sega 's console gave hope that things were not about to change for the worse and that the tenets of fast fun and bright , attractive graphics were not about to sink into a brown and green bog of realistic war games . " Parish , writing for USgamer , contrasted the Dreamcast 's diverse library with the " suffocating sense of conservatism " that pervaded the gaming industry in the following decade . Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer , discussing the Dreamcast 's portrayal " as a small , square , white plastic JFK " , commented that the system 's short lifespan " may have sealed its reputation as one of the greatest consoles ever " : " Nothing builds a cult like a tragic demise " . According to IGN 's Travis Fahs , " Many hardware manufacturers have come and gone , but it 's unlikely any will go out with half as much class as Sega . "
= St Caian 's Church , Tregaian =
St Caian 's Church , Tregaian , also known as St Caean 's Church , Tregaean , is a small medieval church dating from the 14th century in Anglesey , north Wales . It is dedicated to St Caian , a Christian from the 5th or 6th century about whom little is known . The building contains a late 14th @-@ century east window and a late 15th @-@ century doorway . The churchyard contains the grave of William ap Howel , who died in 1581 at the age of 105 , leaving over forty children between the ages of 8 and 89 and over three hundred living descendants .
The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , and is one of three churches in a combined parish . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , in particular because it is regarded as " an excellent late Medieval rural church " .
= = History and location = =
The date of construction of the first Christian building on this site is unknown . The church is dedicated to St Caian , a Christian from the 5th or 6th century , about whom little is known . One manuscript says that his father was St Caw , a king in northern Britain who lost his lands and sought safety in Anglesey , where the ruler Maelgwn Gwynedd gave him land in the north @-@ east of the island , the district known as Twrcelyn . If Caian was a son of St Caw , then his sisters included St Cwyllog , who established the nearby church of St Cwyllog , Llangwyllog , in the 6th century . Other manuscripts say that he was active in the 5th century and was a son or grandson of Brychan , a king from south Wales .
Caian gives his name to the hamlet of Tregaian in which the church is situated : the Welsh word tref ( shortened here to tre ) means " settlement " , and " ‑ gaian " is a modified form of the saint 's name – i.e. " Caian 's settlement " . Tregaian is about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) north of Llangefni , the county town of Anglesey , and the church is in the countryside by a small road .
The present church is medieval , dating from the latter part of the 14th century , which is the period given to the east window . The doorway is from the late 15th century , the roof from the end of the 16th or beginning of the 17th century , and the nave windows and the panelling of the pulpit are from the 17th century . It is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , as one of three churches in the combined benefice of Llangefni with Tregaean with Llanddyfnan ( Talwrn ) . It is within the deanery of Malltraeth , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2013 , the priest in charge of the parish is the Reverend J Ashley @-@ Roberts .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The church is built from rubble masonry . The roof , which is made from slate , has a stone bellcote at the west end . Entrance is through the doorway on the south side , from the late 15th century ; it has decorated surrounds and a square frame . There is no structural division between the nave ( where the congregation sit ) and the chancel ( where the altar is located ) apart from a single step up into the chancel . The church is about 40 feet 6 inches ( 12 @.@ 3 m ) long by 14 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) wide . The east window , from the late 14th century , is set in a pointed arch with decorative edging . It has stained glass from 1916 depicting Christ crowning a knight with the words " Well done thou good and faithful servant / Take unto you the whole armour of God . " There are two pairs of square @-@ headed windows in the south wall , dating from the 17th century . On the north side of the church , a second entrance was blocked up in the late 19th century , and there is one pair of square @-@ headed windows , also from the 17th century ; there is also a small window at the west end of the church , from the 17th or 18th century . The beams of the roof can be seen from inside the church . Behind the altar is a panelled reredos from the 19th century .
The church has a 12th @-@ century circular font , decorated with an irregular pattern of chevrons on the side . The bell is dated 1717 , whilst the pews are from the 19th century . There are memorials tablets from the 18th , 19th and 20th centuries on the walls , some of which commemorate the Lloyd family from a nearby house , Plas Tregaian . A 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire noted a plain silver cup dated 1714 – 15 . The churchyard contains the grave of William ap Howel , who died at the age of 105 in 1581 . Married three times , he fathered 42 or 43 children in and out of wedlock , and more than 300 of his descendants attended his funeral . His children at his death ranged in age from 8 to 89 .
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 , and has been listed because it is " an excellent late Medieval rural church " . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also states that it " retains a strong simple character in the retention of many early features and its original plan , with structurally undivided nave and chancel . "
The 19th @-@ century antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church as " a small but neat edifice " , and noted the " handsome " east window . The 19th @-@ century writer Samuel Lewis said that the church was " simple and primitive in its construction " . Writing in 1847 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that the font was " remarkable " for having no drain , and was " hardly large enough for immersion . " He added that the east window was of " rather singular " design .
A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey notes the " unusually wide " east window . A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region says that the church " gives an impression of what the Anglesey parish churches were like before so many were reassembled in the 19th century " – partly because the walls lean , it adds . The east window has also been compared to that of St Ceidio 's Church , Rhodogeidio , also on Anglesey .
= Mirabito Outdoor Classic =
The Mirabito Outdoor Classic , also known as the 2010 AHL Outdoor Classic , was an outdoor ice hockey game played in 2010 between the Syracuse Crunch and Binghamton Senators of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . It was the first outdoor game in the history of the AHL as well as the first outdoor minor league hockey game . Syracuse won the game 2 – 1 with the help of goaltender Kevin Lalande , who stopped 36 of the 37 Binghamton shots , and Alexandre Picard , who scored the first outdoor goal in AHL history . The game was played in front of a then AHL record crowd of 21 @,@ 508 , on a rink constructed at the New York State Fairgrounds on a dirt auto racing track .
Crunch owner , Howard Dolgon , pursued the ideal of having his team in an outdoor game , but unlike the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) Winter Classic the Crunch were responsible for funding the entire event . In order to afford the cost of hosting an outdoor game sponsorship deals with several independent organizations were made including Mirabito Energy Products , which lent its name to the title of the event . In part because of his success in putting on the event , Dolgon was awarded the James C. Hendy Memorial Award as the AHL 's outstanding executive . Following the success of the Mirabito Outdoor Classic other AHL Outdoor Classics were held by other AHL teams .
= = Background = =
= = = Planning = = =
In late November 2009 Syracuse Crunch owner , Howard Dolgon began attempts to have an American Hockey League ( AHL ) outdoor game for his franchise . Cost estimates for hosting the game were close to $ 1 million . Unlike the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) Winter Classic , the league did not run the event , meaning the Crunch had to finance the entire project . The high cost of hosting was a reason for other franchises not pursuing outdoor games prior .
Dolgon originally wanted the game to be played at Alliance Bank Stadium in Syracuse and asked the Onondaga County Legislature to help fund the game . A proposal for the county to put in $ 350 @,@ 000 was voted down by a 16 – 2 margin . After the proposal was denied , Dolgon thought the project was dead , then he received a phone call from United States Senator Charles Schumer encouraging him to go forward with the game . Schumer later stated his encouragement stemmed from the opportunity for the event to be " a national event focused on Upstate and Central New York " .
With the game plans moving forward , Dolgon managed to recruit corporate sponsors to help alleviate the cost . The Crunch received $ 350 @,@ 000 from several sponsors , including Mirabito Energy Products which lent its name to the events title . Mirabito decided to sponsor the event because they were opening stores in the Central New York area and wanted to establish their brand name . New York Governor David Paterson secured a $ 75 @,@ 000 grant from the Empire State Development Corporation and helped the Crunch gain use of the New York State Fairgrounds free of charge . Even with the additional funding the Crunch still needed to pay upwards of $ 550 @,@ 000 .
= = = Rink = = =
The rink was built on the fairgrounds in front of a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ seat permanent grandstand on a dirt auto racing track and leveled with what was described as " tons of granite " . With demands for over the 15 @,@ 000 seats occupancy of the grandstands , the Crunch rented additional temporary bleachers . Since there was no scoreboards on or near the track Syracuse rented two large video screens to show the score , time remaining , penalty times , and other information . The installation of the temporary rink cost an estimated $ 400 @,@ 000 and took a month and a half to complete .
= = = Associated events = = =
As plans moved forward the decision was made not just to play the game but make it an event celebrating New York hockey history . For the game the Crunch played their intrastate rivals the Binghamton Senators . The days before the game local youth hockey teams played on the ice , and then the day after there was a pond hockey tournament played on the rink featuring 16 local teams . The fairgrounds also featured VIP tents , fan zones , bands , and ice sculpting for the celebration , as well as appearances by former players for New York 's various professional teams .
= = Game = =
The game was the first outdoor game in the 74 @-@ year history of the AHL and the first minor league hockey outdoor game . The attendance of 21 @,@ 508 set a new AHL record surpassing the old mark of 20 @,@ 672 set in 1997 at the Greensboro Coliseum . The record was later broken by subsequent Outdoor Classics . Prior to the game the 174th Fighter Wing of the New York Air National Guard performed a flyover , and recording artist Jessie James sang The Star @-@ Spangled Banner . For the ceremonial puck drop , a skydiver delivered a puck from the National Hockey League 's first foray into outdoor games from the 1991 Las Vegas exhibition game .
There was a slight delay in the start of the game as some of the glass needed to be fixed . Once the game was under way it took just 1 : 50 before the Crunch 's Jon Mirasty and the Senators ' Jeremy Yablonski engaged in the first fight in Outdoor Classic history . Mirasty had previously stated that he was going to be involved in the first outdoor fight . The physical play continued and minutes later at the 3 : 29 mark Paul Baier and Mike Radja were given matching roughing minor penalties . Not long after the matching minors Mike Blunden made a pass to Alexandre Picard to send him on a breakaway . Picard became the first player to score in an Outdoor Classic when he beat Senators ' goaltender Mike Brodeur putting the Crunch up 1 – 0 . The score remained the same at the end of a penalty @-@ filled first period . Eight total penalties were called on the two clubs through the first 20 minutes of the game .
Early in the second period the Crunch got another power play opportunity when Senators ' captain Drew Bannister took a hooking penalty . The man advantage did not benefit Syracuse as the Senators tied the game 1 – 1 when Martin St. Pierre found an open Josh Hennessy , who put the puck past Kevin Lalande for the shorthanded goal . Binghamton seemed to be gaining the advantage in the second period outshooting the Crunch 16 – 9 . But , with just 11 @.@ 7 seconds remaining in the period , Crunch defenseman David Liffiton scored the go @-@ ahead goal from the high slot . During the third period the score remained the same , when with just 1 : 30 left in the game Syracuse 's Kevin Harvey took an interference penalty giving the Senators a chance to tie the game on the power play . Binghamton was unable to score in the first minute of the power play and pulled Brodeur to give them the six on four advantage . Even with the two man advantage the Senators failed to post a second goal on Lalande , who stopped 36 of the 37 shots he faced during the game helping the Crunch to the 2 – 1 victory . His performance earned him the first Star of the Game . The game was a penalty @-@ filled affair with 26 infractions called on the two teams and a total of 18 power plays awarded . Neither team was able to capitalize on the opportunities , with Binghamton going 0 – 10 and Syracuse 0 – 8 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The event was considered a success not only did it set a new attendance record it also generated considerable exposure for both the Crunch and the AHL . The game was originally going to be aired just in New York by Time Warner Cable , but was picked up by the NHL Network for broadcast across Canada and the United States . The players and coaches appeared to enjoy the game as well . Crunch head coach Ross Yates stated , " it was unbelievable . It 's hard to describe " . Liffiton described the game as " a little taste of what it feels like to play college football " while Picard added , " I ’ ll do that every game for the rest of my life . " AHL President Dave Andrews further noted that it made him proud to be a part of the league .
Due in part to his success of putting on the event , Dolgon was awarded the James C. Hendy Memorial Award as the AHL 's outstanding executive . With the success of the Mirabito Outdoor Classic , multiple outdoor games have subsequently been held by AHL teams .
= = Team rosters = =
^ ‡ : Holt and LaCostat dressed as the back @-@ up goaltenders and did not enter the game .
= = = Coaches = = =
Binghamton :
Head coach : Don Nachbaur
Assistant coach : Mike BusniukSyracuse :
Head coach : Ross Yates
Assistant coach : Trent Cull
Assistant coach : Karl Goehring
= = = Officials = = =
Referee — Terry Koharski
Linesmen — Dan Murphy , Tim Kotyra
Source : AHL Box Score
= = Game summary = =
Scoring summary
Penalty summary
Three star selections
Source : AHL Box Score
= Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines =
Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines is a 2004 action role @-@ playing video game developed by Troika Games and released by Activision for Microsoft Windows . Set in White Wolf Publishing 's World of Darkness , the game is based on White Wolf 's role @-@ playing game Vampire : The Masquerade and follows either a male or female character who is killed and subsequently revived as a fledgling vampire . The game depicts the fledgling 's journey through 21st @-@ century Los Angeles to uncover the truth behind a recently discovered relic that heralds the end of all vampires .
Bloodlines is presented from first- and third @-@ person perspectives . The player assigns their character to one of several vampire clans — each with unique powers , customize their combat and dialog abilities and progress through Bloodlines with violent and nonviolent methods . The selection of clan affects how the player is perceived in the game world , and which powers and abilities they possess ; this opens up different avenues of exploration and methods of interacting with or manipulating other characters . The player is able to complete side missions away from the primary storyline by moving freely between the available hubs : Santa Monica , Hollywood , downtown Los Angeles , and Chinatown .
Troika 's 32 @-@ member team began development of Bloodlines in November 2001 , as an indirect sequel to the previous year 's Vampire : The Masquerade – Redemption . Troika used Valve Corporation 's Source game engine , then @-@ in @-@ development , which was being used for Valve 's own Half @-@ Life 2 . The game 's production was turbulent , as the design 's scope exceeded the available resources , and the team were left without a producer for nearly a year until Activision appointed David Mullich to the role , where he found designs and levels unfinished or abandoned . After three years in development with no end in sight and running over budget , Activision set a strict deadline for completion , and Bloodlines was released incomplete in November 2004 .
Released in competition with Half @-@ Life 2 and several other titles , Bloodlines sold fewer than 80 @,@ 000 copies during its initial release , which was considered a poor performance . It divided critics at the time ; although they praised the game 's writing and scale of choice , they criticized its technical flaws . It was Troika Games ' last production before its failure in early 2005 , when it was unable to secure additional projects . The game has a cult following as a rarely replicated example of gameplay and narrative , and contemporary criticism has recognised it as a flawed masterpiece . As of 2014 , Bloodlines had received ten years of post @-@ release support from its fans , who have supplied fixes and restored lost and deleted content .
= = Gameplay = =
Bloodlines is an action role @-@ playing video game optionally presented from the first- or third @-@ person perspective . Before the game begins , players create a male or female vampire character by selecting a vampire clan and configuring available points in three areas — Attributes , Abilities and Disciplines ( vampiric powers ) — or by answering questions , which create a character for the player . The player can select one of seven vampire clans : the powerful Brujah , the decadent Toreador , the insane Malkavian , the aristocratic Ventrue , the monstrously @-@ deformed Nosferatu , the blood @-@ magic wielding Tremere , or the animalistic Gangrel .
The player builds their character by spending acquired points to increase their ratings in the three areas . The points spent on Attributes and Abilities combine to determine a player 's success or effectiveness in performing tasks such as using firearms , brawling , and lock @-@ picking ; for example , determining how accurate or how far the player can shoot , or if they can hack a computer . Attributes are represent by physical ( strength , dexterity , and stamina ) , social ( charisma , manipulation , and appearance ) , and mental ( perception , intelligence , and wit ) . Abilities are talents ( such as brawling and dodging ) , skills ( such as firearms and melee ) and knowledge ( such as computers and investigation ) . The player is initially assigned points to spend in the three areas , with the amount they can spend determined by clan ; for example , the Brujah can spend the most points on physical and skill attributes . During character creation , each upgrade costs one point . The upgrade cost increases as the game progresses . Each ability can be raised from zero to five , and it is impossible to accrue enough experience points to complete every skill ( allowing the player to specialize or balance their character ) . Experience points are gained by completing quests , finding items or unlocking secret paths , rather than killing enemies , and are used to increase or unlock the character 's statistics and abilities . The game features a main story , and optional side quests that can be completed at any time ; the player is able to move between the available areas at will to revisit locations , characters , or merchants .
The player 's clan affects their skills and powers . Although the attractive Toreadors receive bonuses for seduction and persuasion , opening additional dialog options , they are physically weak ; the Nosferatu are forced to travel in the shadows or through sewers to avoid alerting humans , but receive bonuses to their intelligence and computer skills , which enables access to more information . The Malkavians have separate dialog options , reflecting their inherent insanity . Upgrading some skills provides additional dialog options ; attractive and charismatic characters seduce to get their way , aggressive characters threaten , and others persuade their targets to cooperate .
Firearms combat is first @-@ person , with character points assigned to the firearms skill determining the shot 's accuracy and how long it takes to target an opponent . Melee combat is third @-@ person , with access to weapons such as katanas and sledgehammers for melee combat , or pistols , crossbows and flamethrowers for firearm combat . If a player sneaks up on an opponent , they can perform an instant kill ; weapons provide unique instant kill animations . The player can block attacks manually or automatically , by leaving their character idle . They can use stealth in missions by sneaking past guards and security cameras , picking locks , and hacking computers to locate alternative routes .
Each clan has specific Disciplines , which can be used in combat and to create approaches to quests . Although some powers overlap clans , no two clans share the same three Disciplines . More physical vampires can enhance themselves to become fast and lethal killers or summon spirit allies to attack their foes ; others can mentally dominate their targets to force their cooperation or render themselves invisible to hide from detection ; and others can boil their opponent 's blood from afar . Some Disciplines , such as Auspex ( which boosts perception , highlighting other characters ' auras through obstacles ) and Blood Buff ( which temporarily upgrades strength , dexterity , stamina and lockpicking ) are common to all vampires . Several abilities can be active at the same time . Blood is a primary currency in Bloodlines , used to activate Disciplines and abilities . It is drained with each use , and can be replenished by drinking from rats , visiting blood banks or drinking from humans by attacking or seducing them ; the player can feed on enemies during combat . Drinking from innocents for too long can kill them , costing a character humanity points .
Players are penalized for using certain vampiric abilities in front of witnesses ; exposing their existence loses masquerade points . Violating the masquerade five times draws the ire of vampire hunters and loses the game , although additional masquerade points can be earned with quests and other actions . The player has humanity points , representing the vampire 's humanity . Some actions cost humanity points ; a low humanity score alters available dialog options to become more aggressive , and increases the chance of entering a frenzied state and embarking on a killing spree , when the vampire 's blood is low . This frenzy can also be triggered by a large amount of damage . Like masquerade points , losing all humanity points ends the game , with the vampire becoming a mindless beast . Some areas , known as Elysium , prevent the use of Disciplines or weapons . Players can recruit a female ghoul , Heather , as a customizable servant who gives them blood , gifts , and money .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines takes place in four areas of 21st @-@ century Los Angeles : Santa Monica , Hollywood , downtown Los Angeles , and Chinatown . Set in the World of Darkness , the game depicts a world in which vampires , werewolves , demons , and other creatures shape human history . The vampires are bound by a code to maintain their secrecy ( forbidding the use of vampiric abilities in front of humans ) and avoid unnecessary killing ( to preserve the vampire 's last shreds of humanity ) . The vampires are divided into seven clans of the Camarilla , the vampire government , with distinctive traits and abilities . The Toreadors are the closest to humanity , with a passion for culture ; the Ventrue are noble , powerful leaders ; the Brujah are idealists who excel at fighting ; the Malkavians are cursed with insanity , or blessed with insight ; the Gangrel are loners , in sync with their animalistic nature ; the secretive , untrustworthy Tremere wield blood magic ; and the monstrous Nosferatu are condemned to a life in the shadows to avoid humanity . The clans are loosely united by their belief in the Camarilla 's goals and opposition to the Sabbat : vampires who revel in their nature , embracing the beast within . The Anarchs are a faction of idealistic vampires opposed to the Camarilla 's political structure , believing that power should be shared by all vampires .
The main character of Bloodlines , whom the player controls , is an unnamed fledgling vampire , transformed at the start of a game and belonging to one of the clans . The fledgling is employed by Sebastian LaCroix ( voiced by Andy Milder ) , prince of Los Angeles ' vampires . The fledgling 's travels through the vampire world bring them into contact with other undead creatures such as the deformed information broker Bertram Tung , the Anarch Smiling Jack , and the mentally @-@ unstable Voerman sisters , Jeanette and Therese . Chinatown is controlled by the Kuei @-@ Jin , Asian vampires led by Ming @-@ Xiao , who do not require blood and consider themselves superior to the other vampires .
= = = Plot = = =
The game begins with the player character , an unnamed human , being killed and resurrected as a fledgling vampire . For this unauthorized act , the fledgling and their Sire are brought before the Camarilla . The Sire is executed by order of LaCroix ; the fledgling is spared the same fate by the intervention of the Anarch , Nines Rodriguez , and employed by the prince .
LaCroix sends the fledgling to Santa Monica to help his ghoul , Mercurio , destroy a Sabbat warehouse . Following his success the fledgling travels to downtown Los Angeles , meeting separately with Nines , LaCroix , and Jack . LaCroix tasks the player with investigating a docked ship , the Elizabeth Dane , for information about an Ankaran sarcophagus rumored to contain the body of an Antediluvian , one of the oldest and most powerful vampires , whose arrival would herald the vampire apocalypse , Gehenna . The fledgling discovers that the sarcophagus seems to have been opened from within .
Increased Sabbat activity coincides with the disappearance of the Malkavian chief , Alistair Grout . At Grout 's mansion , the fledgling sees Nines leaving and discovers Grout 's remains in the mansion with vampire hunter Grunfeld Bach , who denies involvement in Grout 's death . Learning about Nines ' presence at the mansion , LaCroix tells the other chiefs to approve Nines ' execution . The fledgling is sent to the Museum of Natural History to recover the sarcophagus , but finds that it has been stolen . Jack later suggests to the fledgling that LaCroix wants the sarcophagus to drink the blood of the ancient within , gaining its power .
Believing that Gary , the Nosferatu chief , has stolen the sarcophagus , the fledgling is sent to Hollywood to find him ; after locating a captured Nosferatu for Gary , he reveals that the sarcophagus was stolen by the Giovanni vampire clan . The fledgling infiltrates the Giovanni mansion and finds the sarcophagus guarded by the Kuei @-@ Jin , who claim their leader , Ming @-@ Xiao , has formed an alliance with LaCroix . The locked sarcophagus is returned to LaCroix 's tower and Beckett , a vampire historian , tells the fledgling that the only person who can open it has been abducted by Grunfeld to lure LaCroix . The fledgling kills Grunfeld and learns that the sarcophagus ' key has been stolen .
They return to LaCroix , learning that the Sabbat tried to steal the sarcophagus to destroy it and prevent Gehenna , and kill the Sabbat leader to disperse his followers . The fledgling is met by Ming @-@ Xiao , who offers to form an alliance . Ming @-@ Xiao reveals that she has the key , and LaCroix killed Grout to prevent his powerful insight from unveiling LaCroix 's plans ; Ming @-@ Xiao changed into Nines at the mansion to frame him . Denying Ming @-@ Xiao 's claims , LaCroix rescinds the blood hunt on Nines and entrusts the fledgling with recruiting the Anarchs to punish the Kuei @-@ Jin for murdering Grout . The fledgling finds Nines hiding in the forest , and they are then attacked by a werewolf and Nines is badly injured . The fledgling escapes with Jack , who reveals that LaCroix has issued an execution order on the fledgling for framing Nines on orders from Ming @-@ Xiao .
The end varies , depending on whom , if anyone , the fledgling allies with . If the fledgling supports LaCroix or Ming @-@ Xiao , each sends the fledgling to kill the other . LaCroix opens the sarcophagus , to be killed with the fledgling by hidden explosives ; Ming @-@ Xiao betrays the fledgling , chaining them to the sarcophagus and sinking it in the ocean . Supporting the Anarchs or no one makes the fledgling kill Ming @-@ Xiao and maim LaCroix , who is killed after he opens the sarcophagus . If the fledgling opens the sarcophagus , they die in the explosion . If the fledgling is a Tremere , they kill Ming @-@ Xiao ; LaCroix is replaced by Tremere leader Maximillian Strauss , and the sarcophagus is stored . Each ending has Jack watching from afar with the mummy taken from the coffin and the enigmatic taxi driver who transports the fledgling between locations , who says " The blood of Caine controls our fate ... Farewell , vampire . "
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
The development of Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines began at Troika Games in November 2001 . The developers wanted to put a role @-@ playing game in a first @-@ person setting , believing that the genre had become stale . Troika approached publisher Activision with its idea ; Activision suggested using the Vampire : The Masquerade license used a year earlier in Nihilistic Software 's Vampire : The Masquerade – Redemption , which had experienced sufficient success to merit a sequel . Instead of developing a sequel to Redemption , the development team researched the White Wolf property , including the game 's rules and its storylines . Troika was a small game studio , with five developers and a total staff of thirty @-@ two ( including lead writer Brian Mitsoda , who joined the team less than a year after development began ) . Although some preliminary design and levels were completed , much of the work was abandoned or redeveloped .
Troika wanted to make a 3D game , but was uncertain whether to build a new game engine or license an existing one and whether to use first- or third @-@ person . At that time , the Source game engine was being built by Valve Corporation . Valve employee Scott Lynch approached Troika about using the engine , and it was the first external team to use it . Troika chose Source for its facial animation and lip @-@ synching system , since it wanted players to speak to the characters face @-@ to @-@ face . Since the engine was in development with Bloodlines and Valve 's own Half @-@ Life 2 , Troika was working with unfamiliar code and tools , forcing it to write its own code to compensate for the unfinished engine , and with only a single source for technical support . Troika developed a lighting system to create distinctive , moody illumination for the nighttime setting , a particle system for the special effects accompanying the vampire Disciplines , and a cloth system for clothing flow . Source lacked its later artificial intelligence ( AI ) coding , and Troika 's code worked poorly with the Source engine .
= = = Writing = = =
Many of the central plot elements existed before designer Brian Mitsoda 's involvement : the prince , the anarchs being upset , aspects of the Gehenna storyline , and Jack and the sarcophagus as a major subplot . The designers broadly tied the overarching story into each hub and level . Each designer controlled their assigned section of the game , and working with a small team enabled quick decision making and ease in keeping plot elements consistent . Mitsoda became the primary writer for many of the characters and their quests , dialog , and side content in the game , such as emails , which helped retain a consistent narrative . He was given freedom with respect to the script , with no restrictions on language or content , and could rewrite characters when he thought his initial draft weak . Although the story was developed by Troika , it is inspired by White Wolf 's Time of Judgment novels about a vampire apocalypse . Bloodlines ' story was accepted as canonical by White Wolf , with the game serving as a prequel to Time of Judgment and including characters from the White Wolf game , such as Jack . Discussing character design , Mitsoda said he tried to disguise the need for characters who simply point a player in an appropriate direction :
" You need a character to pose a problem or give out a quest or be a barrier of some kind . I don 't like to make the [ character ] outright say ' I need you to do X , then I 'll give you Y ' ... – it makes the character into an automated quest kiosk . I like the characters to come off like people actually do – they don 't say ' hi ' when strangers come knocking , they say ' who the hell are you ? ' or they 're expecting you and know more than they let on , or they don 't care . I don 't like my [ characters ] to be standing around as if their lives begin when the character starts talking to them and end when the player leaves .
Single purpose characters needed a distinctive personality trait to quickly establish them with the player , rather than serving as a disposable item , while major characters had to reflect the player 's progression and actions through the game . Mitsoda wrote the characters by thinking about who each character was , assigning them motivations determining why they were where they were , what they thought about the player and what they wanted from them . In accordance with a suggestion by fellow writer Chad Moore the Malkavian player character has a dialog script distinct from that of the other eight clans ; Mitsoda said it was one of the simpler aspects of the development cycle . He wrote the Malkavian script last , with time running out on development , and the overwork and lack of sleep contributed to what Mitsoda considered an unhealthy state of mind , ideal for writing insane dialog . He wanted to highlight their madness , without making it comical . Since the story is set during the Camarilla 's takeover of Los Angeles , the team simplified the plot by only allowing the player to belong to one of the LA @-@ based clans .
= = = Design = = =
Troika co @-@ founder Jason Anderson 's research on Vampire : The Masquerade source material and fansites found that character interaction and involvement in the vampire societies , not statistics and powers , was the game 's main attraction . Troika tried to remain true to the pen @-@ and @-@ paper role @-@ playing game , hoping not to alienate the game 's fans , but rules designed for multiple players did not translate well to single player computer game design . The team attempted to discover which elements could work equally well in pen @-@ and @-@ paper and computer games . Although much of the character system and attributes translated , not all the attributes ( such as " knowledge of law " ) made sense in the computer game . Of 30 pen @-@ and @-@ paper abilities , 15 reached the final design .
Another difficult area was feats . Although common feats worked well , with a random chance of success or failure , uncommon ones would appear to fail more often . To avoid this , randomization was replaced by a degree of difficulty in accomplishing the feat . Although pen @-@ and @-@ paper falling damage is random , the computer game bases damage on the distance of the fall . The team 's biggest challenge was adapting disciplines . The pen @-@ and @-@ paper version may require a little blood that requires a long time to use , or have no blood cost and can be used at will ; upgraded disciplines had additional requirements considered too confusing for a computer game . Troika attempted to equalize the disciplines , keeping the effect intact and normalizing the cost , so a first level power requires one blood point , a second level two points and so on . To balance the clans the aristocratic Ventrue were only allowed to feed on noble blood , though this was changed to allow them to feed on lower @-@ class humans , receiving less blood . During character creation , the game had an optional character biography with unique positive and negative characteristics ( increasing one ability while limiting another ) . This was removed from the released game ; Activision felt that there was insufficient test time , and removing it was a more stable option .
The team 's previous experience was with turn @-@ based combat games , and it struggled to develop a real @-@ time combat system affected by customizable attributes and abilities that provided feedback to the player on how those statistics were affecting the battle . It initially found that by adhering too closely to the White Wolf source material rules for guns , where the effectiveness of a shot is determined in a contest between the player 's skill and the opponent 's defense , the firearms seemed broken ; the player would not hit where they aimed . Troika found it difficult to mesh the available factors in a real @-@ time setting . Melee combat had to deal with a variety of melee weapons and animations and adjust for melee @-@ on @-@ melee and melee @-@ on @-@ ranged combat .
Troika used first @-@ person perspective to immerse the player in the setting , interacting face @-@ to @-@ face with the characters and seeing their facial reactions to the player . It chose to follow a single @-@ character to aid the immersion , creating the isolation of a vampire unable to trust any other character . This aided the story and compensated for the technical issues of allowing multiple player characters .
Choice is a significant aspect of the game , requiring a non @-@ linear design to accommodate the customized characters . Level design began with a list of factors such as Disciplines , stealth and feats . Each area had to be viable for a shooting character ( sufficient ammunition ) , a discipline @-@ focused character ( sufficient blood sources to keep the powers fueled ) and a melee specialist ( to reach enemies without being killed ) , with stealth options and option combinations . Level design began with a focus on stealth , taking into consideration the positioning of guards and the character 's potential stealth capability at that point in the game . Then direct , combat @-@ heavy and dialog paths were added . The amusement arcade area was to feature playable versions of Activision arcade games such as Pitfall ! , though the idea was abandoned due to time constraints .
Director Leonard Boyarsky considered the animation system important in the team 's choice of the Source engine . The integrated " faceposer " tool allowed Troika to customize facial animations , expressions , gestures and lip @-@ synching , eliminating the need to explain what a character was doing . Every non @-@ player character required a voiceover , which helped Troika define its characters more quickly . The engine had a physics system permitting new features , such as monsters hurling corpses at the player or dying characters realistically crumbling into pieces , instead of requiring pre @-@ built animations . Although Troika had ignored first @-@ person engines due to technical limitations , such as a low polygon count and limited texture memory , as the technology improved , it thought it could create a real @-@ time action game without sacrificing the immersion and story of a role @-@ playing game .
Describing the choice of developing a game based on the existing White Wolf property over creating their own , Boyarsky said that although an original property lacked the constraints of an existing one the downside was that it had not been tested and could be rejected by its potential audience ; an existing property was proven . Troika tried to stay as close as possible to the White Wolf rules , while reducing the number of abilities and disciplines to those relevant to Bloodlines gameplay .
= = = Later development = = =
Activision introduced the game in May 2003 , but , that October , Valve experienced a security breach in which hackers stole the source code for Half @-@ Life 2 . The breach required new security implementations for the engine , delaying both games ; the release of Bloodlines was postponed until early 2005 . Until May 2004 , Troika and Activision said that the game would feature a multiplayer component and modes including a team of vampires against a team of vampire hunters , with the ability to upgrade characters between each round . The team was left without a producer by Activision for over a year before David Mullich was assigned to the project . With no producer oversight , Mullich found the game 's design incomplete , game levels created and abandoned , and several technical issues , including problems with code for the proposed multiplayer option . The Source multiplayer code was in its infancy , increasing its development time , and the idea was abandoned .
In addition to problems with the Source engine , the designers found that the game 's scope exceeded their resources . Bloodlines has several styles of gameplay , requiring different interfaces , animations and artificial intelligence for stealth and melee combat , and first- or third @-@ person capability . Compared to contemporary first @-@ person shooters , with 10 to 20 animated character models , Bloodlines had over 150 characters with 3 @,@ 000 unique animations , in addition to boss characters , with their own styles of movement . The designers underestimated the length of time required to develop and improve these systems . The game 's scope suffered from content not being removed when necessary ; other components would be endlessly refined without being finalized , preventing the developers from focusing on other parts of the game system . All content additionally required approval by White Wolf and Activision .
After three years in development , the game was progressing slowly and it was unknown when it would be finished . Activision set a series of deadlines for the project 's development to ensure Troika would have sufficient time to effectively test the game , though these milestones were repeatedly extended , and Bloodlines eventually ran over budget . In 2003 , Activision intervened , ordering that the game be ready for release in the next few months , and even advancing more money to Troika to complete its work on The Temple of Elemental Evil for Atari , freeing the Troika team to work on Bloodlines exclusively . Activision eventually issued an ultimatum that the project be finished within months , on September 15 , 2004 . Troika delivered a version of Bloodlines on the required date ; due to its scale , the game underwent three weeks of testing . Activision decided that the game was suitable for release , but was contractually @-@ bound to withhold Bloodlines until after the debut of Half @-@ Life 2 in November 2004 . Troika convinced Activision to use the delay to fund further development ; the additional budget was not enough to pay all of Troika 's staff , and some employees worked unpaid to complete the project . This version underwent another three weeks of testing to become the final release code ; the game was still unfinished when Activision forced its release . Bloodlines ' creative director Jason Anderson blamed Activision , saying that the publisher took the game from Troika without providing enough time to test and polish it . During the nearly four years of development , he estimated that the team worked overtime for all but two months .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's original score was composed and produced by Rik Schaffer . Troika licensed many songs for the game , and posters for real bands are featured on the walls of the game 's clubs . The soundtrack was released as a limited edition CD to customers who pre @-@ ordered the game through Best Buy . It features nine tracks by artists including Daniel Ash , Chiasm , Tiamat , Darling Violetta , Genitorturers , and Lacuna Coil . " Bloodlines " , performed by Al Jourgensen and Ministry , was composed and performed specifically for the game . The licensed tracks were chosen by Activision without input from Troika .
= = Release = =
Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines was released on November 16 , 2004 in competition with Half @-@ Life 2 , Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater , Halo 2 , and several other titles . Valve 's contract for Troika 's use of the Source engine guaranteed that Bloodlines could not be released before Half @-@ Life 2 , and could not be introduced to the public until after the announcement of Half @-@ Life 2 , over eighteen months after development began . In February 2004 , the game was scheduled for release in spring 2005 , partially to avoid competing with Half @-@ Life 2 and the competitive Christmas period , before Activision moved the date to November 2004 .
In a 2013 interview , Mitsoda said that it was released at " the worst possible time - most people didn 't even know we were out ... fans and the Troika [ developers ] are always going to wonder what the game could have been like with another six months . " Activision obtained model Erin Layne to play Jeanette in promotional material for the game . Layne worked with Bloodlines artist Tim Bradstreet for a day to provide the poses chosen by Activision to represent Jeanette in the game 's posters , clothing , and other items .
Despite generally favorable reviews , Bloodlines ' initial release sold 72 @,@ 000 copies and earned approximately $ 3 @.@ 4 million in sales , below Troika 's other games , Arcanum : Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura ( 234 @,@ 000 units , $ 8 @.@ 8 million ) and The Temple of Elemental Evil ( 128 @,@ 000 units , $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) . In comparison , Bloodlines ' release competitor Half @-@ Life 2 had sold 6 @.@ 5 million copies by 2008 . Bloodlines ' relative failure contributed to the demise of Troika Games .
Shortly after its debut , most of the development staff were laid off ; the remaining staff tried to patch Bloodlines and develop game concepts to secure funding to keep Troika in business . Troika , unable to obtain further funding from Activision or other publishers , released its employees in two waves : the first in November 2004 , followed by the remaining staff in December , except for its three founders , Anderson , Boyarsky , and Tim Cain . Some employees worked without pay to fix the game . When the company closed in February 2005 , it had secured no other game development deals . That month , Boyarsky confirmed that Troika had not been working on a patch for the game since most of its staff were gone since December 2004 . In a November 2004 interview Boyarsky said that although the team would like to pursue a Bloodlines sequel , the decision was Activision 's . In a 2006 interview , Anderson said that although Troika Games ' library had been critically well received , consistent technical issues had marred the perception of the company 's games , contributing to Troika 's difficulty in obtaining new projects .
Unofficial patches have been created by the game 's fans to address Bloodlines ' technical problems , and restore missing and incomplete content . After experiencing problems with the first versions of an unofficial patch created by Dan Upright , analytical chemist Werner Spahl continued patching the game from version 1 @.@ 2 with permission and instructions . The game community tested Spahl 's patches , providing reports on bugs and spelling errors . Although the game 's complexity meant that repairing one aspect often broke another , as work on the patches progressed Spahl began restoring removed and incomplete content in the game files , adding quests , items , weapons , and characters , with fan help to provide voice acting , models , and reinstating whole levels . The changes altered the original game so much that Spahl was criticized by some of the game 's fans . This resulted in two patch versions : a basic version , fixing the game 's technical issues , and a " plus " version with the additional content . As of April 2014 , the game has had almost 10 years of post @-@ release support with the release of version 9 of the patch . The game fared better following its release on Valve 's Steam digital distribution service in March 2007 , where , as of 2015 , it has sold 492 @,@ 000 units .
= = Reception = =
Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines received a mixed response , with reviewers praising its writing and presentation and criticizing its technical problems . The aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic give it a score of 81 % ( based on 68 reviews ) and 80 out of 100 ( based on 61 reviews ) , respectively .
The game has been called a flawed masterpiece . The scale and variety of choice and effect was highlighted by reviewers as Bloodlines ' greatest success , including the variety of clans , with specific dialog options , and the specific reactions from other characters , each with their own clan loyalty and bias . GameSpy called it a nearly flawless classic role @-@ playing game ; the The New York Times described it as brilliant but unfinished . Eurogamer praised its " effortlessly intelligent " script , saying that " no other game has come close . Nothing 's even tried " . VideoGamer.com opined that at its best , Bloodlines stands among the greatest RPGs of the preceding five years , although its technical problems should be remembered . According to HonestGamers , the game " may not be polished and may end with a sigh instead of a shout , but for its ambition alone it deserves stream after stream of compliments . " Reviewers compared it to other successful role @-@ playing games , including Fallout , Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic , The Elder Scrolls III : Morrowind , Planescape : Torment , Baldur 's Gate II , and Deus Ex ; Eurogamer described Bloodlines as Deus Ex with vampires .
IGN appreciated Bloodlines ' rewarding exploration outside the main story , and the New York Times and GameSpy praised its " wonderfully imaginative " missions . Reviewers noted that later parts of the game were disappointing , delivering repetitive combat @-@ focused missions with regenerating enemies , abandoning dialog and stealth and punishing players who build characters with more social skills than combat abilities . GameSpy said that it had never seen a role @-@ playing game so affected by player actions with everything , from clan choice and character build to actions in missions , influencing future options and dialog .
Its writing was consistently praised by reviewers . The narrative was considered deep , successfully using White Wolf 's Vampire : The Masquerade content . Eurogamer said it had the best script the website had ever seen in a video game , and others described it as a superbly crafted tale of conspiracies , underworld subterfuge , fun and intrigue . Reviewers appreciated the use of adult themes , such as sex and death , in the storyline of a contemporary video game which no other games had tackled with similar effectiveness . The mature themes succeeded without being gratuitous or exploitative , and were explored honestly and intelligently by a knowledgeable writer . The game 's characters were praised for their memorable , developed personalities , with most major characters possessing their own backstory and presented as living people instead of ciphers . Its ending had a mixed response , with some reviewers appreciating their ability to choose one of the game 's four endings ( adding an incentive to replay the game ) and others considering the ending anti @-@ climatic .
GameSpot and GameSpy called the dialog was sharply written , with many memorable lines . Eurogamer noted that the characters ' frequent use of vulgar language worked ; written as real people , such language fit their character rather than giving the game an adult veneer . The website appreciated the breadth of dialog options , allowing the player greater control of how to play their character . PC Zone opined that the quantity of well written dialog did not guarantee quality ; many player choices seemed to have little effect on a conversation 's outcome , and the best response was often the most obvious . The voice acting was repeatedly praised for the actors ' quality and the amount of voice work , due to the many dialog options .
Much of Bloodlines ' criticism focused on technical problems when it was released , undermining the game experience or making it unplayable . Several reviewers noted errors which closed the game and typographical errors in on @-@ screen text . Others cited frequent , sometimes @-@ lengthy load times encounted while moving between hubs and entering or exiting buildings and areas . GameSpot called the game 's artificial intelligence poor , often causing enemies to rush at an armed player , fire at them from too great a distance to be effective or become immobilized while waiting for the player 's next attack . IGN noted that stealth broke the AI , allowing traps to be triggered and leaving the assailants standing still , unable to locate a hidden player . GameSpy said that the Source engine was Bloodlines ' greatest weakness ; although the RPG aspects were the game 's strong suit , features of the Source engine , such as first @-@ person shooting , were where it stumbled .
Combat was also criticized . Reviewers called it poor , clumsy , and unsatisfactory , complaining that Bloodlines favors melee combat ; firearms were weak , unwieldy and slow , even for characters specializing in guns . PC Zone , however , called the first @-@ person shooting entertaining and challenging . Although melee combat was criticized as sluggish and difficult due to enemy attacks interrupting the player 's , reviewers considered it overpowered ; according to GameSpot , a boss character was killed with melee weapons on a first attempt after the repeated failure to do so with a gun . The New York Times found the unavoidable combat in the last part of the game to be so difficult that they had to cheat to succeed . Stealth was criticized , with IGN noting that even with low stealth skill it was possible to sneak around many enemies and feed from a guard without alerting another guard next to them . GameSpot opined that some of the best missions were stealth @-@ based , as combat was more straightforward .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2004 , IGN named Bloodlines the Best PC RPG of that year and GameSpy called the " Ocean House Hotel " quest the Level of the Year . In 2005 , Computer Gaming World called it the Role Playing Game of 2004 , saying that it offered " a deep , balanced character creation system , a truckload of interesting quests , a good story and great NPCs to interact with . " In 2006 , PC Zone listed Bloodlines the seventh @-@ best PC game which people were unlikely to have played , calling it the " best buggy game ever released " . In 2007 , the game was 80th on Computer & Video Games ' list of its top 100 games , and 86th on PC Gamer 's 2014 list of the same , moving to 63rd in PC Gamer 's 2015 edition . In 2011 , Rock , Paper , Shotgun called Bloodlines one of the most important PC games of all time ( " it signposts a direction to a future of games that we were denied " ) , listing it as one of the 122 Best PC Games Ever . Cinema Blend called it one of the most underappreciated games of the decade . In 2011 , Official Xbox Magazine called it one of the ten PC franchises it wanted on the Xbox 360 console . In 2013 , PC Gamer named it one of the 100 Best Horror Games on PC , and PCGamesN called it the seventh @-@ best PC role @-@ playing game . In 2014 , Bloodlines was 90th in Empire 's readers ' poll of the 100 Greatest Video Games of All Time , and Maximum PC chose it as one of the games they wanted to be remastered for contemporary game systems . In 2015 , Rock , Paper , Shotgun listed Bloodlines as the PC 's 19th Best RPG and 15th Best Horror Game .
Retrospective critiques continue to praise the game 's narrative and degree of choice . In 2009 , an article in Rock , Paper , Shotgun declared : " The sense of sorrow comes from the realisation that there 's nothing like [ Bloodlines ] on the horizon ... why should there be so few games like this ? Oh right , because it 's so very hard to do ... the lack of games comparable to Bloodlines is one of the great tragedies of our time . " Eurogamer called the game inspirational , with an unmatched level of narrative detail . In 2010 , The Escapist called Bloodlines a flawed masterpiece which could have been a genuine masterpiece with more time , money and staff ; although great games may inspire awe , it instead created a devoted fan base which continued to develop the game . Bloodlines is considered a cult classic .
= Won 't Get Fooled Again =
" Won 't Get Fooled Again " is a song by the English rock band The Who , written by Pete Townshend . It was released as a single in June 1971 , reaching the top 10 in the UK , while the full eight @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute version appears as the final track on the band 's 1971 album Who 's Next , released that August .
Townshend wrote the song as a closing number of the Lifehouse project , and the lyrics criticise revolution and power . To symbolise the spiritual connection he had found in music via the works of Meher Baba and Inayat Khan , he programmed a mixture of human traits into a synthesizer and used it as the main backing instrument throughout the song . The Who tried recording the song in New York in March 1971 , but re @-@ recorded a superior take at Stargroves the next month using the synthesizer from Townshend 's original demo . Ultimately , Lifehouse as a project was abandoned in favour of Who 's Next , a straightforward album , where it also became the closing track . The song has been performed as a staple of the band 's setlist since 1971 , often as the set closer , and was the last track drummer Keith Moon played live with the band .
As well as a hit , the song has achieved critical praise , appearing as one of Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . It has been covered by several artists , such as Van Halen who took their version to No. 1 on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart . It has been used for several TV shows and films , and in some political campaigns .
= = Background = =
The song was originally intended for a rock opera Townshend had been working on , Lifehouse , which was a multi @-@ media exercise based on his followings of the Indian religious avatar Meher Baba , showing how spiritual enlightenment could be obtained via a combination of band and audience . The song was written for the end of the opera , after the main character , Bobby , is killed and the " universal chord " is sounded . The main characters disappear , leaving behind the government and army , who are left to bully each other . Townshend described the song as one " that screams defiance at those who feel any cause is better than no cause " . He later said that the song was not strictly anti @-@ revolution despite the lyric " We 'll be fighting in the streets " , but stressed that revolution could be unpredictable , adding , " Don 't expect to see what you expect to see . Expect nothing and you might gain everything . " Bassist John Entwistle later said that the song showed Townshend " saying things that really mattered to him , and saying them for the first time . "
Townshend had been reading Universal Sufism founder Inayat Khan 's The Mysticism of Sound and Music , which referred to spiritual harmony and the universal chord , which would restore harmony to humanity when sounded . Townshend realised that the newly emerging synthesizers would allow him to communicate these ideas to a mass audience . He had met the BBC Radiophonic Workshop which gave him ideas for capturing human personality within music . Townshend interviewed several people with general practitioner @-@ style questions , and captured their heartbeat , brainwaves and astrological charts , converting the result into a series of audio pulses . For the demo of " Won 't Get Fooled Again " , he linked a Lowrey organ into a EMS VCS 3 filter that played back the pulse @-@ coded modulations from his experiments . He subsequently upgraded to an ARP 2500 . The synthesizer did not play any sounds directly as it was monophonic ; instead it modified the block chords on the organ as an input signal . The demo was completed by Townshend overdubbing drums , bass , electric guitar , vocals and handclaps . Overall , the song ran at a slower pace to the version later recorded by the Who .
= = Recording = =
The Who 's first attempt to record the song was at the Record Plant on W 44 Street , New York City , on 16 March 1971 . Manager Kit Lambert had recommended the studio to the group , which led to his producer credit , though the de facto work was done by Felix Pappalardi . This take featured Pappalardi 's Mountain band mate , Leslie West , on lead guitar .
Lambert proved to be unable to mix the track , and a fresh attempt at recording was made at the start of April at Mick Jagger 's house , Stargroves , using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio . Glyn Johns was invited to help with production , and he decided to re @-@ use the synthesized organ track from Townshend 's original demo , as the re @-@ recording of the part in New York was felt to be inferior to the original . Keith Moon had to carefully synchronise his drum playing with the synthesizer , while Townshend and Entwistle played electric guitar and bass . Townshend played a 1959 Gretsch 6120 Chet Atkins hollow body guitar fed through an Edwards volume pedal to a Fender Bandmaster amp , all of which he had been given by Joe Walsh while in New York . This combination became his main electric guitar recording setup for subsequent albums . Although intended as a demo recording , the end result sounded so good to the band and Johns , they decided to use it as the final take . Overdubs , including an acoustic guitar part played by Townshend , were recorded at Olympic Studios at the end of April . The track was mixed at Island Studios by Johns on 28 May . After Lifehouse was abandoned as a project , Johns felt " Won 't Get Fooled Again " , along with other songs , were so good that they could simply be released as a standalone single album , which became Who 's Next .
= = Release = =
" Won 't Get Fooled Again " was first released as a single A @-@ side on 25 June 1971 , edited down to 3 : 35 . It replaced " Behind Blue Eyes " as the choice of single as the group felt
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admit that they are more well known because of their appearance in the episode , Cashman having " Talkin ' Softball " requested more often than " Talkin ' Baseball " .
One of the hardest pieces of editing was the hypnotist segment , which featured several of the guest stars speaking in unison . It was difficult because the parts were recorded over a period of several months and thus it was hard to sync their voices . Rich Moore was originally intended to direct the episode , but as he did not know anything about baseball he was switched with Jim Reardon , who was a baseball fan . Moore was given the episode " Lisa the Greek " instead . Many of the player designs were difficult , because the animators had a hard time designing real world people during the early years .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode makes several allusions to the film The Natural . Homer 's secret weapon , his self @-@ created " Wonderbat " , is akin to Roy Hobbs 's " Wonderboy " , and both bats are eventually destroyed . The scene featuring the explosion of stadium lights as Homer circles the basepaths is also taken directly from the film . The end song " Talkin ' Softball " is a parody of " Talkin ' Baseball " by Terry Cashman . Jeff Martin wrote the new version of the song , but Cashman was brought in to sing it . The scenes of the Power Plant team traveling from city to city by train , overlaid with the pennant of the city they are going to , is a reference to the 1942 film The Pride of the Yankees . Carl batting with a piano leg is a reference to Norm Cash of the Detroit Tigers , who once tried to bat with a table leg in a game where Nolan Ryan was extremely overpowering and threw a no @-@ hitter . The episode 's title references " Casey at the Bat " .
= = Reception = =
During the previous season , Fox had put The Simpsons in a timeslot that meant it was in direct competition with The Cosby Show , which won the timeslot every time . " Homer at the Bat " had a 15 @.@ 9 rating and 23 % share to win its timeslot while The Cosby Show had a 13 @.@ 2 rating and 20 % share . This was the first time that a new Simpsons episode beat a new Cosby Show episode . Former executive producer Sam Simon and current showrunner Al Jean named it as their favorite episode . Regular cast members Harry Shearer and Julie Kavner disliked the episode because of its focus on the guest stars and its surreal tone . They were particularly annoyed by the Mattingly sideburns joke .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , praised the episode , calling it " a great episode because the accidents that befall the pro players are so funny . " Chris Turner , the author of the book Planet Simpson , said that the episode was the indication that " the Golden Age [ of the show ] had arrived . " Nate Meyers gave the episode four and a half out of five , stating " the script makes great use of the baseball superstars , giving each of them a strong personality and plenty of pep ( the highlight has to be Mattingly 's clash with Mr. Burns ) . " Colin Jacobson disliked the episode : " when [ " Homer at the Bat " ] originally aired , I didn 't like it . While I 've warmed up to the show slightly over the last decade , I still think it 's generally weak , and I 'd definitely pick it as Season Three 's worst . "
Entertainment Weekly placed the episode fifteenth on their top 25 The Simpsons episodes list , noting it was " early proof that The Simpsons could juggle a squad of guest stars without giving the family short shrift . " It was placed third on AskMen.com 's " Top 10 : Simpsons Episodes " list , Rich Weir called it " one of the show 's more memorable moments " and " effective as it combines a slew of guest stars with some hilarious material for Homer . " The entire episode was placed first on ESPN.com 's list of the " Top 100 Simpsons sport moments " , released in 2004 . Greg Collins , the author of the list , gave great praise of the episode . He stated that this is the " king of all sports episodes , and perhaps the greatest Simpsons episode ever . " A friend of Collins later met guest star Mike Scioscia and told him that he thought his guest spot was the best thing Scioscia had ever done , he responded " Thanks , I think " . Eric Reinagel , Brian Moritz and John Hill of Press & Sun @-@ Bulletin named the episode the fourth best in the show 's history , and a journalist for The Toronto Star named Homer 's conversation with Darryl Strawberry as the " greatest conversation of all time , involving the word yes " .
IGN.com ranked the baseballers ' performances as the seventeenth best guest appearance in the show 's history , calling " each of these appearances was hilarious , making this a classic episode . " The Phoenix.com praised the performances of each of the guest stars , but Darryl Strawberry , whom they put in the fifth position , was the only one to make their " Top 20 guest stars " list .
= = Impact = =
The episode has been credited with helping to save several lives . During the scene in which Homer chokes on a donut , a poster explaining how the Heimlich maneuver works is on the wall behind him . In May 1992 , Chris Bencze was able to save his brother 's life by performing the Heimlich Maneuver on him , having seen it in the episode , and in December 2007 Aiden Bateman was able to save his friend Alex Hardy 's life by recalling the same .
= Ottoman cruiser Berk @-@ i Satvet =
Berk @-@ i Satvet was a torpedo cruiser of the Ottoman Navy , the second and final member of the Peyk @-@ i Şevket class . She was built by the Germaniawerft shipyard in Germany in 1906 – 07 , and was delivered to the Ottoman Navy in November 1907 . The ship 's primary armament consisted of three 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes and a pair of 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns , and she was capable of a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . The ship 's early career was uneventful ; the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 passed without any action of the Ottoman fleet . Berk @-@ i Satvet saw action during the Balkan Wars of 1912 – 13 in the Aegean and Black Seas , against Greek and Bulgarian opponents , respectively .
After the Ottoman Empire entered World War I , Berk @-@ i Satvet was employed in patrols in the Black Sea . These included attacks on Russian ports with the ex @-@ German warships Yavuz Sultan Selim and Midilli . In January 1915 , Berk @-@ i Satvet struck a naval mine while escorting a convoy to Zonguldak ; the explosion severely damaged the ship and kept her out of service until April 1918 . For the remainder of the war , she patrolled the Black Sea . The ship was renamed Berk in 1923 and modernized twice , in the mid @-@ 1920s and in the late @-@ 1930s . She remained in service until 1944 , when she was stricken from the naval register . Berk was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1953 – 55 .
= = Design = =
Berk @-@ i Satvet , classified as a torpedo cruiser by the Ottoman Navy , was also sometimes referred to as a torpedo gunboat . She was 80 m ( 260 ft ) long , with a beam of 8 @.@ 4 m ( 28 ft ) and a draft of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 775 t ( 763 long tons ; 854 short tons ) while on sea trials . The ship was powered by a pair of vertical triple @-@ expansion engines each driving a screw propeller . The engines were rated at 5 @,@ 100 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 800 kW ) for a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) ; Berk @-@ i Satvet had a cruising radius of 3 @,@ 240 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 730 mi ) . Her crew numbered 105 officers and enlisted men .
Berk @-@ i Satvet 's primary offensive armament was her three 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . One was mounted in the bow , above water , and the other two were in deck @-@ mounted swivel launchers amidships . She was armed with a pair of 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns that were placed in shielded single mounts on the forecastle and quarterdeck . She also carried six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns , four of which were mounted in sponsons , and a pair of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . She had no armor protection .
= = Service history = =
Berk @-@ i Satvet was ordered on 18 January 1903 and laid down down in February 1906 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , Germany . She was launched on 1 December of that year , and completed in 1907 . After completing sea trials , she was transferred to the Ottoman Navy , arriving in Constantinople on 13 November , where she was formally commissioned into the Ottoman fleet . In 1909 , she and her sister participated in the first fleet maneuver conducted by the Ottoman Navy in twenty years . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , Berk @-@ i Satvet was assigned to the Reserve Division , which was centered on the elderly ironclads Mesudiye and Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik . She did not see action during the conflict , since the Ottoman fleet spent the war in port .
= = = Balkan Wars = = =
Berk @-@ i Satvet was transferred to the Black Sea on 9 December 1912 , to reinforce the squadron there during the First Balkan War . On 4 February 1913 , Berk @-@ i Satvet bombarded Bulgarian positions at Şarköy on the northern coast of the Sea of Marmara in preparation for an amphibious assault . Four days later , the Ottoman navy returned to support the landing at Şarköy . Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin , along with two small cruisers provided artillery support to the right flank of the invading force once it went ashore . The ships were positioned about one kilometer off shore , with Berk @-@ i Satvet leading the line , which also included the cruiser Mecidiye and the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis . The Bulgarian army resisted fiercely , which ultimately forced the Ottoman army to retreat , though the withdrawal was successful in large part due to the gunfire support from the fleet . Berk @-@ i Satvet and Mecidiye covered the left flank while the two battleships supported the left during the evacuation . In the course of the operation , Berk @-@ i Satvet had fired eighty @-@ four 105 mm shells .
On 9 March , Berk @-@ i Satvet joined a sweep toward Imbros , an island in the Aegean Sea at the entrance to the Gulf of Saros ; she briefly engaged a pair of Greek destroyers and stopped a steamer flying under the French flag . The vessel , which appeared to be supplying Bulgarian forces , was taken as a prize by the destroyer Yahisar . Later in March , she again escorted Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis in the Black Sea , while the two battleships bombarded Bulgarian troops that were attempting to breach the line of defenses at Çatalca . On 13 April , Berk @-@ i Satvet joined a fleet consisting of Barbaros Hayreddin , Turgut Reis , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik , and several smaller warships . The ships sortied out of the Dardanelles and encountered a Greek fleet . After a brief engagement at extreme range , the Ottomans and Greeks withdrew to the Dardanelles and Imbros , respectively .
= = = World War I = = =
In late July 1914 , World War I broke out in Europe , though the Ottomans initially remained neutral . On 14 August , Berk @-@ i Satvet joined patrols of the Dardanelles , the defenses of which were strengthened with several new minefields . Tensions between the Ottomans and a British fleet patrolling the entrance to the Dardanelles increased until 5 November , when Britain and France declared war on the Ottoman Empire . In the meantime , Berk @-@ i Satvet had been transferred to the Black Sea . She joined the cruiser Midilli , formerly the German Breslau , for an attack on the Russian port of Novorossiysk on 29 October . Berk @-@ i Satvet embarked on another attack , this time with the battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim , formerly the German Goeben . The battlecruiser shelled Sevastopol while Berk @-@ i Satvet observed ; she had been sent with Yavuz Sultan Selim primarily to train her crew .
Berk @-@ i Satvet sortied with her sister and Yavuz Sultan Selim on 5 December to provide distant support to a troop convoy headed to Rize . On 2 January 1915 at 15 : 00 , she , Midilli , and the cruiser Hamidiye steamed out of the Bosporus to escort a transport to Zonguldak , after which the three cruisers are to conduct a patrol off the port . At 18 : 00 into the voyage , a Russian mine exploded , which led Berk @-@ i Satvet 's commander to take evasive action . The ship struck a mine in the darkness , which caused significant damage . The mine destroyed both of her propellers and caused serious flooding at her stern . Two tugs arrived and towed Berk @-@ i Satvet to İstinye with Hamidiye as an escort . The damage was so severe that the ship was disabled for most of the war . After lengthy repairs , the ship was recommissioned on 1 April 1918 and patrols between Constantinople and Batumi . She remained in the Black Sea through the end of the war . On 30 November , the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros with the Entente powers , which concluded the conflict .
= = = Later career = = =
The ship was renamed Berk in 1923 following the end of the Turkish War of Independence , which saw the Republic of Turkey replace the old Ottoman Empire . At the time , the ship had been placed out of service . From 1924 to 1925 , she was modernized at the Gölcük Naval Shipyard and was recommissioned in 1925 . In 1927 , the ship visited İzmir . She was rebuilt in 1937 – 39 and incorporated substantial improvements . Her stem was replaced and her superstructure was rebuilt . The old gun armament was replaced with a pair of 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns and four 37 mm 40 @-@ caliber guns , and equipment to handle 25 mines was installed . The ship continued in service until 1944 , when she was stricken from the naval register . She was hulked at the Gölcük shipyard in 1950 , and broken up for scrap between 1953 and 1955 .
= Ohio State Route 607 =
State Route 607 ( SR 607 ) is a north – south highway near McConnelsville , Ohio . The route starts at SR 60 and travels north to its terminus at SR 78 , all located inside Morgan County . SR 607 was designated in 2011 , after Monastery Road was transferred from township @-@ maintenance to state @-@ maintenance . The road was then repaved and realigned in 2012 , and became signed on July 25 , 2013 . The route opened to the public on the next day .
= = Route description = =
All of SR 607 is located in central Morgan County , Ohio . The state route starts at the intersection of SR 60 near McConnelsville . SR 607 travels north for the majority of the length . SR 607 passes near an Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) county garage near the beginning of the road . Halfway through the route , SR 607 meets Township Road 696 in a T @-@ intersection , where the route moves slightly westward . After that , there is an Ohio Army National Guard training site at Hawk Drive . The route keeps moving north until it ends at SR 78 at another T @-@ intersection . The route goes through mostly forests and small hills . In 2012 , ODOT calculated 1 @,@ 975 vehicles traveling south of McGovern Lane . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . No part of SR 607 is included within the National Highway System , a system of routes deemed most important for the economy , defense and mobility of the country .
= = History = =
Planning of Monastery Road ( Township Road 209 ) improvements began in 2003 . At that time , $ 3 @.@ 8 million in state funding was set aside for the project , but the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) did not receive the money until 2005 . By 2007 , most of the earmarked money was spent on preliminary engineering and planning . Without the money , Morgan Township officials could not afford to upgrade the road , and ODOT was barred from spending money on local roads . In 2011 , deputy director Steve Williams devised a new plan that made the township road a state route , and Morgan Township officials transferred the road to ODOT .
Monastery Road was closed 0 @.@ 7 mi ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) north of SR 60 , and 0 @.@ 4 mi ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) south of SR 78 in April 2012 , for nine months . The road was realigned and resurfaced , and it cost around $ 1 @.@ 5 million . The road was also widened at the northern terminus with SR 78 , and the southern terminus with SR 60 . On July 25 , 2013 , ODOT erected state route signs on the road . The next day , Williams announced the upgrade of Monastery Road to State Route 607 and reopened the road .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Morgan Township , Morgan County .
= SK Ull =
Skiklubben Ull was a Norwegian Nordic skiing club based in Oslo . Founded in 1883 , Skiklubben Ull attracted several skilled sportsmen who between 1883 and 1891 won six Ladies ' Cups and one King 's Cup in national skiing events . The sporting facilities belonging the club were located in Vestre Aker , with the ski jumping hill Ullbakken near Frognerseteren being opened in 1884 . The prestigious Husebyrennet was staged there once . Members of SK Ull were later instrumental in moving this prestigious contest to the hill Holmenkollbakken .
Club members also held important positions in the general administration of skiing in Norway . The first Ull chairman Johan Bechholm was also the first secretary of the Association for the Promotion of Skiing ; Karl Roll became the first chairman of the Norwegian Ski Federation , Hjalmar Krag became chairman in the Confederation of Sports and Fritz R. Huitfeldt was a pioneer in several respects .
The club was founded by students and its membership later drew from the upper social strata . During the first ten years of club history , forty @-@ four of the sixty members admitted into the club belonged to one of four prestigious professions ; physician , military officer , jurist or engineer . The club was furthermore exclusive , in that it only had 119 members during its first 100 years of existence . In 1893 the club raised its own cabin , thus grouping it together with other so @-@ called " cabin ski clubs " such as Christiania SK . SK Ull eventually evolved from a skiing club to a social club in a skiing setting , using the old cabin for member meetings , which were also visited by the King of Norway .
= = The most active sporting period , 1883 – 1898 = =
Skiklubben Ull was founded on 29 January 1883 , and named after the Norse deity Ullr . In Norse mythology , Ullr was a god for hunting and competition , superior with his skis and his bow . SK Ull has been credited as being the second @-@ oldest skiing club in the world , after Christiania SK . The club founders were a group of university students who socialized in apartments in Wessels gate . The young men usually conversed about their studies or played card games , but they were also hobby cross @-@ country skiers , and decided to take up skiing in a more organized form by starting a club . The term describing a club member was ullaner .
The founding members were Thoralf Fabritius , Paul Lorck , Petter Dahl Thams , Andreas Bechholm , Johan Bechholm , Otto Dahl , Sigurd Gotaas and Michael Strøm Lie . New members were allowed every year until 1887 , after which new members were usually admitted biannually , in 1889 , 1891 , 1893 , 1895 , 1896 and 1897 . Notable members who joined the club shortly after the foundation include Fritz R. Huitfeldt , Henrik Florentz , Hans Grüner , Marius Grüner and Stefan Meidell . The first chairman was Johan Bechholm , followed by Sigurd Gotaas from 1885 and Fritz R. Huitfeldt from 1887 to 1891 . The three honorary memberships proclaimed in the early period were Fritz R. Huitfeldt ( 1883 ) , Hans Grüner ( 1884 ) and Axel Huitfeldt ( 1889 ) .
The club saw sporting success on the national level ( international competitions were few or none ) in its first years . Johan Bechholm finished eleventh and won the Ladies ' Cup in Husebyrennet of 1883 . In 1884 Ingvald M. Smith @-@ Kielland , Sr. won the Ladies ' Cup and Richard Blichfeldt won the King 's Cup . Vilhelm Nicolaysen finished fourth and won the Ladies ' Cup in 1886 , Karl Roll won the Ladies ' Cup in 1889 , Vilhelm Heiberg in 1890 and Otto Orre in 1891 .
Ull maintained its own ski jumping hill , Ullbakken , near Frognerseteren in Vestre Aker . It was opened in 1884 with a festive ski jumping contest , attended by Prince Eugen of Norway and Sweden . Ullbakken was the site of Husebyrennet in 1890 , when Kastellbakken was unusable . The dinner after this race was attended by Crown Prince Gustaf of Norway and Sweden . Karl Roll had an especially close relationship with the Swedish royal family , being a ski tutor for the princes while stationed in Stockholm between 1898 and 1904 . After Norway abolished the personal union in 1905 and elected its own king , Roll immediately became an aide @-@ de @-@ camp for the new monarch .
The club also staged the members @-@ only contest Ullrennet . In the invitation for Ullrennet and the subsequent banquet in 1897 , the members were asked to take their place at the table " according to rank , estate , age , dignity and skiing profess " . SK Ull also became the second in Norway to raise its own skiing cabin , " Ydale " at Voksenkollen in 1893 . This was named after Ýdalir , the mythological dwelling of the deity Ullr . Some of Ull 's rival clubs were Christiania SK , Skuld , Fram and Ondur . Christiania , Skuld and Fram owned skiing cabins similar to that of Ull — they were collectively referred to as " cabin skiing clubs " .
Reportedly , it was SK Ull 's forays into the district around Holmenkollen for sporting purposes that spurred the establishment of the new hill Holmenkollbakken in 1891 . The knowledge of the area spurred Fritz R. Huitfeldt to pinpoint the location of the new hill , together with Hans Krag . This hill lay at a higher altitude than Kastellbakken , and thus had more favourable snow conditions . Holmenkollbakken quickly replaced Kastellbakken as the main hill in the district , and eventually became world @-@ famous .
SK Ull also saw some sporting success in the 1890s , although the last Ladies ' Cup was taken in 1891 . The club was joined by top skiers like Tobias Bernhoft and Jørgen Berg . In the late 1890s , however , as many members reached higher ages , SK Ull became more of a gentlemen 's social club than an active skiing club . This social club was exclusive by nature , with a clause in the by @-@ laws that the membership could not surpass forty . Actually the club never had more than thirty members , which was the case in 1890 , and rarely more than twenty . The members were drawn from the higher social strata of Norway 's capital region . Forty @-@ four of the sixty members admitted into the club up to the opening of Ydale belonged to one of four prestigious professions : physician , military officer , jurist or engineer .
= = 1900 – 1945 = =
After 1898 , there was a pause in admitting new members . Four were admitted between 1906 and 1908 , followed by only one in the 1915 , three in 1924 , and two in 1935 . In 1940 the average member age was 69 .
After finishing their active careers , some of Ull 's members entered the ranks of sports officials and administrators . Most notable was Karl Roll , who became the first chairman of the Norwegian Ski Federation in 1908 . Several members had already held positions in the older organization Association for the Promotion of Skiing , founded three weeks before Ull , in 1883 . Johan Bechholm was its first secretary , from 1883 to 1886 , and many others followed . Johan Sverre ( member since 1896 ) was a notable Olympic administrator after the Norwegian independence in 1905 , and Hjalmar Krag ( member since 1887 ) became chairman in the Confederation of Sports . Fritz R. Huitfeldt also became a known figure in his field ; for his ski bindings , and for pioneering Telemark skiing . Huitfeldt 's ski factory , which he started together with Richard Blichfeldt , was named Ull .
During the first years of the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany , Ull continued to host private parties . Later , however , the club 's cabin Ydale was occupied by the Germans from December 1942 to March 1945 . Ull instead used the Grand Hotel for its sixtieth anniversary in 1943 and the annual convention of 1944 . Two new members were admitted during the war ; Sverre Martens and Einar Poulsson .
= = After 1945 = =
At the war 's end in 1945 , Ull only had fourteen members . Its average member age was lowered to 65 years after the admission of five new members in 1946 and 1947 . The post @-@ war period also saw the admission to SK Ull of men from more professional groups . One of the new members , Erik Plahte , would serve as chairman from 1951 to 1973 , when he backed down at the age of 84 . Another of the new post @-@ war members , Jakob Vaage , took over . He was then aged 68 . By 1953 , all the club 's elected positions were held by post @-@ war members . Three of the older members , some with experience dating to the 1880s , were admitted as honorary members , the first honorary members in SK Ull since 1889 .
After professor Johs . Andenæs was admitted as a member in 1949 , the club admitted thirteen members in the 1950s ; seven in the 1960s as well as a corresponding member , Norwegian @-@ Canadian Herman Smith @-@ Johannsen ; and only three in the 1970s . One member was elected i 1980 , and three in 1983 ; Arvid Fossum , Odd Harsheim and Birger Ruud . Three honorary members were proclaimed after 1960 : Erik Plahte in 1969 , Herman Smith @-@ Johanssen in 1975 and Jakob Vaage in 1983 .
The cabin Ydale was still used for festivities , and became a small " museum " with skiing antiquities left behind by former members . The cabin was also used during the 1952 Winter Olympics as the residence of the Danish skiing team . A road leading to the cabin was named Ullveien in 1964 . In 1983 the 100 @-@ year anniversary of Ull was hosted at Ydale with attendance from King Olav V of Norway .
= = List of position @-@ holders = =
This is a list of chairmen , deputy chairmen and managers / secretaries of SK Ull .
= Can 't Hold Us Down =
" Can 't Hold Us Down " is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera and rapper Lil ' Kim for the former 's fourth studio album Stripped ( 2002 ) . It was released by RCA Records on July 8 , 2003 , as the fourth single from the album . The track was written and produced by Scott Storch , with additional songwriting by Aguilera and Matt Morris . An R & B and hip hop song with dancehall elements , " Can 't Hold Us Down " criticizes gender @-@ related double standards .
" Can 't Hold Us Down " received mixed reviews from music critics . It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2004 ceremony , but lost to " Whenever I Say Your Name " by Sting and Mary J. Blige . The single peaked at number 12 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and charted within the top ten of record charts of several countries including Australia , Denmark , Ireland , and the United Kingdom . The song was included on the setlists of Aguilera 's three major concert tours : Justified and Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , The Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) and Back to Basics Tour ( 2006 – 08 ) .
A music video for " Can 't Hold Us Down " was directed by David LaChapelle , inspired by the Lower East Side of New York City in the 1980s . The single has been widely recognized as a feminist anthem , and its music video has been noted for being an example of cultural appropriation for how Aguilera depicted herself as an African @-@ American woman .
= = Background and release = =
American singer Christina Aguilera rose to prominence with the successes of her first three studio albums Christina Aguilera ( 1999 ) , Mi Reflejo ( 2000 ) , and My Kind of Christmas ( 2000 ) . However , she was dissatisfied with being marketed as what her then @-@ manager Steve Kurtz desired rather than Aguilera 's own wish . In late 2000 , Aguilera hired Irving Azoff as her new manager and announced that her forthcoming album would have more musical and lyrical depth . She named the album Stripped , explaining that the term represented " a new beginning , a re @-@ introduction of [ herself ] as a new artist " . Hip hop producer Scott Storch wrote and produced several tracks for the album , including " Can 't Hold Us Down " . Additional writing credits for the song were provided by Aguilera and Matt Morris .
" Can 't Hold Us Down " was serviced to mainstream radio and rhythmic stations in the United States as the fourth single from Stripped by RCA Records on July 8 , 2003 . The song was distributed as a CD single from September to October 2003 in the United Kingdom , Germany , and Italy by RCA Records and Sony Music Entertainment . A 12 @-@ inch edition of the song was released in the United States on September 9 , 2003 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Can 't Hold Us Down " is written in the key of E ♭ major . Chuck Taylor from Billboard described it as a R & B track , while The New York Times 's Kelefa Sanneh characterized it as a hip hop song . Todd Burns writing for Stylus Magazine also noted elements of dancehall towards the end of the track . Aguilera and Kim 's vocals on the track , which Taylor described as " faux @-@ R & B " , span two octaves , from F3 to F5 .
" Can 't Hold Us Down " lyrically discusses feminism ; the song criticizes the " common " gender @-@ related double standards , in which men are applauded for their sexual behaviors , while women who behave in a similar fashion are disdained . In the book Therapeutic Uses of Rap and Hip @-@ Hop , Susan Hadley and George Yancy discuss that " Can 't Hold Us Down " is a hip hop song that " encourages young women to be proud , strong , and empowered to be all that they can be " . At the song 's first verse , Aguilera sings " Call me a bitch ' cause I speak what 's on my mind / Guess it 's easier for you to swallow if I sat and smiled " ; she later rejects that all women " should be seen , not heard " and encourages them to " shout louder " during the chorus . Aguilera comments on the double standard with the lyrics " The guy gets all the glory the more he can score / While the girl can do the same and yet you call her a whore " . Lil ' Kim shares a similar sentiment during her verse in the bridge , questioning why a man is able to give a woman " some sex or sex her raw " while " if the girl do the same and then she 's a whore " .
Media outlets speculated that the lyrics of " Can 't Hold Us Down " were directed towards rapper Eminem , who referred to Aguilera in his songs " Off the Wall " and " The Real Slim Shady " . Spin magazine 's Josh Kun wrote that Aguilera suggested Eminem " Must talk so big / To make up for smaller things " . According to Kelefa Sanneh writing for The New York Times , Aguilera referred to Eminem in the lyrics " It 's sad you only get your fame through controversy " .
= = Reception = =
Chuck Taylor from Billboard criticized the song as a " real waste of time and talent " , while Rolling Stone 's Jancee Dunn called the track " curiously lifeless " . Stylus Magazine 's Todd Burns was critical of the song 's " bland " lyrics yet appreciated the dancehall elements that emerged at the end of the track . Josh Kun of Spin praised the lyrics for being more confrontational than the works of her contemporary Britney Spears . Jacqueline Hodges writing for BBC Music appreciated Lil 's Kim 's inclusion on the track for adding " a bit of edge " . " Can 't Hold Us Down " was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2004 Grammy Awards , but lost to " Whenever I Say Your Name " by Sting and Mary J. Blige . On reviewing Aguilera 's greatest hits album , Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits in 2008 , Nick Levine from Digital Spy shared disappointment because the song could not make it to the compilation .
" Can 't Hold Us Down " peaked at number 12 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 3 on the Pop Songs chart . The song peaked at number 4 on the Canadian Singles Chart . In Australia , " Can 't Hold Us Down " reached a peak position of number 5 on the Australian Singles Chart , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of 35 @,@ 000 copies in the country . Additionally , it reached number 2 on the New Zealand Singles Chart . It peaked at number 4 on the Hungarian Singles Chart , number 5 on the Irish Singles Chart , and number 6 on the UK Singles Chart . The single charted at numbers 7 and 15 on the Belgian Flanders and Walloon Singles Charts , respectively . On the Danish Singles Chart , " Can 't Hold Us Down " peaked at number 8 , while its highest position on the German Media Control Charts was number 9 .
The song has been recognized as a feminist anthem . Nicholas Ransbottom from The Charleston Gazette placed the song on his list of the top ten songs of female empowerment in 2013 , calling it a " great anthem about women sticking up for themselves in a misogynistic world " . Several writers for The AV Club included the track on their list of seventeen " well @-@ intended yet misguided feminist anthems " in 2010 ; they agreed that the song itself was " actually one of her better songs " , although they felt that its accompanying music video overshadowed its lyrical " [ confrontation of ] the double standard of female sexuality " since Aguilera conducted herself in a provocative fashion that conflicted its intended meaning . Yasamin Saeidi from Burton Mail listed " Can 't Hold Us Down " on her list of the " top ten empowering lady anthems " in 2013 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Can 't Hold Us Down " was directed by David LaChapelle , who previously directed the music video for Stripped 's lead single " Dirrty " in 2002 . It was filmed in a Los Angeles soundstage that depicted a 1980s Lower East Side neighborhood in Manhattan , New York City . LaChapelle described the concept of the video as his " ode to the ' 80s " . In the video , Aguilera wears a pink sleeveless shirt , a sleeveless sport jacket , a pair of shorts , a mauve baseball cap embroidered with the words " Lady C " , and white long socks . She is seen with dyed black hair and is wearing dark mascara and a gold nose ring . The residents of the neighborhood are mostly Latin and black people , resembling people living in a ghetto .
As the video begins , Aguilera is chatting with a group of women . When Aguilera leaves the conversation , a black man suddenly grabs her buttocks , making Aguilera stop and causing an argument between them . As she continues to sing , the nearby women in the neighborhood join her , while the male residents join the man and form their respective sides in the street . They perform their own hip hop dance skills against each other . At the bridge , Lil ' Kim appears in a bikini and a sheer black blouse , and dances in her high heels . The argument ends with Aguilera spraying the men with a water hose , which she holds between her legs and parodies the male penis .
= = = Reception = = =
Jason Heller from The AV Club criticized LaChappelle for " [ swallowing ] the message " of the track by following an unrelated concept in the clip . In the book Music Video and the Politics of Representation , Diane Railton and Paul Watson felt that the video exemplified cultural appropriation , specifically noting how Aguilera conducted herself as an African @-@ American woman , and elaborated that it emphasized " a range of issues concerning the representation of gender and race " . Andy Cohn from The Fader provided a more favorable review , and opined that Aguilera 's " sass " helped to highlight her Irish and Ecuadorian background .
The music video for " Can 't Hold Us Down " has received scholarly attention as an example of cultural appropriation . Murali Balaji , author of the article " Vixen Resistin ' : Redefining black womanhood in hip @-@ hop music videos " published in the Journal of Black Studies , noted that " blackness and sexuality " has become characteristics by which African @-@ American women are able to self @-@ define . Consequently , he opined that the inclusion of Lil ' Kim in the clip represented an element of " ' primitive ' sexuality " , which Aguilera intended to imitate through her own behavior in the video . In their article " Naughty girls and red @-@ blooded women : Representations of female heterosexuality in music video " , published in Feminist Media Studies , Diane Railton and Paul Watson made specific note of the conflicting message raised by the lyrics " all my girls around the world " , while " blackness and whiteness are clearly inscribed on and through the bodies of Aguilera and Kim . " They suggested that this example detracted the message of the track by emphasizing the problem that " female heterosexuality " is confined to " the very limited range of ways " in mainstream culture , in this instance " gender and race [ and ] sexual behaviour " .
= = Live performances = =
Though the pair never performed the song together , Aguilera performed " Can 't Hold Us Down " on her Justified and Stripped Tour , which was held in support of Aguilera 's Stripped and Justin Timberlake 's album Justified ( 2002 ) . In late 2003 , the track was included on the setlist of The Stripped Tour , which acted as the Justified and Stripped Tour 's extension and happened without Timberlake 's acts . The performance in London was included on the singer 's first full @-@ length DVD Stripped Live in the U.K. ( 2004 ) . On her Back to Basics Tour ( 2006 – 08 ) , Aguilera performed excerpts of " Can 't Hold Us Down " in a medley with " Still Dirrty " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Credits adapted from " Can 't Hold Us Down " CD liner notes
Studios
Mixed at The Record Plant , Los Angeles , CA
Recorded at The Enterprise Studios , Burbank , CA , and Conway Studios , Hollywood
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Station model =
A station model is a symbolic illustration showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to fit a number of weather elements into a small space on weather maps . This allows map users to analyze patterns in air pressure , temperature , wind , cloud cover , and precipitation .
Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1 , 1941 . Elements in the plot show the key weather elements , including temperature , dew point , wind , cloud cover , air pressure , pressure tendency , and precipitation .
= = Measurement location and units = =
Weather maps primarily use the station model to show surface weather conditions , but the model can also show the weather aloft as reported by a weather balloon 's radiosonde or a pilot 's report .
Station model plots use a mixture of metric and Imperial units depending on the map 's location and what is being shown . Surface maps in the United States primarily use Imperial units , such as inches , degrees Fahrenheit , and knots . Most of the world , however , uses metric measurements for everything but wind speed , which is shown in knots .
= = Plotted winds = =
The station model uses a wind barb to show both wind direction and speed . The wind barb shows the speed using " flags " on the end .
Each half of a flag depicts five knots
Each full flag depicts 10 knots
Each pennant ( filled triangle ) depicts 50 knots
Winds are depicted as blowing from the direction the flags are facing . Therefore , a northeast wind will be depicted with a line extending from the cloud circle to the northeast , with flags indicating wind speed on the northeast end of this line . Once plotted on a map , an analysis of isotachs ( lines of equal wind speeds ) can be accomplished . Isotachs are particularly useful in diagnosing the location of the jet stream on upper level constant pressure charts , usually at or above the 300 hPa level .
The flags and pennants point to the low pressure , so it is possible to determine at which hemisphere the station is standing . The barbs in the figure at the right are located at the Northern Hemisphere , because the wind is circling counter clock @-@ wise around a low @-@ pressure area at the Northern Hemisphere ( the wind is blowing in the opposite direction at the Southern Hemisphere , see also Buys Ballot 's law ) .
More than a century ago , winds were initially plotted as arrows facing downwind , with feathers on both sides of the staff to indicate wind speed . In the United States , the change to the modern convention of flags shown on one side of the staff to indicate wind speed took effect on August 1 , 1941 .
= = Cloud cover = =
Along with wind direction , cloud cover is one of the oldest atmospheric conditions to be coded on a station model . The circle in the middle of the station model represents cloud cover . In the United Kingdom , when the observation is taken from an automated weather observation site , the shape is a triangle . If the shape is completely filled in , it is overcast . If conditions are completely clear , the circle or triangle is empty . If conditions are partly cloudy , the circle or triangle is partially filled in . The cloud cover shape has different looks depending upon how many oktas ( eighths of the sky ) are covered by cloud . A sky half full of clouds would have a circle that was half white and half black . Below the shape indicating sky cover , the station model can indicate the coverage of low clouds , in oktas , and the ceiling height in hundreds of feet . The ceiling height is the height at which more than half the sky is covered by clouds .
For pilots , knowledge of the sky cover helps determine if visual flight rules are being met . Knowing the degree of cloud cover can help determine whether or not various weather fronts , such as cold fronts or warm fronts , have passed by a location . A nephanalysis , contouring areas that are cloudy with scalloped lines , can be performed to indicate a system 's cloud and precipitation pattern . This technique is rarely performed nowadays , due to the prevalence of satellite imagery worldwide .
= = Cloud types = =
Above or below the circle for manned stations ( automatic stations do not report cloud types ) that indicates sky cover can lie one or more symbols indicating cloud types in any of the low , middle and high @-@ étages for tropospheric clouds . One predominant cloud type may be depicted for each of three étages , if known . The middle and high @-@ étage types are depicted above the sky cover circle of the station model , while the main low @-@ étage cloud type is indicated below the circle . Since the station model has limited room , it makes no special provision for vertical or multi @-@ level clouds that can occupy more than one étage at a particular time . Consequently , cloud genera with significant vertical development may be coded and plotted as low or middle depending on the altitude at which they normally form . Cumulus and cumulonimbus usually form in the low étage of the troposphere and achieve vertical extent by growing upward into the middle or high étage . Conversely , nimbostratus usually forms in the middle étage of the troposphere and becomes vertically developed by growing downward into the low étage . Although the SYNOP code has no separate formal group classification for vertical or multi @-@ level clouds , the observer procedure for selecting numerical codes is designed to give high reporting priority to those genera or species that show significant vertical development .
The symbols used for clouds emulate the cloud shape . Cirrus is indicated by a couple hooks , cumulus are indicated by a mound shape , with cumulonimbus indicated with an upside down trapezoid on top of the cumulus symbol to indicate its anvil . When there is more than one cloud type present per level , the cloud type with the highest priority is included . Knowing the cloud type at various locations can help determine whether or not a weather front has passed by a particular location . A low deck of stratus could indicate a station is still north of a warm front , while thunderstorms can indicate the approach of a squall line or cold front .
= = Present weather and visibility = =
To the left of the cloud shape in the center of the station model is the symbol depicting present weather . The present weather symbol depicts the current weather which normally is obstructing the visibility at the time of observation . The visibility itself is shown as a number , in statute miles in the United States and meters elsewhere , describing how far the observer can see at that time . This number is located to the left of the present weather symbol . For pilots , knowledge of the horizontal visibility helps determine if they are flying through instrument meteorological conditions , such as foggy or smokey conditions , as well as areas of intense precipitation . Present weather depicted with the station model can include :
Dust
Fog
Haze
Ocean spray
Precipitation
Sand
Smoke
Thunderstorms
Volcanic ash
= = Temperature and dew point = =
To left of center in the station model , the temperature and dew point are plotted . Within the United States on surface weather maps , they are still plotted in degrees Fahrenheit . Otherwise , they will be in units of degrees Celsius . This knowledge is important to meteorologists because when this data is plotted on a map , isotherms and isod
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Maniyammai died . The Managing Committee of the Dravidar Kazhagam elected K. Veeramani as General Secretary of the Dravidar Kazhagam on 17 March 1978 . From then on , the Periyar @-@ Maniyammai Educational and Charitable Society started the Periyar Centenary Women 's Polytechnic at Thanjavur on 21 September 1980 . On 8 May 1982 , the College for Correspondence Education was started under the auspices of the Periyar Rationalist Propaganda Organization .
Over the years , Periyar 's influence had an impact on Tamil Nadus political party heads such as C.N. Annadurai and M. Karunanidhi of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ' ( DMK ) , V. Gopalswamy founder of the Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( MDMK ) , S. Ramadoss founder of the Pattali Makkal Katchi ( PMK ) , Thol . Thirumavalavan , founder of the Dalit Panthers of India ( DPI ) , and Dravidar Kazhagam 's K. Veeramani . Other political figures influenced by Periyar were former Congress minister K. Kamaraj , former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh Mayawati . Periyar 's life and teachings have also influenced writers and poets such as Kavignar Inkulab , and Bharathidasan including actors such as Kamal Hassan and Sathyaraj . Noted Tamil Comedian N. S. Krishnan was a close friend and follower of Periyar.W. P. A. Soundarapandian Nadar was a close confidant of Periyar and encouraged Nadars to be a part of the Self @-@ Respect Movement .
= = In popular culture = =
Sathyaraj and Khushboo Sundar starred in a government @-@ sponsored film Periyar released in 2007 . Directed by Gnana Rajasekaran , the film was screened in Malaysia on 1 May 2007 and was screened at the Goa International Film Festival in November that year . Sathyaraj reprised his role as Periyar in the film Kalavadiya Pozhudugal directed by Thangar Bachan which released in late 2010 .
= Moonraker ( novel ) =
Moonraker is the third novel by the British author Ian Fleming to feature his fictional British Secret Service agent James Bond . It was published by Jonathan Cape on 5 April 1955 and featured a cover design conceived by Fleming . The plot is derived from a Fleming screenplay that was too short for a full novel so he added the bridge passage between Bond and the industrialist Hugo Drax . In the latter half of the novel , the premise of Bond seconded to Drax 's staff as the businessman builds the Moonraker , a prototype missile designed to defend England . Unknown to Bond , Drax is German , an ex @-@ Nazi now working for the Soviets ; his plan is to build the rocket , arm it with a nuclear warhead , and fire it at London . Uniquely for a Bond novel , Moonraker is set entirely in Britain , which raised comments from some readers , complaining about the lack of exotic locations .
Moonraker , like Fleming 's previous novels , was well received by critics . Moonraker plays on a number of 1950s fears , including attack by rockets ( following the V @-@ 2 strikes of the Second World War ) , Soviet communism , the re @-@ emergence of Nazism and the " threat from within " posed by both ideologies . Fleming examines Englishness , and the novel shows the virtues and strength of England . Adaptations include a broadcast on South African radio in 1956 starring Bob Holness and a 1958 Daily Express comic strip . The novel 's name was used in 1979 for the eleventh official film in the Eon Productions Bond series and the fourth to star Roger Moore as Bond ; the plot was significantly changed from the novel to include excursions into space .
= = Plot = =
The British Secret Service agent James Bond is asked by his superior , M , to join him at M 's club , Blades . A club member , the multi @-@ millionaire businessman Sir Hugo Drax , is winning considerable money playing bridge , seemingly against the odds . M suspects Drax is cheating , and while claiming indifference , is concerned as to why a multi @-@ millionaire and national hero would cheat . Bond confirms Drax 's deception and manages to turn the tables — aided by a pack of stacked cards — and wins £ 15 @,@ 000 .
Drax is the product of a mysterious background , purportedly unknown even to himself . Presumed to have been a British Army soldier during the Second World War , he was badly injured and stricken with amnesia in the explosion of a bomb planted by a German saboteur at a British field headquarters . After extensive rehabilitation in an army hospital , he returned home to become a wealthy industrialist . After building his fortune and establishing himself in business and society , Drax started building the " Moonraker " , Britain 's first nuclear missile project , intended to defend Britain against its Cold War enemies . The Moonraker rocket was to be an upgraded V @-@ 2 rocket using liquid hydrogen and fluorine as propellants ; to withstand the ultra @-@ high combustion temperatures of its engine , it used columbite , in which Drax had a monopoly . Because the rocket 's engine could withstand high heat , the Moonraker was able to use these powerful fuels , greatly expanding its effective range .
After a Ministry of Supply security officer working at the project is shot dead , M assigns Bond to replace him and also to investigate what has been going on at the missile @-@ building base , located between Dover and Deal on the south coast of England . All the rocket scientists working on the project are German . At his post on the complex , Bond meets Gala Brand , a beautiful police Special Branch officer working undercover as Drax 's personal assistant . Bond also uncovers clues concerning his predecessor 's death , concluding that the man may have been killed for witnessing a submarine off the coast .
Drax 's henchman Krebs is caught by Bond snooping through his room . Later , an attempted assassination by triggering a landslide nearly kills Bond and Brand , as they swim beneath the Dover cliffs . Drax takes Brand to London , where she discovers the truth about the Moonraker by comparing her own launch trajectory figures with those in a notebook picked from Drax 's pocket . She is captured by Krebs , and finds herself captive in a secret radio homing station — intended to serve as a beacon for the missile 's guidance system — in the heart of London . While she is being taken back to the Moonraker facility by Drax , Bond gives chase , but is also captured by Drax and Krebs .
Drax tells Bond that he was never a British soldier and has never suffered from amnesia : he was Graf Hugo von der Drache , the German commander of a Skorzeny commando unit . He was the saboteur whose team had placed the car bomb at the army field headquarters , only to be injured himself in the detonation . The amnesia story was simply a cover he used while recovering in hospital , in order to avoid Allied retribution , although it would lead to a whole new British identity . Drax remains a dedicated Nazi , bent on revenge against England for the wartime defeat of his Fatherland and his prior history of social slights suffered as a youth growing up in an English boarding school before the war . He explains that he now means to destroy London with the missile he had constructed , by means of a Soviet @-@ supplied nuclear warhead that has been secretly fitted to the Moonraker . He also plans to play the stock market the day before to make a huge profit from the imminent disaster .
Brand and Bond are imprisoned where the blast from the Moonraker 's engines will incinerate them , to leave no trace of them once the Moonraker is launched . Before the firing , the couple escape . Brand gives Bond the proper coordinates to redirect the gyros and send the Moonraker into the sea . Having been in collaboration with Soviet Intelligence all along , Drax and his henchman attempt to escape by Russian submarine — only to be killed as the vessel flees through the waters onto which the Moonraker has been retargeted . After their debriefing at headquarters , Bond meets up with Brand , expecting her company — but they part ways after she reveals that she is engaged to a fellow Special Branch officer .
= = Background and writing history = =
In early 1953 the film producer Alexander Korda read a proof copy of Live and Let Die , and informed its author , Ian Fleming , that he was excited by the book , but that it would not make a good basis for a film . Fleming told the producer that his next book was to be an expansion of an idea for a screenplay , set in London and Kent , adding that the location would allow " for some wonderful film settings in the old metropolis idiom " .
Fleming undertook a significant amount of background research in preparation for writing Moonraker ; he asked his fellow correspondent on The Sunday Times , Anthony Terry , for information on the Second World War German resistance force — the Werewolves — and German V @-@ 2 rockets . The latter was a subject on which he wrote to the science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke and the British Interplanetary Society . Fleming also visited the Wimpole Street psychiatrist Eric Strauss to discuss the traits of megalomaniacs ; Strauss lent him the book Men of Genius , which provided the link between megalomania and childhood thumb @-@ sucking . Fleming used this information to give Drax diastema , a common result of thumb @-@ sucking . According to his biographer Andrew Lycett , Fleming " wanted to make Moonraker his most ambitious and personal novel yet . " Fleming , a keen card player , was fascinated by the background to the 1890 royal baccarat scandal , and when in 1953 he met a woman who had been present at the game , he questioned her so intently that she burst into tears .
In January 1954 Fleming and his wife , Ann , travelled to their Goldeneye estate in Jamaica for their annual two @-@ month holiday . He had already written two Bond novels , Casino Royale , which had been published in April 1953 , and Live and Let Die , whose publication was imminent . He began writing Moonraker on his arrival in the Caribbean . He later wrote an article for Books and Bookmen magazine describing his approach to writing , in which he said : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " By 24 February he had written over 30 @,@ 000 words , although he wrote to a friend that he felt like he was already parodying the two earlier Bond novels . Fleming 's own copy bears the following inscription , " This was written in January and February 1954 and published a year later . It is based on a film script I have had in my mind for many years . " He later said that the idea for the film had been too short for a full novel , and that he " had to more or less graft the first half of the book onto my film idea in order to bring it up to the necessary length " .
Fleming considered a number of titles for the story ; his first choice had been The Moonraker , until Noël Coward reminded him of a novel of the same name by F. Tennyson Jesse . Fleming then considered The Moonraker Secret , The Moonraker Plot , The Inhuman Element , Wide of the Mark , The Infernal Machine , Mondays are Hell and Out of the Clear Sky . George Wren Howard of Jonathan Cape suggested Bond & the Moonraker , The Moonraker Scare and The Moonraker Plan , while his friend , the writer William Plomer , suggested Hell is Here ; the final choice of Moonraker was a suggestion by Wren Howard .
Although Fleming provided no dates within his novels , two writers have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom have written books on behalf of Ian Fleming Publications — put the events of Moonraker in 1953 ; Griswold is more precise , and considers the story to have taken place in May of that year .
= = Development = =
= = = Plot inspirations = = =
The locations draw from Fleming 's personal experiences . Moonraker is the only Bond novel that takes place solely in Britain , which gave Fleming the chance to write about the England he cherished , such as the Kent countryside , including the White Cliffs of Dover , and London clubland . Fleming owned a cottage in St Margaret 's at Cliffe , near Dover , and he went to great lengths to get the details of the area right , including lending his car to his stepson to time the journey from London to Deal for the car chase passage . Fleming used his experiences of London clubs for the background of the Blades scenes . As a clubman , he enjoyed membership of Boodle 's , White 's and the Portland Club , and a combination of Boodles and the Portland Club is thought to be the model for Blades ; the author Michael Dibdin found the scene in the club to be " surely one of the finest things that Ian Fleming ever did . "
The early chapters of the novel centre on Bond 's private life , with Fleming using his own lifestyle as a basis for Bond 's . Fleming used further aspects of his private life , such as his friends , as he had done in his previous novels : Hugo Drax was named after his brother @-@ in @-@ law Hugo Charteris and a navy acquaintance Admiral Sir Reginald Aylmer Ranfurly Plunkett @-@ Ernle @-@ Erle @-@ Drax , while Fleming 's friend Duff Sutherland ( described as " a scruffy looking chap " ) was one of the bridge players at Blades . The name of the Scotland Yard superintendent , Ronnie Vallance , was made up from those of Ronald Howe , the actual assistant commissioner at the Yard , and of Vallance Lodge & Co . , Fleming 's accountants . Other elements of the plot came from Fleming 's knowledge of wartime operations carried out by T @-@ Force , a secret British Army unit formed to continue the work of the Fleming @-@ established 30 Assault Unit .
= = = Characters = = =
According to the author Raymond Benson , Moonraker is a deeper and more introspective book than Fleming 's previous work , which allows the author to develop the characters further . As such , Bond " becomes something more than ... [ the ] cardboard figure " that he had been in the previous two novels . The start of the book concentrates on Bond at home and his daily routines , which Fleming describes as " Elastic office hours from around ten until six , ... evenings spent playing cards in the company of a few close friends , ... or making love , with rather cold passion , to one of three similarly disposed married women . " This lifestyle was largely modelled on Fleming 's own , which the journalist and writer Matthew Parker sees as showing " a sourness " in the author 's character . According to Chancellor , two of Bond 's other vices were also displayed in the book : his fondness for gambling — illegal except in private members clubs in 1955 — and excessive drink and drug taking , neither of which were frowned upon in post @-@ war upper class circles . In preparation for beating Drax at cards , Bond consumes a vodka martini , a carafe of vodka shared with M , two bottles of champagne and a brandy ; he also mixes a quantity of Benzedrine , an amphetamine , into a glass of the champagne . According to The Times journalist and historian Ben Macintyre , to Fleming the alcohol consumption " meant relaxation , ritual and reliability " . Benzedrine was regularly taken by troops during the war to remain awake and alert , and Fleming was an occasional consumer .
Drax is physically abnormal , as are many of Bond 's later adversaries . He has very broad shoulders , a large head and protruding teeth with diastema ; his face is badly scarred from a wartime explosion . According to the writers Kingsley Amis and Benson — both of whom subsequently wrote Bond novels — Drax is the most successful villain in the Bond canon . Amis considers this to be " because the most imagination and energy has gone into his portrayal . He lives in the real world ... [ and ] his physical presence fills Moonraker . The view is shared by Chancellor , who considers Drax " perhaps the most believable " of all Fleming 's villains . The cultural historian Jeremy Black writes that as with Le Chiffre and Mr Big — the villains of the first two Bond novels — Drax 's origins and war history are vital to an understanding of the character . Like several other antagonists in the Bond canon , Drax was German , reminding readers of a familiar threat in 1950s Britain . Because Drax is without a girlfriend or wife he is , according to the norms of Fleming and his works , abnormal in Bond 's world .
Benson considers Brand to be one of the weakest female roles in the Bond canon and " a throwback to the rather stiff characterization of Vesper Lynd " from Casino Royale . Brand 's lack of interest in Bond removes sexual tension from the novel ; she is unique in the canon for being the one woman that Bond does not seduce . The cultural historians Janet Woollacott and Tony Bennett write that the perceived reserve shown by Brand to Bond was not due to frigidity , but to her engagement to a fellow police officer .
M is another character who is more fully realised than in the previous novels , and for the first time in the series he is shown outside a work setting at the Blades club . It is never explained how he received or could afford his membership of the club , which had a restricted membership of only 200 gentlemen , all of whom had to show £ 100 @,@ 000 in cash or gilt @-@ edged securities . Amis , in his study The James Bond Dossier , considers that on M 's salary his membership of the club would have been puzzling ; Amis points out that in the 1963 book On Her Majesty 's Secret Service it is revealed that M 's pay as head of the Secret Service is £ 6 @,@ 500 a year .
= = Style = =
Benson analysed Fleming 's writing style and identified what he described as the " Fleming Sweep " : a stylistic technique that sweeps the reader from one chapter to another using ' hooks ' at the end of each chapter to heighten tension and pull the reader into the next : Benson feels that the sweep in Moonraker was not as pronounced as Fleming 's previous works , largely due to the lack of action sequences in the novel .
According to the literary analyst LeRoy L. Panek , in his examination of 20th @-@ century British spy novels , in Moonraker Fleming uses a technique closer to the detective story than to the thriller genre . This manifests itself in Fleming placing clues to the plot line throughout the story , and leaving Drax 's unveiling of his plan until the later chapters . Black sees that the pace of the novel is set by the launch of the rocket ( there are four days between Bond 's briefing by M and the launch ) while Amis considers that the story to have a " rather hurried " ending .
Moonraker uses a literary device Fleming employs elsewhere , that of having a seemingly trivial incident between the main characters — the card game — that leads to the uncovering of a greater incident — the main plot involving the rocket . Dibdin sees gambling as the common link , thus the card game acts as an " introduction to the ensuing encounter ... for even higher stakes " . Savoye sees this concept of competition between Bond and villain as a " notion of game and the eternal fight between Order and Disorder " , common throughout the Bond stories .
= = Themes = =
Parker describes the novel as " a hymn to England " , and highlights Fleming 's description of the white cliffs of Dover and the heart of London as evidence . Even the German Krebs is moved by the sight of the Kent countryside in a country he hates . The novel places England — and particularly London and Kent — in the front line of the cold war , and the threat to the location further emphasises its importance . Bennett and Woollacott consider that Moonraker defines the strengths and virtues of England and Englishness as being the " quiet and orderly background of English institutions " , which are threatened by the disturbance Drax brings .
The literary critic Meir Sternberg considers the theme of English identity can be seen in the confrontation between Drax and Bond . Drax — whose real name Drache is German for dragon — is in opposition to Bond , who takes the role of Saint George in the conflict .
As with Casino Royale and Live and Let Die , Moonraker involves the idea of the " traitor within " . Drax , real name Graf Hugo von der Drache , is a " megalomaniac German Nazi who masquerades as an English gentleman " , while Krebs bears the same name as Hitler 's last Chief of Staff . Black sees that , in using a German as the novel 's main enemy , " Fleming ... exploits another British cultural antipathy of the 1950s . Germans , in the wake of the Second World War , made another easy and obvious target for bad press . " Moonraker uses two of the foes feared by Fleming , the Nazis and the Soviets , with Drax being German and working for the Soviets ; in Moonraker the Soviets were hostile and provided not just the atomic bomb , but support and logistics to Drax . Moonraker played on fears of the audiences of the 1950s of rocket attacks from overseas , fears grounded in the use of the V @-@ 2 rocket by the Nazis during the Second World War . The story takes the threat one stage further , with a rocket based on English soil , aimed at London and " the end of British invulnerability " .
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Publication history = = =
Moonraker was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape in hardback format on 5 April 1955 with a cover designed by Kenneth Lewis , following Fleming 's suggestions of using a stylised flame motif ; the first impression was of 9 @,@ 900 copies . The US publication was by Macmillan on 20 September that year . In October 1956 Pan Books published a paperback version of the novel in the UK , which sold 43 @,@ 000 copies before the end of the year . In December that year the US paperback was published under the title Too Hot to Handle by Permabooks . This edition was rewritten to Americanise the British idioms used , and Fleming provided a number of explanatory footnotes such as the value of English currency against the dollar . Since its initial publication the book has been issued in numerous hardback and paperback editions , translated into several languages and has never been out of print .
= = = Reception = = =
Fleming 's friend — and neighbour in Jamaica — Noël Coward considered Moonraker to be the best thing Fleming had written to that point : " although as usual too far @-@ fetched , not quite so much so as the last two ... His observation is extraordinary and his talent for description vivid . " Fleming received numerous letters from readers complaining about the lack of exotic locations ; one of which protested " We want taking out of ourselves , not sitting on the beach in Dover . "
Julian Symons , writing in The Times Literary Supplement , found Moonraker " a disappointment " , and considered that " Fleming 's tendency ... to parody the form of the thriller , has taken charge in the second half of this story . " Maurice Richardson , in his review for The Observer , was more welcoming : " Do not miss this " , he urged , saying that " Mr. Fleming continues to be irresistibly readable , however incredible " . Hilary Corke , writing in The Listener , thought that " Fleming is one of the most accomplished of thriller @-@ writers " , and considered that Moonraker " is as mercilessly readable as all the rest " . Corke warned Fleming away from being over @-@ dramatic , declaring that " Mr Fleming is evidently far too accomplished to need to lean upon these blood @-@ and @-@ thunder devices : he could keep our hair on end for three hundred pages without spilling more blood than was allowed to Shylock . " The reviewer in The Scotsman considered that Fleming " administers stimuli with no mean hand ... ' Astonish me ! ' the addict may challenge : Mr Fleming can knock him sideways . "
John Metcalf for The Spectator thought the book " utterly disgraceful — and highly enjoyable ... without [ Moonraker ] no forthcoming railway journey should be undertaken " , although he also considered that it was " not one of Mr. Fleming 's best " . Anthony Boucher , writing in The New York Times , was equivocal , saying " I don 't know anyone who writes about gambling more vividly than Fleming and I only wish the other parts of his books lived up to their gambling sequences " . Richard Lister in the New Statesman thought that " Mr. Fleming is splendid ; he stops at nothing . " Writing for The Washington Post , Al Manola believed that the " British tradition of rich mystery writing , copious description and sturdy heroism all blend nicely " in Moonraker , providing what he considered was " probably the best action novel of the month " .
= = Adaptations = =
The actor John Payne attempted to take up the option on the film rights to the book in 1955 , but nothing came of the attempt . The Rank Organisation also came to an agreement to make a film , but this likewise fell through . The novel was not one of Fleming 's stories acquired by Eon Productions in 1961 ; in 1969 the company acquired the rights and commissioned Gerry Anderson to produce and co @-@ write a screenplay . Anderson and Tony Barwick prepared a 70 @-@ page treatment that was never filmed , but some elements were similar to the final screenplay of The Spy Who Loved Me .
The first adaptation of Moonraker was for South African radio in 1956 , with Bob Holness providing the voice of Bond . According to The Independent , " listeners across the Union thrilled to Bob 's cultured tones as he defeated evil master criminals in search of world domination " . The novel was adapted as a comic strip that was published in the Daily Express newspaper and syndicated worldwide . The adaptation was written by Henry Gammidge and illustrated by John McLusky , and ran daily from 30 March to 8 August 1959 . Titan Books reprinted the strip in 2005 along with Casino Royale and Live and Let Die as a part of the Casino Royale anthology .
" Moonraker " was used as the title for the eleventh James Bond film , produced by Eon Productions and released in 1979 . Directed by Lewis Gilbert and produced by Albert R. Broccoli , the film features Roger Moore in his fourth appearance as Bond . The Nazi @-@ inspired element of Drax 's motivation in the novel was indirectly preserved with the " master race " theme of the film 's plot . Since the screenplay was original , Eon Productions and Glidrose Publications authorised the film 's writer , Christopher Wood , to produce his second novelization based on a film ; this was entitled James Bond and Moonraker . Elements of Moonraker were also used in the 2002 film Die Another Day , with a scene set in the Blades club . The actress Rosamund Pike , who plays Miranda Frost in the film , later said that her character was originally to have been named Gala Brand .
= Spooked ( The Office ) =
" Spooked " is the fifth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 157th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 27 , 2011 . It was written by Carrie Kemper , sister of cast member Ellie Kemper , and directed by Randall Einhorn . The episode guest starred David Mazouz .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Erin Hannon ( Kemper ) works to make a spooky , non @-@ childish Halloween party with help from Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) becomes friends with Robert California 's ( James Spader ) son ( David Mazouz ) , and Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) debate the existence of ghosts . Meanwhile , Robert figures out everyone 's deepest fears and tries to culminate a ghost story .
" Spooked " received mixed reviews , although many critics complimented Ellie Kemper 's performance . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Spooked " drew 5 @.@ 53 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode ranked as one of the lowest @-@ rated episodes of the series to air on Thursday and ranked third in its timeslot .
= = Plot = =
Erin Hannon has been assigned to set up the Halloween party by Andy Bernard , who wants to live up to the expectations set by Robert ( James Spader ) . Robert arrives with his son Bert and remarks that the party is more tailored to kids than adults . In response , Andy asks Angela Martin and Phyllis Vance to take over and re @-@ tailor the party , much to Erin 's chagrin . Andy also tells her that he wishes to speak with her at the end of the day . Worried that he intends to fire her , she asks Gabe ( Zach Woods ) to help her make the party more " scary " and " sexy " , and he gives her a tape to show everyone . Gabe explains to the camera crew that the video is a Cinema of the Unsettling movie , an avant garde film genre defined by its disturbing images and absence of plot . Disgusted by the video , the office staff demand an explanation from Erin . In desperation , she shows them her idea for making the party more " sexy " : a card game with photos of genitalia . This only makes them more outraged , and Andy and Robert talk with Erin in his office regarding the incident . Erin admits her fears about their planned talk at the end of the day . Andy tells her what he wanted to talk to her about : he has reached a point in his romantic relationship where his girlfriend should be able to call him at the office , and that he wanted to clear this with Erin first since she handles all calls . Erin had not even known that he was dating someone , and is shocked to hear they have been out on 31 dates so far . Erin feels dejected and leaves .
Jim and Pam Halpert argue whether ghosts are real after she claims to have seen one at a pub where she used to work . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute dresses up as Sarah Kerrigan from StarCraft , but Toby Flenderson takes off his wings as they had knives on them and Dwight is not allowed to bring in weapons . Bert recognizes what his costume is supposed to be and the two bond over playing StarCraft all day , ignoring everyone else . Dwight also makes Bert pretend to fire Toby , for taking away his weapons , on the grounds that he is the CEO 's son .
Throughout the party , Robert coaxes each of the employees into revealing their deepest fears . Before leaving , he tells a horror story implementing all their fears as a way to convince them not to let fear control their lives . This inspires Jim and Pam to stop their argument and Erin to talk to Andy about her feelings .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by story editor Carrie Kemper , sister of cast member Ellie Kemper , her second written story for the series . It was directed by one of the The Office 's cinematographers , Randall Einhorn , his 15th directing credit for the series . The episode is the third Halloween themed episode of the series after season two 's " Halloween " and season seven 's " Costume Contest " . The episode also featured James Spader as Sabre CEO Robert California , who is currently set to appear in 15 episodes for the season . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include the rest of the office getting in the debate over whether ghosts exist , and Robert 's son Bert and Dwight talking about zombies , specifically characters from The Walking Dead .
= = Cultural references = =
In the episode , Dwight dresses up as Sarah Kerrigan , a character from the video game series StarCraft . Later , Toby narrates a montage of previous costumes worn by Dwight including dressed as Freddy Krueger , Jigsaw , and Pinhead , the primary antagonists from the A Nightmare on Elm Street , Saw , and Hellraiser franchises , respectively . Angela is seen dressed in the same cat that she wore in the season two episode , " Halloween " . Jim , Kevin and Darryl are dressed up as professional basketball players Chris Bosh , Dwyane Wade and LeBron James , respectively . Ryan is dressed as Jesse Pinkman from the TV series Breaking Bad , wearing the character 's signature yellow hoodie and beanie .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Spooked " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 53 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the United States , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a 15 % drop in the ratings from the previous episode , " Garden Party " making it the lowest @-@ rated episode of the series that aired on Thursday . The episode ranked third in its timeslot beating Person of Interest , which received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 % share in the 18 — 49 demographic , and The Secret Circle , which received a 0 @.@ 9 rating / 2 % share . The episode , however , was beaten to number two by Grey 's Anatomy , which received a 3 @.@ 7 rating / 9 % share , and beaten to number one by the 2011 World Series , which received a 6 @.@ 5 rating / 18 % share .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics . National Post writer Barry Hertz wrote that while " it wasn ’ t as patience @-@ testing as last year ’ s outing [ ' Costume Contest ' ] , but it also wasn ’ t as gut @-@ busting and on @-@ the @-@ nose as its earlier incarnation [ " Halloween " ] . " He complimented the Erin and Andy plot , but called the Jim and Pam plot " boring " . Ellie Kemper 's performance received commendations from Hertz . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt criticized the episode for " just creating situations and seeing how the characters react to them , which is likely why the writers were willing to lazily rehash the stock ' office Halloween party ' setup that drives the narrative of ' Spooked ' . " Despite this , he wrote positively of Erin 's plot , Kemper 's performance , and James Spader 's scary speech at the end . However , McNutt was critical of the Dwight plot and the Jim and Pam plot writing that " I don ’ t care that Pam believes in ghosts and Jim doesn ’ t , I don ’ t care that Dwight gets a few scenes in which the cynical adult is softened by the presence of a precocious child . " He ultimately gave the episode a C + . New York writer Chris Blanche criticized the episode for its lack of heart . Television Without Pity gave the episode a C rating . Several critics considered the episode an improvement over the previous halloween episode , " Costume Contest " .
= Primer ( film ) =
Primer is a 2004 American indie science fiction drama film about the accidental discovery of a means of time travel . The film was written , directed , produced , edited and scored by Shane Carruth , who also stars in the main role .
Primer is of note for its extremely low budget ( completed for $ 7 @,@ 000 ) , experimental plot structure , philosophical implications , and complex technical dialogue , which Carruth , a college graduate with a degree in mathematics and a former engineer , chose not to simplify for the sake of the audience . The film collected the Grand Jury Prize at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival , before securing a limited release in the United States , and has since gained a cult following .
= = Plot = =
Two engineers – Aaron and Abe – supplement their day @-@ jobs with entrepreneurial tech projects , working out of Aaron 's garage . During one such research effort , involving electromagnetic reduction of objects ' weight , the two men accidentally discover an ' A @-@ to @-@ B ' time loop side @-@ effect ; objects left in the weight @-@ reducing field exhibit temporal anomalies , proceeding normally ( from time ' A , ' when the field was activated , to time ' B , ' when the field is powered off ) , then backwards ( from ' B ' back to ' A ' ) , in continuous A @-@ then @-@ B @-@ then @-@ A @-@ then @-@ B sequence , such that objects can leave the field in the present , or at some previous point .
Abe refines this proof @-@ of @-@ concept and builds a stable time @-@ apparatus ( " the box " ) , sized to accommodate a human subject . Abe uses this " box " to travel six hours into his own past — as part of this process , Original @-@ Abe sits incommunicado in a hotel room , so as not to interact or interfere with the outside world , after which Original @-@ Abe enters the " box , " waits inside the " box " for six hours ( thus going back in time six hours ) , and becomes Future @-@ Overlap @-@ Double @-@ Abe , who travels across town , explains the proceedings to Aaron , and brings Aaron back to the secure self @-@ storage facility housing the " box . " At the end of the overlap @-@ timespan , Original @-@ Abe no longer exists , having entered the " box , " rewound six hours , and become Future @-@ Overlap @-@ Double @-@ Abe for the remainder of time .
Abe and Aaron repeat Abe 's six @-@ hour experiment multiple times over multiple days , making profitable same @-@ day stock trades armed with foreknowledge of the market 's performance . The duo 's divergent personalities – Abe cautious and controlling , Aaron impulsive and meddlesome – put subtle strain on their collaboration and friendship . These tensions come to a head after a late @-@ night encounter with Thomas Granger ( father to Abe 's girlfriend Rachel ) , who appears inexplicably unshaven and exists in overlap with his original suburban self . Granger falls into a comatose state after being pursued by Aaron ; Aaron theorizes that , at some point in the future , Granger entered the " box " ( at an unknown time , for unknown reasons ) , with timeline @-@ altering consequences . Abe concludes that time travel is simply too dangerous , and uses a second apparatus ( his " failsafe box , " built before the experiment 's beginning and kept continuously running in a secret location ) , traveling back four days to prevent the experiment 's launch .
Cumulative competing interference wreaks havoc upon the timeline . Future @-@ Abe sedates Original @-@ Abe ( so he will never conduct the initial time travel experiment ) , and meets Original @-@ Aaron at a park bench ( so as to dissuade him ) , but finds that Future @-@ Aaron has gotten there first ( armed with pre @-@ recordings of the past conversations , and an unobtrusive earpiece ) , having brought a disassembled " third failsafe box " four days back with his own body . Future @-@ Abe faints at this revelation , overcome by shock and fatigue .
The two men briefly and tentatively reconcile . They jointly travel back in time , experiencing and reshaping an event where Abe 's girlfriend Rachel was nearly killed by a gun @-@ wielding party crasher . After many repetitions , Aaron , forearmed with knowledge of the party 's events , stops the gunman , becoming a local hero . Abe and Aaron ultimately part ways ; Aaron considers a new life in foreign countries where he can tamper more broadly for personal gain , while Abe states his intent to remain in town and dissuade / sabotage the original " box " experiment . Abe warns Aaron to leave and never return .
An epilogue sequence reveals that multiple " box @-@ aware " versions of Aaron are still alive and circulating – at least one Future @-@ Aaron has intermingled knowledge with Original @-@ Aaron ( thanks to discussions , voice @-@ recordings , and an unsuccessful physical altercation ) . As a result , two or more Aarons now inhabit the same timeline , sharing information of future events , in stark contrast to Abe , who goes to painstaking extremes to keep his Original @-@ Abe " pure " and unaware of the future . The film 's final scene depicts a fully aware Aaron , directing French @-@ speaking workers in the construction of what appears to be a warehouse @-@ sized " box . "
= = Cast = =
Shane Carruth as Aaron
David Sullivan as Abe
Casey Gooden as Robert
Anand Upadhyaya as Phillip
Carrie Crawford as Kara
Samantha Thomson as Rachel Granger
Brandon Blagg as Will
Carruth cast himself as Aaron after having trouble finding actors who could " break ... the habit of filling each line with so much drama " . Most of the other actors are either friends or family members .
= = Themes = =
Although one of the more fantastic elements of science fiction is central to the film , Carruth 's goal was to portray scientific discovery in a down @-@ to @-@ earth and realistic manner . He notes that many of the greatest breakthrough scientific discoveries in history have occurred by accident , in locations no more glamorous than Aaron 's garage .
Whether it involved the history of the number zero or the invention of the transistor , two things stood out to me . First is that the discovery that turns out to be the most valuable is usually dismissed as a side @-@ effect . Second is that prototypes almost never include neon lights and chrome . I wanted to see a story play out that was more in line with the way real innovation takes place than I had seen on film before .
Carruth has said he intended the central theme of the film to be the breakdown of Abe and Aaron 's relationship , as a result of their inability to cope with the power afforded them by this technological advancement :
First thing , I saw these guys as scientifically accomplished but ethically , morons . They never had any reasons before to have ethical questions . So when they 're hit with this device they 're blindsided by it . The first thing they do is make money with it . They 're not talking about the ethics of altering your former self .
= = Physics and science = =
Aaron and Abe start the film by attempting to create a device to somehow counter the effects of gravity . They have plans for such a device from another development team , but wish to improve on the viability of the design . Their main approach to achieve this is to discard the coolant bath for the required superconductors . They instead increase the transition temperature of the superconductor to " something more usable " . The time machine makes use of the property of superconductors called the Meissner effect , which " knock [ s ] out the interior magnetic field " .
Aaron and Abe require palladium to build their machine . This is the reason they take the catalytic converter containing a small amount of palladium from a car .
The principles of time travel in the film are inspired by Feynman diagrams . Carruth explained : " Richard Feynman has some interesting ideas about time . When you look at Feynman diagrams [ which map the interaction of elementary particles ] , there 's really no difference between watching an interaction happen forward and backward in time . "
= = Production = =
While writing the script , Carruth studied physics to help him make Abe and Aaron 's technical dialogue sound authentic . He took the unusual step of eschewing contrived exposition , and tried instead to portray the shorthand phrases and jargon used by working scientists . This philosophy carried over into production design . The time machine itself is a plain gray box , with a distinctive electronic " hum " created by overlaying the sounds of a mechanical grinder and a car engine , rather than by using a processed digital effect . Carruth also set the story in unglamorous industrial parks and suburban tract homes .
Carruth chose to deliberately obfuscate the film 's plot to mirror the complexity and confusion created by time travel . As he said in a 2004 interview : " This machine and Abe and Aaron 's experience are inherently complicated so it needed to be that way in order for the audience to be where Abe and Aaron are , which was always my hope . "
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography took place over five weeks , on the outskirts of Dallas , Texas . The film was produced on a budget of only USD $ 7 @,@ 000 , and a skeleton crew of five . Carruth acted as writer , director , producer , cinematographer , editor , and music composer . He also stars in the film as Aaron , and many of the other characters are played by his friends and family . The small budget required conservative use of the Super 16mm filmstock : the carefully limited number of takes resulted in an extremely low shooting ratio of 2 : 1 . Every shot in the film was meticulously storyboarded on 35mm stills . Carruth created a distinctive flat , overexposed look for the film by using fluorescent lighting , non @-@ neutral color temperatures , high @-@ speed film stock , and filters .
After shooting , Carruth took two years to fully post @-@ produce Primer . He has since said that this experience was so arduous that he almost abandoned the film on several occasions .
= = = Music = = =
The entire film score was created by Carruth . On October 8 , 2004 , the Primer score was released on Amazon and iTunes .
= = Release = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Carruth secured a North American distribution deal with THINKFilm after the company 's head of theatrical distribution , Mark Urman , saw the film at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival . Although he and Carruth made a " handshake agreement " during the festival , Urman reported that the actual negotiation of the deal was the longest he had ever been involved with , in part due to Carruth 's specific demands over how much control over the film he would retain . The film went on to take $ 424 @,@ 760 at the box office .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Primer received broadly positive reviews in the mainstream press . The website Metacritic rated Primer at 68 out of 100 , while the similar site Rotten Tomatoes reported that 73 % of the critics that saw the film gave it positive reviews , and the site listed it as one of the best science fiction films " for the thinking man ( ... or woman ) " .
Many reviewers were impressed by the film 's originality . Dennis Lim of The Village Voice said that it was " the freshest thing the genre has seen since 2001 " , while in The New York Times , A. O. Scott wrote that Carruth had " the skill , the guile and the seriousness to turn a creaky philosophical gimmick into a dense and troubling moral puzzle " . Scott also enjoyed the film 's realistic depiction of scientists at work , saying that Carruth had an " impressive feel for the odd , quiet rhythms of small @-@ scale research and development " .
There was also praise for Carruth 's ability to maintain high production values on a minuscule budget , with Roger Ebert declaring : " The movie never looks cheap , because every shot looks as it must look . " Ty Burr of The Boston Globe commented that " aspects of Primer are so low @-@ rent as to evoke guffaws " , but added that " the homemade feel is part of the point " .
The film 's unusually complex plot and dense dialogue proved controversial . Esquire critic Mike D 'Angelo claimed that " anybody who claims he fully understands what 's going on in Primer after seeing it just once is either a savant or a liar " . Scott Tobias writes for The A.V. Club : " The banter is heavy on technical jargon and almost perversely short on exposition ; were it not for the presence of voiceover narration , the film would be close to incomprehensible . " For the Los Angeles Times , Carina Chocano writes : " sticklers for linear storytelling are bound to be frustrated by narrative threads that start promisingly , then just sort of fall off the spool " . Some reviewers were entirely put off by the film 's obfuscated narrative . Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter complained that Primer " nearly gets lost in a miasma of technical jargon and scientific conjecture " .
" Primer is hopelessly confusing and grows more and more byzantine as it unravels , " Chuck Klosterman writes in an essay on time travel films five years later . " I 've watched it seven or eight times and I still don 't know what happened . " He nonetheless says it is " the finest movie about time travel I 've ever seen " because of its realism :
It 's not that the time machine ... seems more realistic ; it 's that the time travelers themselves seem more believable . They talk and act ( and think ) like the kind of people who might accidentally figure out how to move through time , which is why it 's the best depiction we have of the ethical quandaries that might result from such a discovery .
Ultimately , Klosterman says , the lesson of Primer regarding time travel is that " it 's too important to use only for money , but too dangerous to use for anything else " .
The film has been selected to be part of The A.V. Club 's New Cult Canon .
Donald Clarke , film critic with The Irish Times , included Primer at No. 20 on his list of the top twenty films of the decade ( 2000 – 2010 ) .
Science fiction author Greg Egan described it as " an ingenious , tautly constructed time @-@ travel story " .
= = Awards = =
Grand Jury Prize , Sundance Film Festival in 2004 .
Alfred P. Sloan Prize for films dealing with science and technology , the 2004 Sundance Film Festival .
Best Writer / Director ( Shane Carruth ) at the Nantucket Film Festival in 2004 .
Best Feature at the London International Festival of Science Fiction in 2005 .
= Schiehallion experiment =
The Schiehallion experiment was an 18th @-@ century experiment to determine the mean density of the Earth . Funded by a grant from the Royal Society , it was conducted in the summer of 1774 around the Scottish mountain of Schiehallion , Perthshire . The experiment involved measuring the tiny deflection of a pendulum due to the gravitational attraction of a nearby mountain . Schiehallion was considered the ideal location after a search for candidate mountains , thanks to its isolation and almost symmetrical shape . One of the triggers for the experiment were anomalies noted during the survey of the Mason – Dixon Line .
The experiment had previously been considered , but rejected , by Isaac Newton as a practical demonstration of his theory of gravitation . However , a team of scientists , notably Nevil Maskelyne , the Astronomer Royal , was convinced that the effect would be detectable and undertook to conduct the experiment . The deflection angle depended on the relative densities and volumes of the Earth and the mountain : if the density and volume of Schiehallion could be ascertained , then so could the density of the Earth . Once this was known , then this would in turn yield approximate values for those of the other planets , their moons , and the Sun , previously known only in terms of their relative ratios . As an additional benefit , the concept of contour lines , devised to simplify the process of surveying the mountain , later became a standard technique in cartography .
= = Background = =
A pendulum hangs straight downwards in a symmetrical gravitational field . However , if a sufficiently large mass such as a mountain is nearby , its gravitational attraction should pull the pendulum 's plumb @-@ bob slightly out of true . The change in plumb @-@ line angle against a known object — such as a star — could be carefully measured on opposite sides of the mountain . If the mass of the mountain could be independently established from a determination of its volume and an estimate of the mean density of its rocks , then these values could be extrapolated to provide the mean density of the Earth , and by extension , its mass .
Isaac Newton had considered the effect in the Principia , but pessimistically thought that any real mountain would produce too small a deflection to measure . Gravitational effects , he wrote , were only discernible on the planetary scale . Newton 's pessimism was unfounded : although his calculations had suggested a deviation of less than 2 minutes of arc ( for an idealised three @-@ mile high mountain ) , this angle , though very slight , was within the theoretical capability of instruments of his day .
An experiment to test Newton 's idea would both provide supporting evidence for his law of universal gravitation , and estimates of the mass and density of the Earth . Since the masses of astronomical objects were known only in terms of relative ratios , the mass of the Earth would provide reasonable values to the other planets , their moons , and the Sun . The data were also capable of determining the value of Newton 's gravitational constant G , though this was not a goal of the experimenters ; references to a value for G would not appear in the scientific literature until almost a hundred years later .
= = Finding the mountain = =
= = = Chimborazo , 1738 = = =
A pair of French astronomers named Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de La Condamine were the first to attempt the experiment , conducting their measurements on the 6 @,@ 268 @-@ metre ( 20 @,@ 564 ft ) volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador in 1738 . Their expedition had left France for South America in 1735 to try to measure the meridian arc length of one degree of latitude near the equator , but they took advantage of the opportunity to attempt the deflection experiment . In December 1738 , under very difficult conditions of terrain and climate , they conducted a pair of measurements at altitudes of 4 @,@ 680 and 4 @,@ 340 m . Bouguer wrote in a 1749 paper that they had been able to detect a deflection of 8 seconds of arc , but he downplayed the significance of their results , suggesting that the experiment would be better carried out under easier conditions in France or England . He added that the experiment had at least proved that the Earth could not be a hollow shell , as some thinkers of the day , including Edmond Halley , had suggested .
= = = Schiehallion , 1774 = = =
That a further attempt should be made on the experiment was proposed to the Royal Society in 1772 by Nevil Maskelyne , Astronomer Royal . He suggested that the experiment would " do honour to the nation where it was made " and proposed Whernside in Yorkshire , or the Blencathra @-@ Skiddaw massif in Cumberland as suitable targets . The Royal Society formed the Committee of Attraction to consider the matter , appointing Maskelyne , Joseph Banks and Benjamin Franklin amongst its members . The Committee despatched the astronomer and surveyor Charles Mason to find a suitable mountain .
After a lengthy search over the summer of 1773 , Mason reported that the best candidate was Schiehallion ( then spelled Schehallien ) , a 1 @,@ 083 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 553 ft ) peak lying between Loch Tay and Loch Rannoch in the central Scottish Highlands . The mountain stood in isolation from any nearby hills , which would reduce their gravitational influence , and its symmetrical east – west ridge would simplify the calculations . Its steep northern and southern slopes would allow the experiment to be sited close to its centre of mass , maximising the deflection effect .
Mason however declined to conduct the work himself for the offered commission of one guinea per day . The task therefore fell to Maskelyne , for which he was granted a temporary leave of his duties as Astronomer Royal . He was aided in the task by mathematician and surveyor Charles Hutton and Reuben Burrow , a mathematician of the Royal Greenwich Observatory . A workforce of labourers was engaged to construct observatories for the astronomers , and assist in the surveying . The science team was particularly well @-@ equipped : its astronomical instruments included a 12 @-@ inch ( 30 cm ) brass quadrant from Cook 's 1769 transit of Venus expedition , a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) zenith sector , and a regulator ( precision pendulum clock ) for timing the astronomical observations . They also acquired a theodolite and Gunter 's chain for surveying the mountain , and a pair of barometers for measuring altitude . Generous funding for the experiment was available due to underspend on the transit of Venus expedition , which had been turned over to the Society by the King .
= = Measurements = =
= = = Astronomical = = =
Observatories were constructed to the north and south of the mountain , plus a bothy to accommodate equipment and the scientists . Most of the workforce was however housed in rough canvas tents . Maskelyne 's astronomical measurements were the first to be conducted . It was necessary for him to determine the zenith distances with respect to the plumb line for a set of stars at the precise time that each passed due south . Weather conditions were frequently unfavourable due to mist and rain . However , from the south observatory , he was able to take 76 measurements on 34 stars in one direction , and then 93 observations on 39 stars in the other . From the north side , he then conducted a set of 68 observations on 32 stars and a set of 100 on 37 stars . By conducting sets of measurements with the plane of the zenith sector first facing east and then west , he successfully avoided any systematic errors arising from collimating the sector .
To determine the deflection due to the mountain , it was necessary to account for the curvature of the Earth : an observer moving north or south will see the local zenith shift by the same angle as any change in latitude . After accounting for observational effects such as precession , aberration of light and nutation , Maskelyne showed that the difference between the locally determined zenith for observers north and south of Schiehallion was 54 @.@ 6 arc seconds . Once the surveying team had provided a difference of 42 @.@ 94 ″ latitude between the two stations , he was able to subtract this , and after rounding to the accuracy of his observations , announce that the sum of the north and south deflections was 11 @.@ 6 ″ .
Maskelyne published his initial results in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1775 , using preliminary data on the mountain 's shape and hence the position of its center of gravity . This led him to expect a deflection of 20 @.@ 9 ″ if the mean densities of Schiehallion and the Earth were equal . Since the deflection was about half this , he was able to make a preliminary announcement that the mean density of the Earth was approximately double that of Schiehallion . A more accurate value would have to await completion of the surveying process .
Maskelyne took the opportunity to note that Schiehallion exhibited a gravitational attraction , and thus all mountains did ; and that Newton 's inverse square law of gravitation had been confirmed . An appreciative Royal Society presented Maskelyne with the 1775 Copley Medal ; the biographer Chalmers later noting that " If any doubts yet remained with respect to the truth of the Newtonian system , they were now totally removed " .
= = = Surveying = = =
The work of the surveying team was greatly hampered by the inclemency of the weather , and it took until 1776 to complete the task . To find the volume of the mountain , it was necessary to divide it into a set of vertical prisms and compute the volume of each . The triangulation task falling to Charles Hutton was considerable : the surveyors had obtained thousands of bearings to more than a thousand points around the mountain . Moreover , the vertices of his prisms did not always conveniently coincide with the surveyed heights . To make sense of all his data , he hit upon the idea of interpolating a series of lines at set intervals between his measure values , marking points of equal height . In doing so , not only could he easily determine the heights of his prisms , but from the swirl of the lines one could get an instant impression of the form of the terrain . Hutton had invented contour lines , in common use since for depicting cartographic relief .
Hutton had to compute the individual attractions due to each of the many prisms that formed his grid , a process which was as laborious as the survey itself . The task occupied his time for a further two years before he could present his results , which he did in a hundred @-@ page paper to the Royal Society in 1778 . He found that the attraction of the plumb @-@ bob to the Earth would be 9 @,@ 933 times that of the sum of its attractions to the mountain at the north and south stations , if the density of the Earth and Schiehallion had been the same . Since the actual deflection of 11 @.@ 6 ″ implied a ratio of 17 @,@ 804 : 1 after accounting for the effect of latitude on gravity , he was able to state that the Earth had a mean density of <formula> , or about <formula> that of the mountain . The lengthy process of surveying the mountain had not therefore greatly affected the outcome of Maskelyne 's calculations . Hutton took a density of 2 @,@ 500 kg · m − 3 for Schiehallion , and announced that the density of the Earth was <formula> of this , or 4 @,@ 500 kg · m − 3 . In comparison with the modern accepted figure of 5 @,@ 515 kg · m − 3 , the density of the Earth had been computed with an error of less than 20 % .
That the mean density of the Earth should so greatly exceed that of its surface rocks naturally meant that there must be more dense material lying deeper . Hutton correctly surmised that the core material was likely metallic , and might have a density of 10 @,@ 000 kg · m − 3 . He estimated this metallic portion to occupy some 65 % of the diameter of the Earth . With a value for the mean density of the Earth , Hutton was able to set some values to Jérôme Lalande 's planetary tables , which had previously only been able to express the densities of the major solar system objects in relative terms .
= = Repeat experiments = =
A more accurate measurement of the mean density of the Earth was made 24 years after Schiehallion , when in 1798 Henry Cavendish used an exquisitely sensitive torsion balance to measure the attraction between large masses of lead . Cavendish 's figure of 5 @,@ 448 ± 33 kg · m − 3 was only 1 @.@ 2 % from the currently accepted value of 5 @,@ 515 kg · m − 3 , and his result would not be significantly improved upon until 1895 by Charles Boys . The care with which Cavendish conducted the experiment and the accuracy of his result has led his name to since be associated with it .
John Playfair carried out a second survey of Schiehallion in 1811 ; on the basis of a rethink of its rock strata , he suggested a density of 4 @,@ 560 to 4 @,@ 870 kg · m − 3 , though the then elderly Hutton vigorously defended the original value in an 1821 paper to the Society . Playfair 's calculations had raised the density closer towards its modern value , but was still too low and significantly poorer than Cavendish 's computation of some years earlier .
The Schiehallion experiment was repeated in 1856 by Henry James , director @-@ general of the Ordnance Survey , who instead used the hill Arthur 's Seat in central Edinburgh . With the resources of the Ordnance Survey at his disposal , James extended his topographical survey to a 21 @-@ kilometre radius , taking him as far as the borders of Midlothian . He obtained a density of about 5 @,@ 300 kg · m − 3 .
An experiment in 2005 undertook a variation of the 1774 work : instead of computing local differences in the zenith , the experiment made a very accurate comparison of the period of a pendulum at the top and bottom of Schiehallion . The period of a pendulum is a function of g , the local gravitational acceleration . The pendulum is expected to run more slowly at altitude , but the mass of the mountain will act to reduce this difference . This experiment has the advantage of being considerably easier to conduct than the 1774 one , but to achieve the desired accuracy , it is necessary to measure the period of the pendulum to within one part in one million . This experiment yielded a value of the mass of the Earth of 8 @.@ 1 ± 2 @.@ 4 × 1024 kg , corresponding to a mean density of 7 @,@ 500 ± 1 @,@ 900 kg · m − 3 .
A modern re @-@ examination of the geophysical data was able to take account of factors the 1774 team could not . With the benefit of a 120 @-@ km radius digital elevation model , greatly improved knowledge of the geology of Schiehallion , and in particular a computer , a 2007 report produced a mean Earth density of 5 @,@ 480 ± 250 kg · m − 3 . When compared to the modern figure of 5 @,@ 515 kg · m − 3 , it stood as a testament to the accuracy of Maskelyne 's astronomical observations .
= = Mathematical procedure = =
Consider the force diagram to the right , in which the deflection has been greatly exaggerated . The analysis has been simplified by considering the attraction on only one side of the mountain . A plumb @-@ bob of mass m is situated a distance d from P , the centre of mass of a mountain of mass MM and density ρM . It is deflected through a small angle θ due to its attraction F towards P and its weight W directed towards the Earth . The vector sum of W and F results in a tension T in the pendulum string . The Earth has a mass ME , radius rE and a density ρE .
The two gravitational forces on the plumb @-@ bob are given by Newton 's law of gravitation :
<formula>
Where G is Newton 's gravitational constant . G and m can be eliminated by taking the ratio of F to W :
<formula>
Where VM and VE are the volumes of the mountain and the Earth . Under static equilibrium , the horizontal and vertical components of the string tension T can be related to the gravitational forces and the deflection angle θ :
<formula>
Substituting for T :
<formula>
Since VE , VM , d and rE are all known , and θ and d have been measured , then a value for the ratio ρE : ρM can be obtained :
<formula>
= Battle of Ban Me Thuot =
The Battle of Ban Me Thuot was a decisive battle of the Vietnam War which led to the complete destruction of South Vietnam 's II Corps Tactical Zone . The battle was part of a larger North Vietnamese military operation known as Campaign 275 to capture the Tay Nguyen region , known in the West as the Vietnamese Central Highlands .
In March 1975 the Vietnam People 's Army ( VPA ) 4th Corps staged a large @-@ scale offensive , known as Campaign 275 , with the aim of capturing the Central Highlands from the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) in order to kick @-@ start the first stage of the 1975 Spring Offensive . Within ten days , the North Vietnamese destroyed most South Vietnamese military formations in II Corps Tactical Zone , exposing the severe weaknesses of the South Vietnamese Army . For South Vietnam , the defeat at Ban Me Thuot and the disastrous evacuation from the Central Highlands came about as a result of two major mistakes . Firstly , in the days leading up to the assault on Ban Me Thuot , ARVN Major General Pham Van Phu repeatedly ignored intelligence which showed the presence of several North Vietnamese combat divisions around the district . Secondly , President Nguyen Van Thieu 's strategy to withdraw from the Central Highlands was poorly planned and implemented .
In the end , it was the ordinary South Vietnamese soldiers and their families who paid the ultimate price , as North Vietnamese artillery decimated the South Vietnamese military convoy on Route 7 .
= = Background = =
At the beginning of 1975 , members of the North Vietnamese Political Bureau paid close attention to the military situation in South Vietnam to plan for their next major offensive . On January 8 , two days after the Vietnam People ’ s Army 4th Corps had captured Phuoc Long on the northern edges of South Vietnam ’ s III Corps Tactical Zone , North Vietnamese leaders agreed to launch an all @-@ out military offensive , in order to end the war . Originally the North Vietnamese leaders expected the campaign would last two years , be completed in 1976 , and pave the way for final victory . Their key objectives were to bring military pressure closer to Saigon , annihilate as many South Vietnamese military units as possible , and create favourable conditions on the battlefield so that combat forces could be deployed from their current localities .
Following extensive discussions on the fighting ability of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , the Political Bureau approved the General Staff ’ s plan , which had selected the Central Highlands as the main battlefield for the upcoming offensive . The Central Highlands campaign was codenamed ‘ Campaign 275 ’ and the goal was to capture the city of Ban Me Thuot . To achieve that objective , North Vietnamese General Văn Tiến Dũng placed great emphasis on the principles of massed force , secrecy , and surprise to draw South Vietnamese forces away from the main objective . For the element of surprise to be successful , North Vietnamese forces needed to launch strong diversionary attacks on Pleiku and Kon Tum , thereby leaving Ban Me Thuot completely exposed . Once the element of surprise had been achieved , the North Vietnamese would mass their forces on Ban Me Thuot , and prevent South Vietnamese reinforcements from retaking the city .
= = = Order of battle = = =
= = = = North Vietnam = = = =
In March 1975 the Vietnam People 's Army Central Highlands Front , under the command of General Hoang Minh Thao , were given the responsibility of carrying out Campaign 275 to capture key objectives in the Central Highlands . Major General Vu Lang was the deputy commander , Colonel Dang Vu Hiep was appointed the Front ’ s political commissar , and Colonel Phi Trieu Ham was the deputy political commissar .
The Central Highlands Front fielded five infantry divisions ( 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ , 10th , 316th , 320A and 968th Infantry Divisions ) and four independent regiments ( 25th , 271st , 95A , and 95B Infantry Regiments ) . To support the aforementioned units , North Vietnam deployed the 273rd Armoured Regiment , two artillery units ( 40th and 675th Artillery Regiments ) , three air @-@ defence units ( 232nd , 234th , and 593rd Air @-@ Defence Regiments ) , two combat engineer units ( 7th and 575th Combat Engineer Regiments ) , and the 29th Communications Regiment .
= = = = Offensive strategy = = = =
Between February 17 and February 19 , 1975 , North Vietnamese field commanders in the Central Highlands Front held a conference to plan for their upcoming offensive . In order to plan their combat strategy , North Vietnamese commanders assessed the potential obstacles faced by the Vietnam People ’ s Army and the strength of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) in the Central Highlands . Following extensive discussions , North Vietnamese commanders concluded that the South Vietnamese army in the Central Highlands could mobilise about 5 – 7 regiment @-@ sized units to counter the upcoming offensive . In the worst @-@ case scenario , if South Vietnamese units were not tied up elsewhere , North Vietnamese commanders thought that South Vietnam could probably mobilise between nine and twelve regiments . North Vietnamese commanders believed South Vietnam could deploy about one or two armoured brigades , three to five battalions of artillery , and 80 aircraft per day to support the army . The North Vietnamese commanders within the Central Highlands Front discussed the possibility of the United States re @-@ entering the conflict , which they believed would see the commitment of about 100 fighter @-@ bombers from the United States Seventh Fleet .
Aside from dealing with the army formations which South Vietnam might have deployed , the question of where and when to strike was the main problem that concerned the North Vietnamese . After the strength of both armies had been taken into account , the Central Highlands High Command came up with two offensive options .
In the first option , the North Vietnamese could avoid the outlying South Vietnamese installations and strike directly at their primary target of Ban Me Thuot . For the first option to be successful , the North Vietnamese had to secure Highways 14 , 19 , and 21 to isolate Ban Me Thuot , and stop potential South Vietnamese reinforcements . The North Vietnamese favoured the first option , because it would give the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division and other support units little or no time to respond . At the same time , the first option would have enabled a quick victory without inflicting large @-@ scale damage on the civilian population of Ban Me Thuot .
In the second option , the North Vietnamese had to destroy all the outlying South Vietnamese defences and then move on to Ban Me Thuot . The Central
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820 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 780 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Stralsund had a crew of 18 officers and 336 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Stralsund spent the majority of her career in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . On 16 August , some two weeks after the outbreak of World War I , Stralsund and Strassburg conducted a sweep into the Hoofden to search for British reconnaissance forces . The two cruisers encountered a group of sixteen British destroyers and a light cruiser at a distance of about 10 @,@ 000 m ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) . Significantly outnumbered , the two German cruisers broke contact and returned to port . The ship 's first major action was the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914 . British battlecruisers and light cruisers raided the German reconnaissance screen in the Heligoland Bight . At 12 : 30 , Stralsund , Danzig , and Ariadne arrived to reinforce Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass , and quickly turned the tide against the British light cruisers . Shortly thereafter , the British battlecruisers intervened and sank Ariadne and Maass 's flagship Cöln . Stralsund and the rest of the surviving light cruisers retreated into the haze and were reinforced by the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . Stralsund and Danzig returned and rescued most of the crew of Ariadne .
She also participated in the raid on Yarmouth on 2 – 3 November 1914 , as reconnaissance screen for the I Scouting Group . While the battlecruisers bombarded the town of Yarmouth , Stralsund laid a minefield , which sank a steamer and the submarine HMS D5 which had sortied to intercept the German raiders . After completing the bombardment , the German squadron returned to port without encountering British forces . Stralsund was also present during the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , again screening for the I Scouting Group . In the withdrawal after bombarding the towns , the Germans were nearly intercepted by British forces ; the cruiser HMS Southampton spotted Stralsund and several torpedo boats . Confusion aboard the British flagship allowed the German squadron to escape , however . On 25 December , the British launched the Cuxhaven Raid , an air attack on the German naval base in Cuxhaven and the Nordholz Airbase . Stralsund engaged one of the attacking seaplanes , but was unable to shoot it down .
The ship was again part of the reconnaissance screen for the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank on 24 January 1915 . Stralsund and Graudenz were assigned to the front of the screen and Rostock and Kolberg steamed on either side of the formation ; each cruiser was supported by a half @-@ flotilla of torpedo boats . At 08 : 15 , lookouts on Stralsund and Kolberg spotted heavy smoke from large British warships approaching the formation . As the main German fleet was in port and therefore unable to support the battlecruisers , Hipper decided to retreat at high speed . The British battlecruisers were able to catch up to the Germans , however , and in the ensuing battle , the large armored cruiser Blücher was sunk .
Stralsund was not available for the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 as she was being rearmed with 15 cm SK L / 45 guns . The refit was completed at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel . The twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were replaced with seven 15 cm weapons and two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 guns . On 2 February 1918 , Stralsund struck a mine laid by British ships in the North Sea . The dreadnought Kaiser and several other ships steamed out to escort Stralsund back to port . The ship was unavailable for the major fleet operation on 23 – 24 April 1918 to intercept a British convoy to Norway .
After the war , Stralsund served briefly with the reorganized Reichsmarine in 1919 . The Treaty of Versailles specified that the ship was to be disarmed and handed over to the Allies within two months of the signing of the treaty . She was ceded to France as a war prize under the transaction name " Z " . The ship was formally handed over in Cherbourg on 3 August 1920 . The ship was renamed Mulhouse and served briefly with the French Navy until a refit in 1925 in Brest . By this time , she was thoroughly worn out and was therefore placed in reserve shortly after completing the refit . On 15 February 1933 , Mulhouse was stricken from the naval register and broken up for scrap in Brest in 1935 . The ship 's bell was later returned to Germany and is now on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial .
= Aaron Sorkin =
Aaron Benjamin Sorkin ( born June 9 , 1961 ) is an American screenwriter , producer , and playwright . His works include the Broadway plays A Few Good Men and The Farnsworth Invention ; the television series Sports Night , The West Wing , Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip , and The Newsroom ; and the films A Few Good Men , The American President , Charlie Wilson 's War , The Social Network , Moneyball , and Steve Jobs .
Sorkin 's trademark rapid @-@ fire dialogue and extended monologues are complemented , in television , by frequent collaborator Thomas Schlamme 's characteristic directing technique called the " walk and talk " . These sequences consist of single tracking shots of long duration involving multiple characters engaging in conversation as they move through the set ; characters enter and exit the conversation as the shot continues without any cuts .
= = Early years = =
Sorkin was born in Manhattan , New York City , to a Jewish family , and was raised in the NY suburb of Scarsdale . His mother was a schoolteacher and his father a copyright lawyer who had fought in WWII and put himself through college on the G.I. Bill ; both his older sister and brother went on to become lawyers . His paternal grandfather was one of the founders of the International Ladies ' Garment Workers ' Union ( ILGWU ) . Sorkin took an early interest in acting . Before he reached his teenage years , his parents were taking him to the theatre to see shows such as Who 's Afraid of Virginia Woolf ? and That Championship Season .
Sorkin attended Scarsdale High School where he became involved in the drama and theatre club . In eighth grade he played General Bullmoose in the musical Li 'l Abner . In Scarsdale High 's senior class production of Once Upon a Mattress , Sorkin played Sir Harry . He served as vice president in his junior and senior year at Scarsdale High School and graduated in 1979 .
In 1979 , Sorkin attended Syracuse University . In his freshman year he failed a class that was a core requirement . It was a devastating setback because he wanted to be an actor , and the drama department did not allow students to take the stage until they completed all the core freshman classes . Determined to do better , he returned in his sophomore year , and graduated in 1983 . Recalling the influence on him at college of drama teacher Arthur Storch , Sorkin recalled , after Storch 's death in March 2013 , that " Arthur 's reputation as a director , and as a disciple of Lee Strasberg , was a big reason why a lot of us went to [ Syracuse ] . " You have the capacity to be so much better than you are " , he started saying to me in September of my senior year . He was still saying it in May . On the last day of classes , he said it again , and I said , " How ? " , and he answered , " Dare to fail " . I 've been coming through on his admonition ever since " .
= = = Early career as an actor and playwright = = =
After graduating from Syracuse University with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in Musical Theatre in 1983 , Sorkin moved to New York City where he spent much of the 1980s as a struggling , sporadically employed actor who also worked odd jobs , such as delivering singing telegrams , driving a limousine , touring Alabama with the children 's theatre company Traveling Playhouse , handing out fliers promoting a hunting @-@ and @-@ fishing show , and bartending at Broadway 's Palace Theatre . One weekend , while housesitting at a friend 's place he found an IBM Selectric typewriter , started typing , and " felt a phenomenal confidence and a kind of joy that [ he ] had never experienced before in [ his ] life . "
He continued writing and eventually put together his first play , Removing All Doubt , which he sent to his old Syracuse theatre teacher , Arthur Storch , who was impressed . In 1984 , Removing All Doubt was staged for drama students at his alma mater , Syracuse University . After that , he wrote Hidden in This Picture which debuted off @-@ off @-@ Broadway at Steve Olsen 's West Bank Cafe Downstairs Theatre Bar in New York City in 1988 . The contents of his first two plays got him a theatrical agent . Producer John A. McQuiggan saw the production of Hidden in This Picture and commissioned Sorkin to turn the one @-@ act into a full @-@ length play called Making Movies .
= = = A Few Good Men = = =
Sorkin got the inspiration to write his next play , a courtroom drama called A Few Good Men , from a phone conversation with his sister Deborah ( who had graduated from Boston University Law School and signed up for a three @-@ year stint with the U.S. Navy Judge Advocate General 's Corps ) . Deborah told Sorkin that she was going to Guantanamo Bay to defend a group of Marines who came close to killing a fellow Marine in a hazing ordered by a superior officer . Sorkin took that information and wrote much of his story on cocktail napkins while bartending at the Palace Theatre . He and his roommates had purchased a Macintosh 512K so when he returned home he would empty his pockets of the cocktail napkins and type them into the computer , forming a basis from which he wrote many drafts for A Few Good Men .
In 1988 Sorkin sold the film rights for A Few Good Men to producer David Brown before it premiered , in a deal that was reportedly " well into six figures " . Brown had read an article in The New York Times about Sorkin 's one @-@ act play Hidden in This Picture and found out Sorkin also had a play called A Few Good Men that was having Off Broadway readings . Brown produced A Few Good Men on Broadway at the Music Box Theatre . It starred Tom Hulce and was directed by Don Scardino . After opening in late 1989 , it ran for 497 performances .
Sorkin continued writing Making Movies and in 1990 it debuted Off @-@ Broadway at the Promenade Theatre , produced by John A. McQuiggan , and again directed by Don Scardino . Meanwhile , David Brown was producing a few projects at TriStar Pictures and tried to interest them in making A Few Good Men into a film but his proposal was declined due to the lack of star actor involvement . Brown later got a call from Alan Horn at Castle Rock Entertainment who was anxious to make the film . Rob Reiner , a Castle Rock producing partner , opted to direct it .
= = Screenwriting career ( 1991 – 98 ) = =
= = = Working under contract for Castle Rock Entertainment = = =
In the early 1990s , Sorkin worked under contract for Castle Rock Entertainment , Inc . He wrote the scripts for A Few Good Men , Malice and The American President : The three films grossed about US $ 400 million worldwide . While writing for Castle Rock he became friends with colleagues such as William Goldman and Rob Reiner and met his future wife Julia Bingham , who was one of Castle Rock 's business affairs lawyers .
Sorkin wrote several drafts of the script for A Few Good Men in his Manhattan apartment , learning the craft from a book about screenplay format . He then spent several months at the Los Angeles offices of Castle Rock , working on the script with director Rob Reiner . William Goldman ( who regularly worked under contract at Castle Rock ) became his mentor and helped him to adapt his stageplay into a screenplay . The movie was directed by Reiner , starred Tom Cruise , Jack Nicholson , Demi Moore , and Kevin Bacon , and was produced by Brown . A Few Good Men was released in 1992 and was a box office success .
Goldman also approached Sorkin with a story premise , which Sorkin developed into the script for Malice . Goldman oversaw the project as creative consultant while Sorkin wrote the first two drafts . However , he had to leave the project to finish up the script for A Few Good Men , so screenwriter Scott Frank stepped in and wrote two drafts of the Malice screenplay . When production on A Few Good Men wrapped up , Sorkin took over and resumed working on the Malice right through the final shooting script . Harold Becker directed the film , a medical thriller released in 1993 , which starred Nicole Kidman and Alec Baldwin . Malice had mixed reviews . Vincent Canby in The New York Times described the film as " deviously entertaining from its start through its finish " . Roger Ebert gave it 2 out of 4 stars , and Peter Travers in a 2000 Rolling Stone review summarized it as having " suspense but no staying power " .
Sorkin 's last produced screenplay for Castle Rock was The American President and once again he worked with William Goldman , who served as a creative consultant . It took Sorkin a few years to write the screenplay for The American President , which started off as a massive 385 @-@ page screenplay ; it was eventually whittled down to a standard shooting script of around 120 pages . Rob Reiner directed . The film was critically acclaimed . Kenneth Turan in the Los Angeles Times described the film as " genial and entertaining if not notably inspired " , and believed its most interesting aspects were the " pipe dreams about the American political system and where it could theoretically be headed " .
= = = Script doctor for hire = = =
Sorkin did uncredited script doctor work on several films in the 1990s . He wrote some quips for Sean Connery and Nicolas Cage in The Rock . He worked on Excess Baggage , a comedy about a girl who stages her own kidnapping to get her father 's attention , and rewrote some of Will Smith 's scenes in Enemy of the State .
Sorkin collaborated with Warren Beatty on a couple of scripts , one of which was Bulworth . Beatty , known for occasionally personally financing his film projects through pre @-@ production , also hired Sorkin to rewrite a script titled Ocean of Storms which never went into production . At one point Sorkin sued Beatty for proper compensation for his work on the Ocean of Storms script ; once the matter was settled , he resumed working on the script .
= = Writing for television ( 1998 – 2007 ) = =
= = = Sports Night ( 1998 – 2000 ) = = =
Sorkin came up with the idea to write about the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes happenings on a sports show while he was living in a room in the Four Seasons Hotel in Los Angeles writing the screenplay for The American President . He would work late , with the TV tuned into ESPN , watching continuous replays of SportsCenter . The show inspired him to try to write a feature film about a sports show but he was unable to structure the story for film , so instead he turned his idea into a TV comedy series . Sports Night was produced by Disney and debuted on the Disney @-@ owned ABC network in the fall of 1998 .
Sorkin fought with the ABC network during the first season over the use of a laugh track and a live studio audience . The laugh track was widely decried by critics as jarring , with Joyce Millman of Salon.com describing it as " the most unconvincing laugh track you 've ever heard " . Sorkin commented that : " Once you do shoot in front of a live audience , you have no choice but to use the laugh track . Oftentimes [ enhancing the laughs ] is the right thing to do . Sometimes you do need a cymbal crash . Other times , it alienates me . " The laugh track was gradually dialed down and was gone by the end of the first season . Sorkin was triumphant in the second season when ABC agreed to his demands , unburdening the crew of the difficulties of staging a scene for a live audience and leaving the cast with more time to rehearse .
Although Sports Night was critically acclaimed , ABC canceled the show after two seasons due to its low ratings . Sorkin entertained offers to continue the show on other television channels but declined all the offers as they were mainly contingent on his involvement which would have been a difficult prospect given that he was simultaneously writing The West Wing at that point .
= = = The West Wing ( 1999 – 2006 ) = = =
Sorkin conceived the political TV drama The West Wing in 1997 when he went unprepared to a lunch with producer John Wells and in a panic pitched to Wells a show centered on the senior staff of the White House , using leftover ideas from his script for The American President . He told Wells about his visits to the White House while doing research for The American President , and they found themselves discussing public service and the passion of the people who serve . Wells took the concept and pitched it to the NBC network , but was told to wait because the facts behind the Lewinsky scandal were breaking and there was concern that an audience would not be able to take a show about the White House seriously . When a year later some other networks started showing interest in The West Wing , NBC decided to greenlight the series despite their previous reluctance . The pilot debuted in the fall of 1999 and was produced by Warner Bros. TV .
The West Wing was honored with nine Emmy Awards for its debut season , making the show a record holder for most Emmys won by a series in a single season . Following the awards ceremony , a fiasco ensued , centered on the Emmy for writing The West Wing episode " In Excelsis Deo " which was awarded to Sorkin and Rick Cleveland , when it was reported in a The New York Times article that Cleveland had been ushered off the stage by Sorkin without being given a chance to say a few words . The story behind The West Wing episode is based on Cleveland 's father , a Korean war veteran who spent the last years of his life on the street , as Cleveland explains in his FreshYarn.com essay titled " I Was the Dumb Looking Guy with the Wire @-@ Rimmed Glasses " . A back and forth took place between Sorkin and Cleveland in a public web forum at Mighty Big TV where Sorkin explained that he gives his writers " Story By " credit on a rotating basis " by way of a gratuity " and that he had thrown out Cleveland 's script and started from scratch . In the end , Sorkin apologized to Cleveland . Cleveland and Sorkin also won the Writers Guild of America Award for best episodic drama at the February 2001 ceremony for " In Excelsis Deo " .
In 2001 , after wrapping up the second season of The West Wing , Sorkin had a drug relapse , only two months after receiving a Phoenix Rising Award for drug recovery ; this became public knowledge when he was arrested at Burbank Airport for possession of hallucinogenic mushrooms , marijuana , and crack cocaine . He was ordered by a judge to attend a drug diversion program . His drug addiction was highly publicized , most notably when Saturday Night Live did a parody called " The West Wing " , though he did recover .
In 2002 , Sorkin criticized NBC news anchor Tom Brokaw 's TV special about a day in the life of a president , " The Bush White House : Inside the Real West Wing " , comparing it to the act of sending a valentine to President George W. Bush instead of real news reporting . Sorkin 's TV series The West Wing aired on the same network , and so at the request of NBC 's Entertainment President Jeff Zucker he apologized , but would later say " there should be a difference between what NBC News does and what The West Wing TV series does . "
Sorkin wrote 87 screenplays in all , which amounts to nearly every episode during the show 's first four Emmy @-@ winning seasons . Sorkin describes his role in the creative process as " not so much [ that of ] a showrunner or a producer . I 'm really a writer . " He admits that this approach can have its drawbacks , saying " Out of 88 [ West Wing ] episodes that I did we were on time and on budget never , not once . " In 2003 , at the end of the fourth season , Sorkin and fellow executive producer Thomas Schlamme left the show due to internal conflicts at Warner Bros. TV not involving the NBC network , thrusting producer John Wells into an expanded role as showrunner . Sorkin never watched any episodes beyond his writing tenure apart from 60 seconds of the fifth season 's first episode , describing the experience as " like watching somebody make out with my girlfriend . " Sorkin would later return in the final episode in a cameo appearance as a member of President Bartlet 's staff .
= = = Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =
In 2003 Sorkin divulged to the American television interviewer Charlie Rose on The Charlie Rose Show that he was developing a TV series based on a late @-@ night sketch comedy show like Saturday Night Live . In early October 2005 a pilot script dubbed Studio 7 on the Sunset Strip for a new TV series , written by him and with Tommy Schlamme attached as producer , started circulating around Hollywood and generating interest on the web . A week later , NBC bought from Warner Bros. TV the right to show the TV series on their network for a near @-@ record license fee in a bidding war with CBS . The show 's name was later changed to Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip . Sorkin described the show as having " autobiographical elements " to it and " characters that are based on actual people " but said that it departs from those beginnings to look at the backstage maneuverings at a late night sketch comedy show .
In September 2006 , the pilot for Studio 60 aired on NBC , directed by Schlamme . The pilot was critically acclaimed and viewed by over 12 million people , but Studio 60 experienced a significant drop in audience by mid @-@ season . The seething anticipation that preceded the début was followed up by a large amount of thoughtful and scrupulous criticism in the press , as well as largely negative analysis in the blogosphere . In January 2007 , Sorkin spoke out against the press for focusing too heavily on the ratings slide and for using blogs and unemployed comedy writers as sources . After two months on hiatus , Studio 60 resumed to air the last episodes of season one , which would be its only season .
= = 2004 – present = =
= = = Return to the theatre = = =
In 2003 , Sorkin was writing a screenplay on spec about the story of inventor and television pioneer Philo Farnsworth , a topic he had first become familiar with back in the early 1990s when producer Fred Zollo approached him with the idea of adapting a memoir by Elma Farnsworth into a biopic . The next year he completed the screenplay under the title " The Farnsworth Invention " , and it was picked up by New Line Cinema with Thomas Schlamme signed on to direct . The story is about the patent battle between inventor Philo Farnsworth and RCA tycoon David Sarnoff for the technology that allowed the first television transmissions in the US .
At the same time , Sorkin was contacted by Jocelyn Clarke , the commissions manager of the Abbey Theatre in Dublin , requesting he write a play for them , a commission which he accepted . In time Sorkin decided to tackle his commission by rewriting " The Farnsworth Invention " as a play . He delivered a first draft of the play to the Abbey Theatre in early 2005 , and a production was purportedly planned for 2007 with La Jolla Playhouse in California deciding to stage a workshop production of the play in collaboration with the Abbey Theatre . But in 2006 the Abbey Theatre 's new management pulled out of all involvement with The Farnsworth Invention . Despite the setback , La Jolla Playhouse pushed on , with Steven Spielberg lending his talents as producer . The production opened under La Jolla 's signature Page To Stage program which allowed Sorkin and director Des McAnuff to develop the play from show to show according to audience reactions and feedback ; the play ran at La Jolla Playhouse from February 20 , 2007 through March 25 , 2007 . A production followed on Broadway , beginning in previews at the Music Box Theatre and scheduled to open on November 14 , 2007 ; however , the play was delayed by the 2007 Broadway stagehand strike . The Farnsworth Invention eventually opened at the Music Box Theatre on December 3 , 2007 following the end of the strike ; it closed on March 2 , 2008 .
In 2005 , Sorkin revised his play A Few Good Men for a revival at the London West End theatre , the Haymarket . The play opened at the Theatre Royal Haymarket in the fall of the same year and was directed by David Esbjornson , with Rob Lowe of The West Wing in the lead role .
= = = Return to film = = =
Sorkin 's return to film occurred when he was commissioned by Universal Pictures to adapt 60 Minutes producer George Crile 's nonfiction book Charlie Wilson 's War for Tom Hanks ' production company Playtone . Charlie Wilson 's War is about the colorful Texas congressman Charlie Wilson who funded the CIA 's secret war against the former Soviet Union in Afghanistan . Sorkin completed the screenplay and the film was released in 2007 starring Tom Hanks , Julia Roberts , and Philip Seymour Hoffman , directed by Mike Nichols .
In August 2008 , Sorkin announced that he had agreed to write a script for Sony and producer Scott Rudin about how Facebook was founded . The film , The Social Network , based on Ben Mezrich 's novel The Accidental Billionaires , was released on October 1 , 2010 . Sorkin won the Academy , BAFTA and Golden Globe Awards for The Social Network . One year later , Sorkin received nominations for the same awards for co @-@ writing the screenplay to the film Moneyball .
In May 2012 , Sony announced that Sorkin would write a movie based on Walter Isaacson 's biography of Steve Jobs . Sorkin was a guest at the D10 conference in May 2012 and explained his thoughts at the time on the adaptation of Isaacson 's biography :
To be honest , one of the hesitations I had in taking on the movie is that it was a little like writing about the Beatles — that there are so many people out there who know so much about him and who revere him that I just saw a minefield of disappointment . Frankly , that I was going to do something and that people who ... hopefully , when I 'm done with my research , I 'll be in the same ball park of knowledge about Steve Jobs that so many people in this room are .
Steve Jobs , written by Sorkin , directed by Danny Boyle , and starring Michael Fassbender as Jobs , was released in October 2015 . On January 10 , 2016 , Sorkin won the Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay for his work on this film .
= = = Return to television = = =
It was announced in 2011 Sorkin would be returning to television with two HBO projects . He has teamed with The Office star John Krasinski to develop a miniseries about the Chateau Marmont Hotel based on Life at the Marmont , a book by the hotel 's co @-@ owner Raymond R. Sarlot and Fred Basten . He also developed The Newsroom , a series about a fictional cable news network . The series lasted three seasons , premiering on June 24 , 2012 , and concluding on December 14 , 2014 .
= = = Future projects = = =
In March 2007 , it was reported that Sorkin had signed on to write a musical adaptation of the hit 2002 record Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots by psychedelic @-@ rock band The Flaming Lips , collaborating with director Des McAnuff who had been developing the project .
On July 12 , 2007 , Variety reported that Sorkin had signed a deal with DreamWorks to write three scripts . The first script is titled The Trial of the Chicago 7 , which Sorkin was already developing with Steven Spielberg and producers Walter Parkes and Laurie MacDonald . In March 2010 , Sorkin 's agent , Ari Emanuel , was reported as saying that the project was proving " tough to get together " . However , in late July 2013 , it was announced that Academy Award nominated director Paul Greengrass was in final talks to direct Sorkin 's script and that Steven Spielberg had previously been attached .
In August 2008 , Des McAnuff announced that Sorkin had been commissioned by the Stratford Shakespeare Festival to write an adaptation of Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard .
In 2010 , Sorkin reportedly obtained the film rights to Andrew Young 's book , The Politician ( about Sen. John Edwards ) , and announced that he would make his debut as a film director while also adapting the book for the screen .
In November 2010 , it was reported that Sorkin would be writing a musical based on the life of Houdini , with music by Danny Elfman . In January 2012 , Stephen Schwartz was reported to be writing the music and lyrics , with Sorkin making his debut as a librettist . The musical was expected to come out in 2013 @-@ 14 , with Sorkin saying " The chance to collaborate with Stephen Schwartz , ( the director ) Jack O 'Brien , and Hugh Jackman on a new Broadway musical is a huge gift . " In January 2013 , he dropped out of the project , citing film and TV commitments .
In September 2015 , it was reported that Sorkin is writing a biopic that will focus on the twenty year marriage of Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz and their work together on I Love Lucy and The Lucy – Desi Comedy Hour . Academy Award winner Cate Blanchett is set to star as Ball , while the role of Arnaz is yet to be determined .
In January 2016 , it was announced that Sorkin would make his directorial debut with the film Molly 's Game for Sony Pictures Entertainment , based on Molly Bloom 's memoir and which he would adapt by himself .
In February 2016 , it was revealed that Sorkin will be adapting To Kill a Mockingbird for the stage , where he will be working alongside Bartlett Sher .
In March 2016 , it was announced that Sorkin would be adapting A Few Good Men for a live production on NBC , slated to air in 2017 .
= = Writing process and style = =
Sorkin has written for the theatre , film and television , and in each medium his level of collaboration with other creators has varied . He began in theatre which involved a largely solitary writing process , then moved into film where he collaborated with director Rob Reiner and screenwriter William Goldman , and eventually worked in television where he collaborated very closely with director Thomas Schlamme for nearly a decade on the shows Sports Night , The West Wing , and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip ; he now moves between all three media . He has a habit of chain smoking while he spends countless hours cooped up in his office plotting out his next scripts . He describes his writing process as physical because he will often stand up and speak the dialogue he is developing .
A New York Times article by Peter De Jonge explained that " The West Wing is never plotted out for more than a few weeks ahead and has no major story lines " , which De Jonge believed was because " with characters who have no flaws , it is impossible to give them significant arcs " . Sorkin has stated : " I seldom plan ahead , not because I don 't think it 's good to plan ahead , there just isn 't time . " Sorkin has also said , " As a writer , I don 't like to answer questions until the very moment that I have to . " The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer 's TV critic John Levesque has commented that Sorkin 's writing process " can make for ill @-@ advised plot developments " . Further complicating the matter , in television , Sorkin will have a hand in writing every episode , rarely letting other writers earn full credit on a script . Peter De Jonge has reported that ex @-@ writers of The West Wing have claimed that " even by the spotlight @-@ hogging standards of Hollywood , Sorkin has been exceptionally ungenerous in his sharing of writing credit " . In a comment to GQ magazine in 2008 , Sorkin said , " I 'm helped by a staff of people who have great ideas , but the scripts aren 't written by committee . "
Sorkin 's nearly decade @-@ long collaboration in television with director Thomas Schlamme began in early 1998 when they found they shared common creative ground on the soon to be produced Sports Night . Their successful partnership in television is one in which Sorkin focuses on writing the scripts while Schlamme executive produces and occasionally directs ; they have worked together on Sports Night , The West Wing , and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip . Schlamme will create the look of the shows , work with the other directors , discuss the scripts with Sorkin as soon as they are turned in , make design and casting decisions , and attend the budget meetings ; Sorkin tends to stick strictly to writing . In response to what he perceived as unfair criticism of The Newsroom , Jacob Drum of Digital Americana wrote , " The essential truth that the critics miss is that The Newsroom is Sorkin being Sorkin as he always has been and always will be : one part pioneer ; one part self @-@ conscious romantic ; two parts actual Lewis & Clark @-@ style pioneer , trapping his way across an old , old idea of an America that can always stand to raise its game — but most importantly , spinning a good yarn while he does so . "
Sorkin is known for writing memorable lines and fast @-@ paced dialogue , such as " You can 't handle the truth ! " from A Few Good Men and the partly Latin tirade against God in The West Wing episode " Two Cathedrals " . For television , one hallmark of Sorkin 's writer 's voice is the repartee that his characters engage in as they small talk and banter about whimsical events taking place within an episode , and interject obscure popular culture references into conversation .
Although his scripts are lauded for being literate , Sorkin has been criticized for often turning in scripts that are overwrought . His mentor William Goldman has commented that normally in visual media speeches are avoided , but that Sorkin has a talent for dialogue and gets away with breaking this rule .
= = Personal life = =
Sorkin married Julia Bingham in 1996 and divorced in 2005 , with his workaholic habits and drug abuse reported to be a partial cause . Sorkin and Bingham have one daughter , Roxy . Sorkin was a dependent cocaine user for many years and , after a highly publicized arrest in 2001 , he received treatment in a drug diversion program .
For several years , he dated Kristin Chenoweth , who played Annabeth Schott on The West Wing ( though after Sorkin had left the show ) . He has also reportedly dated columnist Maureen Dowd and actress Kristin Davis .
A consistent supporter of the Democratic Party , Sorkin has made substantial political campaign contributions to candidates between 1999 and 2011 , according to CampaignMoney.com. During the 2004 US presidential election campaign , the liberal advocacy group MoveOn 's political action committee enlisted Sorkin and Rob Reiner to create one of their anti @-@ Bush campaign advertisements . In August 2008 , Sorkin was involved in a Generation Obama event at the Fine Arts Theater in Beverly Hills , California , participating in a panel discussion subsequent to a screening of Frank Capra 's Mr Smith Goes to Washington . Despite this Sorkin does not consider himself a political activist noting " I 've met political activists , and they 're for real . I 've never marched anyplace or done anything that takes more effort than writing a check in terms of activism " .
In 1987 , Sorkin started using marijuana and cocaine . He has said that in cocaine he found a drug that gave him relief from certain nervous tensions he deals with on a regular basis . In 1995 , he checked into rehab at the Hazelden Institute in Minnesota , on the advice of his then girlfriend and soon to be wife Julia Bingham , to try to beat his addiction to cocaine . In 2001 , Sorkin along with colleagues John Spencer and Martin Sheen received the Phoenix Rising Award for their personal victories over substance abuse . However , two months later on April 15 , 2001 , Sorkin was arrested when guards at a security checkpoint at the Burbank Airport found hallucinogenic mushrooms , marijuana , and crack cocaine in his carry @-@ on bag when a metal crack pipe set off the gate 's metal detector . He was ordered to a drug diversion program .
Sorkin continued working on The West Wing amidst his drug abuse . In his commencement speech for Syracuse University on May 13 , 2012 , Sorkin declared that he had not used cocaine for eleven years .
= = Credits = =
= = = Filmography = = =
= = = Plays = = =
= = = Cameo acting appearances = = =
= = Accolades = =
= = = Academy Awards = = =
= = = British Academy Film Awards = = =
= = = Critics ' Choice Movie Awards = = =
= = = Golden Globe Awards = = =
= = = Primetime Emmy Awards = = =
= = = = As writer = = = =
= = = = As producer = = = =
= = = Satellite Awards = = =
= = = Writers Guild of America Awards = = =
= = = = Film = = = =
= = = = Television = = = =
= = Further information = =
Aaron Sorkin ( July 2002 ) . The West Wing Script Book . Newmarket Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55704 @-@ 549 @-@ 2 .
Aaron Sorkin ( February 2004 ) . The West Wing Seasons 3 & 4 : The Shooting Scripts : Eight Teleplays . Newmarket Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55704 @-@ 612 @-@ 3 .
" Interview with Aaron Sorkin " ( PDF ) . On Writing Magazine , Issue 18 . The Writers Guild of America , East , Inc . February 2003 @.@ p . 6 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on January 28 , 2007 . Retrieved January 10 , 2007 .
Aaron Sorkin . " Early draft of the Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip pilot script " . Archived from the original on October 24 , 2009 . Retrieved February 1 , 2007 .
Aaron Sorkin and Rob Reiner ( 2001 ) . From Stage to Screen with Aaron Sorkin and Rob Reiner , A Few Good Men ( Special Edition DVD ) ( Documentary ) .
Aaron Barnhart ( January 21 , 2007 ) . " Aaron Sorkin , in his own words " . TV Barn ( Podcast ) .
= Delaware Route 72 =
Delaware Route 72 ( DE 72 ) is a state highway located in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from DE 9 near Delaware City north to DE 7 in Pike Creek . The route runs through suburban areas of northern New Castle County , passing through the eastern part of Newark . DE 72 intersects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) , DE 1 , and DE 7 near Delaware City , DE 71 near Kirkwood , US 40 east of Glasgow , and DE 2 , DE 4 , and DE 273 in Newark . Parts of DE 72 were built as a state highway during the 1930s . By the 1940s , the route was designated between DE 2 in Newark and DE 7 in Pike Creek along Paper Mill Road . The route was extended south to DE 9 in the 1960s . In 1980 , the alignment was shifted to the east through Newark to bypass a railroad crossing on Chapel Street .
= = Route description = =
DE 72 begins at an intersection with DE 9 adjacent to the Delaware City Refinery near Delaware City , heading west on two @-@ lane undivided Wrangle Hill Road . The road continues between the oil refinery to the north and farmland to the south before coming to an intersection with US 13 and the southern terminus of DE 7 in Wrangle Hill , where it widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway . At this point , US 13 turns west for a short concurrency with DE 72 to a diamond interchange with the DE 1 freeway , where US 13 splits north onto DE 1 .
Past this interchange , DE 72 narrows back into a two @-@ lane undivided road and passes through a mix of farmland and residences , coming to an intersection with DE 71 . Following this , the road curves to the northwest through a mix of homes and commercial establishments , crossing Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line . The route curves north and comes to an intersection with US 40 in a commercial area to the east of Glasgow .
Past the US 40 intersection , DE 72 continues to the north on Sunset Lake Road , heading into wooded areas with some fields and residential development and closely running to the west of a Norfolk Southern line . The route crosses to the east side of the railroad tracks and widens into a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane as it comes to an intersection with Old Baltimore Pike . At this intersection , the route name changes to South Chapel Street and it passes through fields with some development , crossing under Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 , Delaware Turnpike ) without an interchange . DE 72 enters the eastern part of Newark and passes industrial parks before heading past businesses and residential neighborhoods as it comes to an intersection with DE 4 .
Following this intersection , the road narrows to two lanes as it heads through agricultural areas to the east of the University of Delaware campus . The route continues northeast onto Library Avenue and runs through woods as it comes to a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line . The road bends north into commercial areas , passing to the east of Newark High School and widening into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it comes to an intersection with Delaware Avenue , which carries the eastbound direction of DE 273 . Here , eastbound DE 273 turns north to join DE 72 and the road reaches an intersection where westbound DE 273 runs west on Main Street and DE 273 continues east as Ogletown Road . Past this intersection , DE 72 becomes concurrent with DE 2 and the name changes to Capitol Trail as it turns northeast and passes under CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line . The road leaves Newark and heads northeast through residential areas , briefly becoming undivided as it crosses White Clay Creek .
DE 72 splits from DE 2 by heading northwest on two @-@ lane undivided Possum Park Road through a mix of fields , woods , and housing developments . In Milford Crossroads , the route turns northeast onto Paper Mill Road and curves north to pass between White Clay Creek State Park to the west and the Middle Run Valley Natural Area to the east . The road continues northeast into the suburban Pike Creek area . DE 72 turns east and reaches its northern terminus at another intersection with DE 7 .
DE 72 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 34 @,@ 091 vehicles at the north end of Newark to a low of 3 @,@ 489 vehicles at the US 13 intersection . The portions of DE 72 concurrent with US 13 and DE 2 are part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 72 originally existed as a county road by 1920 . By 1931 , the road was proposed as a state highway between present @-@ day DE 9 and US 13 while what would become DE 72 north of Milford Crossroads was completed as a state highway . The road from present @-@ day DE 9 to US 13 became a state highway ba year later . On July 1 , 1935 , the remaining sections of the present @-@ day route were transferred from the county to the state . The portion of the road between US 13 and US 40 was improved by the state in 1937 , providing a better route to Baltimore and Washington , D.C. for residents in the Delaware City , Port Penn , and Odessa areas .
DE 72 was designated by 1942 to run from DE 2 in Newark north to DE 7 , following Chapel Street and Paper Mill Road . In 1939 , suggestions were made to replace the bridge over the White Clay Creek along Paper Mill Road in Newark . Plans were completed for this bridge by 1942 but construction was postponed due to World War II . The concrete bridge carrying Paper Mill Road over the White Clay Creek was completed in 1947 , with final work on the project finished in August 1949 . By 1954 , Sunset Lake Road was improved from a dirt road to a low @-@ type bituminous road . The roadway between US 40 and Newark was paved by 1966 .
DE 72 was extended to its present southern terminus at DE 9 the next year , following Chapel Street , Sunset Lake Road , and Wrangle Hill Road . In 1980 , the Chapel Street crossing of the Northeast Corridor rail line in Newark was removed , and DE 72 was realigned farther to the east to follow Library Avenue across the railroad tracks before continuing north on DE 2 and Possum Park Road to Paper Mill Road in Milford Crossroads . DE 2 was realigned to follow DE 72 around the eastern part of Newark on Library Avenue by 1990 . In 2013 , the DE 2 concurrency between DE 4 and DE 273 was removed due to the truncation of DE 2 to the DE 273 intersection . On April 29 , 2016 , Governor Jack Markell , DelDOT secretary Jennifer Cohan , and local officials attended a groundbreaking ceremony for a $ 7 million project that will rebuild the interchange with DE 1 into a diverging diamond interchange , the first such interchange in Delaware .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Arthur Compton =
Arthur Holly Compton ( September 10 , 1892 – March 15 , 1962 ) was an American physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927 for his discovery of the Compton effect , which demonstrated the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation . It was a sensational discovery at the time : the wave nature of light had been well @-@ demonstrated , but the idea that light had both wave and particle properties was not easily accepted . He is also known for his leadership of the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory , and served as Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis from 1945 to 1953 .
In 1919 , Compton was awarded one of the first two National Research Council Fellowships that allowed students to study abroad . He chose to go to Cambridge University 's Cavendish Laboratory in England , where he studied the scattering and absorption of gamma rays . Further research along these lines led to the discovery of the Compton effect . He used X @-@ rays to investigate ferromagnetism , concluding that it was a result of the alignment of electron spins , and studied cosmic rays , discovering that they were made up principally of positively charged particles .
During World War II , Compton was a key figure in the Manhattan Project that developed the first nuclear weapons . His reports were important in launching the project . In 1942 , he became head of the Metallurgical Laboratory , with responsibility for producing nuclear reactors to convert uranium into plutonium , finding ways to separate the plutonium from the uranium and to design an atomic bomb . Compton oversaw Enrico Fermi 's creation of Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , the first nuclear reactor , which went critical on December 2 , 1942 . The Metallurgical Laboratory was also responsible for the design and operation of the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge , Tennessee . Plutonium began being produced in the Hanford Site reactors in 1945 .
After the war , Compton became Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis . During his tenure , the university formally desegregated its undergraduate divisions , named its first female full professor , and enrolled a record number of students after wartime veterans returned to the United States .
= = Early life = =
Arthur Compton was born on September 10 , 1892 in Wooster , Ohio , the son of Elias and Otelia Catherine ( née Augspurger ) Compton , who was named American Mother of the Year in 1939 . They were an academic family . Elias was dean of the University of Wooster ( later The College of Wooster ) , which Arthur also attended . Arthur 's eldest brother , Karl , who also attended Wooster , earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1912 , and was president of MIT from 1930 to 1948 . His second brother Wilson likewise attended Wooster , earned his PhD in economics from Princeton in 1916 and was president of the State College of Washington , later Washington State University from 1944 to 1951 . All three brothers were members of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity .
Compton was initially interested in astronomy , and took a photograph of Halley 's Comet in 1910 . Around 1913 , he described an experiment where an examination of the motion of water in a circular tube demonstrated the rotation of the earth . That year , he graduated from Wooster with a Bachelor of Science degree and entered Princeton , where he received his Master of Arts degree in 1914 . Compton then studied for his PhD in physics under the supervision of Hereward L. Cooke , writing his dissertation on " The intensity of X @-@ ray reflection , and the distribution of the electrons in atoms " .
When Arthur Compton earned his PhD in 1916 , he , Karl and Wilson became the first group of three brothers to earn PhDs from Princeton . Later , they would become the first such trio to simultaneously head American colleges . Their sister Mary married a missionary , C. Herbert Rice , who became the principal of Forman Christian College in Lahore . In June 1916 , Compton married Betty Charity McCloskey , a Wooster classmate and fellow graduate . They had two sons , Arthur Alan and John Joseph Compton .
Compton spent a year as a physics instructor at the University of Minnesota in 1916 – 17 , then two years as a research engineer with the Westinghouse Lamp Company in Pittsburgh , where he worked on the development of the sodium @-@ vapor lamp . During World War I he developed aircraft instrumentation for the Signal Corps .
In 1919 , Compton was awarded one of the first two National Research Council Fellowships that allowed students to study abroad . He chose to go to Cambridge University 's Cavendish Laboratory in England . Working with George Paget Thomson , the son of J. J. Thomson , Compton studied the scattering and absorption of gamma rays . He observed that the scattered rays were more easily absorbed than the original source . Compton was greatly impressed by the Cavendish scientists , especially Ernest Rutherford , Charles Galton Darwin and Arthur Eddington , and he ultimately named his second son after J. J. Thomson .
For a time Compton was a deacon at a Baptist church . " Science can have no quarrel " , he said , " with a religion which postulates a God to whom men are as His children . "
= = Physics professor = =
= = = Compton effect = = =
Returning to the United States , Compton was appointed Wayman Crow Professor of Physics , and
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been so hard that the landing gear had become jammed in a semi @-@ retracted position . Efforts to lower the gear were unsuccessful and Bill Park was forced to eject at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) when fuel ran out . The aircraft was destroyed on impact in the vicinity of the Groom Lake facility . Park survived , but suffered a concussion , forcing him to retire from further test flights . Dyson , who was in the chase plane , recounted : " Just before touchdown the airplane pitched up ... It seemed it slammed down on the ground real hard ... He [ Park ] raised the gear on the go around , and when he tried to extend it on approach , only one of the mains and the nose wheel came down . All this time , gas was being consumed ... I suggested he climb up to 10 @,@ 000 feet for ejection ... He started climbing , but the engine started flaming out , from the lack of fuel , so he ejected . "
= = = HB1002 = = =
At the time of the crash , HB1002 was almost complete , with the lessons learned from the HB1001 incorporated into the aircraft , including the rebuilding of the aft fuselage . HB1002 was distinguished from the prototype in having a gray paint coat . It did not have the flight test instrumentation boom present on HB1001 's nose . As the aircraft was used to test RCS returns , the unstealthy spin recovery chute was removed , and the aircraft was covered in radar @-@ absorbent material . It first flew on 20 July 1978 with Dyson at the controls , who would be the only pilot to fly the aircraft .
HB1002 was lost on 11 July 1979 during the aircraft 's 52nd flight . A hydraulic leak caused an engine fire , resulting in the loss of hydraulic pressure , which in turn caused severe pitch oscillations . The pilot ejected safely , and the aircraft was destroyed . It was later discovered that an engine exhaust clamp had loosened , allowing the hot exhaust to migrate to the right engine compartment . The heat built up there , causing the hydraulic lines to fail . The debris from both aircraft was secretly buried somewhere within the Nellis complex . Despite the crashes , Have Blue was considered a success .
= = = Senior Trend = = =
In October 1977 , just prior to Phase 2 of the XST competition , Lockheed was tasked with exploring possible operational aircraft . Just a month later , on the day HB1001 was transported to Groom Lake , the Air Force awarded the company a contract under the code name Senior Trend . The Air Force wanted to exploit the revolutionary technologies developed during the Have Blue program . The Tactical Air Command ordered five full @-@ scale development and twenty production aircraft .
Based on the Have Blue demonstrators , Senior Trend aircraft were different from their predecessors in several aspects . The wings exhibited less sweep to resolve a center @-@ of @-@ gravity problem discovered during tests . The front fuselage was shortened to give the pilot a better view . And , the vertical stabilizers were canted outwards from the centerline . Additionally , provisions were made to include two weapons bays , each of which would accommodate a single 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) laser @-@ guided bomb , or the B61 tactical nuclear bomb .
Beset by early construction problems , the first FSD aircraft was transferred to Groom Lake in May 1981 inside a C @-@ 5 . Further problems , this time with fuel leaks , delayed the first flight . Under the control of Harold Farley , the aircraft took off on 18 June for its maiden flight , nine months after the July 1980 first flight originally envisaged . The first production F @-@ 117A was delivered in 1982 , and operational capability was achieved in October 1983 ; the 59th and last F @-@ 117 was delivered in 1990 .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Crickmore , Donald , Aronstein and Piccirillo
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 47 ft 3 in ( 14 @.@ 40 m )
Wingspan : 22 ft 6 in ( 6 @.@ 86 m )
Height : 7 ft 6 in ( 2 @.@ 29 m )
Wing area : 386 ft ² ( 35 @.@ 86 m ² )
Empty weight : 8 @,@ 950 lb ( 4 @,@ 060 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 12 @,@ 500 lb ( 5 @,@ 670 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × General Electric J85 @-@ GE @-@ 4A turbojets
Performance
Maximum speed : 600 mph ( 966 km / h )
Wing loading : 32 lb / ft ² ( 156 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 46 – 0 @.@ 62
= William Barley =
William Barley ( 1565 ? – 1614 ) was an English bookseller and publisher . He completed an apprenticeship as a draper in 1587 , but was soon working in the London book trade . As a freeman of the Drapers ' Company , he was embroiled in a dispute between it and the Stationers ' Company over the rights of drapers to function as publishers and booksellers . He found himself in legal tangles throughout his life .
Barley 's role in Elizabethan music publishing has proved to be a contentious issue among scholars . The assessments of him range from " a man of energy , determination , and ambition " , to " somewhat remarkable " , to " surely to some extent a rather nefarious figure " . His contemporaries harshly criticized the quality of two of the first works of music that he published , but he was also influential in his field .
Barley became the assignee of the Thomas Morley , who as well as being a composer held a printing patent ( a monopoly of music publishing ) . He published Anthony Holborne 's Pavans , Galliards , Almains ( 1599 ) , the first work of music for instruments rather than voices to be printed in England . His partnership with Morley enabled him to claim rights to music books , but was short @-@ lived . Morley gave work to the printer Thomas East , and died in 1602 . Some publishers ignored Barley 's claims , and many music books printed during his later life gave him no recognition .
= = Drapers ' Company = =
In a deposition of 1598 , Barley refers to his age as " xxxiii yeeres or thereabowt " , placing his date of birth around 1565 . Evidence suggests that Barley may have been born in Warwickshire . Little else is known about his early life . Barley was in London by 1587 , having completed an apprenticeship with the Drapers ' Company in that year . He trained as a bookseller under Yarath James , a small @-@ time publisher . James operated out of a shop in Newgate Market , near Christ Church Gate , in the 1580s . His interest in ballads was shared by Barley , who published a number of them during his lifetime . By 1592 , Barley had opened his own shop in the parish of St Peter upon Cornhill , whose register recorded his marriage to a Mary Harper on 15 June 1603 and christenings and burials of people associated with his family . He conducted business out of this shop for the next twenty years .
Barley is probably the same William Barley who opened a branch office in Oxford . This action brought him into conflict with the authorities . Barley most likely relied on his assistant , William Davis , to run the Oxford shop while he maintained the business at St Peter upon Cornhill . Davis was arrested in 1599 because Barley had failed to register as a bookseller with Oxford University . The two redeemed themselves though , and in 1603 , Barley and Davis were admitted as " privileged persons " of Oxford University . Privileged status at Oxford allowed tradesmen to practice their trade free from the jurisdiction of the town 's authorities .
Barley ran afoul of London authorities as well . In September 1591 , a warrant was issued for his arrest , although the charge is unknown . Barley also found himself in the midst of a longstanding feud between the Drapers ' Company and the Stationers ' Company . At the time , the latter held a monopoly over the publishing industry ; the Drapers ' Company wanted its members to be able to function as publishers and booksellers as well , insisting that it was the " custom of the City " to grant its freemen the right to engage in the book trade .
From 1591 to 1604 , Barley was associated with at least 57 works . The exact nature of his involvement is , at times , hard to identify . Some works were printed " for " him , others were " to be sold by " him , and two state that they were printed " by " him . He partnered with notable printers and publishers during this period , including Thomas Creede , Abel Jeffes , and John Danter . With Creede , Barley was involved in the publication of A Looking Glass for London and England ( 1594 ) and The True Tragedy of Richard III ( 1594 ) . During this period , Barley entered none of these works in the Stationers ' Register ( by entering a title into the register , a publisher recorded their rights to the work ) . This is probably due to the Stationers ' feud with the Drapers ' ; the Stationers ' viewed the ability of non @-@ members to enter works into the register as a special privilege . Thus , Barley relied on others , such as Creede , Jeffes , and Danter , to enter these titles . Whether Barley merely acted as a bookseller for the enterers or , in private agreements with them , actually retained the rights to some of the works remains unclear .
In 1595 , the Stationers ' Company fined Barley 40 shillings for illicitly publishing a number of works . Three years later , the organization sued him and a fellow draper , Simon Stafford , for allegedly publishing privileged books . A raid on Barley 's former premises found 4 @,@ 000 copies of the Accidence , a Latin grammar book protected by monopoly . Despite pleading his innocence in court , Barley , along with Stafford , Edward Venge , and Thomas Pavier ( who was Barley 's apprentice ) , was found guilty and sentenced to prison . The lawsuit affirmed the Stationers ' Company 's control over the Elizabethan book trade . Stafford , Pavier , and other draper @-@ booksellers joined the company within a few years so that they could continue their trade . Curiously , Barley did not join them until 1606 . The reasons for the delay are debated among scholars . Bibliographer J. A. Lavin suggests that the Stationers ' Company rejected Barley because he had no experience in the printing business . Gerald D. Johnson believes that his partnership with Thomas Morley , who held a royal patent on music publishing , allowed him to circumvent any legal obstacles . The Stationers ' Company could not interfere with the publication of works under royal grant .
= = Music publishing = =
In Elizabethan England , music printing was regulated by two royal patents issued by the queen : one for metrical psalters ( psalms set to music ) and one for all other types of music and music paper . The patent @-@ holders thus held a monopoly — only they or their assignees could legally print music . After printer John Day 's death in 1584 , the patent for metrical psalters transferred to his son Richard Day and was administered by his assignees , who were members of the Stationers ' Company . The more general one was awarded to composers Thomas Tallis and William Byrd in January 1575 . Despite the monopoly , Tallis and Byrd were not successful in their printing endeavors ; their 1575 collection of Latin motets called Cantiones quae ab argumento sacrae vocantur failed to sell and was a financial disaster . After Tallis died in 1585 , Byrd continued holding the patent , producing works with his assignee , Thomas East . The monopoly expired in 1596 , prompting prospective music publishers such as Barley to take advantage of the resulting power vacuum .
In 1596 , despite not having access to a proper music fount , Barley ( using the services of Danter and his wood blocks ) published The Pathway to Music , a music theory book , and A New Booke of Tabliture , a tutor for the lute and related instruments that included compositions by John Dowland , Philip Rosseter , and Anthony Holborne . Both featured numerous errors , and for the latter , Barley seems not to have gained prior publishing approval from the composers . Dowland disowned A New Booke of Tabliture , calling his lute lessons " falce and unperfect " , while Holborne complained of " corrupt coppies " of his work being presented by a " meere stranger " . Modern musicologists have labelled the publication " exasperating " and " seedy " . Morley criticized The Pathway to Music , stating that the author should be " ashamed of his labour " , and that " [ v ] ix est in toto pagina sana libro " ( " there is scarcely a page that makes sense in the whole book " ) . Despite their flaws , both works seem to have been instrumental in introducing music tutor books to the London market .
Two years later , Morley was awarded the same printing monopoly that Byrd had held . Morley 's pick of Barley as an assignee ( rather than experienced printers such as East or Peter Short , both of whom had previously worked with Morley ) is surprising . Morley may have been looking for help in challenging the metrical psalter patent of Richard Day and his assignees . At that time , East and Short were stationers , and the Stationers ' Company was actively enforcing the Day monopoly . Barley , however , was not a stationer , and in 1599 he and Morley published The Whole Booke of Psalmes and Richard Allison 's Psalmes of David in Metre . The former was a small pocket edition that was largely based on East 's 1592 publication of the same name . This work , although pirated and filled with small errors , provides some evidence of Barley 's editorial skill ; musicologist Robert Illing notes that if Barley " is to be discredited for roguery , he must also be applauded for his strokes of musical imagination " for successfully compressing such a large work into a pocket @-@ sized production . In Allison 's work , the two claimed that they had exclusive rights on the metrical psalter . Duly provoked , Day sued . The outcome of his lawsuit is not known , but neither Barley nor Morley ever published another metrical psalter .
Under Morley , Barley published eight books . The covers of each indicated that they were " printed by " Barley , but examination of the typography reveals this to be unlikely . At least two of the works contain designs that seem to belong to a device used by London printer Henry Ballard . Significant among these eight works is Holborne 's Pavans , Galliards , Almains ( 1599 ) , the first work of music for instruments rather than voices to be printed in England , and the first edition of Morley 's influential The First Booke of Consort Lessons ( 1599 ) .
= = Stationers ' Company = =
Barley 's relationship with Morley was short @-@ lived . By 1600 , Morley had turned to East as his assignee , authorizing him to print under his name for three years . Two years later , Morley died , and his music patent fell into abeyance . Unable to rely on the protections and privileges of Morley 's monopoly , Barley most likely came under increasing pressure from the Stationers ' Company . His financial circumstances also deteriorated after he was the target of a successful lawsuit by a cook named George Goodale , who was seeking payment of a debt of 80 pounds . As a result of the suit , many of Barley 's goods were seized , including various books and reams of paper . Barley greatly reduced his output from 1601 to 1605 , publishing only six works .
Barley evidently decided that it was futile to continue resisting the Stationers ' Company , and on 15 May 1605 , he successfully petitioned the Drapers ' Company for a transfer to the Stationers ' Company . On 25 June 1606 , the Stationers ' Company admitted him as a member . That same day , the Company 's court , which had the authority to resolve disputes between members , negotiated a settlement in a lawsuit Barley had brought against East concerning the copyrights on certain music books . East claimed that since he had lawfully entered the books into the Company 's register , the rights of the works belonged to him . Barley disagreed , claiming that the works were his through his partnership with Morley , who had held the royal music patent . The court 's compromise settlement recognized the rights of both , stipulating that if East were to print an edition of any of the books in question , he was to acknowledge Barley 's name on the imprint , pay Barley 20 shillings , and supply him with six free copies . On the other hand , Barley could not publish any of the books without the consent of East or his wife .
Despite the settlement recognizing his claim to Morley 's music patent , Barley seemingly found it difficult to enforce his rights , even with his new role as a stationer . Less than half of the known music books published from 1606 to 1613 recognized Barley 's rights on the imprint . Barley took Thomas Adams to the Stationers ' court in 1609 , challenging the copyrights of the music books Adams had published . The court handed down a settlement similar to the one between East and Barley . However , none of the music books Adams published afterward contained any recognition of Barley 's patent .
Barley himself published four books under his patent . In March 1612 , one of Barley 's servants died , possibly from plague . After receiving charitable remuneration from the Stationers ' Company , Barley moved , first to the parish of St Katherine Cree , and later to a house on Bishopsgate . Records from St Botolph @-@ without @-@ Bishopsgate indicate his burial on 11 July 1614 . His widow , Mary , and their son , William , were legatees of the will of Pavier . Mary Barley , who later remarried , transferred five of her husband 's patents to printer John Beale . Some of Barley 's remaining copyrights may have also been passed to the printer Thomas Snodham .
= Battle of St. Louis =
The Battle of St. Louis , Spanish San Luis , also known as the Battle of Fort San Carlos , was an unsuccessful British @-@ led attack on St. Louis ( a French settlement in Spanish Louisiana , founded on the west bank of the Mississippi , after the Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) ) on May 26 , 1780 , during the Anglo @-@ Spanish War of 1779 – 1783 . A force , composed primarily of Indians and led by a former British militia commander , attacked the settlement . The settlement 's defenders , mostly local militia , under the command of Lieutenant Governor of Spanish Louisiana Fernando de Leyba , had fortified the town , as best they could and successfully withstood the attack .
A second simultaneous attack on the nearby American outpost at Cahokia , on the opposite bank of the Mississippi and technically in British @-@ controlled territory , was also repulsed . The retreating Indians destroyed crops and took captive civilians outside the protected area . The British failure effectively ended their attempts to gain control of the Mississippi River , during the war .
= = Background = =
Following the entry of Spain into the American Revolutionary War in 1779 , British military planners in London wanted to secure the corridor of the Mississippi River against both Spanish and Patriot activity . Their plans included expeditions from West Florida to take New Orleans and other Spanish targets , and several expeditions to gain control of targets in the upper Mississippi , including the small town of St. Louis . The expedition from West Florida never got off the ground , since Bernardo de Gálvez , the Governor of Spanish Louisiana , had moved rapidly to gain control of British outposts on the lower Mississippi , and was threatening action against West Florida 's principal outposts of Mobile and Pensacola .
= = = British expedition = = =
The British expeditions from the north were organized by Patrick Sinclair , the military governor at Fort Michilimackinac in present @-@ day Michigan . Beginning in February 1780 he instructed fur traders to circulate through their territories , recruiting interested tribes for an expedition against St. Louis . The fur traders were offered the opportunity to control the fur trade in the upper parts of Spanish Louisiana as an incentive to participate .
Most of the force gathered at Prairie du Chien , where they were placed under the command of Emanuel Hesse , a former militia captain turned fur trader . The force numbered about two dozen fur traders and an estimated 750 to 1 @,@ 000 Indians when it left Prairie du Chien on May 2 . The largest contingent of the force was about 200 Sioux warriors led by Wapasha , with additional sizable companies from the Chippewa , Menominee , and Winnebago nations , and smaller numbers of warriors from other nations . The Chippewa chief Matchekewis was given overall command of the native forces . When the force reached Rock Island they were joined by about 250 men from the Sac and Fox nations . These warriors were somewhat reluctant to attack St. Louis , but Hesse gave them large gifts to secure their participation in the venture . The diversity within the expedition included some animosity among the tribes , for the Chippewa and Sioux in particular had a history of conflict with each other . However , Wapasha and Matchekewis promoted unity during the expedition .
= = = Spanish and American defenses = = =
The village of St. Louis was primarily a trading hub on the Mississippi River , but it was also the administrative capital of Upper Spanish Louisiana , and it was governed by Lieutenant Governor Fernando de Leyba , who was also a captain in the Spanish Army . Leyba was warned in late March 1780 by a fur trader that the British were planning an attack on St. Louis and the nearby American @-@ held post at Cahokia . He began developing plans for the village 's defense . He had only 29 regular army soldiers of the Fijo de Luisiana Colonial Regiment and an inexperienced militia force of 168 , most of whom were dispersed in the surrounding countryside .
Leyba developed a grand plan of defense that included the construction of four stone towers . Without funds , or the time to get them from New Orleans , Leyba asked the villagers to contribute funds and labor to the construction of these fortifications , and paid for some of the work from his private funds . By mid @-@ May a single round tower had been built that was about 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in diameter and thirty to forty feet tall . The tower , dubbed Fort San Carlos , provided a commanding view of the surrounding countryside . As there did not appear to be sufficient time to build more towers , trenches were dug between the tower and the river to the north and south of the village . Five cannon were placed on top of the tower , and additional cannon were placed along the trenches .
With a force of only 197 men , 168 of which were inexperienced militia , it was highly probable that the opposing British @-@ Indian force of 1 @,@ 000 would overwhelm the Fort San Carlos . However , Leyba appealed to a 70 year old French habitant , Francois Valle , who was located 60 miles to the South of the fort at the site of the French Colonial Valles Mines . Valle sent his two sons and 151 well trained and equipped French militia men which tipped the scale in favor of the defenders . By Royal Decree on April 1 , 1782 , King Carlos III of Spain , conferred upon Francois Valle the rank of lieutenant in the regular Spanish army thus making him a Spanish don . ( citation : Colonial Ste . Genevieve : An Adventure on the Mississippi Frontier written by Carl J. Ekberg , Patrice Pr ; 2 Sub Edition , March 1996 ) .
Valle also greatly aided in the Battle of Fort San Carlos because he gave the defenders of both forts a major tactical advantage by supplying them with genuine lead ( instead of pebbles or stones ) from his mines for musket balls and cannonballs . Getting hit with a pebble or stone did not compare to the damage and knockdown power of a 52 caliber rifle ball at 100 feet . [ see http : / / en.wikipedia.org / France in the American Revolutionary War ]
As a result of his contributions , Francois Valle was called the " Defender of St. Louis " [ see http : / / vallemines.com / OfHistoricalNote / DefenderOfStLouis.aspx ] .
On May 15 , Leyba was visited by John Montgomery , the American commander at Cahokia , who proposed a joint Spanish @-@ American force to counter Hesse 's expedition , an idea that did not reach fruition . On May 23 , Leyba 's scouts reported that Hesse 's force was only 14 miles ( 23 km ) away , had landed their canoes , and were coming overland .
= = Battle = =
On May 25 , Hesse sent out scouting parties to determine the situation at St. Louis . These parties were unable to get close to the village due to the presence of workers , including women and children , in the fields outside the village . The next day Hesse sent Jean @-@ Marie Ducharme and 300 Indians across the river to attack Cahokia , while the remainder headed toward St. Louis , arriving about 1 : 00 pm . A warning shot was fired from the tower when they came in view , with the Sioux and Winnebagoes leading the way , followed by the Sac and Fox , and the fur traders , including Hesse , bringing up the rear . Leyba directed the defense from the tower , and opened a withering fire from there and the trenches when the enemy force came in range . On the first volley , most of the Sac and Fox fell back , apparently unwilling to fight , leaving many of the other participants suspicious of their motives in joining the expedition and complaining of their " treachery " .
Wapasha and the Sioux persisted for several hours in attempts to draw the Spanish defenders out , going so far as brutally killing some captives they had taken in the fields . Although this angered some of the townspeople to the point where the militia requested permission to make a sortie , Leyba refused , and the attackers eventually withdrew and headed north , destroying crops , livestock , and buildings as they went .
On the other side of the river , Ducharme 's attack on Cahokia was easily repulsed . The timely arrival of George Rogers Clark to lead its defense played a role ; Clark 's reputation as a frontier fighter made the Indian force reluctant to pursue the attack .
= = Aftermath = =
The village of 700 lost between 50 and 100 killed , wounded , and captured , virtually all civilians . A year later the Spaniards from St. Louis raided Fort St. Joseph , bringing the captured British flag back to St. Louis .
Fernando de Leyba died the following month , the subject of local criticism because he never formally recognized the efforts made by the citizenry in the town 's defense . His valor earned him a promotion to lieutenant colonel from King Charles , who did not know that he had died .
= = Legacy = =
The site where Fort San Carlos stood is at the corner of Fourth and Walnut Streets in St. Louis . A local organization annually commemorates the battle by reading the names of 21 people who lost their lives in the battle . The battle is also remembered in a mural and diorama located in the Missouri State Capitol ( pictured ) .
= Ray Jones ( footballer , born 1988 ) =
Raymond Barry Bankote " Ray " Jones ( 28 August 1988 – 25 August 2007 ) was an English professional footballer who played as a striker . He was known as one of the best young players in English football outside the Premier League . Jones spent his professional career at Queens Park Rangers , making his debut in the Football League Championship in April 2006 . His good form at the start of the following season led to his only international match , for England under @-@ 19 against the Netherlands , as well as bids for other clubs to sign him . He totalled six goals in 37 professional matches .
Jones died three days before his 19th birthday , when he drove head @-@ on into a bus in London . His club retired his shirt number of 31 . An inquest into the accident ruled that had Jones survived , he would have faced charges of death by dangerous driving for the deaths of his two passengers .
= = Career = =
Born in East Ham , London , Jones was rejected as a youth team player at Colchester United before impressing the coaches at Queens Park Rangers ( QPR ) . He made his professional debut on 22 April 2006 , coming on for the final seven minutes as a substitute for Steve Lomas in a 1 – 2 home loss to promotion @-@ chasing Watford . Eight days later , he made his only other appearance of the season , coming on for Stefan Bailey in the 68th minute of a defeat by the same score away to the already @-@ crowned winners of the Football League Championship , Reading .
Jones had his first professional start on 12 August 2006 , in a 2 – 0 win over Southend United at Loftus Road . He assisted Nick Ward 's goal in the 41st minute , which gave QPR their first win of the new season . Brian Glanville of The Sunday Times opined that Jones and fellow youngster Dexter Blackstock combined in the forward line " as though they had been playing together for years " . Ten days later in the second round of the Football League Cup at home to Northampton Town , Jones came on for Marc Bircham in the 84th minute , and three minutes later headed Marcus Bignot 's cross for his first career goal , winning the match 3 – 2 .
On 5 September , Jones made his only international appearance , replacing Giles Barnes in a goalless friendly draw for England under @-@ 19 against the Netherlands at the Bescot Stadium in Walsall . Eighteen days later , he scored his first league goal , opening a 2 – 0 home win over Hull City , the first match of John Gregory 's tenure . Jones followed this the following weekend as QPR came from behind to win 2 – 1 at Southampton , scoring the decisive goal after rounding goalkeeper Kelvin Davis . On 17 November , as a substitute for Blackstock , Jones scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 away win over high @-@ flying Cardiff City , connecting with Ward 's cross with less than three minutes left of the match .
Many Premier League clubs showed interest in Jones after several solid performances , and Gregory at one point stated that he was resigned to him leaving . After scoring the only goal against Colchester on 1 January 2007 , he pledged his future to the club , and a week later as he signed a new three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year deal . In total , Jones played 37 games ( 19 as a substitute ) for QPR in all competitions , scoring six goals .
Colchester made a £ 200 @,@ 000 offer for Jones in June 2007 , which was rejected , but they made another bid the following day , which was also turned down . QPR 's West London derby rivals Fulham also bid for him , as did Derby County , who offered £ 5 @.@ 75 million for him and teammate Lee Cook . He missed the start of the 2007 – 08 season , in the last month of his life , due to a foot injury .
= = = Style of play = = =
Writing Jones ' obituary in The Guardian , QPR fan Benjie Goodhart remembered him as the club 's " own Wayne Rooney , the prodigy , all precocious talent and burgeoning potential " , and attributed him the essential qualities for a forward including strength , speed , intelligence and confidence . He was perceived by the supporters to be the epitome of a new era under manager Gregory and prospective new owner Flavio Briatore , and could do " things for real that his peers acted out on their games consoles " . In spite of his confidence and talent , Jones was humble , and took the London Underground back home from games alongside the supporters .
= = Death = =
Jones died in a car crash in East Ham in the early hours of 25 August 2007 when the vehicle he was driving collided with a bus . He had only become a licensed driver 23 days earlier . Two passengers in his car , Idris Olasupo and Jess Basilva , were also killed ; Olasupo received a letter later that day , inviting him to Fulham 's academy . Jones ' death was compared to that of Kiyan Prince , a QPR youth player who was fatally stabbed the previous year at the age of 15 when breaking up a fight . Goodhart wrote that tributes would be " done particularly beautifully at QPR because , heartbreakingly , we 're getting rather good at it " .
As a mark of respect QPR postponed their upcoming game with Burnley , a team who in turn replaced it with an open training session with proceeds going to the charity of QPR 's choice . QPR also decided to retire the number 31 shirt in memory of Jones , who wore that shirt during his career . In their league game against Southampton on 1 September 2007 , all of the QPR players carried Jones ' name on the back of their shirts as a mark of respect . Ten days later , in the England U19 friendly against Belarus at Meadow Lane in Nottingham , a minute 's applause was held before the match .
An inquest in April 2008 found that Jones had sped over a pedestrian crossing on the wrong side of the road , leading to a head @-@ on collision . His death was recorded as an accident , but it was confirmed that had he survived , he would have been facing two charges of death by dangerous driving .
= = Career statistics = =
= Gheorghe Tătărescu =
For the artist , see Gheorghe Tattarescu .
Gheorghe I. Tătărescu ( also known as Guță Tătărescu , with a slightly antiquated pet form of his given name ; 2 November 1886 – 28 March 1957 ) was a Romanian politician who served twice as Prime Minister of Romania ( 1934 – 1937 ; 1939 – 1940 ) , three times as Minister of Foreign Affairs ( interim in 1934 and 1938 ; appointed to the office in 1945 @-@ 1947 ) , and once as Minister of War ( 1934 ) . Representing the " young liberals " faction inside the National Liberal Party ( PNL ) , Tătărescu began his political career as a collaborator of Ion G. Duca , becoming noted for his anti @-@ Communism and , in time , for his conflicts with the PNL 's leader Dinu Brătianu and the Foreign Minister Nicolae Titulescu . During his first time in office , he moved closer to King Carol II , leading an ambivalent policy toward the fascist Iron Guard and ultimately becoming instrumental in establishing the authoritarian and corporatist regime around the National Renaissance Front . In 1940 , he accepted the cession of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union , and consequently had to resign .
After the start of World War II , Gheorghe Tătărescu initiated a move to rally political forces in opposition to Ion Antonescu 's dictatorship , and sought an alliance with the Romanian Communist Party ( PCR ) . He was twice expelled from the PNL , in 1938 and 1944 , creating instead his own group , the National Liberal Party @-@ Tătărescu , and representing it inside the Communist @-@ endorsed Petru Groza cabinet . In 1946 @-@ 1947 , he was also the President of the Romanian Delegation to the Peace Conference in Paris . After that moment , relations between Tătărescu and the PCR began to sour , and he was replaced from the leadership of both his own party and the Foreign Ministry when his name was implicated in the Tămădău Affair . Following the Communist takeover , he was arrested and held as a political prisoner , while being called to testify in the trial of Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu . He died soon after his release from prison .
Elected an honorary member of the Romanian Academy in 1937 , he was removed from his seat by the Communist authorities in 1948 . One of his brothers , Colonel Ștefan Tătărescu , was at some point the leader of a minor Nazi group , the National Socialist Party .
= = Early life and politics = =
Born in Târgu Jiu , Tătărescu studied at Carol I High School in Craiova . He later went to France , where he was awarded a doctorate from the University of Paris in 1912 , with a thesis on the Romanian parliamentary system ( Le régime électoral et parlementaire en Roumanie ) . He subsequently worked as a lawyer in Bucharest . He fathered a son , Tudor , and a daughter , Sanda ( married to the lawyer Ulise Negropontes in 1940 ) .
After joining the National Liberal Party ( PNL ) , he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time in November 1919 , representing Gorj County . Among his first notable actions as a politician was an initiative to interpellate Nicolae L. Lupu , the Minister of Interior Affairs Ministry in the Romanian National Party @-@ Peasants ' Party cabinet , in answer to concerns that the executive was tolerating socialist agitation in the countryside .
He stood among the PNL 's " young liberals " faction ( as they were colloquially known ) , supporting free trade and a more authoritarian rule over the country around King Carol II , and opposing both the older generation of leaders ( who tended to advocate protectionism and a liberal democracy ) and the dissident group of Gheorghe I. Brătianu ( see National Liberal Party @-@ Brătianu ) .
Undersecretary in the Interior Affairs Ministry under several PNL cabinets ( beginning with that of Ion I. C. Brătianu in 1922 @-@ 1926 ) , he first became noted as a collaborator of Ion G. Duca . In 1924 @-@ 1936 , in contrast to his post @-@ World War II agenda , Tătărescu was a noted anti @-@ communist , and reacted vehemently against the Romanian Communist Party ( PCdR , later PCR ) — recommending and obtaining its outlawing , based on Communist adversity to the concept of Greater Romania , and notably arguing that the Comintern @-@ supported Tatarbunary Uprising was evidence of " imperialist communism " .
= = First cabinet = =
= = = Context = = =
Tătărescu became leader of the cabinet in January 1934 , as the fascist Iron Guard had assassinated Prime Minister Duca on 30 December 1933 ( the five @-@ day premiership of Constantin Anghelescu ensured transition between the two governments ) . His was the second PNL cabinet formed during Carol 's reign , and the latter 's failure to draw support from the mainstream group led to a tight connection being established between Carol and the young liberals , with Tătărescu backing the process leading to the creation of a royal dictatorship . One of Tătărescu 's first measures was a decisive move to end the conflict between the National Liberal executive and the Mayor of Bucharest , Dem I. Dobrescu ( who was backed by the National Peasants ' Party ) — making use of his prerogative , he removed Dobrescu from office on 18 January .
The brief period constituted a reference point in Romanian economy , as the emergence from the Great Depression , although marked by endemic problems , saw prosperity more widespread than ever before . This was , in part , the contribution of new economic relations which Tătărescu defended and encouraged : the state transformed itself into the main agent of economic activities , allowing for prosperous businesses to benefit from its demands , and , in time , leading to the creation of a camarilla dominated by the figures of industrialists such as Aristide Blank , Nicolae Malaxa , and Max Auschnitt . In this context , Tătărescu 's allegedly subservient position in front of Carol was a frequent topic of ridicule at the time . According to a hostile account of the socialist Petre Pandrea :
" Tătărescu was ceremonious in order to cover his menial nature . When he was leaving audiences [ with the King ] , he pressed forward on the small of his back and returned facing backwards from the desk to the door , not daring to show his back . [ ... ] Watching over the scene [ ... ] , Carol II exclaimed to his intimate assistants :
— I don 't have a big enough tooshie for all the politicians to kiss ! "
Among other services rendered , he intervened in the conflict between Carol and his brother , Prince Nicholas , asking the latter to renounce either his marriage to Ioana Dumitrescu @-@ Doletti — considered a misalliance by Carol , it had not been recognized by Romanian authorities — or his princely prerogatives . Nicholas chose the latter alternative in 1937 .
Inside his party , Tătărescu lost ground to Dinu Brătianu , elected by the traditional Liberal elite as a compromise in order to ensure unity ; upon his election in 1934 , the latter stated :
" This time as well , I would have gladly conceded , if I were to believe that anyone else in the party could gather voter unanimity . "
The issue remained debated for the following two years . The party congress of July 1936 eventually elected Tătărescu to the second position in the party , that of general secretary .
= = = European politics = = =
In his foreign policy , Prime Minister Tătărescu balanced two different priorities , attempting to strengthen the traditional military alliance with Poland which was aimed at the Soviet Union , and reacting against the growing regional influence of Nazi Germany by maintaining the relevancy of the Little Entente and establishing further contacts with the Soviets .
In August 1936 , he removed Nicolae Titulescu from the office of Foreign Minister , replacing him with Victor Antonescu . This caused an uproar , with most of Romania 's diplomatic corps voicing their dissatisfaction . Over the following months , virtually all of Titulescu 's supporters were themselves recalled ( including , among others , Constantin Vișoianu , the ambassador to Poland , Constantin Antoniade , Romania 's representative to the League of Nations , Dimitrie Ghyka , the ambassador to Belgium , and Caius Brediceanu , the ambassador to Austria ) while Titulescu 's adversaries , such as Antoine Bibesco , were returned to office . Bibesco subsequently campaigned in France and the United Kingdom , in an attempt to reassure Romania 's main allies that the move did not signify a change in Romania 's priorities . Tătărescu was later blamed by his own party for having renounced the diplomatic course on which Romania had engaged .
In early 1937 , Tătărescu rejected the proposal of Józef Beck , Poland 's Minister of Foreign Affairs , to withdraw Romania 's support for Czechoslovakia and attempt a reconciliation with Hungary ( the following year , Romania withdrew its support for the former , indicating , just before the Munich Agreement , that it was not in a position to guarantee Czechoslovakia 's frontiers ) . This was accompanied by Czechoslovak initiatives to establish close contacts between the Little Entente and the Soviets : a scandal erupted in the same year , when the country 's ambassador to Romania , Jan Šeba , published a volume calling for Soviet @-@ Entente military cooperation ( despite the Soviet @-@ Romanian conflict over Bessarabia ) and expressing the hope that the Soviet state would extend its borders into West Belarus and Ukraine . Kamil Krofta , Czechoslovakia 's Foreign Minister , received criticism for having prefaced the book , and , after Tătărescu paid a visit to Czechoslovak Prime Minister Milan Hodža , Šeba was recalled to Prague .
= = = Facing the Iron Guard = = =
In combating the Iron Guard , Tătărescu chose to relax virtually all pressures on the latter ( while mimicking some of its messages ) , and instead concentrated again on curbing the activities of the Romanian Communist Party ( PCR ) and outlawing its Popular Front @-@ type organizations ( see Amicii URSS ) .
In April 1936 , he and the Minister of the Interior Ion Inculeț allowed the a youth congress to gather in Târgu Mureș , aware of the fact that it was masking a fascist gathering ; delegates to the congress , traveling in a special train commissioned by the government , vandalized Ion Duca 's memorial plate in Sinaia train station , and , upon their arrival in Târgu Mureș , made public their violent anti @-@ Semitic agenda . It was probably there that death squads were designated and assigned missions , leading to the murder of Mihai Stelescu , a former associate , in June of the next year .
In February 1937 , an intense publicity campaign by the Guard , begun with the ostentatious funerals of Ion Moța and Vasile Marin ( killed in the Spanish Civil War ) and culminating in the physical assaulting of Traian Bratu , rector of the University of Iași , by Guardist students , provoked the premier 's order to close down universities throughout the country .
Later in that year , the collaboration between monarch and premier , coupled with the fact that Tătărescu had successfully attracted nationalist votes from the Iron Guard , led to the signing of an electoral agreement between the latter , the National Peasants ' Party ( the main democratic opposition group ) , and the National Liberal Party @-@ Brătianu — the pact was meant to prevent all attempt by Carol to manipulate the votes in elections . ( A secondary and unexpected development was that the illegal PCR , which had decided to back the National Peasants ' Party prior to the elections , eventually supported the electoral pact . ) Tătărescu 's own alliance policy rose the anger of his opponents inside the PNL , as he signed collaboration agreements with the fascist Romanian Front and German Party .
The 1937 elections led to an unprecedented situation : although the PNL and Tătărescu had gained the largest percentage of the vote ( almost 36 % ) , they fell short of being awarded majority bonus ( granted at 40 % of the vote ) . As the far right had gathered momentum ( the Guard , running under the name of " Everything for the Fatherland Party " , had obtained 15 @.@ 6 % of the vote ) , Carol was faced with the threat of an Iron Guard government , which would have been one deeply opposed to all of his political principles : he called on a third party , Octavian Goga 's National Christian Party ( coming from the anti @-@ Semitic far right but deeply opposed to the Guard ) to form a new cabinet in December of that year .
Consequently , Tătărescu renounced his offices inside the party , and , while keeping his office of general secretary , he was surpassed by the readmitted Gheorghe I. Brătianu — who was elected to the new office of PNL vice president on 10 January 1938 . After the failure of Goga 's policies to curb the rise of their competitors , the king , backed by Tătărescu , resorted to dissolving all political parties on 30 May 1938 , creating instead the National Renaissance Front .
= = Second cabinet = =
In this context , Tătărescu chose to back the regime , as the PNL , like the National Peasants ' Party , remained active in nominal clandestinity ( as the law banning it had never been enforced any further ) . Having personally signed the document banning opposition parties , he was expelled from the PNL in April 1938 , and contested the legitimacy of the action for the following years . Allegedly , his ousting was recommended by Iuliu Maniu , leader of the National Peasants ' Party 's and , for the following years , the closest of Dinu Brătianu 's political allies .
Soon after his second arrival to power , Tătărescu became noted for the enthusiastic support he gave to the modernist sculptor Constantin Brâncuși , and directed state funds to finance the building of Brâncuși 's The Endless Column complex in Târgu Jiu ( completed in October 1938 ) .
Alongside Alexandru Vaida @-@ Voevod and Constantin Argetoianu ( whom he succeeded as Premier ) , Tătărescu became a dominant figure in the group of maverick pro @-@ Carol politicians . After a bloody crackdown on the Iron Guard , the Front attempted to reunite political forces in a national government that was to back Carol 's foreign policies in view of increasing threats on Romania 's borders after the outbreak of World War II . In 1945 , Tătărescu stressed his belief that authoritarianism benefited Romania , and supported the view that Carol had meant to keep Romania out of the war . Tătărescu 's second cabinet was meant to reflect the latter policies , but it did not draw any support from traditional parties , and , in April 1940 , Carol , assisted by Ernest Urdăreanu and Mihail Ghelmegeanu , began talks with the ( by then much weaker ) Iron Guard .
Tătărescu remained in office throughout the rest of the Phony War , until the fall of France , and his cabinet signed an economic agreement with Nazi Germany ( through which virtually all Romanian exports were directed towards the latter country ) and saw the crumbling of Romania 's alliance with the United Kingdom and France . The cabinet was brought down by the cession of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union ( effects of the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact ) , as well as by Carol 's attempt to appease German hostility by dissolving it , replacing Tătărescu with Ion Gigurtu , and recreating the Front as the totalitarian Party of the Nation .
= = World War = =
After the Second Vienna Award ( when Northern Transylvania was lost to Hungary ) , confirming Carol 's failure to preserve both the country 's neutrality and its territorial integrity , Romania was taken over by an Iron Guard dictatorial government ( the National Legionary State ) . Speaking five years later , Dinu Brătianu placed the blame for the serious developments on Tătărescu 's own actions , addressing him directly :
" I remind you : [ ... ] you have contributed directly , in 1940 , in steering the country towards a foreign policy that , as one could tell even then , was to prove ill @-@ fated and which led us to the loathsome Vienna settlement , one which you have supported inside the Crown Council [ ... ] . "
On 26 November 1940 , the Iron Guard began a bloody retaliation against various political figures who had served under Carol ( following a late investigation into the 1938 killing of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , the movement 's founder and early leader , by Carol 's authorities ) . Tătărescu and Constantin Argetoianu were among the second wave of captured politicians ( on 27 November ) , and were destined for arbitrary execution ; they were , however , saved by the intervention of regular police forces , most of whom had grown hostile to the Guardist militias .
Retired from political life during the war ,
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for a training exercise ; it was the first time an RAAF Globemaster had airlifted an Abrams , which at 61 tonnes was among the largest single items the 70 @-@ tonne @-@ capacity aircraft could carry . In November that year the squadron took delivery of its sixth Globemaster . It was again awarded the Gloucester Cup in March 2013 , for its proficiency the previous year .
In September 2014 , RAAF C @-@ 17s were used to airlift arms and munitions to forces in Kurdish @-@ controlled northern Iraq following an offensive by ISIL militants . On 10 April 2015 , Prime Minister Tony Abbott announced the purchase of two more C @-@ 17s , which would bring No. 36 Squadron 's complement to eight aircraft . Concurrent with delivery of the new C @-@ 17s by year 's end , No. 36 Squadron 's facilities were to be improved , obviating the need for maintenance to take place in No. 33 Squadron hangars . Also on 10 April , the squadron was awarded the Gloucester Cup a record seventh time , and the RAAF 's Maintenance Trophy a record fourth time . Later the same month , an Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transport of No. 33 Squadron carried out the RAAF 's first in @-@ flight refuelling of a No. 36 Squadron Globemaster . The Governor @-@ General , Sir Peter Cosgrove , presented the squadron with a new standard on 19 May ; the old standard was laid up in Holy Trinity Chapel at RAAF Williams , Victoria . No. 36 Squadron was awarded the Meritorious Unit Citation in the Queen 's Birthday Honours on 13 June 2016 for " for sustained outstanding service in warlike operations throughout the Middle East Area of Operations over the period January 2002 to June 2014 " .
= Cucurbita =
Cucurbita ( Latin for gourd ) is a genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family , Cucurbitaceae , also known as cucurbits , native to the Andes and Mesoamerica . Five species are grown worldwide for their edible fruit , variously known as squash , pumpkin , or gourd depending on species , variety , and local parlance , and for their seeds . First cultivated in the Americas before being brought to Europe by returning explorers after their discovery of the New World , plants in the genus Cucurbita are important sources of human food and oil . Other kinds of gourd , also called bottle @-@ gourds , are native to Africa and belong to the genus Lagenaria , which is in the same family and subfamily as Cucurbita but in a different tribe . These other gourds are used as utensils or vessels , and their young fruits are eaten much like those of Cucurbita species .
Most Cucurbita species are herbaceous vines that grow several meters in length and have tendrils , but non @-@ vining " bush " cultivars of C. pepo and C. maxima have also been developed . The yellow or orange flowers on a Cucurbita plant are of two types : female and male . The female flowers produce the fruit and the male flowers produce pollen . Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist bee pollinators , but other insects with more general feeding habits , such as honey bees , also visit .
The fruits of the genus Cucurbita are good sources of nutrients , such as vitamin A and vitamin C , among other nutrients according to species . The plants contain the toxins , such as cucurbitin , cucurmosin , and cucurbitacin .
There is debate about the taxonomy of the genus , as the number of accepted species varies from 13 to 30 . The five domesticated species are Cucurbita argyrosperma , C. ficifolia , C. maxima , C. moschata , and C. pepo . All of these can be treated as winter squash because the full @-@ grown fruits can be stored for months ; however , C. pepo includes some cultivars that are better used only as summer squash .
Cucurbita fruits have played a role in human culture for at least 2 @,@ 000 years . They are often represented in Moche ceramics from Peru . After Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the New World , paintings of squashes started to appear in Europe early in the sixteenth century . The fruits have many culinary uses including pumpkin pie , biscuits , bread , desserts , puddings , beverages , and soups . Pumpkins and other Cucurbita fruits are celebrated in festivals and in flower and vegetable shows in many countries .
= = Description = =
Cucurbita species fall into two main groups . The first group are annual or short @-@ lived perennial vines and are mesophytic , i.e. they require a more or less continuous water supply . The second group are perennials growing in arid zones and so are xerophytic , tolerating dry conditions . Cultivated Cucurbita species were derived from the first group . Growing 5 to 15 meters ( 16 to 49 ft ) in height or length , the plant stem produces tendrils to help it climb adjacent plants and structures or extend along the ground . Most species do not readily root from the nodes ; a notable exception is C. ficifolia , and the four other cultivated mesophytes do this to a lesser extent . The vine of the perennial Cucurbita can become semiwoody if left to grow . There is wide variation in size , shape , and color among Cucurbita fruits , and even within a single species . C. ficifolia is an exception , being highly uniform in appearance . The morphological variation in the species C. pepo and C. maxima is so vast that its various subspecies and cultivars have been misidentified as totally separate species .
The typical cultivated Cucurbita species has five @-@ lobed or palmately divided leaves with long petioles , with the leaves alternately arranged on the stem . The stems in some species are angular . All of the above @-@ ground parts may be hairy with various types of trichomes , which are often hardened and sharp . Spring @-@ like tendrils grow from each node and are branching in some species . C. argyrosperma has ovate @-@ cordate ( egg @-@ shaped to heart @-@ shaped ) leaves . The shape of C. pepo leaves varies widely . C. moschata plants can have light or dense pubescence . C. ficifolia leaves are slightly angular and have light pubescence . The leaves of all four of these species may or may not have white spots .
There are male ( staminate ) and female ( pistillate ) flowers ( unisexual flowers ) on a single plant ( monoecious ) , and these grow singly , appearing from the leaf axils . Flowers have five fused yellow to orange petals ( the corolla ) and a green bell @-@ shaped calyx . Male flowers in Cucurbitaceae generally have five stamens , but in Cucurbita there are only three , and their anthers are joined together so that there appears to be one . Female flowers have thick pedicels , and an inferior ovary with 3 – 5 stigmas that each have two lobes . The female flowers of C. argyrosperma and C. ficifolia have larger corollas than the male flowers . Female flowers of C. pepo have a small calyx , but the calyx of C. moschata male flowers is comparatively short .
Cucurbita fruits are large and fleshy . Botanists classify the Cucurbita fruit as a pepo , which is a special type of berry derived from an inferior ovary , with a thick outer wall or rind with hypanthium tissue forming an exocarp around the ovary , and a fleshy interior composed of mesocarp and endocarp . The term " pepo " is used primarily for Cucurbitaceae fruits , where this fruit type is common , but the fruits of Passiflora and Carica are sometimes also pepos . The seeds , which are attached to the ovary wall ( parietal placentation ) and not to the center , are large and fairly flat with a large embryo that consists almost entirely of two cotyledons . Fruit size varies considerably : wild fruit specimens can be as small as 4 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) and some domesticated specimens can weigh well over 300 kilograms ( 660 lb ) . The current world record was set in 2014 by Beni Meier of Switzerland with a 2 @,@ 323 @.@ 7 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 054 @.@ 0 kg ) pumpkin .
= = Taxonomy = =
Cucurbita was formally described in a way that meets the requirements of modern botanical nomenclature by Linnaeus in his Genera Plantarum , the fifth edition of 1754 in conjunction with the 1753 first edition of Species Plantarum . Cucurbita pepo is the type species of the genus . Linnaeus initially included the species C. pepo , C. verrucosa and C. melopepo ( both now included in C. pepo ) , as well as C. citrullus ( watermelon , now Citrullus lanatus ) and C. lagenaria ( now Lagenaria siceraria ) ( both are not Cucurbita but are in the family Cucurbitaceae .
The Cucurbita digitata , C. foetidissima , C. galeotti , and C. pedatifolia species groups are xerophytes , arid zone perennials with storage roots ; the remainder , including the five domesticated species , are all mesophytic annuals or short @-@ life perennials with no storage roots . The five domesticated species are mostly isolated from each other by sterility barriers and have different physiological characteristics . Some cross pollinations can occur : C. pepo with C. argyrosperma and C. moschata ; and C. maxima with C. moschata . Cross pollination does occur readily within the family Cucurbitaceae . The buffalo gourd ( C. foetidissima ) , which does not taste good , has been used as an intermediary as it can be crossed with all the common Cucurbita .
Various taxonomic treatments have been proposed for Cucurbita , ranging from 13 – 30 species . In 1990 , Cucurbita expert Michael Nee classified them into the following oft @-@ cited 13 species groups ( 27 species total ) , listed by group and alphabetically , with geographic origin :
C. argyrosperma ( synonym C. mixta ) – cushaw pumpkin ; origin : Panama , Mexico
C. kellyana , origin : Pacific coast of western Mexico
C. palmeri , origin : Pacific coast of northwestern Mexico
C. sororia , origin : Pacific coast Mexico to Nicaragua , northeastern Mexico
C. digitata – fingerleaf gourd ; origin : southwestern United States ( USA ) , northwestern Mexico
C. californica
C. cordata
C. cylindrata
C. palmata
C. ecuadorensis , origin : Ecuador 's Pacific coast
C. ficifolia – figleaf gourd , chilacayote ; origin : Mexico , Panama , northern Chile and Argentina
C. foetidissima – stinking gourd , buffalo gourd ; origin : Mexico
C. scabridifolia , likely a natural hybrid of C. foetidissima and C. pedatifolia
C. galeottii is little known ; origin : Oaxaca , Mexico
C. lundelliana , origin : Mexico , Guatemala , Belize
C. maxima – winter squash , pumpkin ; origin : Argentina , Bolivia , Ecuador
C. andreana , origin – Argentina
C. moschata – butternut squash , ' Dickinson ' pumpkin , golden cushaw ; origin : Bolivia , Colombia , Ecuador , Mexico , Panama , Puerto Rico , Venezuela
C. okeechobeensis , origin : Florida
C. martinezii , origin : Mexican Gulf Coast and foothills
C. pedatifolia , origin : Querétaro , Mexico
C. moorei
C. pepo – field pumpkin , summer squash , zucchini , vegetable marrow , courgette , acorn squash ; origin : Mexico , USA
C. fraterna , origin : Tamaulipas and Nuevo León , Mexico
C. texana , origin : Texas , USA
C. radicans – calabacilla , calabaza de coyote ; origin : Central Mexico
C. gracilior
The taxonomy by Nee closely matches the species groupings reported in a pair of studies by a botanical team led by Rhodes and Bemis in 1968 and 1970 based on statistical groupings of several phenotypic traits of 21 species . Seeds for studying additional species members were not available . Sixteen of the 21 species were grouped into five clusters with the remaining five being classified separately :
C. digitata , C. palmata , C. californica , C. cylindrata , C. cordata
C. martinezii , C. okeechobeensis , C. lundelliana
C. sororia , C. gracilior , C. palmeri ; C. argyrosperma ( reported as C. mixta ) was considered close to the three previous species
C. maxima , C. andreana
C. pepo , C. texana
C. moschata , C. ficifolia , C. pedatifolia , C. foetidissima , and C. ecuadorensis were placed in their own separate species groups as they were not considered significantly close to any of the other species studied .
= = = Phylogeny = = =
The full phylogeny of this genus is unknown , and research was ongoing in 2014 . The following cladogram of Cucurbita phylogeny is based upon a 2002 study of mitochondrial DNA by Sanjur and colleagues .
= = Reproductive biology = =
All species of Cucurbita have 20 pairs of chromosomes . Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist pollinators in the apid tribe Eucerini , especially the genera Peponapis and Xenoglossa , and these squash bees can be crucial to the flowers producing fruit after pollination .
When there is more pollen applied to the stigma , more seeds are produced in the fruits and the fruits are larger with greater likelihood of maturation , an effect called xenia . Competitively grown specimens are therefore often hand @-@ pollinated to maximize the number of seeds in the fruit , which increases the fruit size ; this pollination requires skilled technique . Seedlessness is known to occur in certain cultivars of C. pepo .
The most critical factors in flowering and fruit set are physiological , having to do with the age of the plant and whether it already has developing fruit . The plant hormones ethylene and auxin are key in fruit set and development . Ethylene promotes the production of female flowers . When a plant already has a fruit developing , subsequent female flowers on the plant are less likely to mature , a phenomenon called " first @-@ fruit dominance " , and male flowers are more frequent , an effect that appears due to reduced natural ethylene production within the plant stem . Ethephon , a plant growth regulator product that is converted to ethylene after metabolism by the plant , can be used to increase fruit and seed production .
The plant hormone gibberellin , produced in the stamens , is essential for the development of all parts of the male flowers . The development of female flowers is not yet understood . Gibberellin is also involved in other developmental processes of plants such as seed and stem growth .
= = = Germination and seedling growth = = =
Seeds with maximum germination potential develop ( in C. moschata ) by 45 days after anthesis , and seed weight reaches its maximum 70 days after anthesis . Some varieties of C. pepo germinate best with eight hours of sunlight daily and a planting depth of 1 @.@ 2 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) . Seeds planted deeper than 12 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) are not likely to germinate . In C. foetidissima , a weedy species , plants younger than 19 days old are not able to sprout from the roots after removing the shoots . In a seed batch with 90 percent germination rate , over 90 percent of the plants had sprouted after 29 days from planting .
Experiments have shown that when more pollen is applied to the stigma , as well as the fruit containing more seeds and being larger ( the xenia effect mentioned above ) , the germination of the seeds is also faster and more likely , and the seedlings are larger . Various combinations of mineral nutrients and light have a significant effect during the various stages of plant growth . These effects vary significantly between the different species of Cucurbita . A type of stored phosphorus called phytate forms in seed tissues as spherical crystalline intrusions in protein bodies called globoids . Along with other nutrients , phytate is used completely during seedling growth . Heavy metal contamination , including cadmium , has a significant negative impact on plant growth . Cucurbita plants grown in the spring tend to grow larger than those grown in the autumn .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Archaeological investigations have found evidence of domestication of Cucurbita going back over 8 @,@ 000 years from the very southern parts of Canada down to Argentina and Chile . Centers of domestication stretch from the Mississippi River watershed and Texas down through Mexico and Central America to northern and western South America . Of the 27 species that Nee delineates , five are domesticated . Four of them , C. argyrosperma , C. ficifolia , C. moschata , and C. pepo , originated and were domesticated in Mesoamerica ; for the fifth , C. maxima , these events occurred in South America .
Within C. pepo , the pumpkins , the scallops , and possibly the crooknecks are ancient and were domesticated at different times and places . The domesticated forms of C. pepo have larger fruits than non @-@ domesticated forms and seeds that are bigger but fewer in number . In a 1989 study on the origins and development of C. pepo , botanist Harry Paris suggested that the original wild specimen had a small round fruit and that the modern pumpkin is its direct descendant . He suggested that the crookneck , ornamental gourd , and scallop are early variants and that the acorn is a cross between the scallop and the pumpkin .
C. argyrosperma is not as widespread as the other species . The wild form C. a. subsp. sororia is found from Mexico to Nicaragua , and cultivated forms are used in a somewhat wider area stretching from Panama to the southeastern United States . It was probably bred for its seeds , which are large and high in oil and protein , but its flesh is of poorer quality than that of C. moschata and C. pepo . It is grown in a wide altitudinal range : from sea level to as high as 1 @,@ 800 meters ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in dry areas , usually with the use of irrigation , or in areas with a defined rainy season , where seeds are sown in May and June .
C. ficifolia and C. moschata were originally thought to be Asiatic in origin , but this has been disproven . The origin of C. ficifolia is Latin America , most likely southern Mexico , Central America , or the Andes . It grows at altitudes ranging from 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) to 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in areas with heavy rainfall . It does not hybridize well with the other cultivated species as it has significantly different enzymes and chromosomes .
C. maxima originated in South America over 4 @,@ 000 years ago , probably in Argentina and Uruguay . The plants are sensitive to frost , and they prefer both bright sunlight and soil with a pH of 6 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 0 . C. maxima did not start to spread into North America until after the arrival of Columbus . Varieties were in use by native peoples of the United States by the 16th century . Types of C. maxima include triloba , zapallito , zipinka , Banana , Delicious , Hubbard , Marrow ( C. maxima Marrow ) , Show , and Turban .
C. moschata is native to Latin America , but the precise location of origin is uncertain . It has been present in Mexico , Belize , Guatemala , and Peru for 4 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 years and has spread to Bolivia , Ecuador , Panama , Puerto Rico , and Venezuela . This species is closely related to C. argyrosperma . A variety known as the Seminole Pumpkin has been cultivated in Florida since before the arrival of Columbus . Its leaves are 20 to 30 centimeters ( 8 to 12 in ) wide . It generally grows at low altitudes in hot climates with heavy rainfall , but some varieties have been found above 2 @,@ 200 meters ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) . Groups of C. moschata include Cheese , Crookneck ( C. moschata ) , and Bell .
C. pepo is one of the oldest , if not the oldest , domesticated species with the oldest known locations being Oaxaca , Mexico , 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago , and Ocampo , Tamaulipas , Mexico , about 7 @,@ 000 years ago . It is known to have appeared in Missouri , United States , at least 4 @,@ 000 years ago . Debates about the origin of C. pepo have been on @-@ going since at least 1857 . There have traditionally been two opposing theories about its origin : 1 ) that it is a direct descendant of C. texana and 2 ) that C. texana is merely feral C. pepo . A more recent theory by botanist Thomas Andres in 1987 is that descendants of C. fraterna hybridized with C. texana , resulting in two distinct domestication events in two different areas : one in Mexico and one in the eastern United States , with C. fraterna and C. texana , respectively , as the ancestral species . C. pepo may have appeared in the Old World before moving from Mexico into South America . It is found from sea level to slightly above 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . Leaves have 3 – 5 lobes and are 20 – 35 centimeters ( 8 – 14 in ) wide . All the subspecies , varieties , and cultivars are interfertile . In 1986 Paris proposed a revised taxonomy of the edible cultivated C. pepo based primarily on the shape of the fruit , with eight groups . All but a few C. pepo cultivars can be included in these groups . There is one non @-@ edible cultivated variety : C. pepo var. ovifera .
= = History and domestication = =
The ancestral species of the genus Cucurbita were present in the Americas before the arrival of humans , and are native to the New World . The likely center of origin is southern Mexico , spreading south through what is now known as Mesoamerica , on into South America , and north to what is now the southwestern United States . Evolutionarily speaking , the genus is relatively recent in origin , dating back only to the Holocene , whereas the family Cucurbitaceae , in the shape of seeds similar to Bryonia , dates to the Paleocene . No species within the genus is entirely genetically isolated . C. moschata can intercross with all the others , though the hybrid offspring may not themselves be fertile unless they become polyploid . The genus was part of the culture of almost every native peoples group from southern South America to southern Canada . Modern @-@ day cultivated Cucurbita are not found in the wild . Genetic studies of the mitochondrial gene nad1 show there were at least six independent domestication events of Cucurbita separating domestic species from their wild ancestors . Species native to North America include C. digitata ( calabazilla ) , and C. foetidissima ( buffalo gourd ) , C. palmata ( coyote melon ) , and C. pepo . Some species , such as C. digitata and C. ficifolia , are referred to as gourds . Gourds , also called bottle @-@ gourds , which are used as utensils or vessels , belong to the genus Lagenaria and are native to Africa . Lagenaria are in the same family and subfamily as Cucurbita but in a different tribe .
The earliest known evidence of the domestication of Cucurbita dates back at least 8 @,@ 000 years ago , predating the domestication of other crops such as maize and beans in the region by about 4 @,@ 000 years . This evidence was found in the Guilá Naquitz cave in Oaxaca , Mexico , during a series of excavations in the 1960s and 1970s , possibly beginning in 1959 . Solid evidence of domesticated C. pepo was found in the Guilá Naquitz cave in the form of increasing rind thickness and larger peduncles in the newer stratification layers of the cave . By c . 8 @,@ 000 years BP the C. pepo peduncles found are consistently more than 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) thick . Wild Cucurbita peduncles are always below this 10 mm barrier . Changes in fruit shape and color indicate that intentional breeding of C. pepo had occurred by no later than 8 @,@ 000 years BP . During the same time frame , average rind thickness increased from 0 @.@ 84 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 033 in ) to 1 @.@ 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 045 in ) .
Squash was domesticated first , followed by maize and then beans , becoming part of the Three Sisters agricultural system of companion planting . The English word " squash " derives from askutasquash ( a green thing eaten raw ) , a word from the Narragansett language , which was documented by Roger Williams , the founder of Rhode Island , in his 1643 publication A Key Into the Language of America . Similar words for squash exist in related languages of the Algonquian family .
= = = Production = = =
The family Cucurbitaceae has many species used as human food . Cucurbita is one of the most important of those , with the various species being prepared and eaten in many ways . Although the stems and skins tend to be more bitter than the flesh , the fruits and seeds of cultivated varieties are quite edible and need little or no preparation . The flowers and young leaves and shoot tips can also be consumed . The seeds and fruits of most varieties can be stored for long periods of time , particularly the sweet @-@ tasting winter varieties with their thick , inedible skins . Summer squash have a thin , edible skin . The seeds of both types can be roasted , eaten raw , made into pumpkin seed oil , ground into a flour or meal , or otherwise prepared .
Squashes are primarily grown for the fresh food market . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) reported that the ranking of the top five squash @-@ producing countries was stable between 2005 and 2009 . Those countries are : China , India , Russia , the United States , and Egypt . By 2012 , Iran had moved into the 5th slot , with Egypt falling to 6th . The top 10 countries in terms of metric tons of squashes produced are :
The only additional countries that rank in the top 20 where squashes are native are Cuba , which ranks 14th with 347 @,@ 082 metric tons , and Argentina , which ranks 17th , with 326 @,@ 900 metric tons . In addition to being the 4th largest producer of squashes in the world , the United States is the world 's largest importer of squashes , importing 271 @,@ 614 metric tons in 2011 , 95 percent of that from Mexico . Within the United States , the states producing the largest amounts are Florida , New York , California , and North Carolina .
This is how Cucurbita compares to several other major Cucurbitaceae crops in terms of crop tonnage harvested :
= = Nutrients = =
As an example of Curcubita , raw summer squash is 94 % water , 3 % carbohydrates , and 1 % protein , with negligible fat content ( table ) . In 100 grams , raw squash supplies 16 calories and is rich in vitamin C ( 20 % of the Daily Value , DV ) , moderate in vitamin B6 and riboflavin ( 12 @-@ 17 % DV ) , but otherwise devoid of appreciable nutrient content ( table ) , although the nutrient content of different Curcubita species may vary somewhat .
Pumpkin seeds contain vitamin E , crude protein , B vitamins and several dietary minerals ( see nutrition table at pepita ) . Also present in pumpkin seeds are unsaturated and saturated oils , palmitic , oleic and linoleic fatty acids , as well as carotenoids .
= = Toxins = =
Cucurbitin is an amino acid and a carboxypyrrolidine that is found in raw Cucurbita seeds . It retards the development of parasitic flukes when administered to infected host mice , although the effect is only seen if administration begins immediately after infection .
Cucurmosin is a ribosome inactivating protein found in the flesh and seed of Cucurbita , notably Cucurbita moschata . Cucurmosin is more toxic to cancer cells than healthy cells .
Cucurbitacin is a plant steroid present in wild Cucurbita and in each member of the family Cucurbitaceae . Poisonous to mammals , it is found in quantities sufficient to discourage herbivores . It makes wild Cucurbita and most ornamental gourds , with the exception of an occasional C. fraterna and C. sororia , bitter to taste . Ingesting too much cucurbitacin can cause stomach cramps , diarrhea and even collapse . This bitterness is especially prevalent in wild Cucurbita ; in parts of Mexico the flesh of the fruits is rubbed on a woman 's breast to wean children . While the process of domestication has largely removed the bitterness from cultivated varieties , there are occasional reports of cucurbitacin causing illness in humans . Cucurbitacin is also used as a lure in insect traps .
= = Pests and diseases = =
Cucurbita species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species , including the Cabbage Moth ( Mamestra brassicae ) , Hypercompe indecisa , and the Turnip Moth ( Agrotis segetum ) . Cucurbita can be susceptible to the pest Bemisia argentifolii ( silverleaf whitefly ) as well as aphids ( Aphididae ) , cucumber beetles ( Acalymma vittatum and Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi ) , squash bug ( Anasa tristis ) , the squash vine borer ( Melittia cucurbitae ) , and the twospotted spidermite ( Tetranychus urticae ) . The squash bug causes major damage to plants because of its very toxic saliva . The red pumpkin beetle ( Raphidopalpa foveicollis ) is a serious pest of cucurbits , especially the pumpkin , which it can defoliate . Cucurbits are susceptible to diseases such as bacterial wilt ( Erwinia tracheiphila ) , anthracnose ( Colletotrichum spp . ) , fusarium wilt ( Fusarium spp . ) , phytophthora blight ( Phytophthora spp. water molds ) , and powdery mildew ( Erysiphe spp . ) . Defensive responses to viral , fungal , and bacterial leaf pathogens do not involve cucurbitacin .
Species in the genus Cucurbita are susceptible to some types of mosaic virus including : Cucumber mosaic virus ( CMV ) , Papaya ringspot virus @-@ cucurbit strain ( PRSV ) , Squash mosaic virus ( SqMV ) , Tobacco ringspot virus ( TRSV ) , Watermelon mosaic virus ( WMV ) , and Zucchini yellow mosaic virus ( ZYMV ) . PRSV is the only one of these viruses that does not affect all cucurbits . SqMV and CMV are the most common viruses among cucurbits . Symptoms of these viruses show a high degree of similarity , which often results in laboratory investigation being needed to differentiate which one is affecting plants .
= = Human culture = =
= = = Art , music , and literature = = =
Along with maize and beans , squash has been depicted in the art work of the native peoples of the Americas for at least 2 @,@ 000 years . For example , cucurbits are often represented in Moche ceramics .
Though native to the western hemisphere , Cucurbita began to spread to other parts of the world after Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the New World in 1492 . Until recently , the earliest known depictions of this genus in Europe was of Cucurbita pepo in De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes in 1542 by the German botanist Leonhart Fuchs , but in 1992 , two paintings , one of C. pepo and one of C. maxima , painted between 1515 and 1518 , were identified in festoons at Villa Farnesina in Rome . Also , in 2001 depictions of this genus were identified in Grandes Heures of Anne of Brittany ( Les Grandes Heures d 'Anne de Bretagne ) , a French devotional book , an illuminated manuscript created between 1503 and 1508 . This book contains an illustration known as Quegourdes de turquie , which was identified by cucurbit specialists as C. pepo subsp. texana in 2006 .
In 1952 , Stanley Smith Master , using the pen name Edrich Siebert , wrote " The Marrow Song ( Oh what a beauty ! ) " to a tune in 6 / 8 time . It became a popular hit in Australia in 1973 , and was revived by the Wurzels in Britain on their 2003 album Cutler of the West . John Greenleaf Whittier wrote a poem entitled The Pumpkin in 1850 . " The Great Pumpkin " is a fictional holiday figure in the comic strip Peanuts by Charles M. Schulz .
= = = Soap = = =
The fruit pulp of some species , such as C. foetidissima , can be used as a soap or detergent .
= = = Folk remedies = = =
Cucurbita have been used in various cultures as folk remedies . Pumpkins have been used by Native Americans to treat intestinal worms and urinary ailments . This Native American remedy was adopted by American doctors in the early nineteenth century as an anthelmintic for the expulsion of worms . In southeastern Europe , seeds of C. pepo were used to treat irritable bladder and benign prostatic hyperplasia . In Germany , pumpkin seed is approved for use by the Commission E , which assesses folk and herbal medicine , for irritated bladder conditions and micturition problems of prostatic hyperplasia stages 1 and 2 , although the monograph published in 1985 noted a lack of pharmacological studies that could substantiate empirically found clinical activity . The FDA in the United States , on the other hand , banned the sale of all such non @-@ prescription drugs for the treatment of prostate enlargement in 1990 .
In China , C. moschata seeds were also used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of the parasitic disease schistosomiasis and for the expulsion of tape worms .
In Mexico , herbalists use C. ficifolia in the belief that it reduces blood sugar levels .
= = = Culinary uses = = =
Long before European contact , Cucurbita had been a major food source for the native peoples of the Americas , and the species became an important food for European settlers , including the Pilgrims , even featuring at the first Thanksgiving . Commercially made pumpkin pie mix is most often made from varieties of C. moschata ; ' Libby 's Select ' uses the Select Dickinson Pumpkin variety of C. moschata for its canned pumpkin . Other foods that can be made using members of this genus include biscuits , bread , cheesecake , desserts , donuts , granola , ice cream , lasagna dishes , pancakes , pudding , pumpkin butter , salads , soups , and stuffing . The xerophytic species are proving useful in the search for nutritious foods that grow well in arid regions . C. ficifolia is used to make soft and mildly alcoholic drinks .
In India , squashes ( ghia ) are cooked with seafood such as prawns . In France , marrows ( courge ) are traditionally served as a gratin , sieved and cooked with butter , milk , and egg , and flavored with salt , pepper , and nutmeg , and as soups . In Italy , zucchini and larger squashes are served in a variety of regional dishes , such as cocuzze alla puviredda cooked with olive oil , salt and herbs from Puglia ; as torta di zucca from Liguria , or torta di zucca e riso from Emilia @-@ Romagna , the squashes being made into a pie filling with butter , ricotta , parmesan , egg , and milk ; and as a sauce for pasta in dishes like spaghetti alle zucchine from Sicily . In Japan , squashes such as small C. moschata pumpkins ( kabocha ) are eaten boiled with sesame sauce , fried as a tempura dish , or made into balls with sweet potato and Japanese mountain yam .
= = = Festivals = = =
Cucurbita fruits including pumpkins and marrows are celebrated in festivals in countries such as Argentina , Bolivia , Britain , Canada , Croatia , France , Germany , Italy , Japan , Peru , Portugal , Spain , Switzerland , and the United States . Argentina holds an annual nationwide pumpkin festival Fiesta Nacional del Zapallo ( " Squashes and Pumpkins National Festival " ) , in Ceres , Santa Fe , on the last day of which a Reina Nacional del Zapallo ( " National Queen of the Pumpkin " ) is chosen . In Portugal the Festival da Abóbora de Lourinhã e Atalaia ( " Squashes and Pumpkins Festival in Lourinhã and Atalaia " ) is held in Lourinhã city , called the Capital Nacional da Abóbora ( the " National Capital of Squashes and Pumpkins " ) . Ludwigsburg , Germany annually hosts the world 's largest pumpkin festival . In Britain a giant marrow ( zucchini ) weighing 54 @.@ 3177 kilograms ( 119 @.@ 750 lb ) was displayed in the Harrogate Autumn Flower Show in 2012 . In the USA , pumpkin chucking is practiced competitively , with machines such as trebuchets and air cannons designed to throw intact pumpkins as far as possible . The Keene Pumpkin Fest is held annually in New Hampshire ; in 2013 it held the world record for the most jack @-@ o @-@ lanterns lit in one place , 30 @,@ 581 on October 19 , 2013 .
Halloween is widely celebrated with jack @-@ o @-@ lanterns made of large orange pumpkins carved with ghoulish faces and illuminated from inside with candles . The pumpkins used for jack @-@ o @-@ lanterns are C. pepo , not to be confused with the ones typically used for pumpkin pie in the United States , which are C. moschata . Kew Gardens marked Halloween in 2013 with a display of pumpkins , including a towering pyramid made of many varieties of squash , in the Waterlily House during its " IncrEdibles " festival .
= Beautiful Liar =
" Beautiful Liar " ( Spanish : Bello Embustero ) is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé and Colombian singer Shakira . It was written by Beyoncé , Amanda Ghost , Ian Dench , and Stargate members Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen , and produced by Stargate and Beyoncé for the re @-@ release of Beyoncé 's second solo album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . The mixing of the song was done by Gustavo Celis . " Beautiful Liar " was released on March 14 , 2007 , by Columbia Records as the first single from the deluxe edition of the album . A Spanish and English mixed version of the song was produced and titled " Bello Embustero " .
" Beautiful Liar " is a mid @-@ tempo song ; musically , it is a melding of Shakira 's Latin and Middle Eastern styles with Beyoncé 's contemporary hip hop and R & B styles . Its theme is female empowerment ; two female protagonists sing about being charmed by the same man , but instead of fighting over him , both ladies agree that he is not worth their time . The song was well received by music critics , who praised generally Beyoncé 's and Shakira 's collaboration . " Beautiful Liar " was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 50th Grammy Awards and the Spanish version was nominated for Record of the Year at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2007 . It won an Ivor Novello Awards for Best @-@ Selling British Song in 2008 .
" Beautiful Liar " was commercially successful . It peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and experienced the largest upward movement on that chart until 2008 . The song peaked at number one in many European countries , including France , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom . Its accompanying music video was directed by Jake Nava , incorporates belly dancing moves . " Beautiful Liar " won the Most Earthshattering Collaboration award at the 2007 MTV Video Music Award . The song was included on Beyoncé 's set list during her 2007 The Beyoncé Experience world tour .
= = Conception and recording = =
" Beautiful Liar " was written by Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen , Amanda Ghost , Ian Dench , and Beyoncé . It was produced by Eriksen and Hermansen using their stage name , Stargate , and Beyoncé . Eriksen told Sound on Sound , " This song is very simple . Most of the time we have more chords in a song , because we find it hard writing a great song on just one chord . But if you do it right , you can make it work , and this song is an example . " The track had already been written in 2006 . Eriksen and Hermansen played it to their manager , Tyran Smith , who said that it would be perfect for a duet between Shakira and Beyoncé . Eriksen and Hermansen considered this to be impossible , however Smith was devoted to that idea . As they had no lyric or top melody , various writers attempted to finish the song . The first three attempts were not satisfactory , and Smith put Eriksen and Hermansen to work together with Ghost and Dench , who wrote a significant part of the lyrics and the melody .
" Beautiful Liar " initially had a Spanish title and different lyrics . Hermansen re @-@ titled it when he heard the line " beautiful liar " in one of the verses . When the production of the song was almost completed , it was presented to Beyoncé , who approved it . She added a few lines to the lyrics and recorded a solo version a few months before the release of the deluxe edition of B 'Day ( 2006 ) . Beyoncé confirmed that she would perform a duet with Shakira in an interview for Univision in December 2006 . In another interview for MTV News , Beyoncé said that she met Shakira several times at various awards shows , and they talked about plans to collaborate on a song as they are both fans of each other and respect each other 's work . Beyoncé said that she was very happy that they were able to work together after waiting for years .
When Beyoncé invited her to record a song for the re @-@ release of Beyoncé 's studio second album , B 'Day , Shakira was touring and consequently had difficulties to match her schedule with Beyoncé 's . A few months later , Shakira agreed to sing on the track . As she recorded her vocals , the songwriters and producers added the ethnic strings and percussion break . Beyoncé and Shakira recorded their vocals in different studios ; the vocals were engineered by Gustavo Celis . " Beautiful Liar " was recorded at Sony Music Studios and Battery Studios in New York City , Elastic Mix Studios and The Hit Factory in Florida , and Futura Productions in Boston , Massachusetts .
= = Composition = =
" Beautiful Liar " is a contemporary R & B and pop song , which is written in the key of G Phrygian dominant , and set in common time at a tempo of 96 beats per minute . Beyoncé 's vocal range spans from G3 to B ♭ 5 . Anna Pickard of The Guardian found elements of Latino and bounce music . The song opens with Shakira 's vocals accompanied by a piping , Middle Eastern figure , later joined by a mariachi @-@ flavored horn section . Groaning noises can be heard in the background which complement the melody . The names of the two singers are then heard : " Bee on say , be @-@ on @-@ SAY ! Sha kee ra , Sha @-@ ki @-@ RA " . The verses are sung on a mid @-@ tempo , strutting , hip @-@ thrusting arrangement , accented by rapid , flamenco @-@ like hand claps and guitar strums . The song also features Persian instruments such as , oud and ney .
Lyrically , " Beautiful Liar " speaks about two women who chose not to end a friendship because of a man who has cheated both of them . Its theme is one of female independence . Beyoncé told MTV News that " Beautiful Liar " is about female empowerment , in keeping with the theme of the album : " It 's about a guy who 's kind of playing both of us , and instead of us arguing over the guy we say , ' Forget him . Let 's stick together . He 's a beautiful liar . " The chorus features the lines , " Let 's not kill the karma , let 's not start a fight " with the female protagonists bonding in their mutual betrayal . Beyoncé and Shakira sing with staccato , intense vocal approach throughout the song . Beyoncé sings the lines " I didn 't know about you then , till I saw you with him again " earnestly while Shakira later adds " I walked in on your love scene , slow dancing " . In the end , the female protagonists conclude , " we can live without him " , referring to their cheating lover .
= = Release = =
" Beautiful Liar " was leaked onto the internet and appeared as an unpaid download in early February 2007 . The song was sent to radio stations in the United States on February 12 , 2007 ; it was added to rhythmic contemporary , contemporary hit radio , and urban contemporary playlists . " Beautiful Liar " was released as a CD Single in Australia on March 14 , 2007 , and on April 16 , 2007 , in the United Kingdom where it was released as a digital download two days earlier . In Europe , the song was released as a digital EP on April 14 , 2007 , and a maxi single on April 20 , 2007 . " Beautiful Liar " was later serviced as a digital EP in the UK and the US on May 20 , 2007 . Different versions of the song were produced ; Puerto Rican reggaeton artist Don Omar recorded verses for one of the song 's remixes , but this was not released . In the UK , most radio stations , including Radio 1 played an up @-@ beat dance remix of " Beautiful Liar " by the Freemasons instead of the original mix . Celis produced and mixed a Spanish @-@ language version , titled " Bello Embustero " , with additional lyrical contributions by Rudy Pérez . The Spanish version appeared on some regional releases of the deluxe edition of B 'Day in late May 2007 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Nick Levine of Digital Spy awarded " Beautiful Liar " three stars out of five and wrote that it " isn 't as ridiculously overblown " as previous collaborations of Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey on " When You Believe " ( 1998 ) and Barbra Streisand and Celine Dion on " Tell Him " ( 1997 ) . However , he added that " it 's as calculated as a wannabe page 3 model 's decision to have a boob job " , and that an accompanying music video will keep fans happy . Ben Sisario of The New York Times called it a " steamy track " . Richard Cromelin of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the singers " have fun with the grand soap @-@ operatics " of the song adding that " Beautiful Liar " has " cultural as well as musical resonance , furthering Beyonce 's bilingual agenda " . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song " is a minor letdown ; Shakira 's voice is too like Beyoncé 's for a truly complementary tango " . On April 26 , 2011 , Gary Trust of Billboard magazine listed " Beautiful Liar " at the fourth position on his list of the 10 All @-@ Female Hit Collaborations , calling it a " female @-@ bonding boy @-@ bashing anthem " . Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz of the same publication ranked the song at number 22 on their list of " Beyonce 's 30 Biggest Billboard Hits " . In 2014 , Emily Exton of VH1 placed the track on her list of Shakira 's best duets , calling it a " sexy ode to the men we know we can 't trust " and praising both singers for their complementing vocal performance .
The song was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards . Its Spanish version was nominated at the 8th Annual Latin Grammy Award for Record of the Year . In Europe , " Beautiful Liar " won the Best @-@ Selling British Song at the 2008 Ivor Novello Awards . It was deemed eligible for the award because British songwriters Amanda Ghost and Ian Dench had worked on it .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Immediately after its release , " Beautiful Liar " reached number one on the iTunes best @-@ seller list in March 2007 . The song debuted at number 94 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart ; most sales were digital downloads . The following week , it rose 91 positions to number three after 150 @,@ 000 download copies were sold ; this set a record for the largest upward movement in the history of the Hot 100 chart , until it was surpassed by Britney Spears 's 2008 single " Womanizer " , and Kelly Clarkson 's 2009 single " My Life Would Suck Without You " . On the US Pop 100 chart , " Beautiful Liar " rose from number 77 to number three . It is one of the few singles to debut at number one on both the US Hot Digital Tracks chart and US Hot Digital Songs chart . In mid @-@ May , the song peaked at number one on the US Hot Singles Sales , becoming the fifth single from B 'Day to accomplish this feat . " Beautiful Liar " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in February 2009 , denoting shipment of one million copies . As of March 2014 , it has sold over 1 @,@ 419 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the US .
Outside the US , " Beautiful Liar " reached number one in 32 countries . In the UK , the Freemasons remixed version of the song was widely promoted by radio stations , including BBC Radio 1 , where it was put on the A @-@ List . Two weeks before the CD release , the song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 10 , based solely on downloads sales , which accumulated to 37 @,@ 500 units in its first week . It became both Beyoncé 's and Shakira 's highest debut on the UK Singles Chart based on digital sales alone . After the physical release , " Beautiful Liar " reached number one , becoming Beyoncé 's third UK number one single , and Shakira 's second . It remained at number one for three weeks . On June 20 , 2007 , the song was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting sales of 400 @,@ 000 copies . " Beautiful Liar " was 2007 's 12th biggest @-@ selling single in the UK . As of September 2014 , the single has sold 430 @,@ 000 units in the UK . In Australia , the song reached number five , and was the country 's 51st best @-@ performing single in 2007 . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified " Beautiful Liar " platinum , denoting shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies . It debuted at number one on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and topped the Irish Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Beautiful Liar " was directed by Jake Nava , who directed several of Beyoncé 's other videos . It was filmed over two days , during the two @-@ week production of B 'Day Anthology Video Album . Because of a busy schedule , the production team did not have enough time for the choreography . The dance sequences were choreographed spontaneously and the routines were rehearsed in forty minutes . Beyoncé learned some of the choreography from Shakira , who created most of them and taught Beyoncé some belly dancing moves . Beyoncé originated the idea of playing a lookalike after
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of large cast plays . In 2012 he contributed to a Federation Press anthology of monologues for drama students , No Nudity , Weapons or Naked Flames . His play Romeo and Juliet Intensive was nominated for a 2011 AWGIE Award .
In 2012 , NewSouth Books published Manning 's memoir of a life of school teaching , Playground Duty . Reviewed by the New South Wales Writers ' Centre 's Amanda Calwell , it was described as showing " the value that one person with drive , ambition and compassion can offer by applying themselves to teaching " .
= = Television , film and directing = =
Manning 's film credits include the lead role in the 1986 Ozploitation film Dead End Drive @-@ In . Based on a Peter Carey short story called " Crabs " , Dead End Drive @-@ In is a post @-@ apocalyptic tale about a young man stranded in a small town 's drive @-@ in theater when the wheels are stolen off his car . He finds himself amongst a community of misfits trapped at the site , and seeks to break out . The film , directed by Brian Trenchard @-@ Smith , received mixed reviews : Tim Kroenert writing for Eureka Street described it as " Mad Max @-@ lite " and said that the film " is an example of how literality of translation can result in the sacrifice of the story ’ s essence . The film is fun on its own terms , but much of the nuance and irony that lend ‘ Crabs ’ its magic are simply lost " . Philippa Hawker writing for The Age said the film was " an energetic , inventively designed , cheerfully satirical and entertaining film " , and it is one of American film director Quentin Tarantino 's favourites . The film received only a short box @-@ office season ; Manning was critical of the distributor Greater Union and worked with the film 's other actors to secure separate release in independent cinemas . Manning 's other film credits include an appearance in the teen film Looking for Alibrandi . He has also made a short film , Love Bites . Manning 's television credits include Bodyline , The Shiralee and Brides of Christ .
In 1989 Manning directed the Belvoir St Theatre production of a play , Black Cockatoos , about the relationship between a white woman and an Aboriginal man . The script ( not by Manning ) was criticised by reviewer Angela Bennie , who nevertheless described Manning 's direction as delicate and perceptive in places , if also naive and self @-@ conscious .
= Burnside Burn =
The " Burnside Burn " was an event held on the Burnside Bridge in Portland , Oregon , starting at midnight on July 1 , 2015 , the day recreational marijuana became legal in the U.S. state of Oregon . It was organized by Portland NORML , the local chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws , having originated from its executive director , who wanted to photograph himself in front of the White Stag sign in the moments after Oregon Ballot Measure 91 took effect . The crowd , larger than anticipated , numbered in the thousands and at times blocked traffic lanes on the bridge . Some attendees wanted to commemorate the moment , while others were motivated by announcements of free marijuana and seeds . No fines were issued for consumption in public . The event was covered by cannabis publications , local and national news outlets , and the HBO television series Vice .
= = Description = =
The " Burnside Burn " was organized by Portland NORML , the local chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws , in celebration of the legalization of recreational marijuana use in Oregon and to circumnavigate a temporary limit on recreational sales . According to Russ Belville , the chapter 's executive director , the event began with the idea of taking a photograph in front of the White Stag sign . He recalled : " It evolved from me saying that when legalization happens , I want to take a photo under the Portland , Oregon sign . Other people said , ' Can we give marijuana away ? ' [ and ] I said , ' I can 't stop you ! ' "
On the evening of June 30 , beginning as early as 8pm , and into the morning of July 1 , 2015 , between a few hundred and a few thousand people gathered on the Burnside Bridge 's north sidewalk for the free event . The crowd sometimes spilled into the road and blocked multiple traffic lanes , resulting at one point in the complete blockage of west @-@ bound traffic . Activists chanted " Free the weed " and " Fuck the DEA " . Cannabis was shared and consumed openly .
The crowd was larger than anticipated and spanned the entire length of the 1 @,@ 400 @-@ foot ( 430 m ) Burnside Bridge . Belville had initially expected " between 50 and 5 @,@ 000 people " , but details of the event spread online and through word of mouth , and ultimately it was estimated that " thousands " had turned out . Some attendees said they were there to commemorate an historic moment , while others admitted having come for free marijuana and cannabis seeds . One man , known as " Pork Chop " ( or " Porkchop " ) , reportedly announced over a megaphone that he had 420 pounds of marijuana to distribute , though his claim was not supported by news outlets . Two women with Ideal Farms , who wished to " share the love " , distributed joints to attendees who could prove that they were of legal age . One man distributed drops of hash oil , and Belville himself shared an ounce of marijuana ( the maximum allowed under Oregon Ballot Measure 91 ) . Some participants did receive free marijuana , seeds , and / or starter plants , but many did not , due to the larger than expected crowd . Coupons were also distributed for later redemption .
Participants smoked openly and without fear . No fines were issued for consumption in public . Patrol vehicles drove by the scene a few times but did not stop . Prior to the event , police urged residents to avoid calling 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 to report public consumption , which they did not consider an emergency .
= = Commentary = =
The event was covered by cannabis publications , local and national media outlets , and the HBO documentary television series Vice . The Oregonian described the event as " loud and energetic " , attracting a diverse and " eclectic " crowd of activists , marijuana enthusiasts , and first @-@ time consumers , some from as far away as Canada and San Diego . According to Willamette Week , attendees ranged from octogenarians to " tweens with rainbow hair " and the crowd was " generally happy " . The newspaper summarized , " All and all , the mood was celebratory as befit such an historic occasion . "
NORML 's Kaliko Castille told The Huffington Post he was " happy to see a community able to come together — peacefully — over something positive . It 's great to see people from all walks of life out here , handing out joints to each other and getting to know their neighbors . " The Huffington Post 's Andy Campbell called the event a " smoke @-@ out with a message " and opined , " Legalization is so much more than being able to smoke a joint in your home without being a criminal . It 's a health care issue ; it 's a tax revenue issue ; it saves states millions in the court system ; and it ends the hidden costs of prosecution , which emerge when someone can 't get a job because there 's a possession charge on their record . " The Washington Post called the " Burnside Burn " an opportunity for marijuana enthusiasts to " celebrate their new freedom together " .
= Interstate 295 ( Delaware – New Jersey ) =
Interstate 295 ( abbreviated I @-@ 295 ) in New Jersey and Delaware is an auxiliary Interstate Highway , designated as a bypass around Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The route begins at a junction with I @-@ 95 south of Wilmington , Delaware , and runs to another junction with I @-@ 95 north of Trenton , New Jersey . The highway heads east from I @-@ 95 and crosses the Delaware River from Delaware to New Jersey on the Delaware Memorial Bridge concurrent with U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) . Upon entering New Jersey , the two routes split and I @-@ 295 runs parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike for most of its course in the state . After a concurrency with US 130 in Gloucester County , I @-@ 295 has an interchange with I @-@ 76 and Route 42 in Camden County . The freeway continues northeast toward Trenton , where it intersects I @-@ 195 and Route 29 before bypassing the city to the east and ending at US 1 in Lawrence Township , where the road becomes I @-@ 95 southbound .
Three portions of I @-@ 295 predate the Interstate Highway System : the Delaware Memorial Bridge and its approach , built in 1951 , a section in Salem County built in 1953 , and the part concurrent with US 130 , built in two sections that opened in 1948 and 1954 . The route was designated on these sections in New Jersey in 1958 and in Delaware in 1959 . The portion of I @-@ 295 connecting to I @-@ 95 in Delaware opened in 1963 while most of the route in New Jersey was finished by the 1980s . The last part of I @-@ 295 to be completed , near the interchange with I @-@ 195 and Route 29 , was finished in 1994 . I @-@ 95 was originally supposed to continue northeast from the routes ' junction near Trenton on the proposed Somerset Freeway , but this plan was canceled . I @-@ 295 previously extended a few miles past US 1 to where it would have met the Somerset Freeway ; in the 1990s , the section past US 1 became part of I @-@ 95 . As a result of the Pennsylvania Turnpike / Interstate 95 Interchange Project in Bristol Township , Pennsylvania , I @-@ 295 will be extended along the existing I @-@ 95 freeway and connect to the Pennsylvania Turnpike at Bristol .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 295 begins at I @-@ 95 , I @-@ 495 , US 202 , and Delaware Route 141 ( DE 141 ) near Newport , Delaware and heads east over the Delaware River on the Delaware Memorial Bridge into New Jersey . The highway intersects the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike and runs northeast through suburban areas of South Jersey parallel to the turnpike , providing a bypass of Philadelphia and Camden . I @-@ 295 turns north and bypasses Trenton to the east and turns west as I @-@ 95 at the US 1 junction in Lawrence Township . The portion of I @-@ 295 running through New Jersey is sometimes referred to as the Camden Freeway by the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire length of I @-@ 295 is a part of the National Highway System .
= = = Delaware = = =
I @-@ 295 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 95 ( Delaware Turnpike ) , I @-@ 495 , US 202 , and DE 141 south of Newport in New Castle County , Delaware . The northbound beginning of I @-@ 295 has direct ramps from both directions of I @-@ 95 , southbound I @-@ 495 , and southbound DE 141 , while the southern end of I @-@ 295 had direct ramps to both directions of I @-@ 95 , northbound I @-@ 495 , and northbound DE 141 . From this junction , the highway heads southeast on the Delaware Turnpike , an eight @-@ lane freeway maintained by the Delaware River and Bay Authority ( DRBA ) that passes to the northeast of suburban neighborhoods in Wilmington Manor . I @-@ 295 reaches an interchange with US 13 / US 40 . Here , the Delaware Turnpike ends and US 40 splits from US 13 by heading east concurrent with I @-@ 295 . The road has an eastbound ramp to Landers Lane before it passes between residential neighborhoods and has an interchange with DE 9 north of New Castle . This interchange provides access to Veterans Memorial Park , where a war memorial honoring veterans from Delaware and New Jersey is located . Past DE 9 , the median of the freeway widens to include the DRBA headquarters , with direct access to and from the southbound lanes while northbound access is provided by way of DE 9 . After this , the southbound direction comes to a toll plaza for the Delaware Memorial Bridge . I @-@ 295 / US 40 continues east and passes over Norfolk Southern 's New Castle Secondary before crossing the Delaware River on the twin @-@ span Delaware Memorial Bridge .
= = = Pennsville to Westville = = =
Upon reaching the east bank of the Delaware River , I @-@ 295 / US 40 enters Pennsville Township in Salem County , New Jersey and heads east @-@ southeast through industrial areas . The freeway comes to an interchange with the southern terminus of US 130 and the western terminus of Route 49 , at which point it also meets the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike . Here , I @-@ 295 splits onto its own freeway maintained by NJDOT while US 40 continues along the New Jersey Turnpike for a short distance before it splits to the southeast . A short distance later , the roadway enters Carneys Point Township and CR 551 merges onto I @-@ 295 , with the four @-@ lane freeway heading northeast . The highway comes to a junction with Route 140 , where CR 551 splits from I @-@ 295 by continuing east along Route 140 . I @-@ 295 heads into wooded areas and features a rest area in the northbound direction . The freeway continues northeast and comes to a northbound weigh station before it reaches the Route 48 exit . The highway runs through a mix of farmland and woodland and enters Oldmans Township , where it comes to an interchange providing access to CR 643 .
I @-@ 295 crosses Oldmans Creek into Logan Township in Gloucester County and passes near some residential development and warehouses as it comes to the Center Square Road ( CR 620 ) exit . The road crosses Raccoon Creek and reaches an interchange serving US 322 / CR 536 . Following this , the highway runs through agricultural and wooded areas before northbound US 130 merges into the freeway . At this point , I @-@ 295 and US 130 head east as a six @-@ lane freeway with a narrow median and soon comes to the CR 684 exit . Continuing east , the freeway crosses into Greenwich Township and has a junction with CR 607 . After passing near Greenwich Lake , there are exits for CR 653 and CR 673 within a short distance of each other . I @-@ 295 / US 130 reaches an interchange with CR 680 on the border of Greenwich Township and East Greenwich Township . The road runs through a portion of East Greenwich Township before crossing back into Greenwich Township and coming to a junction with CR 678 and CR 667 on the border of Greenwich Township and Paulsboro .
Past this point , the freeway runs through marshy areas of Mantua Creek and continues into West Deptford Township . Here , there is an exit for CR 656 . Passing near more industrial areas , I @-@ 295 / US 130 has an interchange with the Mid @-@ Atlantic Parkway , which provides access to Route 44 as well as to CR 643 and CR 660 . Continuing northeast , the freeway reaches an interchange with Route 44 and CR 640 . At this point , Route 44 begins to parallel I @-@ 295 / US 130 on its northwest side as the two roads cross the Woodbury Creek . Route 44 ends at a cul @-@ de @-@ sac that has a ramp from the southbound direction of I @-@ 295 / US 130 prior to another exit that provides access to CR 644 . The freeway passes near some homes before US 130 splits from I @-@ 295 at an interchange that also has access to CR 642 . The median of I @-@ 295 becomes wider again and it continues east through woods , coming to a southbound exit and northbound entrance with Route 45 . The roadway passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Vineland Secondary and passes through a small strip of Deptford Township before it has a partial interchange with CR 551 , with a southbound exit and northbound entrance . The highway enters Westville and skirts near residential and commercial development , with another southbound exit and northbound entrance serving Route 47 .
= = = Bellmawr to Lawrence Township = = =
I @-@ 295 crosses the Big Timber Creek into Bellmawr in Camden County and runs northeast before it comes to the junction with the North @-@ South Freeway , which serves as the northern terminus of Route 42 and the eastern terminus of I @-@ 76 . At this point , the travel lanes of I @-@ 295 head north for a short distance along the outside of the North @-@ South Freeway , with the northbound lanes of I @-@ 295 having access from northbound Route 42 and eastbound I @-@ 76 and access to westbound I @-@ 76 while the southbound lanes of I @-@ 295 having access from eastbound I @-@ 76 and access to southbound Route 42 . Past this , I @-@ 295 continues east as a six @-@ lane freeway through wooded areas near suburban development , passing under Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Grenloch Industrial Track before reaching an interchange with Route 168 . The highway heads east along the border between Haddon Heights to the north and Barrington to the south and passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Beesleys Point Secondary before reaching the junction with US 30 near its junction with Route 41 / CR 573 .
The road fully enters Barrington before crossing into Lawnside , where it comes to a southbound exit and northbound entrance serving Warwick Road ( CR 669 ) . After this , I @-@ 295 curves northeast and passes through a corner of Tavistock before entering a part of Haddonfield and coming to a trumpet interchange providing access to the Woodcrest Station along the PATCO Speedline . At this point , the road becomes closely parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike to the southeast . The highway crosses into Cherry Hill and passes over the tracks carrying the PATCO Speedline and New Jersey Transit 's Atlantic City Line before it reaches the CR 561 exit . The roadway runs through wooded areas with suburban neighborhoods to the west and the New Jersey Turnpike to the east as it comes to a cloverleaf interchange at Route 70 . Past this , the highway curves north farther west from the turnpike .
I @-@ 295 enters Mount Laurel in Burlington County upon crossing Pennsauken Creek and runs northeast through woods near development , reaching a cloverleaf interchange with Route 73 that provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike to the east . Past this , the road passes east @-@ northeast near commercial areas to the southeast of Moorestown Mall before curving northeast to closely follow the turnpike . The highway runs through wooded areas and encounters the Route 38 junction . The roadway passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Pemberton Branch and CR 537 and runs through a mix of fields and trees with occasional development , with an exit serving CR 635 . I @-@ 295 crosses the Rancocas Creek into Westampton Township and runs through an area of warehouses , where it has a cloverleaf interchange at CR 626 . The highway runs north through rural land with nearby buildings and enters Burlington Township . Here , the road curves northeast and comes to a cloverleaf junction at CR 541 that provides access to a commercial area that includes the Burlington Center Mall along with the New Jersey Turnpike . The freeway runs through woodland and heads into Springfield Township , where it passes a pair of closed rest areas in each direction . I @-@ 295 crosses Assiscunk Creek into Florence Township and heads through a mix of farm fields and trees before it enters Mansfield Township and comes to a cloverleaf interchange at CR 656 that provides access to nearby CR 543 . The highway passes over the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike and continues through rural land into Bordentown Township , where a northbound exit and southbound entrance serves Rising Sun Road that provides access to US 206 and the New Jersey Turnpike . Past this , the road curves north and reaches the exit for US 130 west of Bordentown before passing through woodland and crossing over New Jersey Transit 's River Line .
I @-@ 295 crosses Crosswicks Creek into Hamilton Township in Mercer County and runs through woods and marshland a short distance east of the Delaware River . A scenic overlook of the river is located along the southbound side of the road ; access from the northbound lanes is provided by a pedestrian bridge over the highway . The freeway heads farther from the river and passes over the River Line again before it reaches a modified cloverleaf interchange serving the western terminus of I @-@ 195 and the southern terminus of the Route 29 freeway to Trenton . Following this junction , the road heads northeast near residential neighborhoods and comes to an interchange at Arena Drive ( CR 620 ) that provides access to nearby White Horse Avenue ( CR 533 ) . A short distance later , a southbound exit and northbound entrance provides access to northbound Olden Avenue ( CR 622 ) . I @-@ 295 continues through wooded areas with nearby development and curves north to come to an interchange at Route 33 and CR 606 . The next junction is a southbound exit and northbound entrance at CR 535 . The highway continues through woods and reaches a cloverleaf junction serving Sloan Avenue ( CR 649 ) . The roadway comes to a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor and crosses into Lawrence Township , where it curves northwest and comes to a modified interchange with US 1 . At this point , I @-@ 295 ends and the freeway continues west as southbound I @-@ 95 .
= = History = =
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 39 was legislated to begin at the Yardley – Wilburtha Bridge and bypass Trenton to the north and east before continuing south to Hammonton along present @-@ day US 206 . Route 39 , which was not built around Trenton , was decommissioned in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering .
Portions of I @-@ 295 in Salem and Gloucester counties predate the Interstate Highway System as part of freeway bypasses for the surface section of US 130 / Route 44 through Carneys Point and between Bridgeport and Westville . In 1948 , the first section of the US 130 / Route 44 bypass in Gloucester County between current exits 21 and 24 opened , with a second section between exits 14 and 21 opening in 1954 . The section of the present highway between the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike and the present @-@ day CR 618 bridge was built as part of the US 130 bypass of Carneys Point in 1953 . The concurrent Route 44 designation was removed from US 130 in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , and was later assigned to the former surface alignment of US 130 through Carneys Point and between Bridgeport and Westville . In 1958 , the US 130 bypass of Carneys Point and the freeway in Gloucester County was designated as part of I @-@ 295 .
Construction on the Delaware Memorial Bridge began in 1949 . At the same time , work was underway on the Delaware Memorial Bridge approach in Delaware , a divided highway which would begin at a directional @-@ T interchange with US 13 in Farnhurst and head east to a cloverleaf interchange at New Castle Avenue ( present DE 9 ) before leading to the bridge . Construction on the US 13 interchange at Farnhurst began on July 12 , 1950 . On August 16 , 1951 , the Delaware Memorial Bridge opened to traffic . The Delaware Memorial Bridge and the approach road to US 13 became a part of US 40 following the opening of the bridge . I @-@ 295 was designated onto the New Jersey approach of the bridge in 1958 . That same year , construction began for a bridge at the Farnhurst interchange that would link the US 40 approach to the Delaware Memorial Bridge to the Delaware Turnpike that was proposed to run west to the Maryland border . A year later , the Farnhurst interchange and the bridge approach were upgraded to Interstate Highway standards , and it was designated as part of I @-@ 295 . Construction at the interchange connecting to the Delaware Turnpike at Farnhurst was completed in July 1961 . On November 14 , 1963 , the Delaware Turnpike opened to traffic , with I @-@ 295 extended west along that road to I @-@ 95 , which continued along the Delaware Turnpike towards Maryland . In the middle of 1964 , work began on a second span at the Delaware Memorial Bridge due to increasing traffic volumes . The second span of the bridge was opened to traffic in fall 1968 .
The remainder of I @-@ 295 through New Jersey was planned as Federal Aid Interstate Route 108 , which was created by NJDOT in 1956 . I @-@ 295 was built between the Big Timber Creek and Route 42 in 1958 . In 1960 , the section of the interstate between Route 42 and Warwick Road was finished . The highway was built between US 130 and Route 45 in 1960 and was extended east to the Big Timber Creek a year later . In 1963 , I @-@ 295 was completed between Warwick Road and just south of Route 70 . A year later , the roadway was extended north to Route 73 . The freeway was built between Route 73 and Route 38 in 1966 . In 1968 , the section of I @-@ 295 between Carneys Point and Bridgeport was finished . Following the completion of this section , US 130 reverted to its previous surface alignment through Carneys Point , replacing that portion of Route 44 . In 1972 , the highway was finished between Route 38 and CR 541 . I @-@ 295 was extended from CR 541 northward to US 130 near Bordentown a year later . I @-@ 295 was completed from US 1 west to a proposed interchange with I @-@ 95 in Hopewell Township in 1974 . In 1975 , the roadway was constructed from south of the Route 33 interchange north to US 1 . The section of I @-@ 295 between Arena Drive and south of Route 33 was finished in 1984 . In 1987 , I @-@ 295 was built between I @-@ 195 / Route 29 and Arena Drive , with the highway between I @-@ 195 / Route 29 and Route 33 opened to traffic on August 16 of that year . The final section of I @-@ 295 between US 130 in Bordentown and I @-@ 195 / Route 29 was finished in 1994 .
At its original northern terminus , the freeway continued west as I @-@ 95 toward the Scudder Falls Bridge while I @-@ 95 was proposed to head north along the Somerset Freeway . In 1983 , the Somerset Freeway portion of I @-@ 95 was cancelled as a result of community opposition . In the 1990s , the northern terminus of I @-@ 295 was moved to its current location at the US 1 interchange , with the route west of there replaced by an extended I @-@ 95 . Due to the cancellation of the Somerset Freeway , a gap exists along I @-@ 95 in New Jersey . To bridge the gap , motorists from northbound I @-@ 95 are directed to follow I @-@ 295 southbound and I @-@ 195 eastbound to reach the New Jersey Turnpike to continue north along I @-@ 95 , and vice versa .
In 1995 , the southbound rest area along I @-@ 295 in Burlington County was named for radio personality Howard Stern . Governor Christine Todd Whitman named the rest area after Stern as payback for him granting Whitman airtime during her 1993 gubernatorial campaign . A plaque proclaiming the rest area as the " Howard Stern Rest Stop " was installed , with an image of Stern poking his head from an outhouse . Days after the plaque was installed , it was stolen and later mailed to Stern . In 2003 , the rest areas along I @-@ 295 in Burlington County were closed as part of funding cuts in Governor Jim McGreevey 's budget , saving the state $ 1 million a year .
I @-@ 295 , like many other highways in New Jersey , once had solar @-@ powered emergency call boxes every mile ( about 1 @.@ 6 km ) ; the use of the call boxes became limited due to the increasing popularity of cell phones . To save on maintenance costs , NJDOT removed these call boxes in 2005 .
NJDOT has broken ground on the missing express connection between I @-@ 295 and Route 42 to provide an easier connection between the Baltimore @-@ Washington Metropolitan Area and points south to Atlantic City and vice versa . This project , dubbed the I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 Direct Connection , will reconstruct the dangerous and congested Route 42 / I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 interchange , which currently requires traffic on I @-@ 295 to use 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) ramps that merge onto the North – South Freeway for a short distance , among a series of other indirect connections . In 2007 , " Alternative D " for the reconstructed interchange was selected , calling for I @-@ 295 to cross over the North – South Freeway . This interchange is projected to cost $ 900 million . Construction began in 2013 and is scheduled to be complete in 2021 .
NJDOT has also announced another project to address the missing connections between I @-@ 295 and Route 42 . This project , dubbed the I @-@ 295 / Route 42 Missing Moves , will provide connections from I @-@ 295 northbound to Route 42 southbound and Route 42 northbound to I @-@ 295 southbound by constructing two ramps just south of the I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 interchange . The project is slated to begin in 2017 and is scheduled to be completed by 2020 .
= = Future = =
With the completion of the Pennsylvania Turnpike / Interstate 95 Interchange Project in Bristol Township , Pennsylvania , I @-@ 95 will be redesignated along the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 276 ) to connect with the New Jersey Turnpike ( currently the northern section of I @-@ 95 ) at exit 6 , and the I @-@ 95 designation will be removed from the section north of the interchange in Pennsylvania . I @-@ 295 will be extended past its current terminus at US 1 along current I @-@ 95 , across the Scudder Falls Bridge , and into Pennsylvania to the new interchange .
Between September 2005 and May 2015 , the states of New Jersey and Pennsylvania had an agreement that , instead , I @-@ 195 would be extended along this section of I @-@ 95 . This means that the extended I @-@ 195 would have replaced the portion of I @-@ 95 between the Pennsylvania Turnpike in Bristol Township , Pennsylvania , and US 1 in Lawrence Township , New Jersey . It would have also replaced I @-@ 295 north of exit 60 in Hamilton Township , New Jersey ( its exit with I @-@ 195 ) , truncating I @-@ 295 at that junction . This option would have reduced the confusion of having I @-@ 295 parallel itself in New Jersey and Pennsylvania . Interchange renumbering would have also taken place that will coordinate with the future I @-@ 195 designation in Pennsylvania , as well as the new and current I @-@ 195 designation , from Ewing to Belmar in New Jersey . This proposal had received conditional approval from AASHTO . On May 20 , 2015 , it was decided to revert to the original decision to extend I @-@ 295 to the interchange .
= = Exit list = =
In Delaware , the exits are not numbered .
= Blockhaus d 'Éperlecques =
The Blockhaus d 'Éperlecques ( English : Bunker of Éperlecques , also referred to as " the Watten bunker " or simply " Watten " ) is a Second World War bunker , now part of a museum , near Saint @-@ Omer in the northern Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais département of France , and only some 14 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 8 @.@ 9 miles ) north @-@ northwest from the more developed La Coupole V @-@ 2 launch facility , in the same general area . The bunker , built by Nazi Germany under the codename Kraftwerk Nord West ( Powerplant Northwest ) between March 1943 and July 1944 , was originally intended to be a launching facility for the V @-@ 2 ( A @-@ 4 ) ballistic missile . It was designed to accommodate over 100 missiles at a time and to launch up to 36 daily . The facility would have incorporated a liquid oxygen factory and a bomb @-@ proof train station to allow missiles and supplies to be delivered from production facilities in Germany . It was constructed using the labour of thousands of prisoners of war and forcibly conscripted workers used as slave labourers .
The bunker was never completed as a result of the repeated bombing by the British and United States air forces as part of Operation Crossbow against the German V @-@ weapons programme . The attacks caused substantial damage and rendered the bunker unusable for its original purpose . Part of the bunker was subsequently completed for use as a liquid oxygen factory . It was captured by Allied forces at the start of September 1944 , though its true purpose was not discovered by the Allies until after the war . V @-@ 2s were instead launched from Meillerwagen @-@ based mobile batteries which were far less vulnerable to aerial attacks . Today , the bunker is preserved as part of a privately owned museum that presents the history of the site and the German V @-@ weapons programme . It has been protected by the French state as a monument historique since 1986 .
= = Background = =
The A @-@ 4 ballistic missile ( referred to as the V @-@ 2 from September 1944 ) was developed by the Germans between 1939 and 1944 . It was regarded by Adolf Hitler as a Wunderwaffe ( wonder weapon ) that he believed to be capable of turning the tide of the war . Its operational deployment was restricted by several factors . Large supplies of cryogenic liquid oxygen ( LOX ) were required as the oxidizer to fuel the missiles . LOX evaporates rapidly , necessitating a source reasonably close to the firing site in order to minimise loss through evaporation . Germany and the occupied countries did not at that time have sufficient manufacturing capacity for the amount of LOX required for a full @-@ scale A @-@ 4 campaign ; the total production capacity in 1941 and 1942 was about 215 tons daily , but each A @-@ 4 launch required about 15 tons . As the missile was intended for use against London and southern England , its operational range of 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) meant that the launch sites had to be located fairly close to the English Channel or southern North Sea coasts , in northern France , Belgium or the western Netherlands . This was within easy reach of the Allied air forces , so any site would have to be able to resist or evade the expected aerial bombardments .
Various concepts were mooted for the A @-@ 4 's deployment in a March 1942 study by Walter Dornberger , the head of the A @-@ 4 development project at the Peenemünde Army Research Center . He suggested that the missiles should be based in heavily defended fixed sites of a bunker @-@ style design similar to the massive submarine pens then under construction in occupied France and Norway . The rockets could be stored in such sites , armed , fuelled from an on @-@ site LOX production plant , and launched . This offered significant technical advantages ; not only would the LOX loss be minimised , but the complex process of pre @-@ launch testing would be simplified . A high rate of fire could be sustained as the facility could effectively operate like a production line , sending a steady flow of missiles to the launch pads .
The submarine pens and other Atlantic Wall fortifications had been built in 1940 and 1941 , when the Germans had air superiority and could deter Allied air attacks . By 1942 this advantage had been lost to the United States Army Air Forces , which had begun deploying to England in May 1942 , and a greatly expanded Royal Air Force . The German Army preferred an alternative approach which would use trailer @-@ style mobile launch platforms called Meillerwagen accompanied by testing and fuelling equipment mounted on railway cars or trucks . Although this configuration was far less efficient and would have a much lower rate of fire , it would have the great advantage of presenting a much smaller target for the Allied air forces . The Army was not convinced that fixed bunkers could resist repeated air attacks and was particularly concerned about the vulnerability of the launch sites ' road and rail links , which were essential for resupplying them with missiles and fuel .
In November 1942 , Hitler and Minister of Munitions Albert Speer discussed possible launch configurations and examined models and plans of the proposed bunkers and mobile launchers . Hitler strongly preferred the bunker option , though he also gave the go @-@ ahead for the production of mobile launchers . Two different bunker designs had been prepared : the B.III @-@ 2a design envisaged preparing the missile for launch inside the bunker , then transporting it outside to a launch pad , while the B.III @-@ 2b design would see the missile being elevated from within the bunker to a launch pad on the roof . Speer gave orders that two bunkers were to be constructed by the Organisation Todt construction group to a " special fortification standard " ( Sonderbaustärke ) , requiring a steel @-@ reinforced concrete ceiling 5 metres ( 16 ft ) thick and walls 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) thick . They would be built near the coasts opposite England , one on the Côte d 'Opale near Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer and the other on the Cotentin Peninsula near Cherbourg . Each would be capable of launching 36 missiles a day , would hold sufficient supplies of missiles and fuel to last three days , and would be manned by 250 troops .
= = Design and location = =
In December 1942 , Speer ordered Peenemünde officers and engineers ( including Colonel Gerhard Stegmair , Dr Ernst Steinhoff and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Georg Thom ) to tour the Artois region in northwest France and locate a suitable site for an A @-@ 4 launch facility . The site chosen was just to the west of the small town of Watten , in the Forest of Éperlecques , near Saint @-@ Omer in the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais department . It was given the cover name of Kraftwerk Nord West ( Northwest Power Plant ) .
The location was conveniently close to the main railway line between Calais and Saint @-@ Omer , the canalised River Aa , main roads and electric grid lines . Situated 177 kilometres ( 110 mi ) from London , it was far enough inland to be safe from naval guns and it was sheltered to an extent by a ridge that rises to a height of 90 metres ( 300 ft ) to the north . At nearby Saint @-@ Omer , there was a major Luftwaffe base which was capable of providing air defence for the area . There were existing gravel and sand quarries as well as cement works in the vicinity , which would help with the enormous amount of material that would be needed for the construction works . The quantities required were very substantial indeed ; 200 @,@ 000 tons of concrete and 20 @,@ 000 tons of steel would be required to build the facility . When US Army Major General Lewis H. Brereton inspected the site after it had been captured by the Allies , he described the bunker as " more extensive than any concrete constructions we have in the United States , with the possible exception of Boulder Dam . "
The Watten bunker was to be built to a design based on the B.III @-@ 2a bunker , though substantially larger . The Germans had originally planned to build a separate LOX plant at Stenay but this option was abandoned in favour of installing a LOX production facility within the Watten bunker .
The bunker consisted of three main elements . The main part of the building was a giant structure some 92 metres ( 302 ft ) wide and 28 metres ( 92 ft ) high , housing the LOX plant and a vault where missiles would be assembled and prepared . Its walls were up to 7 metres ( 23 ft ) thick and the bunker 's working levels descended 6 metres ( 20 ft ) below ground . The plant would house five Heylandt compressors , each capable of producing about 10 tons of LOX per day . About 150 tons of LOX were to be stored in insulated tanks on @-@ site . The facility was intended to store up to 108 missiles and enough fuel to supply three days ' worth of launches . The Germans planned to fire up to 36 rockets a day from the site .
On the north side of the building was a fortified standard gauge railway station , linked to the main Calais @-@ Saint @-@ Omer line at Watten via a 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) spur line . Missiles , warheads and other components would be shipped to the station and transported on trucks into the main area of the bunker . Here the rockets were to be assembled , raised into a vertical position and fuelled and armed . From the arming halls , they would be moved to either end of the building through pivoting doors 18 metres ( 59 ft ) high . They would exit through the south face of the building and would be moved on tracks to the launch pads . There were no doors on the exit portals so chicanes were installed in the exit passage to deflect the blast of rockets being launched from outside . Launches would be overseen from a command tower located in the centre of the south side of the bunker , overlooking the launch pads .
To the north of the bunker , the Germans erected a bomb @-@ proof power station with a 2 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 1 @.@ 5 MW ) generating capacity . The site was initially powered from the main electricity grid , but it was intended that it would have its own independent power source to minimise the likelihood of disruption . Also associated with the Watten complex was a radar tracking site at Prédefin , 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) south of Saint @-@ Omer . A Giant Würzburg radar system was installed there to follow the trajectories of V @-@ 2s being launched from Watten . The intention was to follow the trajectory for as long as possible so that the accuracy of the missile launches could be determined .
= = Construction = =
The site was designed in January and February 1943 by engineers from the Peenemünde research facility and the Organisation Todt . On 25 March 1943 the construction plans were presented to Hitler , who immediately gave the go @-@ ahead for the project to begin . The construction firm Holzman & Polanski was awarded the contract and 6 @,@ 000 workers from Building Battalion 434 started construction that same month using plans by Franz Xaver Dorsch , Construction Director at the Organisation Todt . It was envisaged that the structure would be ready by the end of July 1943 , though not its wiring and plant , and it was intended that it would be fully operational by 1 November 1943 .
The workforce consisted of a mixture of German specialists and forcibly conscripted Frenchmen from the Service du Travail Obligatoire ( STO ) . They were supplemented by Belgian , Dutch , French , Polish , Czech and Soviet prisoners of war and civilian conscripts , who were used as slave labour . The labour force also included many French political prisoners and Spanish Republicans who had fled to France after General Franco 's victory in the Spanish Civil War but had then been interned by the invading Germans . The non @-@ German workers lived in two camps officially known as Organisation Todt Watten Zwangsarbeitslager 62 ( Forced Labour Camp 62 ) about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) distant from the site , near the village of Éperlecques . The camps were guarded by the French civil police with the assistance of Belgian and Dutch Nazis and Russian POWs who had volunteered for guard duty . Although escape attempts were punished by immediate execution , there were up to three escapes daily with external assistance . The commandant of the camp is said to have complained that it would have been easier to " guard a sack of fleas " . Over 35 @,@ 000 foreign workers passed through the camps during the period in which they were operational .
The labourers worked in 12 @-@ hour shifts of 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 men , with three 20 @-@ minute breaks during each shift . The work continued around the clock , seven days a week , under giant floodlights during the night . The living and working conditions were extremely harsh , especially for the political prisoners and the eastern Europeans , who were given especially punitive treatment due to their status as the most expendable members of the workforce . For the non @-@ German workers , falling ill or being unable to work through injury was the equivalent of a death sentence , as they would either be left to die or be transported back to the concentration camps from which they had been brought . A German commission that inspected the labour camps in the area in late 1943 commented : " The Eastern [ European ] worker is very tough . He works at his job until he falls flat on his face in the mire , and all that is left for the doctor to do is to issue the death certificate . "
A large supply dump was established at Watten next to the River Aa . This site was eventually used to store material required for all the V @-@ weapon sites in the Saint @-@ Omer area . Building materials were brought there by barges and trains where they were unloaded onto a Decauville narrow @-@ gauge railway for transportation to the construction site , where concrete mixers operated day and night . A 90 kV power line running to a transformer at Holque north of Watten provided electricity . An old quarry at Wizernes codenamed Schotterwerk Nordwest ( Gravel Quarry Northwest ) , some 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) south of Watten , was also converted into a storage dump to supply the Watten facility .
= = Discovery , destruction and abandonment = =
In early April 1943 , an Allied agent reported " enormous trenches " being excavated at the Watten site , and on 16 May 1943 an RAF reconnaissance mission led to Allied photographic interpreters noticing unidentified activity there . Other large facilities were observed to be under construction elsewhere in the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais . The purpose of the construction works was very unclear ; Lord Cherwell , Winston Churchill 's scientific adviser , admitted that he had little idea what " these very large structures similar to gun emplacements " were but he believed that " if it is worth the enemy 's while to go to all the trouble of building them it would seem worth ours to destroy them " .
At the end of May , the British Chiefs of Staff ordered that aerial attacks be carried out against the so @-@ called " heavy sites " being built by the Germans . On 6 August , Duncan Sandys , who headed a high @-@ level Cabinet committee to coordinate the British defence against the German V @-@ weapons , recommended that the Watten site should also be attacked because of the progress being made in its construction . The British Chiefs of Staff noted that a daylight attack by US bombers was under consideration but they raised objections to the proposal , as the Air Staff thought that Watten had nothing to do with rockets , suggesting that instead it might be merely a " protected operations room " .
The timing of the first raid was influenced by advice given by Sir Malcolm McAlpine , the chairman of the construction company Sir Robert McAlpine , who suggested that the Watten site should be attacked while the concrete was still setting . On 27 August 1943 , 187 B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses of the US 8th Air Force attacked the site with devastating effect . The fortified train station on the north side of the bunker was especially badly damaged , as concrete had just been poured there . Dornberger later wrote that following the attack the site was " a desolate heap of concrete , steel , props and planking . The concrete hardened . After a few days the shelter was beyond saving . All we could do was roof in a part and use it for other work . " The bombing killed and injured hundreds of the slave workers on site ; although the Allies had sought to avoid casualties by timing the raid with what they thought was a change of shifts , the shift pattern had been changed by the Germans at the last minute to achieve the day 's work quota .
Only 35 % of the Watten bunker had been completed by this time . It was clearly no longer possible to use it as a launch site , but the Germans still needed LOX production facilities to supply V @-@ 2 sites elsewhere . After surveying the site in September and October 1943 , Organisation Todt engineers determined that the northern part of the facility was irretrievably damaged but decided to focus on completing the southern part to serve as a LOX factory . One of the OT 's engineers , Werner Flos , came up with an idea to protect the bunker from bombardment by building it up from the roof first . This was done by initially constructing a concrete plate , flat on the ground , which was 5 metres ( 16 ft ) thick and weighed 37 @,@ 000 tons . It was incrementally raised by hydraulic jacks and then supported by walls which were built underneath it as it was raised , becoming the roof . The resulting concrete cavern was intended to be used by the Germans as a bombproof liquid oxygen factory . The thickness of the roof was chosen on the assumption that Allied bombs were incapable of penetrating such a depth of concrete ; the Germans , however , were unaware of the British development of earthquake bombs .
The Germans ' main focus of attention switched instead to Schotterwerk Nordwest , the former quarry at nearby Wizernes , where work had been ongoing to build a bombproof V @-@ 2 storage facility . This project was expanded to turn the quarry into a fixed launch facility . Plans were put into effect to build a huge concrete dome – now open to the public as the museum of La Coupole – under which missiles would be fuelled and armed in a network of tunnels before being transported outside for launching . The Allies carried out further heavy bombing against both the Watten and Wizernes sites with little initial effect on the buildings themselves , although the rail and road network around them was systematically destroyed . On 3 July 1944 , Oberkommando West gave permission to stop construction at both sites , which had been so disrupted by bombing that work could no longer proceed . Three days later an Allied raid succeeded in wrecking the interior of the Watten bunker with a Tallboy bomb that brought down part of the roof . Finally , on 18 July 1944 , Hitler decreed that plans for launching missiles from bunkers need no longer be pursued . Dornberger 's staff subsequently decided to continue minor construction at Watten " for deception purposes " . The site itself was now useless , as the Germans recognised when they wryly codenamed it Concrete Lump , and the liquid oxygen generators and machinery were transferred to the Mittelwerk V @-@ 2 factory in central Germany , well away from Allied bombers .
The Watten site was captured on 4 September 1944 by Canadian forces . The Germans had evacuated it a few days earlier and removed the pumps which kept the cavernous basement free from water ; not long afterwards it began to flood . This made a substantial amount of the bunker inaccessible to the Allies .
= = Subsequent investigations and utilisation = =
The bunker was inspected on 10 September 1944 by the French atomic scientist Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie , accompanied by Sandys . Following the visit , Sandys ordered a Technical Inter @-@ Services Mission under Colonel T.R.B. Sanders to investigate the sites at Mimoyecques , Siracourt , Watten , and Wizernes , collectively known to the Allies as the " Heavy Crossbow " sites . Sanders ' report was submitted to the War Cabinet on 19 March 1945 .
Despite the capture of Watten , it was still not known at this time what the site had been intended for . Sanders noted that " the purpose of the structures was never known throughout the period of intensive reconnaissance and attack " . Based on the discovery of large aluminium tanks installed in the main part of the bunker , he opined that the Germans had intended to use it as a factory for the production of hydrogen peroxide for use in the fuelling of V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2 missiles . He ruled out the possibility that it could have been used for LOX production and concluded , erroneously , that " the site had no offensive role . " He recommended that ( unlike the Mimoyecques and Wizernes sites ) the Watten bunker presented no threat to the UK 's security and " there is thus no imperative need , on that account , to ensure the destruction of the workings . "
The bunker was targeted again by the Allies in February 1945 , this time to test the newly developed CP / RA Disney bomb – a 4 @,@ 500 lb ( 2 @,@ 000 kg ) concrete @-@ piercing rocket @-@ assisted bomb designed to double the normal impact velocity , and thereby increase the penetration , of the projectile . The site had been chosen for testing purposes in October 1944 as it had the largest accessible interior area of the targets under consideration and was furthest from an inhabited town . On 3 February 1945 , a B @-@ 17 of the US Eighth Air Force dropped a Disney bomb on the Watten bunker and scored a hit over the wall section , but the results were inconclusive and the Air Force was not able to determine how well the bomb had penetrated the concrete . Although Disney bombs were used operationally on a number of occasions , the weapon 's introduction came too late to be of any significance in the war effort . In January 2009 the body of the Disney bomb was extracted from the roof , where it had embedded itself .
The Watten bunker was inspected again on 20 June 1951 by an Anglo @-@ French commission to determine whether it was capable of being reused for military purposes . The British Assistant Military Attaché , Major W.C. Morgan , reported to the Director of Military Intelligence at the War Office that the main part of the bunker had not been significantly damaged by bombing and that although it was flooded , if it was patched and drained " the building could be quickly made ready to receive oxygen liquifying plant machinery , or for any other purpose requiring a large and practically bomb @-@ proof building . "
No further military use was made of the bunker and the land on which it stands reverted to private ownership . It was left abandoned for many years before the owners decided to redevelop the site . In 1973 , the bunker was opened to the public for the first time under the name of Le Blockhaus d 'Éperlecques . The ownership was taken over by Hubert de Mégille in the mid @-@ 1980s and on 3 September 1986 the French state declared it a monument historique . The area around the bunker has been re @-@ forested , though it is still heavily scarred by bomb craters , and various items of Second World War military equipment ( including a V @-@ 1 on a launch ramp ) are on display alongside paths around the site . An open @-@ air trail leads to and around the bunker with interpretative signs posted at various points to tell the story of the site and the German V @-@ weapons programme . In 2009 , the museum welcomed 45 @,@ 000 visitors .
= = Air raids on the Watten site = =
= Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia =
The Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia was signed by Alija Izetbegović , President of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Franjo Tuđman , President of the Republic of Croatia , in Zagreb on 21 July 1992 during the Bosnian and Croatian wars for independence from Yugoslavia . It established cooperation , albeit inharmonious , between the two and served as a basis for joint defense against Serb forces . It also placed the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) under the command of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) .
Izetbegović , who had hoped to prevent Bosnia Herzegovina from falling under the influence of Croatia or Serbia , signed the agreement after Stjepan Kljuić , president of the Croatian Democratic Union 's ( HDZ ) branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina , was replaced by Tuđman with Mate Boban , who blocked the delivery of supplies to Sarajevo where a siege was under way and had proclaimed an independent Croatian Republic of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia ( HR @-@ HB ) . The agreement fell apart in October after a number of events including the assassination of Blaž Kraljević , leader of Croatian Defence Forces ( HOS ) in Bosnia and Herzegovina , the fall of the areas of Posavina , Bosanski Brod , and Jajce into the hands of the Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) , and after a major battle broke out between the HVO and the ARBiH in Prozor .
= = Preparation for war = =
In 1990 and 1991 , Serbs in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina had proclaimed a number of " Serbian Autonomous Regions " with the intent of later unifying them to create a Greater Serbia . Serbs used the well equipped Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) in defending these territories . As early as September or October 1990 , the JNA had begun arming Bosnian Serbs and organizing them into militias . By March 1991 , the JNA had distributed an estimated 51 @,@ 900 firearms to Serb paramilitaries and 23 @,@ 298 firearms to Serbian Democratic Party ( SDS ) . The Croatian government began arming Croats in the Herzegovina region in 1991 and in the start of 1992 , expecting that the Serbs would spread the war into Bosnia and Herzegovina . It also helped arm the Bosniak community . From July 1991 to January 1992 , the JNA and Serb paramilitaries used Bosnian territory to wage attacks on Croatia .
On 25 March 1991 , Franjo Tuđman met with Serbian president Slobodan Milošević in Karađorđevo , reportedly to discuss partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina . In November , the autonomous Croatian Community of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia ( HZ @-@ HB ) was established , it claimed it had no secessionary goal and that it would serve a " legal basis for local self @-@ administration " . It vowed to respect the Bosnian government under the condition that Bosnia and Herzegovina was independent of " the former and every kind of future Yugoslavia . " In December , Tuđman , in a conversation with Bosnian Croat leaders , said that " from the perspective of sovereignty , Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina has no prospects " and recommended that Croatian policy " support for the sovereignty [ of Bosnia and Herzegovina ] until such time as it no longer suits Croatia . "
In April 1992 , the siege of Sarajevo began , by which time the Bosnian Serb @-@ formed Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) controlled 70 % of Bosnia and Herzegovina . On 8 April , Bosnian Croats were organized into the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) . A sizable number of Bosniaks also joined . The Croatian Defence Forces ( HOS ) , led by Blaž Kraljević in Bosnia and Herzegovina , which " supported Bosnian territorial integrity much more consistently and sincerely than the HVO " was also created . On 15 April 1992 , the multi @-@ ethnic Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) was formed , with slightly over two @-@ thirds of troops consisting of Bosniaks and almost one @-@ third of Croats and Serbs . In the winter Bosniaks began leaving the HVO and joining the ARBiH which also began receiving supplies from Croatia . In May , HVO Major General Ante Roso declared that the only " legal military force " in HZ @-@ HB was the HVO and that " all orders from the TO [ Territorial Defense ] command [ of Bosnia and Herzegovina ] are invalid , and are to be considered illegal on this territory " .
= = Pressure and agreement = =
The Croatian government played a " double game " in Bosnia and Herzegovina and " a military solution required Bosnia as an ally , but a diplomatic solution required Bosnia as a victim " . Tuđman 's Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) party held important positions in the Bosnian government including the premiership and the ministry of defence , but despite this carried out a separate policy and refused for the HVO to be integrated into ARBiH . Jerko Doko , the Bosnian defence minister , gave the HVO priority in the acquisition of military weapons . In January 1992 , Tuđman had arranged for Stjepan Kljuić , president of the Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( HDZ BiH ) who favored cooperating with the Bosniaks towards a unified Bosnian state , to be ousted and replaced by Mate Boban , who favored Croatia to annex Croat @-@ inhabited parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina . A rift existed in the party between Croats from ethnically mixed areas of central and northern Bosnia and those from Herzegovina . Milivoj Gagro , prewar Croat mayor of Mostar and ally of Kljuić said : " The secessionist policy [ union with Croatia ] was consistently supported by the Herzegovina side , not by Sarajevo , Posavina , or Central Bosnia Croats . [ ... ] Croats from Central Bosnia and Posavina , as well as those from urban centers who lived with Muslims and Serbs , thought differently . But when the war picked up , Posavina Croats were attacked , Sarajevo was surrounded [ ... ] Kljuić was sidelined and Boban came in with idea [ the Croat separatist idea ] in this area . [ ... ] When they [ Croats in Sarajevo as well as Northern and Central Bosnia ] felt they could not survive any more they lifted their hands and accepted their fate . And the Herzegovina Croats promised them the stars in the sky and told them " come here and we will give you a place . " And what happened ? It resulted in an exodus . And all these miserable Croat refugee communities that look absolutely ugly . "
Izetbegović came under intense pressure from Tuđman to agree for Bosnia and Herzegovina to be in a confederation with Croatia ; however , Izetbegović wanted to prevent Bosnia and Herzegovina from coming under the influence of Croatia or Serbia . Because doing so would cripple reconciliation between Bosniaks and Serbs , make the return of Bosniak refugees to eastern Bosnia impossible and for other reasons , Izetbegović opposed . He received an ultimatum from Boban warning that if he did not proclaim a confederation with Tuđman that Croatian forces would not help defend Sarajevo from strongholds as close as 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) away . On 9 May , Boban , Josip Manolić , Tuđman 's aide and previously the Croatian Prime Minister , and Radovan Karadžić , president of the self @-@ proclaimed Republika Srpska , secretly met in Graz and formed an agreement on the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Graz agreement . Beginning in June , discussions between Bosniaks and Croats over military cooperation and possible merger of their armies started to take place . The Croatian government recommended moving ARBiH headquarters out of Sarajevo and closer to Croatia and pushed for its reorganization in an effort to heavily add Croatian influence .
In June and July , Boban increased pressure " by blocking delivery of arms that the Sarajevo government , working around a United Nations embargo on all shipments to the former Yugoslavia , has secretly bought . " On 3 July , Boban declared the independence of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia ( HR @-@ HB ) . He was established as its president . It claimed power over its own police , army , currency , and education and extended its grasp to many districts where Bosniaks were the majority . It only allowed a Croat flag to be used , the only currency allowed was the Croatian kuna , its only official language was Croatian , and a Croat school curriculum was enacted . Mostar , a town where Bosniaks constituted a slight majority , was set as the capital . There was no mention on the defense of Bosnia and Herzegovina 's territorial integrity .
On 21 July , Izetbegović and Tuđman signed the " Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Croatia " in Zagreb , Croatia . The agreement allowed them to " cooperate in opposing [ the Serb ] aggression " and coordinate military efforts . It placed the HVO under the command of the ARBiH . Cooperation was inharmonious , but enabled the transportation of weapons to ARBiH through Croatia in spite of the UN sanctioned arms embargo , reopening channels blocked by Boban . It established " economic , financial , cultural , educational , scientific and religious cooperation " between the signatories . It also stipulated that Bosnian Croats hold dual citizenship for both Bosnia and Herzegovina and for Croatia . This was criticized as Croatian attempts at " claiming broader political and territorial rights in the parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina where large numbers of Croats live " . After its signature Boban vowed to Izetbegović that HR @-@ HB would remain an integral part of Bosnia and Herzegovina when the war ended .
= = Aftermath = =
In the summer of 1992 , the HVO started to purge its Bosniak members . At the same time armed incidents started to occur among Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina between the HVO and the HOS . The HOS was loyal to the Bosnian government and accepted subordination to the Staff of the ARBiH of which Kraljević was appointed a member . On 9 August , Kraljević and eight of his staff were assassinated by HVO soldiers under the command of Mladen Naletilić , who supported a split between Croat and Bosniaks , after Kraljević 's HOS attacked the VRS near Trebinje . The HOS 's advance into eastern Herzegovina and occupation of Trebinje angered Boban who had affirmed to Karadžić that Croat forces were uninterested in the region . The HOS was disbanded , leaving the HVO as the only Croat force . Bosnian officials suspected that Tuđman 's government was involved . According to Manolić the order to kill Kraljević was given by Šušak and approved by Tuđman . Božidar Vučurević , the war @-@ time mayor of Trebinje , stated he safeguarded records showing that SDS and HDZ figures considered it a " task " that need to be carried out .
In late September , Izetbegović and Tuđman met again and attempted to create military coordination against the VRS , but to no avail . By October , the agreement had collapsed and afterwards Croatia diverted delivery of weaponry to Bosnia and Herzegovina by seizing a significant amount for itself . Boban had abandoned a Bosnian government alliance and ceased all hostilities with Karadžić . The dominant Croatian – Bosnian defense of Posavina fell apart after Tuđman and / or Gojko Šušak ordered the withdrawal of the Croatian Army ( HV ) , enabling the Serbs to gain control of the corridor and connect their captured territories in western and eastern Bosnia . On 8 October , the town of Bosanski Brod was abandoned by the HVO and left to the VRS . By that time , the HV and the HVO had sustained approximately 7 @,@ 500 casualties , out of 20 @,@ 000 troops committed to the battle to control Posavina . The pullout appeared to be a quid pro quo for the JNA withdrawal from Dubrovnik 's hinterland that took place in July . Still , a Central Intelligence Agency analysis concluded that there is no direct evidence of such arrangements . On 9 October , the HVO signed a cease @-@ fire with the VRS in Jajce in exchange for providing electricity .
The strained relations escalated rapidly and led to an armed clash between the two forces in Novi Travnik on 18 October . Low @-@ scale conflicts spread in the region , and the two forces engaged each other along the supply route to Jajce three days later , on 21 October , as a result of an ARBiH roadblock set up the previous day on authority of the " Coordinating Committee for the Protection of Muslims " rather than the ARBiH command . Just as the roadblock was dismantled , a new skirmish occurred in the town of Vitez the following day . On 29 October , the VRS captured Jajce due to the inability of ARBiH and HVO forces to construct a cooperative defense , against the VRS which held the advantage in troop size and firepower , staff work and planning was significantly superior to the defenders of Jajce . Six days prior the first major battle in the impending Croat – Bosniak war broke out when the HVO pushed ARBiH from Prozor
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and expelled the Bosniak population after carrying out rapes , attacking the local mosque , and torching the property of Bosniaks . Initial reports indicated about 300 Bosniaks were killed or wounded in the attack , but subsequent reports by the ARBiH made in November 1992 indicated eleven soldiers and three civilians were killed . Another ARBiH report , prepared in March 1993 , revised the numbers saying eight civilians and three ARBiH soldiers were killed , while 13 troops and 10 civilians were wounded .
= Wizards & Warriors =
Wizards & Warriors is a platforming video game developed by Rare Ltd. for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . It was published by Acclaim and released in North America in December 1987 and in Europe on January 7 , 1990 . It was also released in Japan by Jaleco on July 15 , 1988 , under the title Densetsu no Kishi Elrond ( 伝説の騎士エルロンド ) . In the game , players control Kuros , the " Knight Warrior of the Books of Excalibur " , as he sets out in the Kingdom of Elrond to defeat the evil wizard Malkil , who holds the princess captive in Castle IronSpire , located deep within Elrond 's forests . During the game , players make their way through forests , tunnels , and caves , battling hordes of enemies and collecting treasure , magical items , and additional weaponry to get past the obstacles and hazards that lie in their path . It was Rare 's second game released for the NES , after Slalom .
Wizards & Warriors was featured in early video gaming magazines such as Nintendo Fun Club News , Nintendo Power , and VideoGames & Computer Entertainment in 1988 and 1989 . The main characters Kuros and Malkil would make appearances in the animated series The Power Team ( part of the TV video game reviewing show Video Power ) and Captain N : The Game Master . The game would also be novelized for the Worlds of Power series of NES game adaptations , created by Seth Godin . It received general praise for its graphics , sound , difficulty , and arcade @-@ style gameplay . Criticisms include the presence of unlimited continues , which allow players to restart the game right where they previously left off while retaining all items that were collected before . Retro Gamer called Wizards & Warriors " a unique experience for NES gamers in 1987 , and technically well ahead of other games for the console at the time " . The game also spawned three sequels : Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II , Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power and Wizards & Warriors X : The Fortress of Fear .
= = Plot = =
Wizards & Warriors pits the story 's hero Kuros , the " Knight Warrior of the Books of Excalibur " , against the main antagonist , the evil wizard Malkil . He was considered one of the greatest wizards in the land , such that Merlin was one of his students . However , the aging Malkil has gone mad and has started using his magic for evil . As a result , Malkil has captured the princess and holds her prisoner in Castle IronSpire , deep within the forests of Elrond . The game 's protagonist , the brave knight Kuros , is summoned to venture through the forests of Elrond . He is armed with the legendary Brightsword , a sword that is powerful enough to beat demons , insects , undead , and the other creatures which have fallen under Malkil 's spell . With the sword , he ventures out through the forests of Elrond and the various caves and underground tunnels and to Castle IronSpire , where he must defeat Malkil and rescue the princess .
= = Gameplay = =
Wizards & Warriors is a platformer in which players control Kuros as he makes his way through the forests of Elrond to Castle IronSpire , where he must defeat Malkil and rescue the princess . After starting the game , the map is briefly shown for players to look at ; afterwards , gameplay starts . Starting in the Elrond forest , players must explore the trees – both on top and inside – to find items and to make it into the caves and tunnels . There , players start collecting the various magical items and treasure ; they must make their way through caves filled with ice as well as lava . Afterwards , players fight through a second set of forests before arriving at Castle IronSpire , in which the player must go over the castle in order to enter it . The castle consists of a series of mazes in which players must use keys to open doors and possibly find other damsels which can be rescued . At the end lies the final confrontation with the wizard Malkil .
Players use the control pad to move horizontally and to crouch . Kuros can attack enemies by using his Brightsword or with other weapons and magic . He can also attack enemies while in the air or while standing by simply holding the sword in position . The objective of the game is to collect the various weapons and magic as well as the gems and treasure along the way ; players use these items to make it past the enemies and other obstacles and hazards . Players collect gems in order to " bribe " the creature who guards the entrance to the next level ; if players do not have enough gems , they cannot progress to the next level . At the end of each level is a boss creature which has been empowered by Malkil 's black magic . Bosses have an " Enemy 's Black Magic Power " meter which shows how difficult the boss is , how many hits are required to defeat it , and what type of weaponry needs to be used . Kuros has a life meter which decreases as time passes and when he sustains damage from enemies . Players loses a life when Kuros ' life meter runs out , but upon restarting they keep all the items they have obtained up to that point . The game ends when all three lives have been lost , but players have the choice to continue and restart at the level in which they lost their last life ; upon continuing , players keep all their items obtained up to that point , but their score goes back to zero . Along the way , players can replenish Kuros ' life meter by collecting pieces of meat scattered throughout the levels .
Along the way , players pick up many items which will help Kuros along his way . Acorns , torches , and treasure chests contain objects for players to collect . Chests are color @-@ coded and require a key of that matching color to open the chest ; the same color @-@ coded keys are used to open doors of matching colors . Some weapons and magic items are replaced once the player collects a new item , but others remain throughout the course of the game . Items include the following : " Boots of Force " which can kick open chests and doors ; magical potions which temporarily grant Kuros invulnerability , extra speed , or extra jumping ability ; gems to help bribe the end @-@ of @-@ level guardian ; a shield to protect from enemy attacks ; the " Potion of Levitation " which allows Kuros to float upwards ; the " Dagger of Throwing " and the " Battle Axe of Agor " which are thrown at enemies and return like a boomerang ; the " Feather of Feather Fall " which slows Kuros ' falling speed ; the " Wand of Wonder " and " Staff of Power " which shoot out balls of ice and fire , respectively ; the " Cloak of Darkness " which makes Kuros invisible to enemies ; the " Boots of Lava Walk " which allows Kuros to walk on the lava ; " Exploding Eggs " which destroys all on @-@ screen enemies ; " Alarm Clocks " which stops all enemies for a brief period ; knife and axe upgrades and an item simply called a " horn " ( trumpet ) which had many players confused as it appeared to be useless , its purpose was to reveal hidden doors to gem caves in some places . Other valuable treasures increase the player 's score and include coins , orbs , chalices , and entire hoards of treasure . Rescuing the damsels in the levels also increase the player 's score .
= = Development and reception = =
Wizards & Warriors was developed by UK @-@ based video game company Rare for the Nintendo Entertainment System . It was released by Acclaim in North American in December 1987 ; it would later be released by the same company in Europe on January 7 , 1990 . It was released in Japan by Jaleco under the title Densetsu no Kishi Elrond on July 15 , 1988 . The game would be Rare 's second NES release , after Slalom . The game 's soundtrack was composed by video game composer David Wise .
Wizards & Warriors was reviewed in Nintendo Fun Club News – the precursor to Nintendo Power – in which a brief overview of the gameplay was given . The game would be featured again in Nintendo Power 's November – December 1989 issue , where it was chosen as the best game to use with the NES Advantage controller , saying that the joystick would allow players to concentrate on other strategic gameplay elements . In 1989 , Wizards & Warriors was nominated by the magazine for " Best Graphics & Sound " and " Best Character " ( Kuros ) for its " Nintendo Power Awards ' 88 " , but it did not win in either category . It also received coverage in a 1989 issue of VideoGames & Computer Entertainment . The reviewer lauded the game 's challenge and need for problem solving – more particular the need to use different items aside from the Brightsword in order to defeat some enemies and progress in the game , and the need to find hidden rooms where required items are located . However , he noted that the high level of difficulty is offset by the ability to continue at exactly the same spot in which the player left off . Overall , the reviewer praised Wizards & Warriors for its " excellent graphics and sound " , arcade @-@ style gameplay , and overall challenge . German magazine Power Play praised the game 's good graphics , sound and extras , but criticized its " stale gameplay " .
In a retrospective of the entire Wizards & Warriors series , UK @-@ based magazine Retro Gamer gave a positive review of the first title , saying that " Kuros 's first adventure was a unique experience for NES gamers in 1987 , and technically well ahead of other games for the console at the time . " The review said that the game , while a platformer , placed much emphasis on finding treasure and items . The review said that most gamers found fault in relatively easy difficulty level , most symbolized by its unlimited continues in which players can continue at the point right where they left off . According to the retrospective , in 1988 , Rare showed Wizards & Warriors to Zippo Games , who was touring Rare and their NES library . Rare asked them to develop a sequel to the game , which would become Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II . In another retrospective of Rare as part of the company 's 25th anniversary , GamePro looked back on the game , calling it " unique at the time " due to the unlimited amount of continues players received .
Wizards & Warriors has received scant coverage from modern video gaming websites . Video gaming website GamesRadar named the opening theme for the game as " Game music of the day " , noting that the theme " suggests , from the moment you turn on the game , that knights , wizards , goblins and who knows what else are about to collide in a battle so epic it 's destined for a Frazetta painting . " JC Fletcher from Joystiq called the game " a simple action @-@ platformer about a guy in thick armor who kicks open treasure chests in order to bribe knights " . He also notes the variety of good and bad items such as the " Staff of Power " which inflicts much damage to enemies and conversely the " Cloak of Darkness " , which he says " makes Kuros invisible to you but not to enemies " . He said that the game has an arcade feel , with unlimited continues , a high @-@ score list , name entry for high scores , and good music . Houston Press ' Jef Rouner lauded the game 's music and animation , and noted its high difficulty level , especially during boss battles . IGN listed Wizards & Warriors at # 56 on its " Top 100 NES Games " list , reviewer Sam Claiborn said that the game was inspired by Dungeons & Dragons @-@ type RPGs , but it went further in incorporating action platforming elements along with more traditional RPG elements . Columnist and comedy writer Seanbaby humorously criticized the game for items that did not work as intended , including the " Cloak of Darkness " and the " Boots of Lava Walk " .
= = Other media = =
Wizards & Warriors was ported as a standalone handheld game by Acclaim in September 1989 , as part of a series of handheld ports by the company which also included WWF WrestleMania Challenge , Knight Rider , 1943 : The Battle of Midway , and Rocky . Kuros and his nemesis Malkil were featured – along with the title characters from Kwirk and BigFoot , Tyrone from Arch Rivals , and characters from NARC – in the 1990 animated series The Power Team , part of the video game reviewing show Video Power . Malkil appeared in an episode of Captain N : The Game Master called " Nightmare on Mother Brain 's Street " where the world of the game was referred to as " Excalibur " and not Elrond .
Wizards & Warriors was one of the eight games that were novelized for the Worlds of Power series of NES game adaptations , published by Scholastic Corporation ; the novelization was written by the series ' creator Seth Godin , under the pseudonym " F. X. Nine " . The book was the only one in the series in which no effort was made to edit out the protagonist 's weapons on the cover . However , on the cover , Kuros ' loincloth was airbrushed on both sides in order to more completely conceal his underside – which is more visible on the cover of the game itself . The novelization is about a boy named Matthew who is having trouble using his imagination for a creative writing class , when he accidentally brings his father 's knight figurine to life . He is then spirited away to the land of Elrond to help Kuros defeat Malkil . As with the other books in the series in which nobody actually " died " , all of the creatures that they killed were made from the lives of the people of Elrond , and whenever a creature was slain , a person was returned to their normal state . Further in the novel , the two save Kuros sister in the pink caves . While Matthew was invulnerable at the start of the mission , as the two drew closer to the evil wizard , he becomes more vulnerable to the attacks of Malkil 's villains .
= Disasterpieces =
Disasterpieces is the second video album by American metal band Slipknot . Released on November 26 , 2002 , a 2 @-@ disc case DVD features Slipknot performing a concert at London Dockland Arena , as well all of the band 's music videos until its release including songs from Slipknot and Iowa .
The concert was filmed by 26 cameras , including a camera on the headstock of Mick Thomson 's guitar and a " first person " point of view of several band @-@ members . The show was edited in part by band member Shawn Crahan who watched all of the footage recorded from the show . Disasterpieces was met with positive critical reception , with many citing the quick editing and high sound quality as strong points . In 2005 the DVD was certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA and is the band 's highest selling DVD to date shipping at least 400 @,@ 000 units as a longform video .
= = Recording and production = =
Disasterpieces was recorded at the now defunct London Dockland Arena in England on February 16 , 2002 , it was one of the final dates on the band 's European tour which was subsequently their final tour until 2004 . The concert was shot with 26 different cameras under the direction of Matthew Amos and documents the show , backstage action and an in @-@ store signing in Paris , France . In addition to operated cameras each band member had an individual camera which was attached to the side of their masks , apart from Mick Thomson whose camera was attached to the headstock of his guitar . The concept behind these cameras was to allow the viewer to see the show from the band member 's point of view . However they did cause some discomfort and problems for some band members . Bassist Paul Gray removed his after four songs , explaining that " they gave us this big [ camera ] pack to wear around our waist . So when I was jumping around , the thing started sliding down my leg " . Also during the song " Spit It Out " DJ Sid Wilson had his camera stolen when he was in the crowd , however it was returned at the end of the show , all of this is documented on the DVD .
The performance was edited by percussionist Shawn Crahan and Paul Richardson . Crahan later explained that he didn 't have an outline when he began editing , to the disbelief of others closest to him he watched all the footage in order to find the most appropriate footage to help immerse the viewer in the show . Additional content on the two @-@ disc set includes all music videos by the band at the time of release and the track " Purity " , which was removed from Slipknot due to legal reasons , in audio form . The DVD also gives the ability to the viewer to use the remote to change the viewing angle during " Disasterpiece " and also to view the individual band member mask cameras during " People = Shit " and " The Heretic Anthem " . The DVD was unveiled at an advance screening in New York City on November 1 , 2002 and was released on November 22 .
= = Reception = =
Disasterpieces was generally well received by critics . Kirk Miller of Rolling Stone complimented the multitude of camera angles and quick edits , writing that they helped to " [ take ] advantage of the masked metal giants ' sprawling live show " . Ottawa XPress reviewer Mitch Joel wrote that the sound was " mixed perfectly ... [ making ] songs like ' People = Shit ' , ' Spit It Out ' and ' Surfacing ' rocket " . Overall , he concluded , " Disasterpieces is an awesome and all @-@ embracing package . "
Disasterpieces peaked at number 3 in the Billboard Top Music Videos chart and rose to number 1 in Finland . On January 6 , 2003 the RIAA certified Disasterpieces platinum in the United States , and it was declared quadruple platinum on November 18 , 2005 .
It was honored with a 2002 Metal Edge Readers ' Choice Award for DVD / Home Video of the Year .
= = Contents = =
= = Personnel = =
Aside from their real names , members of the band are referred to by numbers zero through eight .
= = = Certifications = = =
= Spike Spiegel =
Spike Spiegel ( Japanese : スパイク ・ スピーゲル , Hepburn : Supaiku Supīgeru ) is the central protagonist of the 1998 anime series Cowboy Bebop . Spike is a former member of the criminal Red Dragon Syndicate , who left by faking his death after falling in love with a woman called Julia . He is first introduced as the partner of Jet Black , captain of the spaceship Bebop : the two are legalized bounty hunters pursuing criminals across the populated worlds . During his adventures on board the Bebop , he is drawn back into a bitter feud with Vicious , a rival from the Syndicate who seeks to kill him .
Spike was created by Shinichirō Watanabe and Toshihiro Kawamoto as part of the production entity Hajime Yatate . Created as a mirror image of Watanabe and based on Yusaku Matsuda 's character in Tantei Monogatari , he was designed as someone who would expect others to follow his lead . Kawamoto deliberately designed him to appear " uncool " to create the opposite effect for viewers . His final confrontation with Vicious was planned well in advance . His portrayal in the later movie adaptation displayed the character 's softer side and inner thoughts . Spike is voiced in Japanese by Kōichi Yamadera . In the English dub , he is voiced by Steven Blum .
In addition to the series , Spike has been featured in two manga adaptations , and been the main protagonist of two video game adaptations . Reception of Spike has been positive in Japan and the West , with multiple reviewers praising his portrayal . He has appeared on multiple reader and critic lists of the best anime characters . In addition to the series , many reviewers of the movie positively noted his expanded portrayal in The Movie . Both actors have been praised for their performances , with Blum commenting that it boosted his voice acting career .
= = Characteristics = =
Spike is a fictional bounty hunter who was born on Mars on June 26 , 2044 : he is 27 years old , has fluffy dark @-@ green hair and brown eyes . His right eye is artificial , and consequently lighter than the other . He stands 6 ' 1 " and weighs 155 lbs . Spike is a heavy smoker , and is frequently seen smoking despite rain or " no smoking " signs . A skilled martial artist who practices Jeet Kune Do , he is a devote follower of the philosophies of Bruce Lee . He also owns a converted antique Asteroid racer called the Swordfish II . During gunfights , he most often uses a Jericho 941 . In his younger days before joining the Bebop , Spike was part of the Red Dragon Syndicate , a Chinese criminal organization : during his time there , he was impetuous and volatile , but after leaving he became a calm and collected character with a love for combat . While holding little value in money or justice , he always holds true to his own values and fulfills his obligations . He also generally does this his way rather than following orders , which generally gets him into trouble . Watanabe has said that Spike has a habit of being very indirect with his emotions ; for example , he may behave antagonistically towards someone he actually likes . He says that this could apply to Spike 's relationship with Faye Valentine .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Cowboy Bebop = = =
Years before the beginning of the series , Spike is a rising member of the Red Dragon crime syndicate . While there , he becomes a partner and friend of Vicious , another member of the Syndicate . Wounded from a gun battle , Spike is nursed back to health by Vicious ' girlfriend Julia , and the two fall in love . They plan to elope and escape the Syndicate , but Vicious finds out and attempts to force Julia to kill Spike or risk her own death . After Spike fakes his death to escape the Syndicate , Julia goes into hiding and does not meet up with him . Spike eventually met and teamed up with former Inter Solar System Police officer Jet Black . As legalized bounty hunters , they travel the Solar System 's inhabited worlds hunting criminals .
During his time on the Bebop , he and Jet are joined by Ein , an intelligent Welsh corgi ; Faye Valentine , a gambler and original resident of Earth woken from cryogenic sleep ; and Edward " Ed " Wong Hau Pepelu Tivruski IV , an eccentric girl from Earth who is a master hacker . Spike also has run @-@ ins with Vicious on two occasions : in " Ballad of Fallen Angels " , while pursuing a Red Dragon executive , Spike and Vicious battle in a derelict church and Spike is nearly killed . Later , in " Jupiter Jazz " , Spike hears that Julia was seen on Callisto and abandons the Bebop to look for her . Once there , he stumbles into a drug deal orchestrated by Gren , a man Vicious betrayed who is seeking revenge . During their confrontation , a three @-@ way battle ensues : Vicious escapes , and Gren is fatally injured , but he succeeds in telling Spike that Julia is alive and in hiding .
During the final story of the series , " The Real Folk Blues " , Julia comes out of hiding and sends a message to Spike through Faye : the two meet and resolve to flee as originally planned . Vicious , having staged a coup d 'état and taken over the Red Dragon Syndicate , sends assassins after the two . During a battle , Julia is shot and killed . After saying his goodbyes to Jet and Faye , Spike storms the headquarters of the Syndicate and has a final confrontation with Vicious : Spike is severely wounded and Vicious is killed . Shortly after this , Spike walks into and collapses in the entrance hall . Spike 's ultimate fate was deliberately left ambiguous , with Watanabe eventually unable to say whether he lived or died .
= = = In other media = = =
Spike is the main protagonist of Cowboy Bebop : The Movie , a story set between Episodes 22 and 23 of the original series while the Bebop crew are still working together . The crew of the Bebop take on a massive bounty for Vincent Volaju , who releases a cloud of deadly protean @-@ based nanomachines in Mars ' capital city . During his pursuit , Spike initially fights then allies with Elektra Ovirowa , a former comrade of Vincent 's .
Spike appears along with the other main characters in the manga adaptation of Cowboy Bebop and the alternate manga Cowboy Bebop : Shooting Star . In the PlayStation Cowboy Bebop , players control Spike as he pilots the Swordfish II during aerial battles through pre @-@ set courses . Spike appears as one of the playable characters in the PlayStation 2 action / beat ' em up video game Cowboy Bebop : Tsuioku no Serenade , a game set within the continuity of the series .
= = Creation and conception = =
During the first work by Shinichirō Watanabe on Cowboy Bebop , the first image that came to him was of Spike . Prior to that , Watanabe had the character of Spike in mind for a long time beforehand . From that point on , Watanabe " tried to build a story around him , trying to make him cool . " Watanabe created Spike as a mirror image of himself : in Watanabe 's words , " I don 't smoke or drink or fight , but I want to – so Spike does . " Spike forms the main focus on the series , with the central theme being his past and its karmic effect on him . Spike was portrayed as a very old @-@ fashioned type of man , who would simply do what he wanted and expect others to follow his lead and watch him from the sidelines . Spike 's artificial eye was included as Watanabe wanted his characters to have flaws . He was originally going to give Spike an eye patch , but the producers vetoed it . In order to portray him as cool , Toshihiro Kawamoto designed Spike to look " uncool " : when he stands still , he has a hunched appearance . This meant that when the character was moving vigorously , he came across as " extra cool " . Spike 's appearance was primarily based on the main protagonist of Tantei Monogatari , portrayed by famous Japanese actor Yusaku Matsuda . Spike 's Swordfish II spaceship was created by mecha designer Kimitoshi Yamane . Yamane liked the English biplane torpedo @-@ bomber Fairey Swordfish , which led him to name the Swordfish II after the bomber . The conclusion of Spike 's story and his final battle with Vicious were planned by Watanabe well in advance , with each episode featuring them meant to shadow their final confrontation . Some of the staff were unhappy about this approach as a continuation of the series would be difficult . While he considered altering the ending , he eventually settled with his original idea .
Spike 's Japanese voice actor , Kōichi Yamadera , was pleased to have gotten the part , but Unshō Ishizuka , Jet 's voice actor , was surprised that Yamadera was not cast as Jet . Spike and Jet were designed to be opposites , with Spike being thin and wearing smart attire , while Jet was bulky and wore more casual clothing . His English voice actor , Steven Blum , used film noir imagery to get himself in the right frame of mind to voice the character convincingly . Blum had some difficulty portraying the character in scenes where he was showing vulnerability . He called Spike an " example of a character [ he ] didn 't fully appreciate until the series was over " , also adding that he would like to reprise his role as the character if given the chance . Spike 's portrayal was expanded in Cowboy Bebop : The Movie . Specifically , according to Yamadera , the character displayed more of his inner thoughts and showed a gentler side than he did in the series . This was because the team had more time available to express such details . Blum found his performance in the movie one of his most difficult from an emotional standpoint , as there were scenes where Spike was portrayed quite differently from the version he had been playing in the series .
= = Reception = =
Spike 's character has been well received in Japan . He won first place in the Best Male Character category at Animage 's annual Anime Grand Prix awards two consecutive times in 1998 and 1999 . In the August 2001 issue of Newtype , Spike was ranked first on the magazine 's list of " Top 10 Most Popular Male Anime Characters in Japan " . The next year in July 2002 , Spike was again placed at number one on Newtype 's anime list of " Favorite Male Character " . In a Newtype poll from March 2010 , Spike was voted by readers as the eighteenth most popular male anime character from the 1990s . In 2014 , Kōichi Yamadera was voted by fans as the third coolest " old guy " voice actor in a Goo Ranking poll , with his portrayal of Spike cited as one of the contributing factors .
Western critics have also directed significant praise towards Spike . In his review of Cowboy Bebop , Anime News Network 's Mike Crandol praised the character portrayals , especially Spike 's , stating that " Spike 's character in particular runs the gamut from goofy to blasé to teeth @-@ gnashing tough ; he is one of most three @-@ dimensional anime leads in recent memory . " Christi of THEM Anime Review 4 @.@ 0 complimented Spike 's story arc in the series , saying that " the underlying theme of Spike Spiegel and his motivations for what he does is absolutely intriguing . " DVDTalk 's Kyle Mills called Spike the epitome of a good lead protagonist , referring to him as " composed , always cool , and is essentially the ultimate badass " , although his true nature is gradually shown throughout the series . In an article in The Atlantic , writer Alex Suskind was positive about Spike 's portrayal and development , saying that the word " cool " was the most apt way of describing him and referring to him as " a space @-@ age samurai @-@ cum @-@ Marlboro Man " . Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku , writing a retrospective on the series , praised the relationship between Spike and Faye , especially the way it evolved through the series without overt verbal expressions of affection .
His portrayal in The Movie has also received praise : IGN 's Andy Patrizio said that Spike " opens up his soul a little " during the film , while Chris Beveridge of Mania.com found Spike more likable in the film than in some parts of the series , comparing him to Lupin III and praising the moments where he could be himself and show more of his inner self . Carlos Ross of THEM Anime Review said that Spike 's portrayal was one of the things that worked in the film , and DVD Talk 's Neil Lumbard , alongside general praise of the characters , positively noted the further exploration of his personality . Anime News Network 's Mike Crandol was less enthusiastic , saying that while Spike was the only one who got much attention during the film , some sequences felt like they could work without him .
Blum 's portrayal as Spike has also drawn praise . Isler stated that " Steve Blum launched his career into new heights when he gave the performance of a lifetime in the English dub of the series , giving Spike a sense of smooth , effortless cool that many argue surpassed the original Japanese version . " While praising the whole principal cast of the series as one of the best English dubs , Serdar Yegulalp of About.com highlighted Blum as Spike as the standout performance of the series , stating that " Cynicism never sounded this suave or self @-@ assured " . Blum himself has called Spike a " gigantic benchmark " in his career and life , saying that " Spike changed everything " for him . He stated that his role as Spike opened up new opportunities for voicing characters , including T.O.M. on Toonami and Jamie on Megas XLR .
In 2009 and 2014 , IGN ranked Spike among the best anime characters of all time . In 2009 , Chris Mackenzie ranked Spike as the fourth greatest anime character behind Goku , Astro Boy , and Speed Racer . In 2014 , Ramsey Isler ranked him as second greatest behind Shinji Ikari of Neon Genesis Evangelion . At the 2005 Anime Awards from About.com , Spike was nominated in the category " Best Lead Male Character " , though he lost to Goku . In 2010 , Wired included Spike on its list of the " 6 Genre @-@ Tripping Gunfighters Jonah Hex Must Duel FTW ! " , with writer Scott Thill complimenting his abilities , while also commenting on his presence of heart compared to other equivalent protagonists . In 2013 , Complex ranked Spike the fourth most stylish anime character ever , with writer Jian DeLeon commenting that " The Mars @-@ born bounty hunter knows the benefit of a good uniform " . In 2014 , WatchMojo.com named Spike an honorable mention on its list of the " Top 10 Anime Anti @-@ Heroes " , and also ranked him at number nine on its list of the " Top 10 Anime Heroes " .
= No. 1 Squadron RAAF =
No. 1 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) squadron headquartered at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . Controlled by No. 82 Wing , it is equipped with Boeing F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornet multi @-@ role fighters . The squadron was formed under the Australian Flying Corps in 1916 and saw action in the Sinai and Palestine Campaigns during World War I. It flew obsolete Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2s , B.E.12s , Martinsyde G.100s and G.102s , as well as Airco DH.6s , Bristol Scouts and Nieuport 17s , before re @-@ equipping with the R.E.8 in October 1917 and finally the Bristol Fighter in December . Its commanding officer in 1917 – 18 was Major Richard Williams , later known as the " Father of the RAAF " . Disbanded in 1919 , No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ formed on paper as part of the RAAF in 1922 , and re @-@ established as an operational unit three years later .
During World War II , the squadron flew Lockheed Hudson bombers in the Malayan and Dutch East Indies campaigns , suffering severe losses before being reduced to cadre in 1942 . It was re @-@ formed with Bristol Beauforts the following year , and re @-@ equipped with de Havilland Mosquitos in 1945 for further operations in the Dutch East Indies . Reduced to cadre once more after the war ended , No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ established at Amberley in 1948 as an Avro Lincoln heavy bomber unit . From 1950 to 1958 it was based in Singapore , flying missions during the Malayan Emergency , where it bore the brunt of the Commonwealth air campaign against communist guerillas . When it returned to Australia it re @-@ equipped with English Electric Canberra jet bombers . It operated McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4E Phantoms from 1970 to 1973 , as a stop @-@ gap pending delivery of the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber . The F @-@ 111 remained in service for 37 years until replaced by the Super Hornet in 2010 . From September 2014 to March 2015 , a detachment of Super Hornets was deployed to the Middle East as part of Australia 's contribution to the military intervention against ISIL .
= = Role and equipment = =
No. 1 Squadron is located at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , and controlled by No. 82 Wing , which is part of Air Combat Group . Its mission responsibilities include air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ surface combat . The squadron is nicknamed the " Fighting First " . The blazon of its crest is " the Australian Kookaburra in a diving position superimposed on the cross of Jerusalem " , which symbolises the Victoria Cross @-@ winning action of No. 1 Squadron pilot Frank McNamara in Palestine during World War I. The unit motto is Videmus Agamus ( " We see and we strike " ) .
The squadron operates Boeing F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornet multi @-@ role fighters , the first of which entered service in March 2010 . Nicknamed the " Rhino " , its missions include air superiority , fighter escort , land strike , maritime strike , close air support , and reconnaissance . The Super Hornet is larger than the " classic " McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet operated by the RAAF , carries more ordnance , and has a greater fuel capacity . It is fitted with a 20 mm cannon and can be armed with air @-@ to @-@ air and anti @-@ shipping missiles , as well as a variety of air @-@ to @-@ ground bombs and missiles . Flown by a crew of two , a pilot and an air combat officer ( ACO ) , it is capable of engaging targets in the air and on the surface simultaneously . It can be refuelled in flight by the RAAF 's Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transports . The Super Hornets are serviced at the operating level by No. 1 Squadron technical staff ; heavier maintenance is conducted by Boeing Defence Australia and other contractors .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
No. 1 Squadron was established as a unit of the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) at Point Cook , Victoria , in January 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Colonel E.H. Reynolds . With a complement of 28 officers , 195 airmen , no aircraft and little training , it sailed for Egypt in mid @-@ March 1916 , arriving at Suez a month later . There it came under the control of the 5th Wing of the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) . After training in England and Egypt , the unit was declared operational at its new headquarters in Heliopolis on 12 June , when it took over aircraft belonging to No. 17 Squadron RFC . Its three flights were , however , operating in isolation at different bases in the Sinai Desert , and the squadron did not reunite until December . Flying primitive and poorly armed Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 two @-@ seat biplanes , its primary roles during this period of the Sinai Campaign were reconnaissance — including aerial photography — and artillery spotting for the British Army . No. 1 Squadron pilots attached to No. 14 Squadron RFC took part in the Battle of Romani in July and August . In September and October , B and C Flights , led by Captains Oswald Watt and Richard Williams respectively , undertook bombing and reconnaissance missions in support of the Australian Light Horse in northern Sinai .
On 12 September 1916 , the British began to refer to No. 1 Squadron as No. 67 ( Australian ) Squadron RFC . This practice continued until January 1918 , when the unit officially became known as No. 1 Squadron AFC . The relationship between airmen and ground crew was less formal than in British units ; squadron members recalled that " The CO is the only one who is ever called ' sir ' " and that officers did not demand " saluting and standing to attention and all that rot " . The unit received the first of several Martinsyde G.100 single @-@ seat fighters to augment the B.E.2s on 16 October ; although considered obsolete , the " Tinsyde " was substantially faster than the B.E.2 , and armed with forward @-@ firing machine guns . Shortly before the squadron took part in a bombing raid against Beersheba on 11 November , Lieutenant Lawrence Wackett managed to fix a machine gun to the top plane of one of the B.E.2s , using a mount he designed himself . Each flight was also assigned a Bristol Scout beginning in December , but it too was obsolete and under @-@ powered , and the squadron ceased operating the type within three months . Other older models issued to the unit included the Airco DH.6 , Martinsyde G.102 and Nieuport 17 . On 17 December , the squadron 's flights were finally brought together at one base , Mustabig .
Early March 1917 saw the heaviest bombing campaign carried out by the squadron to date ; short of its regular 20 @-@ pound ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) ordnance , the pilots improvised by dropping 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) howitzer shells on Turkish forces along the Gaza – Beersheba line . During one such mission on 20 March , Lieutenant Frank McNamara earned the Victoria Cross for landing his Martinsyde in the desert under enemy fire and rescuing a fellow pilot whose B.E.2 had been forced down . On 26 March , No. 1 Squadron took part in the First Battle of Gaza ; it suffered its first combat death the next day , when one of its B.E.2s was attacked by a German Rumpler . The unit participated in the Second Battle of Gaza on 19 April ; like its predecessor , the attack was a failure for the Allies . Williams , later to become known as the " Father of the RAAF " , assumed command of the squadron in May . Two B.E.12s were delivered the same month ; like the Martinsydes , they were armed with a forward @-@ firing machine gun and employed as escorts for the B.E.2s. By June , mechanical issues caused by hot summer weather and the threat from new German Albatros scouts were rendering the B.E.2s largely ineffective , and Williams urgently requested newer models . Modern aircraft were eventually delivered , first the Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 in October , and then the Bristol F.2 Fighter in December . " Now for the first time , " wrote Williams , " after 17 months in the field we had aircraft with which we could deal with our enemy in the air . "
No. 1 Squadron joined the 40th ( Army ) Wing of the RFC 's Palestine Brigade on 5 October 1917 . On 22 and 24 November , the squadron bombed Bireh village during the Battle of Jerusalem . The first of its 29 confirmed aerial victories , over an Albatros , occurred on 3 January 1918 . By month 's end , its complement of aircraft included five B.E.2s , five Martinsydes , two R.E.8s , and nine Bristol Fighters . The squadron supported the Capture of Jericho in February 1918 . It carried out air raids and reconnoitred prior to the First Transjordan attack on Amman in March and prior to the Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt a month later ; it also flew reconnaissance missions during the advance to and fighting near Es Salt and Jisr ed Damieh . By the end of March , it was equipped with 18 Bristol Fighters , which had replaced all the other types . As well as undertaking offensive operations , the Bristol Fighters served in the photo @-@ reconnaissance role . During the last week of April 1918 , the squadron moved its base forward from Mejdel to a new aerodrome outside Ramleh . Williams relinquished command in June to take over 40th Wing .
Beginning in August 1918 , members of No. 1 Squadron , including one of its aces , Lieutenant Ross Smith , were attached to Colonel T.E. Lawrence 's Arab army to protect it against German bombing . In September , the squadron began operating a Handley Page 0 / 100 , the only Allied heavy bomber in the Middle East and the only twin @-@ engined aircraft flown by the AFC . That month it joined the Bristol Fighters in the final offensive of the Palestinian Campaign , the Battle of Armageddon , inflicting what the Australian official history described as " wholesale destruction " on the Turkish Seventh Army . By October , the Bristol Fighters had moved forward from Ramleh to Haifa and by the middle of the month were required to patrol and reconnoitre an exceptionally wide area of country , sometimes between 500 and 600 miles ( 800 and 970 km ) , flying over Rayak , Homs , Beirut , Tripoli , Hama , Aleppo , Killis and Alexandretta . They bombed the German aerodromes at Rayak , where 32 German machines had been either abandoned or burnt , on 2 October . On 19 October , the first German aircraft was seen in the air since fighting over Deraa in mid @-@ September , just prior to the Battle of Sharon . Smith and another pilot forced a DFW two @-@ seater to land , and destroyed it on the ground by firing a Very light into the aircraft after the German pilot and observer had moved to safety . In the wake of the 31 October armistice with Turkey , the squadron relocated to Ramleh in December , and then in February 1919 to Kantara . There its members were personally farewelled by General Sir Edmund Allenby , who congratulated them for achieving " absolute supremacy of the air ... a factor of paramount importance " to the Allied campaign .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
No. 1 Squadron returned to Australia on 5 March 1919 , and was disbanded . In 1921 , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) was established as a separate branch of the military , and on 1 January 1922 , the squadron was re @-@ formed on paper . Its planned strength , approved by the Air Board in December 1921 , was three officers and five airmen , operating four Airco DH.9s. Funding problems for the fledgling Air Force resulted in the disbandment on 1 July of No. 1 Squadron and other units established at the same time , their aircraft and personnel instead forming a single squadron of six flights under the control of No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) at Point Cook . No. 1 Squadron was reactivated as an operational unit of the RAAF reserve , known as the Citizen Air Force ( CAF ) , at Point Cook on 1 July 1925 . Its commanding officer was Flight Lieutenant Harry Cobby .
Like No. 3 Squadron , formed the same day at Point Cook but transferred to RAAF Richmond , New South Wales , three weeks later , No. 1 Squadron was a multi @-@ purpose or " composite " unit made up of three flights , each of which had a different role and comprised four aircraft : A Flight operated DH.9s for army cooperation , B Flight operated Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 fighters , and C Flight operated DH.9A bombers . A third of the squadron 's complement of 27 officers and 169 airmen was Permanent Air Force ( PAF ) , and the rest CAF . No. 1 Squadron relocated from Point Cook to nearby RAAF Laverton on 1 January 1928 . The RAAF retired its S.E.5s the same year , and in 1929 took delivery of Westland Wapiti general @-@ purpose aircraft to replace its DH.9s and DH.9As. Through the inter @-@ war years , No. 1 Squadron undertook various tasks including civil aid , flood and bushfire relief , search and rescue , aerial surveys , and air show demonstrations . In October 1930 , a de Havilland DH.60 Moth attached to the unit conducted Australia 's first crop @-@ dusting operation , at the behest of the Victorian Forestry Commission .
RAAF squadrons began adopting specialised roles in the early 1930s , No. 1 Squadron becoming No. 1 Single @-@ Engined Bomber Squadron . By November 1935 it was made up of two flights of newly delivered Hawker Demon fighter @-@ bombers , and one of Wapitis . In December 1935 it was augmented by No. 1 FTS 's Fighter Squadron and its six Bristol Bulldogs , which were redesignated fighter @-@ bombers . Nos. 21 and 22 ( Cadre ) Squadrons were formed on 20 April 1936 at Laverton and Richmond , respectively , absorbing the CAF personnel of Nos. 1 and 3 Squadrons , which became PAF units . The same day , No. 1 Squadron was renamed No. 1 ( Fighter Bomber ) Squadron . This reorganisation temporarily denuded No. 1 Squadron of most of its aircraft , leaving only A Flight , with four Bulldogs and a Wapiti , in operation . The Wapiti was transferred to No. 1 FTS in July , and by the end of the month the squadron 's complement of aircraft stood at four Bulldogs and one Moth .
No. 1 Squadron began receiving new Demons in November 1936 . In January 1937 , it relinquished its Bulldogs to No. 21 Squadron , which was to hold them until they could be transferred to the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ formed No. 2 Squadron . By the end of February , No. 1 Squadron 's strength was 12 Demons and one Moth , 11 officers and 108 airmen . The unit was redesignated No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron in August 1937 . Towards the end of the year , it was plagued by several Demon accidents , resulting in a series of inquiries and a review of RAAF procedures in 1938 by Marshal of the RAF Sir Edward Ellington ; the so @-@ called Ellington Report and its criticism of air safety standards led to the removal of Air Vice @-@ Marshal Richard Williams from his position as Chief of the Air Staff , which he had held since the formation of the Air Force . No. 1 Squadron received the RAAF 's first three CAC Wirraways on 10 July 1939 . As the likelihood of war increased , the squadron 's role was altered to incorporate reconnaissance as well as bombing , resulting in the transfer out of all Demons and Wirraways and the transfer in from other units of nine Avro Ansons on 28 – 29 August 1939 ; at the end of the month its personnel comprised nine officers and 122 airmen .
= = = World War II = = =
Following the outbreak of World War II , No. 1 Squadron 's Ansons were tasked with maritime patrol and convoy escort duties . In 1940 , the squadron became the RAAF 's inaugural Lockheed Hudson unit ; it received its first Hudson on 30 March , and by the end of May had transferred out the last of its Ansons and was operating 11 of the new aircraft . Deployed to Malaya to conduct maritime reconnaissance , No. 1 Squadron arrived at Sembawang , Singapore , on 4 July 1940 . It relocated to Kota Bharu , near the Malaya – Thailand border , in August 1941 . Two days before the attack on Malaya , its Hudsons spotted the Japanese invasion fleet but , given uncertainty about the ships ' destination and instructions to avoid offensive operations until attacks were made against friendly territory , Air Chief Marshal Sir Robert Brooke @-@ Popham did not allow the convoy to be bombed . Shortly after midnight , local time , on the night of 7 / 8 December , the Japanese force started landing on the beaches at Kota Bharu , close to the airfield , and from about 02 : 00 , No. 1 Squadron launched a series of assaults on the Japanese forces , becoming the first aircraft to make an attack in the Pacific War . The Hudsons sank a Japanese transport ship , the IJN Awazisan Maru , and damaged two more transports , the Ayatosan Maru and Sakura Maru , for the loss of two Hudsons , an hour before the attack on Pearl Harbor . By the end of the day , Japanese ground forces had advanced to the outskirts of the airfield , forcing the squadron 's remaining airworthy aircraft to be evacuated to Kuantan , and from there back to Singapore .
By Christmas Eve 1941 , No. 1 Squadron had five serviceable aircraft . Together with No. 8 Squadron RAAF , also equipped with Hudsons , it was tasked with maritime patrols to the east of Singapore . On 26 January 1942 , two of the squadron 's Hudsons spotted a Japanese convoy heading for Endau , on the east coast of Malaya . It was decided to attack the convoy with all possible strength , including four Hudsons from No. 1 Squadron and five from No. 8 Squadron , together with obsolete Vickers Vildebeest and Fairey Albacore biplanes of Nos. 36 and 100 Squadrons RAF , and with what little fighter escort could be found . The convoy was strongly defended by Japanese fighters , and although all nine Hudsons returned to Singapore , several were badly shot up . The rest of the strike force did not fare as well ; 11 Vildebeests , two Albacores , two Hudsons ( of No. 62 Squadron RAF ) and three fighters were lost . By the end of the month , No. 1 Squadron had withdrawn to airfield P.2 on Sumatra , along with several other Commonwealth units including No. 8 Squadron . It continued to attack Japanese bases in Malaya and convoys in the Dutch East Indies , relocating to Semplak , Java , in mid @-@ February . At Semplak it took over the Hudsons of No. 8 Squadron and No. 65 Squadron RAF , giving it a strength of 25 aircraft ; at one stage it was to be renumbered as an RAF squadron , but this never occurred . Heavily outnumbered by Japanese air units , which raided Allied bases with impunity , No. 1 Squadron suffered heavy losses and was ordered to withdraw its four remaining Hudsons to Australia on 2 March 1942 , disbanding soon after . Although 120 of the squadron 's personnel were evacuated from Java , 160 men including the commanding officer , Wing Commander Davis , were unable to escape and were taken prisoner by the Japanese ; less than half survived captivity .
No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ formed with Bristol Beauforts on 1 December 1943 at Menangle , New South Wales . By March 1944 it had deployed to Gould , Northern Territory , where it was controlled by No. 79 Wing under North @-@ Western Area Command . Its strength at the beginning of the month was some 350 officers and men , and 19 Beauforts . The squadron commenced reconnaissance operations on 20 March , and undertook its first bombing mission on 4 April against Lautem , East Timor . It attacked other targets in Timor during May , losing two aircraft . Having undertaken 82 sorties in July , the Beauforts concentrated on maritime reconnaissance from August , using air @-@ to @-@ surface radar during operations from Gould and Gove . After re @-@ equipping with Mosquito fighter @-@ bombers at Kingaroy , Queensland , in January 1945 , the squadron deployed to Morotai in May and then Labuan Island in June – July . Now part of No. 86 ( Attack ) Wing , it flew only a few missions before the end of the war , losing one Mosquito . No. 1 Squadron returned to Australia in December 1945 and was disbanded at Narromine , New South Wales , on 7 August 1946 .
= = = Malayan Emergency = = =
No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ formed as a heavy bomber unit on 23 February 1948 , when No. 12 Squadron was re @-@ designated . Operating Avro Lincolns , it was based at RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland , where it formed part of No. 82 ( Bomber ) Wing . The wing 's aircraft were serviced by No. 482 ( Maintenance ) Squadron . From July 1950 to July 1958 — for the first two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years under the auspices of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing — it was based in Singapore , flying missions against communist guerrillas during the Malayan Emergency . Tasked by RAF Air Headquarters Malaya , the Lincolns generally conducted area bombing missions , as well as strikes against pinpoint targets . They operated singly and in formations , sometimes in concert with RAF bombers , and often strafed targets with their machine guns and 20 mm cannon after dropping ordnance . The Lincolns were considered well suited to the campaign , owing to their range and ability to fly at low speeds to search for targets , as well as their firepower and heavy bomb load . Not having to contend with anti @-@ aircraft fire , they flew mainly by day , but No. 1 Squadron also operated by night , the only Commonwealth unit to do so .
The squadron carried out its own day @-@ to @-@ day maintenance in Malaya ; the Lincolns were rotated back to Australia for major work . Its original complement of six aircraft was increased to eight after the British Air Ministry requested in February 1951 that Australia augment its bomber force to partly offset the imminent withdrawal of the RAF 's Lincolns to Bomber Command in Europe . The squadron was awarded the Gloucester Cup for proficiency in 1950 – 51 and 1954 – 55 . It suffered no casualties during the campaign but two of its aircraft were written off : one that overshot the landing strip at Tengah in November 1951 , and another that crashed into the sea off Johore after striking trees on takeoff in January 1957 .
Although the original purpose of the bombing campaign in Malaya was to kill as many insurgents as possible , the impracticality of achieving this in operations over dense jungle resulted in a shift towards harassing and demoralising the communists , driving them out of their bases and into areas held by Commonwealth ground troops . Operation Kingly Pile , which involved two sorties by No. 1 Squadron and one by English Electric Canberra jet bombers of No. 12 Squadron RAF on 21 February 1956 , was considered the most successful of the more than 4 @,@ 000 missions conducted by the Lincolns , killing at least 14 communist troops . By the time it was withdrawn to Australia in July 1958 , the squadron had dropped over 14 @,@ 000 tonnes of bombs — 85 per cent of the total delivered by Commonwealth forces during the Emergency . Its service was recognised with the presentation of a Squadron Standard by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Far East Air Force , Air Marshal The Earl of Brandon . Until 2014 , the Malayan Emergency had marked the last occasion that the unit took part in combat operations .
= = = Jet era = = =
No. 1 Squadron re @-@ equipped with Canberra Mk.20s after returning to Australia . The RAAF 's first jet bomber , the Canberra was subsonic but had long range and was highly manoeuvrable . It had been procured partly for its capacity to deliver nuclear weapons , an ordnance option the government seriously contemplated but never acquired . Initially the Canberra 's envisaged mission profile was medium @-@ to @-@ high @-@ altitude area bombing but its primitive bombsight and light load made this a dubious proposition , and by mid @-@ 1961 crews were training in low @-@ level army cooperation tactics . No. 1 Squadron was awarded successive Gloucester Cups for its proficiency in 1959 – 60 and 1960 – 61 . As of January 1962 , its strength was eight aircraft and 53 personnel , including 18 officers . The unit effectively ceased operations in 1968 , to begin converting to the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C supersonic bomber , which was expected to enter service soon afterwards . Already controversial owing to its escalating cost , the F @-@ 111 program was heavily delayed by airworthiness concerns related to its swing @-@ wing technology . In September 1970 , as an interim measure while awaiting delivery of the F @-@ 111 , No. 1 Squadron relinquished its Canberras for leased McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4E Phantoms , which it operated until June 1973 . Although the Phantom had a multi @-@ role capability , the RAAF employed it as a strike aircraft to maintain compatibility with the proposed F @-@ 111 mission profile . One of No. 1 Squadron 's Phantoms was lost with its crew of two in June 1971 , the only fatalities and hull loss of the 24 aircraft leased to the RAAF . Though not as sophisticated an aircraft as the F @-@ 111 , the Phantom was a significant advance over the Canberra , and well regarded by its Australian crews .
No. 82 Wing accepted its first F @-@ 111Cs in June 1973 . The Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Charles Read , ordered that the new aircraft be flown with great caution initially , well within operational limits , to minimise the possibility of further damage to its reputation through early attrition . No. 1 Squadron was assigned 12 of the initial 24 aircraft delivered . It was No. 82 Wing 's lead strike force , while No. 6 Squadron was primarily tasked with crew conversion training . The wing employed a centralised servicing regime , whereby all aircraft and maintenance personnel were held by No. 482 Squadron , which released the F @-@ 111s in line with Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons ' joint flying program . In February 1981 , responsibility for operating @-@ level servicing of the F @-@ 111s was transferred to the flying squadrons , which for the first time took direct control of their F @-@ 111s . No. 482 Squadron continued to provide intermediate @-@ level servicing , while major upgrades and complex maintenance were carried out by No. 3 Aircraft Depot . These two organisations merged in 1992 to form No. 501 Wing , which handed over heavy maintenance of the F @-@ 111 to Boeing Australia in 2001 . Between 1977 and 1993 , the RAAF lost seven F @-@ 111Cs in crashes . Three of the accidents involved aircraft flown by No. 1 Squadron : in August 1979 , January 1986 and September 1993 , the last two killing both crew members . In July 1996 , No. 1 Squadron took responsibility for aerial reconnaissance using specially modified RF @-@ 111Cs previously operated by No. 6 Squadron . This gave No. 1 Squadron five mission types : land strike , maritime strike , close air support , long @-@ range air defence , and reconnaissance . In May 1999 the unit was again awarded the Gloucester Cup for proficiency .
Along with its revolutionary variable @-@ sweep wings , the F @-@ 111 was equipped with terrain @-@ following radar and an escape module that allowed the entire cockpit to be jettisoned in an emergency , instead of individual ejection seats . Its top speed was Mach 2 @.@ 5 and its combat radius gave it the capability of reaching targets in Indonesia from bases in northern Australia . Upon delivery in 1973 it was fitted with analogue avionics and could only drop unguided ( " dumb " ) bombs . In its 37 years of service with the RAAF the type went through several upgrades , including the Pave Tack infra @-@ red and laser @-@ guided precision weapons targeting system , Harpoon anti @-@ shipping missiles , and advanced digital avionics . Alan Stephens , in the official history of the post @-@ war Air Force , described the F @-@ 111 as " the region 's pre @-@ eminent strike aircraft " and the RAAF 's most important acquisition . The closest they came to being used in anger , however , was during Australian @-@ led INTERFET operations in East Timor commencing in September 1999 . Both F @-@ 111 squadrons were deployed to RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory , to support the international forces in case of action by the Indonesian military , and remained there until December ; six of No. 1 Squadron 's aircraft and approximately 100 personnel were involved . From 20 September , when INTERFET forces began to arrive in East Timor , the F @-@ 111s were maintained at a high level of readiness to conduct reconnaissance flights or air strikes if the situation deteriorated . As it happened , INTERFET did not encounter significant resistance , and F @-@ 111 operations were limited to reconnaissance by RF @-@ 111Cs from 5 November through 9 December .
In 2007 , the Australian government decided to retire the F @-@ 111s by 2010 , and acquire 24 Boeing F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets as an interim replacement , pending the arrival of the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning then being developed . The F @-@ 111 fleet was considered to be at risk due to fatigue , and too expensive to operate as each aircraft required 180 hours of maintenance for every hour of flying time . No. 1 Squadron ceased operating the F @-@ 111 in January 2009 , in preparation for converting to the Super Hornet . Former F @-@ 111 aircrew , familiar with side @-@ by @-@ side seating and a different performance envelope , found conversion more challenging than pilots experienced in the RAAF 's McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighters , which shared many characteristics with the newer model . No. 1 Squadron re @-@ equipped between 26 March 2010 and 21 October 2011 , making it the first Australian unit , and the first squadron outside the United States , to fly the Super Hornet . It became operational with its new aircraft on 8 December 2011 . The multi @-@ role Super Hornet allowed No. 1 Squadron to augment its previous offensive strike role with an air @-@ to @-@ air combat function . The RAAF attained full operational capability with the Super Hornet in December 2012 .
On 14 September 2014 , the Federal government committed to deploying up to eight Super Hornets of No. 1 Squadron to Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates , as part of the Australian Air Task Group joining the coalition against Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) forces in Iraq . Aircraft from the squadron conducted their first mission over Iraq on 5 October , and their first strike four days later . According to the Department of Defence , as of 20 December 2014 the Super Hornets had flown over 180 sorties , dropped 113 weapons , and destroyed 36 ISIL targets , damaging another six . In March 2015 , having flown almost 3 @,@ 000 hours in over 400 missions , the detachment was replaced by six F / A @-@ 18As from No. 75 Squadron .
= = Future = =
In May 2013 , the Federal government announced plans to purchase 12 Boeing EA @-@ 18G Growlers to supplement the Super Hornet fleet . No. 6 Squadron is expected to begin taking delivery of the Growlers in 2017 , at which point its Super Hornets will be transferred to No. 1 Squadron . In April 2014 , the government announced the purchase of 58 F @-@ 35s in addition to 14 already ordered , for the express purpose of replacing the 71 " classic " Hornets of Nos. 3 , 75 and 77 Squadrons and No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit . A government decision on whether to purchase a further 28 F @-@ 35s , to be based at Amberley , will depend on how long the Super Hornets are to be retained . According to Australian Aviation , continuing delays to the F @-@ 35 program have increased the likelihood that the Super Hornets of Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons will , rather than being disposed of early as originally planned , continue to be operated by the RAAF for their full service life of over 20 years .
= = Aircraft operated = =
= Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics =
The 2012 Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , was a wheelchair basketball team that played in the 2012 Summer Paralympics . The team of twelve included nine Paralympic veterans with fifteen Paralympic Games between them : Bridie Kean , Amanda Carter , Sarah Stewart , Tina McKenzie , Kylie Gauci , Katie Hill , Cobi Crispin , Clare Nott and Shelley Chaplin . There were three newcomers playing in their first Paralympics : Amber Merritt , Sarah Vinci and Leanne Del Toso . The Gliders had won silver at the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney and the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , but had never won gold .
The first stage of the Paralympic competition was the group stage , a round robin tournament . The Gliders faced a formidable task just to make the finals , as their pool included Brazil , Great Britain , Canada and the Netherlands , the last two of which had recently beaten them . After a narrow victory over Brazil and an easier one against Great Britain , the Gliders were again defeated by Canada , but they won their final match against the Netherlands to finish at the top of their pool . The Gliders went on to win in the quarterfinal against Mexico and the semifinal against the United States , but lost to Germany in the final , winning silver .
= = Background = =
Prior to 2012 , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , had won silver in the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney and the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , and bronze at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , but had never won gold . The official announcement of the membership of the Paralympic team was made on 5 July 2012 . The team of twelve included nine veterans with 15 Paralympic Games between them : Bridie Kean , Amanda Carter , Sarah Stewart , Tina McKenzie , Kylie Gauci , Katie Hill , Cobi Crispin , Clare Nott and Shelley Chaplin . Amber Merritt , Sarah Vinci and Leanne Del Toso were newcomers competing at their first Paralympics . Kean was selected as captain .
The oldest team member was Amanda Carter , aged 48 , who was coming back for a fourth Paralympic games having competed in the 1992 Summer Paralympics in Barcelona , the 1996 Summer Paralympics in Atlanta and the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney , at which she had been sidelined by a crippling elbow injury . She returned to the Gliders ' lineup in 2009 . The youngest , who had not even been born when Carter had played in Barcelona , was her 19 @-@ year @-@ old teammate Amber Merritt . British @-@ born Merritt was originally a swimmer , but had been recruited into basketball by the Paralympic Hall of Fame coach Frank Ponta . Merritt had averaged 20 points and 8 @.@ 4 rebounds per game in the Gliders World Challenge series against Japan , Germany and China in Sydney in July 2012 , including a game against Germany in which she scored 21 points and eight rebounds . Another young player from whom much was hoped was Cobi Crispin , whose performances in the Paralympic World Cup in Manchester and the Gliders World Challenge led to her being named Australian Women ’ s Wheelchair Basketball International Player of the Year .
Source : Basketball Australia ; International Games as at 29 August 2012 from Official Results Book , p . 4152 .
= = Group stage = =
The first part of the competition was the group stage . The Gliders ' pool included Brazil , Great Britain , Canada and the Netherlands . Canada had beaten them in the bronze medal game at the 2010 Wheelchair Basketball World Championship in Birmingham in July 2010 , and the Netherlands had also beaten them recently . Australian Gliders head coach , John Triscari admitted that Canada would be hard to beat . He added :
We ’ ve worked really hard to improve the team ’ s shooting percentage , we ’ ve had strength and conditioning coaches working with the girls to up their fitness and we ’ ve increased the volume of shooting during training . Hopefully all the hard work the girls are putting in now , will pay off in London .
Qualified for quarterfinals
Eliminated
Key : Pld
= played , W =
won , L
= lost , PF =
points for , PA
= points against , PD =
points difference , Pts = competition points
= = = Brazil = = =
Key : Pts
= points , Rebs =
rebounds , Asts = assists
The Gliders ' first game was on 30 August in front of a crowd of 3 @,@ 288 at the Basketball Arena in Olympic Park in Stratford , London , also known as " the Marshmallow " . The Gliders had not played Brazil in four years , and what little they knew about them came from watching video tapes .
The scores were tied fifteen times , and at no point were the Australians more than five points in front . With six minutes to go in the final quarter , the Gliders were up by only two points , with the score 45 – 43 . Crispin was sent to the free throw line where she extended her team 's lead to 47 – 43 . A technical foul saw her straight back to the
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free throw line to make it 48 – 43 , the Glider 's biggest lead of the game . Brazil then struck back , scoring five unanswered points to tie the score again at 48 – 48 , but Merritt scored one from the paint to put the Gliders back in front . She followed by taking a defensive rebound and then another shot to make it 52 – 48 . Brazil scored once more , but time ran out , and the Gliders won , 52 – 50 . Leading scorers for the Gliders were Crispin with 18 points and Merritt with 16 .
Triscari said that they could have played better . " The chemistry in our team " , he said , " is fantastic . It 's good to get a win under your belt and then we 'll take it from there . But we didn 't play to our maximum today I don 't think . We made some mistakes passing the ball , turning the ball over so we 've got some improvement to do . We can work on a few things . "
= = = Great Britain = = =
The Gliders ' next match was against Great Britain , and was held at the North Greenwich Arena , which could accommodate a larger crowd than the Marshmallow . A crowd of 5 @,@ 331 saw a low @-@ scoring affair . The Gliders concentrated on defence , and led by only 11 – 5 at quarter time . By half time , they had extended their lead to 25 – 11 . The third quarter went badly for Team Great Britain , which only scored three more points to Australia 's 14 , making the score 39 – 14 at three @-@ quarter time . The final quarter was Great Britain 's best , but the score was still 51 – 24 . Merritt and Crispin were again the Gliders ' top scorers , with 10 and 8 points respectively , but they shared the ball around , and every Glider except McKenzie scored at least two points . The British coach was scathing about his team 's performance . " They know that 's not the way we play " , he said , " and I 'm disappointed for the crowd and them because they are tons better than that . It was an absolutely disgraceful effort out there . It really was bad . "
= = = Canada = = =
The Gliders returned to the Marshmallow the next day for a match against Canada , another team considered a strong chance for a medal , in front of a capacity crowd of 7 @,@ 200 . The Gliders squandered early opportunities , and Canada won the first quarter 20 – 12 . Strong defensive play by Nott and Gauci helped the Gliders reverse this in the second , and left Canada with only a one @-@ point 33 – 32 lead at half time . The second half saw Canada slowly increase their lead , keeping tied with Australia 4 – 4 in the first half of third , 6 – 4 in the last half of the third 6 – 4 in the first half of the fourth , and 8 – 6 in the last half of the fourth . Australia 's top players were Crispin , who had 13 points and 15 rebounds ; Merritt , who earned 16 points ; and Chaplin , with eight points , five rebounds and seven assists . The loss raised the prospect that Australia might not make the finals at all , but Crispin remained confident that they could .
Triscari identified the Gliders ' poor shooting as their critical problem . " That was a really tough game , " he said , " and full credit to Canada , but we can 't beat top teams in the world when we only shoot at 34 % , that was the key statistic . " Merritt , in her British accent , said that she had " the utmost respect for Canada . They 're a great team , but we 'll refocus on the game tomorrow and go out and play like we know we can , the Australian way . "
= = = Netherlands = = =
The loss to Canada meant that the Gliders needed a win against the Netherlands , considered one of the competition 's best teams , and one which had beaten Canada . Crispin told the media that " We will go out like we have in every other game and stick to our game plan and hopefully we 'll come out on top " .
The Netherlands scored first , but Kean soon equalised , assisted by Stewart . The Dutch team responded , but Gauci took two points with a fast break , and then assisted Crispin in putting Australia in the lead , one which the Gliders would not relinquish . Stewart made the next two scores , from outside the paint , and assisted Crispin to bring the score to 6 – 16 . The Dutch team fought back , but there was a six @-@ point 12 – 18 deficit at quarter time . The Australian defence shut down their opportunities in the second quarter , and the score was 20 – 30 in Australia 's favour at half time , and 29 – 40 by the end of the third quarter . The Dutch team redoubled their efforts in the final quarter , and won the quarter 20 – 18 , but the Gliders won the game , 39 – 58 .
Once again Merritt led Australia 's scoring , with 19 points , with a considerably improved accuracy of 9 shots from 14 attempts , while Crispin had ten points and seven rebounds . The rest of the team performed equally well . Stewart scored six points and five rebounds . Chaplin 's reputation as a play maker was burnished with four rebounds and seven assists . Gauci had eight points and six assists . Nott had played all 40 minutes of the game against Canada the night before , then over 32 minutes in this game , and was particularly active in the final quarter . Triscari praised both the Gliders and their opponents :
We wanted to get on top early and have them chasing us , so , in that respect , I suppose it did . We focused on stopping a lot of their big players , particularly Beijer [ Mariska Beijer ] , from getting into the keyway , and the girls did a sensational job . Gert [ Gertjan van der Linden ] is very hard to coach against because he throws a lot of stuff at you . Tonight , he was the one having to make the changes . Another day , it will probably be me .
= = Finals = =
= = = Quarterfinal – Mexico = = =
The loss to Canada meant that the Gliders had won three out of four games , the same number as Canada and the Netherlands , but they were placed ahead of the Netherlands based on defeating them . Canada failed to defeat Great Britain by a sufficient margin , and therefore finished third . As a result , the Gliders topped their pool , and received a quarterfinal berth against Mexico , which had managed to qualify despite only winning one game . Triscari was confident , but was not taking the match lightly . He warned the media :
No game 's easy , you know . We finished on top , so the crossover with the other side is in our favour . But they are by no means easy . We only beat Brazil by two points and Brazil only beat Mexico by two in the PanAm ( Parapan championships ) play @-@ offs for third and fourth , so it 's going to be tough . "
The Gliders planned to dominate Mexico early , playing as aggressively against them as they had played against the Netherlands . Stewart took the tap , and lost . Australia 's first shots at goal were taken by Kean from the free throw line , but she missed both . Mexico 's Lucia Vazquez Delgadillo then opened the scoring to give Mexico a two @-@ point lead , which turned out to be their biggest of the game . Gauci then put points on the scoreboard for the Gliders . Mexico turned the ball over , and Crispin got her first from the paint , assisted by Gauci , which was repeated on the next play , with Stewart providing the assist this time . Mexico scored , but the Gliders responded with another shot from Crispin . On the next play , Gauci stole the ball and charged down the court , but failed to make the shot . Nott then took a defensive rebound , leading to Crispin scoring again . She was also fouled , but missed the resulting free throw . Shortly thereafter , Stewart drew another foul , and made both shots to bring the score to 14 – 4 .
The Gliders put Mexico under intense defensive pressure . Mexico had six team turnovers to the Gliders ' one , and wound up with 19 turnovers in total to Australia 's 6 . Australia scored 18 points from turnovers , compared to 6 for Mexico . Gauci , a two @-@ point player , took a three @-@ pointer to take the score to 17 – 8 . Mexico was unable to recover from Australia 's high scoring from Merritt , who ultimately scored 14 points with 70 per cent shooting , and Crispin , who scored twelve points with 67 per cent shooting . The two teams went into the quarter time break with the score 21 points to 10 . Mexico fell further behind in the second quarter . Amanda Carter immediately stole the ball from Mexico , which let Merritt score two points . A few minutes later , Carter , assisted by Chaplin , scored a basket from the paint , and was fouled in the process . A successful free throw made the score 36 – 16 . Another steal by Merritt led to a runaway break , bringing her contribution to ten points , and the score to 38 – 16 . At the half @-@ time break , the score was 44 – 20 .
In the third quarter , a team turnover and a series of missed shots by Hill , Kean and Crispin , allowed Mexico to outscore Australia by one point , leaving the score at 50 – 27 at the end of the quarter . The final quarter saw Australia 's Del Toso miss a shot at one end , and Mexico 's Floralia Estrada Bernal miss one at the other . Stewart also missed , before a Mexican turnover led to the first score of the quarter , by Stewart . Mexico 's Rocio Torres Lopez scored in response . Another shot by Stewart missed , but Carter took an offensive rebound , and scored . Turnovers by Kean and Del Toso allowed Mexico put four points on the board , but successive fouls sent Kean to the free throw line to score three points in response .
Merritt brought the score to 59 – 35 with her seventh scoring shot . As the game drew to a close , there were several missed shots by Sarah Vinci and Hill , but Mexico was unable to capitalise on the opportunities , continuing to miss shots and turn over the ball . With nineteen seconds of play remaining , Hill took a two @-@ point shot from inside the paint ; attracting a foul , she scored another point from a free throw . Although Mexico 's Wendy Garcia Amador scored the last two points of the game , her team lost to Australia 62 – 37 .
= = = Semifinal – United States = = =
In the semifinal , the Gliders had to beat the reigning champions , Team USA , in front of a small crowd of 4 @,@ 428 at the North Greenwich Arena . Stewart took the tap , and lost . Team USA had first possession and earned the first points of the game , but Gauci responded quickly . Then Team USA turned the ball over , but Nott lost it . Chaplin stole it back , but Kylie Gauci put the ball out of bounds . Nott stole it back again , but Gauci turned it over again . Team USA took a shot at the basket inside the paint , and missed , but took a rebound and scored . A Team USA free throw extended their lead to 2 – 6 . Thereafter both teams ' shooting was poor , and the score was only 10 – 12 at quarter time .
The second quarter started with Merritt scoring twice to give Australia the lead 14 – 12 . Team USA turned the ball over the Gliders several times , but they were unable to capitalise on their strong defence , leaving the score tied at 26 – 26 at half time . In the third quarter , an early goal by Gauci from outside the paint gave the Gliders the lead . A series of steals gave the Gliders additional shots , most of which they missed , but Team USA gave over a series of turnovers , and their shooting was worse than their rivals , resulting in a 10 – 0 run by the Gliders . Team USA were unable to score at all until the last minute of the quarter . A hurried goal with seconds to go by Hill saw the Gliders leading 38 – 28 . Team USA would ultimately post 28 turnovers to Australia 's 17 , and the Gliders would score 12 points from turnovers to Team USA 's three .
In the fourth quarter , the Australian defence remained strong , but their shooting did not improve . For the entire game , Crispin made only 3 out of 10 attempts , and Merritt just 4 out of 16 . Nott , who played the entire game , ended up being the team 's most accurate player , with four out of five attempts . Meanwhile , Team USA fought back to 40 – 39 . Three timeouts were taken in the last minute . Merritt was fouled twice , which sent her to the free throw line , but she missed both shots . The game went down to the last second , with Team USA 's Rose Hollermann missing one from inside the paint just before the shot clock ran out .
= = = Gold medal match – Germany = = =
The Gliders had to defeat Germany in front of a capacity crowd of 12 @,@ 985 at the North Greenwich Arena to win the gold medal . Australia had narrowly defeated the German team 48 – 46 in the Gliders World Challenge in Sydney a few months earlier , and at that point had beaten them three of the previous four times they had played .
Once again , Stewart took the tap , and lost . A defensive rebound by Kean after Germany missed two free throw shots resulted in the Gliders scoring first , with Gauci assisting Crispin . The Gliders played Germany like they had played against and defeated the United States , with a strong defence against a normally high @-@ scoring team . At first , they were successful ; with three minutes to go in the quarter , despite several missed shots , Australia was ahead 10 – 4 . In the last minutes , Germany scored ten points that gave them a 10 – 14 lead at quarter time .
In the second quarter , Germany extended their lead to ten points , but Kean scored a point from a free throw , and then , with seconds left on the clock , stole the ball , enabling Crispin to score , so the Gliders were only seven points behind at half time . The Gliders won the third quarter in previous games in London , which happened again against Germany , but only by 9 – 8 . The Gliders had six points to make up , with strong defences from both teams . Gauci scored the most in this game , scoring 15 points , including a three @-@ pointer , with five assists and four rebounds . In the end , the Gliders lost by fourteen points , 44 – 58 .
Triscari felt that the Gliders did not put enough pressure on the Germans , and that their shooting was not accurate enough . In Australia , Basketball Australia CEO Kristina Keneally praised the Gliders ' efforts . " The Gliders have been nothing short of brilliant at the Paralympic Games , " she said , " and this Silver Medal is just reward for their outstanding performance . This is the Gliders ' fourth consecutive Paralympic Medal – a remarkable achievement . All of the players , coaches and support staff have done a fantastic job and we can ’ t wait to greet them on their return home . " In 2013 , Keneally announced a four @-@ year development program for the Gliders that included the appointment of a full @-@ time head coach for the first time , based at the National Wheelchair Centre of Excellence at the New South Wales Institute of Sport in Homebush , New South Wales . In May 2013 , Tom Kyle was appointed the Gliders ' new head coach .
" We have had the opportunity to play Germany a fair bit in our preparation so our game plan was to have strong defensive pressure and take it from there " , Kean told the media . " It started off really good for us , unfortunately they just got a couple more runs than us and that 's the way it goes sometimes . They played a great game . We stuck together 12 deep from the second the buzzer started , to that end buzzer and no one gave up . I think that we can hold our heads high because of that . I guess the plan is , next four years , Rio we go one more . "
It was not to be . The Gliders did not qualify for the 2016 Summer Paralympics after finishing second to China at the 2015 Asia Oceania Qualifying Tournament .
= 1892 Alabama Cadets football team =
The 1892 Alabama Cadets football team represented the University of Alabama in the 1892 college football season . The team was led by their head coach E. B. Beaumont and played their home games at Lakeview Park in Birmingham , Alabama . In what was the inaugural season of Alabama football , the team finished with a record of two wins and two losses ( 2 – 2 ) .
William Little of Livingston , Alabama is credited with being responsible for the introduction of football at the university . After playing the game in 1891 while in attendance at a northern prep school , Little returned to Alabama where he helped establish the first team at the university for the 1892 season . The first game in Alabama football history was played on November 11 , 1892 , against Birmingham High School and was won by the Cadets 56 – 0 . They then split a pair of games with the Birmingham Athletic Club , and closed out the season with a 32 – 22 loss in the first Iron Bowl against Auburn on February 22 , 1893 . After the season , Beaumont was fired as head coach and replaced by Eli Abbott for the 1893 season .
= = Background = =
The first college football game was played on November 6 , 1869 , between Rutgers and the College of New Jersey . Although the sport continued to grow , it was not introduced for another 23 years at Alabama . The man credited with the introduction of football at Alabama was William G. Little of Livingston . Little attended the Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire for the 1891 – 92 school year . It was there that he first played and became an advocate for football . Originally he intended to attend Yale University . However , after his brother died , Little returned to Livingston in 1892 and enrolled at Alabama . He proposed the university field a football team , which was introduced for the 1892 season . Alabama selected Little as the first team captain for the inaugural 1892 season . The team was called the " Cadets , " as the current " Crimson Tide " moniker was not used until 1907 .
= = Schedule = =
Source : Rolltide.com : 1892 Alabama football schedule
= = Game notes = =
= = = Birmingham High School = = =
In what was the first ever game played by the University of Alabama , a team of Birmingham @-@ area high school players lost to the Cadets 56 – 0 at Birmingham 's Lakeview Park . Played on November 11 , the game served as a practice game for Alabama 's contest against the Birmingham Athletic Club scheduled for the next day . Although details of the second half are unavailable , touchdowns in the first half were scored by David Grayson , G. H. Kyser , Dan Smith ( twice ) , William Little and T. S. Frazer . The play utilized most throughout the game was a rushing formation developed by Harvard earlier in the season called the flying wedge .
= = = Birmingham Athletic Club ( November ) = = =
A day after their victory over Birmingham High School , Alabama suffered their first all @-@ time loss against the Birmingham Athletic Club ( B.A.C. ) 5 – 4 . In a game noted for numerous fumbles by both squads , Alabama scored first and took a 4 – 0 lead on a William G. Little touchdown run late in the first half . However , the B.A.C. won the game 5 – 4 late in the second half when J. P. Ross successfully kicked a 63 @-@ yard field goal on a drop kick . Alabama would not lose another game by a single point until their 1947 game against Tulane .
= = = Birmingham Athletic Club ( December ) = = =
A month after their loss to the B.A.C. , Alabama returned to Lakeview Park and defeated the Athletics 14 – 0 . David Grayson scored first on a 65 @-@ yard touchdown run to give Alabama a 4 – 0 lead after a missed extra point . In the second half , both Robert Cope and Eli Abbott scored touchdowns and one G. H. Kyser extra point gave Alabama the 14 – 0 victory .
= = = Auburn = = =
Before 5 @,@ 000 fans at Birmingham 's Lakeview Park , Alabama lost to the Agricultural & Mechanical College of Alabama ( now known as Auburn University ) 32 – 22 in the first of what was subsequently dubbed the Iron Bowl . Auburn scored first on a 20 @-@ yard Rufus Dorsey touchdown run and again on a one @-@ yard Dorsey run and took an 8 – 0 lead early in the first half . Frank Savage then scored Alabama 's first touchdown on a 10 @-@ yard run and William B. Bankhead converted a successful extra point to cut the Auburn lead to 8 – 6 . After Auburn scored a third touchdown to go up 14 – 6 , Alabama responded with a 20 @-@ yard Dan Smith touchdown run and G. H. Kyser extra point to make the halftime score 14 – 12 in favor of Auburn .
In the second half , Auburn scored first again when Dorsey recovered an Alabama fumble and returned it 65 @-@ yards for a touchdown . After a successful extra point the blue and orange extended their lead to 20 – 12 . Alabama responded on their following possession with a 30 @-@ yard William Little touchdown run and Kyser extra point to cut the lead to 20 – 18 . Thomas Daniels then scored Auburn 's final two touchdowns on runs of one and 25 yards and also converted both extra points to give them a 32 – 18 lead . Smith scored the final points of the game late in the second half for Alabama on a short run that made the final score 32 – 22 .
= = Players = =
The following players were members of the 1892 football team according to the roster published in the 1893 edition of The Corolla , the University of Alabama yearbook .
= = After the season = =
Although they finished with a .500 record , after the completion of the season , E. B. Beaumont was fired as Alabama 's head coach . The 1894 edition of the university yearbook The Corolla stated of the Beaumont firing :
" We were unfortunate in securing a coach . After keeping him for a short time , we found that his knowledge of the game was very limited . We , therefore , ' got rid of ' him . "
After Beaumont 's departure , William G. Little continued the training of the team until Abbott was selected to serve as head coach for the 1893 season . Other notable players from the first Alabama team included William B. Bankhead who served as the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1936 to 1940 and Bibb Graves who served as the 38th Governor of Alabama from 1927 to 1931 and again from 1935 to 1939 .
= Dungeons & Dragons =
Dungeons & Dragons ( abbreviated as D & D or DnD ) is a fantasy tabletop role @-@ playing game ( RPG ) originally designed by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson , and first published in 1974 by Tactical Studies Rules , Inc . ( TSR ) . The game has been published by Wizards of the Coast ( now a subsidiary of Hasbro ) since 1997 . It was derived from miniature wargames with a variation of the Chainmail game serving as the initial rule system . D & D 's publication is commonly recognized as the beginning of modern role @-@ playing games and the role @-@ playing game industry .
D & D departs from traditional wargaming and assigns each player a specific character to play instead of a military formation . These characters embark upon imaginary adventures within a fantasy setting . A Dungeon Master serves as the game 's referee and storyteller , while maintaining the setting in which the adventures occur and playing the role of the inhabitants . The characters form a party that interacts with the setting 's inhabitants ( and each other ) . Together they solve dilemmas , engage in battles and gather treasure and knowledge . In the process the characters earn experience points to become increasingly powerful over a series of sessions .
The early success of Dungeons & Dragons led to a proliferation of similar game systems . Despite this competition , D & D remains the market leader in the role @-@ playing game industry . In 1977 , the game was split into two branches : the relatively rules @-@ light game system of Dungeons & Dragons and the more structured , rules @-@ heavy game system of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( abbreviated as AD & D or ADnD ) . AD & D 2nd Edition was published in 1989 . In 2000 , the original line of the game was discontinued and the AD & D version was renamed Dungeons & Dragons with the release of its 3rd edition with a new system . These rules formed the basis of the d20 System which is available under the Open Game License ( OGL ) for use by other publishers . Dungeons & Dragons version 3 @.@ 5 was released in June 2003 , with a ( non @-@ OGL ) 4th edition in June 2008 . A 5th edition was released during the second half of 2014 .
As of 2004 , Dungeons & Dragons remained the best @-@ known and best @-@ selling role @-@ playing game , with an estimated 20 million people having played the game and more than US $ 1 billion in book and equipment sales . The game has been supplemented by many pre @-@ made adventures as well as commercial campaign settings suitable for use by regular gaming groups . Dungeons & Dragons is known beyond the game for other D & D @-@ branded products , references in popular culture and some of the controversies that have surrounded it , particularly a moral panic in the 1980s falsely linking it to Satanism and suicide . The game has won multiple awards and has been translated into many languages beyond the original English .
= = Play overview = =
Dungeons & Dragons is a structured yet open @-@ ended role @-@ playing game . It is normally played indoors with the participants seated around a tabletop . Typically , each player controls only a single character , which represents an individual in a fictional setting . When working together as a group , these player characters ( PCs ) are often described as a " party " of adventurers , with each member often having their own area of specialty which contributes to the success of the whole . During the course of play , each player directs the actions of their character and their interactions with other characters in the game . This activity is performed through the verbal impersonation of the characters by the players , while employing a variety of social and other useful cognitive skills , such as logic , basic mathematics and imagination . A game often continues over a series of meetings to complete a single adventure , and longer into a series of related gaming adventures , called a " campaign " .
The results of the party 's choices and the overall storyline for the game are determined by the Dungeon Master ( DM ) according to the rules of the game and the DM 's interpretation of those rules . The DM selects and describes the various non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) that the party encounters , the settings in which these interactions occur , and the outcomes of those encounters based on the players ' choices and actions . Encounters often take the form of battles with " monsters " – a generic term used in D & D to describe potentially hostile beings such as animals , aberrant beings , or mythical creatures . The game 's extensive rules – which cover diverse subjects such as social interactions , magic use , combat , and the effect of the environment on PCs – help the DM to make these decisions . The DM may choose to deviate from the published rules or make up new ones if they feel it is necessary .
The most recent versions of the game 's rules are detailed in three core rulebooks : The Player 's Handbook , the Dungeon Master 's Guide and the Monster Manual .
The only items required to play the game are the rulebooks , a character sheet for each player , and a number of polyhedral dice . Many players also use miniature figures on a grid map as a visual aid , particularly during combat . Some editions of the game presume such usage . Many optional accessories are available to enhance the game , such as expansion rulebooks , pre @-@ designed adventures and various campaign settings .
= = = Game mechanics = = =
Before the game begins , each player creates their player character and records the details ( described below ) on a character sheet . First , a player determines their character 's ability scores , which consist of Strength , Constitution , Dexterity , Intelligence , Wisdom , and Charisma . Each edition of the game has offered differing methods of determining these statistics . The player then chooses a race ( species ) such as human or elf , a character class ( occupation ) such as fighter or wizard , an alignment ( a moral and ethical outlook ) , and other features to round out the character 's abilities and backstory , which have varied in nature through differing editions .
During the game , players describe their PC 's intended actions , such as punching an opponent or picking a lock , and converse with the DM , who then describes the result or response . Trivial actions , such as picking up a letter or opening an unlocked door , are usually automatically successful . The outcomes of more complex or risky actions are determined by rolling dice . Factors contributing to the outcome include the character 's ability scores , skills and the difficulty of the task . In circumstances where a character does not have control of an event , such as when a trap or magical effect is triggered or a spell is cast , a saving throw can be used to determine whether the resulting damage is reduced or avoided . In this case the odds of success are influenced by the character 's class , levels and ability scores .
As the game is played , each PC changes over time and generally increases in capability . Characters gain ( or sometimes lose ) experience , skills and wealth , and may even alter their alignment or gain additional character classes . The key way characters progress is by earning experience points ( XP ) , which happens when they defeat an enemy or accomplish a difficult task . Acquiring enough XP allows a PC to advance a level , which grants the character improved class features , abilities and skills . XP can be lost in some circumstances , such as encounters with creatures that drain life energy , or by use of certain magical powers that come with an XP cost .
Hit points ( HP ) are a measure of a character 's vitality and health and are determined by the class , level and constitution of each character . They can be temporarily lost when a character sustains wounds in combat or otherwise comes to harm , and loss of HP is the most common way for a character to die in the game . Death can also result from the loss of key ability scores or character levels . When a PC dies , it is often possible for the dead character to be resurrected through magic , although some penalties may be imposed as a result . If resurrection is not possible or not desired , the player may instead create a new PC to resume playing the game .
= = = Adventures , campaigns , and modules = = =
A typical Dungeons & Dragons game consists of an " adventure " , which is roughly equivalent to a single story . The DM can either design an adventure on their own , or follow one of the many pre @-@ made adventures ( also known as " modules " ) that have been published throughout the history of Dungeons & Dragons . Published adventures typically include a background story , illustrations , maps and goals for PCs to achieve . Some include location descriptions and handouts . Although a small adventure entitled " Temple of the Frog " was included in the Blackmoor rules supplement in 1975 , the first stand @-@ alone D & D module published by TSR was 1978 's Steading of the Hill Giant Chief , written by Gygax .
A linked series of adventures is commonly referred to as a " campaign " . The locations where these adventures occur , such as a city , country , planet or an entire fictional universe , are referred to as " campaign settings " or " world " . D & D settings are based in various fantasy genres and feature different levels and types of magic and technology . Popular commercially published campaign settings for Dungeons & Dragons include Greyhawk , Dragonlance , Forgotten Realms , Mystara , Spelljammer , Ravenloft , Dark Sun , Planescape , Birthright , and Eberron . Alternatively , DMs may develop their own fictional worlds to use as campaign settings .
= = = Miniature figures = = =
The wargames from which Dungeons & Dragons evolved used miniature figures to represent combatants . D & D initially continued the use of miniatures in a fashion similar to its direct precursors . The original D & D set of 1974 required the use of the Chainmail miniatures game for combat resolution . By the publication of the 1977 game editions , combat was mostly resolved verbally . Thus miniatures were no longer required for game play , although some players continued to use them as a visual reference .
In the 1970s , numerous companies began to sell miniature figures specifically for Dungeons & Dragons and similar games . Licensed miniature manufacturers who produced official figures include Grenadier Miniatures ( 1980 – 1983 ) , Citadel Miniatures ( 1984 – 1986 ) , Ral Partha , and TSR itself . Most of these miniatures used the 25 mm scale .
Periodically , Dungeons & Dragons has returned to its wargaming roots with supplementary rules systems for miniatures @-@ based wargaming . Supplements such as Battlesystem ( 1985 & 1989 ) and a new edition of Chainmail ( 2001 ) provided rule systems to handle battles between armies by using miniatures .
= = Game history = =
= = = Edition history = = =
Dungeons & Dragons has gone through several revisions . Parallel versions and inconsistent naming practices can make it difficult to distinguish between the different editions .
= = = = Original game = = = =
The original Dungeons & Dragons , now referred to as OD & D , was a small box set of three booklets published in 1974 . It was amateurish in production and assumed the player was familiar with wargaming . Nevertheless , it grew rapidly in popularity , first among wargamers and then expanding to a more general audience of college and high school students . Roughly 1 @,@ 000 copies of the game were sold in the first year followed by 3 @,@ 000 in 1975 , and much more in the following years . This first set went through many printings and was supplemented with several official additions , such as the original Greyhawk and Blackmoor supplements ( both 1975 ) , as well as magazine articles in TSR 's official publications and many fanzines .
= = = = Two @-@ pronged strategy = = = =
In 1977 , TSR created the first element of a two @-@ pronged strategy that would divide the D & D game for nearly two decades . A Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set boxed edition was introduced that cleaned up the presentation of the essential rules , made the system understandable to the general public , and was sold in a package that could be stocked in toy stores . Also in 1977 , the first part of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) was published , which brought together the various published rules , options and corrections , then expanded them into a definitive , unified game for hobbyist gamers . TSR marketed them as an introductory game for new players and a more complex game for experienced ones ; the Basic Set directed players who exhausted the possibilities of that game to switch to the advanced rules .
As a result of this parallel development , the basic game included many rules and concepts which contradicted comparable ones in AD & D. John Eric Holmes , the editor of the basic game , preferred a lighter tone with more room for personal improvisation . AD & D , on the other hand , was designed to create a tighter , more structured game system than the loose framework of the original game . Between 1977 and 1979 , three hardcover rulebooks , commonly referred to as the " core rulebooks " , were released : the Player 's Handbook ( PHB ) , the Dungeon Master 's Guide ( DMG ) , and the Monster Manual ( MM ) . Several supplementary books were published throughout the 1980s , notably Unearthed Arcana ( 1985 ) that included a large number of new rules . Confusing matters further , the original D & D boxed set remained in publication until 1979 , since it remained a healthy seller for TSR .
= = = = Revised editions = = = =
In the 1980s , the rules for Advanced Dungeons & Dragons and " basic " Dungeons & Dragons remained separate , each developing along different paths .
In 1981 , the basic version of Dungeons & Dragons was revised by Tom Moldvay to make it even more novice @-@ friendly . It was promoted as a continuation of the original D & D tone , whereas AD & D was promoted as advancement of the mechanics . An accompanying Expert Set , originally written by David " Zeb " Cook , allowed players to continue using the simpler ruleset beyond the early levels of play . In 1983 , revisions of those sets by Frank Mentzer were released , revising the presentation of the rules to a more tutorial format . These were followed by Companion ( 1983 ) , Master ( 1985 ) , and Immortals ( 1986 ) sets . Each set covered game play for more powerful characters than the previous . The first four sets were later compiled as a single hardcover book , the Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia ( 1991 ) , along with a new introductory boxed set .
Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition was published in 1989 , again as three core rulebooks ; the primary designer was David " Zeb " Cook . The Monster Manual was replaced by the Monstrous Compendium , a loose @-@ leaf binder that was subsequently replaced by the hardcover Monstrous Manual in 1993 . In 1995 , the core rulebooks were slightly revised , although still referred to by TSR as the 2nd Edition , and a series of Player 's Option manuals were released as optional rulebooks .
The release of AD & D2 deliberately excluded some aspects of the game that had attracted negative publicity . References to demons and devils , sexually suggestive artwork , and playable , evil @-@ aligned character types – such as assassins and half @-@ orcs – were removed . The edition moved away from a theme of 1960s and 1970s " sword and sorcery " fantasy fiction to a mixture of medieval history and mythology . The rules underwent minor changes , including the addition of non @-@ weapon proficiencies – skill @-@ like abilities that originally appeared in 1st Edition supplements . The game 's magic spells were divided into schools and spheres . A major difference was the promotion of various game settings beyond that of traditional fantasy . This included blending fantasy with other genres , such as horror ( Ravenloft ) , science fiction ( Spelljammer ) , and apocalyptic ( Dark Sun ) , as well as alternative historical and non @-@ European mythological settings .
= = = = Wizards of the Coast = = = =
In 1997 , a near @-@ bankrupt TSR was purchased by Wizards of the Coast . Following three years of development , Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition was released in 2000 . The new release folded the Basic and Advanced lines back into a single unified game . It was the largest revision of the D & D rules to date , and served as the basis for a multi @-@ genre role @-@ playing system designed around 20 @-@ sided dice , called the d20 System . The 3rd Edition rules were designed to be internally consistent and less restrictive than previous editions of the game , allowing players more flexibility to create the characters they wanted to play . Skills and feats were introduced into the core rules to encourage further customization of characters . The new rules standardized the mechanics of action resolution and combat . In 2003 , Dungeons & Dragons v.3.5 was released as a revision of the 3rd Edition rules . This release incorporated hundreds of rule changes , mostly minor , and expanded the core rulebooks .
In early 2005 , Wizards of the Coast 's R & D team started to develop Dungeons & Dragons 4th Edition , prompted mainly by the feedback obtained from the D & D playing community and a desire to make the game faster , more intuitive , and with a better play experience than under the 3rd Edition . The new game was developed through a number of design phases spanning from May 2005 until its release . Dungeons & Dragons 4th Edition was announced at Gen Con in August 2007 , and the initial three core books were released June 6 , 2008 . 4th Edition streamlined the game into a simplified form and introduced numerous rules changes . Many character abilities were restructured into " Powers " . These altered the spell @-@ using classes by adding abilities that could be used at will , per encounter , or per day . Likewise , non @-@ magic @-@ using classes were provided with parallel sets of options . Software tools , including player character and monster building programs , became a major part of the game .
On January 9 , 2012 , Wizards of the Coast announced that it was working on a 5th edition of the game . The company planned to take suggestions from players and let them playtest the rules . Public playtesting began on May 24 , 2012 . At Gen Con 2012 in August , Mike Mearls , lead developer for 5th Edition , said that Wizards of the Coast had received feedback from more than 75 @,@ 000 playtesters , but that the entire development process would take two years , adding , " I can 't emphasize this enough ... we 're very serious about taking the time we need to get this right . " The release of the 5th Edition , coinciding with D & D 's 40th anniversary , occurred in the second half of 2014 .
= = = Acclaim and influence = = =
The game had more than three million players around the world by 1981 , and copies of the rules were selling at a rate of about 750 @,@ 000 per year by
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himself , Crockford suspected that further elements of Maniac Mansion could be problematic , and he sent a list of questionable content to Jaleco . When the company replied that the content was reasonable , Lucasfilm Games submitted Maniac Mansion for approval .
One month later , Nintendo of America contacted Lucasfilm Games to request the removal of offensive text and nude graphics . Crockford censored this content but attempted to leave the game 's essence intact . For example , Nintendo wanted graffiti in one room — which provided an important hint to players — removed from the game . Unable to comply without simultaneously removing the hint , the team simply shortened it . Sexually suggestive and otherwise " graphic " dialogue was edited , including a remark from Dr. Fred about " pretty brains [ being ] sucked out " . The nudity described by Nintendo encompassed a swimsuit calendar , a classical sculpture and a poster of a mummy in a Playmate pose . After a brief fight to keep the sculpture , the team ultimately removed all three . The phrase " NES SCUMM " in the credits sequence was censored as well .
Lucasfilm Games re @-@ submitted the edited version of Maniac Mansion to Nintendo , which then manufactured 250 @,@ 000 cartridges . Each cartridge was fitted with a battery @-@ powered back @-@ up to save data . Nintendo announced the port through its official magazine in early 1990 , and it provided further coverage later that year . The ability to microwave a hamster remained in the game , which Crockford cited as an example of the censors ' contradictory criteria . However , Nintendo later noticed it , and after the first batch of cartridges was sold , Jaleco was forced to remove the content from future shipments .
Late in development , Jaleco commissioned Realtime Associates to provide background music , which no previous version of Maniac Mansion had featured . Realtime Associates ' founder and president David Warhol noted that " video games at that time had to have ' wall to wall ' music " . He brought in George " The Fat Man " Sanger and his band , along with David Hayes , to compose the score . Their goal was to create songs that suited each character , such as a punk rock theme for Razor , an electronic rock theme for Bernard and a version of Thin Lizzy 's " The Boys Are Back in Town " for Dave Miller . Warhol translated their work into NES chiptune music .
= = Reception = =
Keith Farrell of Compute ! ' s Gazette was struck by Maniac Mansion 's similarity to film , particularly in its use of cutscenes to impart " information or urgency " . He lauded the game 's graphics , animation and high level of detail . Commodore User 's Bill Scolding and three reviewers from Zzap ! 64 compared the game to The Rocky Horror Picture Show . Further comparisons were drawn to Psycho , Friday the 13th , The Texas Chain Saw Massacre , The Addams Family and Scooby @-@ Doo . Russ Ceccola of Commodore Magazine found the cutscenes to be creative and well made , and he commented that the " characters are distinctively Lucasfilm 's , bringing facial expressions and personality to each individual character " . In Compute ! , Orson Scott Card praised the game 's humor , cinematic storytelling and lack of violence . He called it " compellingly good " and evidence of Lucasfilm 's push " to make computer games a valid storytelling art " .
German magazine Happy @-@ Computer commended the point @-@ and @-@ click interface and likened it to that of Uninvited by ICOM Simulations . The publication highlighted Maniac Mansion 's graphics , originality and overall enjoyability : one of the writers called it the best adventure title yet released . Happy @-@ Computer later reported that Maniac Mansion was the highest @-@ selling video game in West Germany for three consecutive months . The game 's humor received praise from Zzap ! 64 , whose reviewers called the point @-@ and @-@ click controls " tremendous " and the total package " innovative and polished " . Shay Addams of Questbusters : The Adventurer 's Newsletter preferred Maniac Mansion 's interface to that of Labyrinth : The Computer Game . He considered the game to be Lucasfilm 's best , and he recommended it to Commodore 64 and Apple II users unable to run titles with better visuals , such as those from Sierra On @-@ Line . A writer for ACE enjoyed the game 's animation and depth , but he noted that fans of text @-@ based adventures would dislike the game 's simplicity .
= = = Ports = = =
Reviewing the MS @-@ DOS and Atari ST ports , a critic from The Games Machine called Maniac Mansion " an enjoyable romp " that was structurally superior to later LucasArts adventure games . However , the writer noticed poor pathfinding and disliked the limited audio . Reviewers for The Deseret News lauded the audiovisuals and considered the product " wonderful fun " . Computer Gaming World 's Charles Ardai praised the game for attaining " the necessary and precarious balance between laughs and suspense that so many comic horror films and novels lack " . Although he faulted the control system 's limited options , he hailed it as " one of the most comfortable ever devised " . Writing for VideoGames & Computer Entertainment , Bill Kunkel and Joyce Worley stated that the game 's plot and premise were typical of the horror genre ; but they praised the interface and execution .
Reviewing Maniac Mansion 's Amiga version four years after its release , Simon Byron of The One Amiga praised the game for retaining " charm and humour " , but suggested that its art direction had become " tacky " compared to more recent titles . Stephen Bradly of Amiga Format found the game derivative , but he encountered " loads of visual humour " in it ; and he added , " Strangely , it 's quite compelling after a while . " Michael Labiner of Germany 's Amiga Joker considered Maniac Mansion to be one of the best adventure games for the system . He noted minor graphical flaws , such as a limited color palette , but he argued that the gameplay made up for such shortcomings . Writing for Datormagazin in Sweden , Ingela Palmér commented that the Amiga and Commodore 64 versions of Maniac Mansion were nearly identical . She criticized the graphics and gameplay of both releases , but felt the game to be highly enjoyable regardless .
Reviewing the NES release , British magazine Mean Machines commended the game 's presentation , playability and replay value . However , the publication noted undetailed graphics and " ear @-@ bashing tunes " . The magazine 's Julian Rignall compared Maniac Mansion to the title Shadowgate , but he preferred the former 's controls and lack of " death @-@ without @-@ warning situations " . Writers for Germany 's Video Games referred to the NES version as a " classic " . Co @-@ reviewer Heinrich Lenhardt stated that Maniac Mansion was unlike any other NES adventure game , and that it was no less enjoyable than its home computer releases . Co @-@ reviewer Winnie Forster found it to be " one of the most original representatives of the [ adventure game ] genre " . In retrospective features , Edge magazine called the NES version " somewhat neutered " and GamesTM referred to it as " infamous " and " heavily censored " .
= = TV adaptation and game sequel = =
Lucasfilm conceived the idea for a television adaptation of Maniac Mansion , the rights to which were purchased by The Family Channel in 1990 . The two companies collaborated with Atlantis Films to produce a sitcom named after the game , which debuted in September of that year . It aired on YTV in Canada and The Family Channel in the United States . Based in part on the video game , the series focuses on the Edison family 's life and stars Joe Flaherty as Dr. Fred . Its writing staff was led by Eugene Levy . Gilbert later said that the premise of the series changed during production , until it differed heavily from the game 's original plot . Upon its debut , the adaptation received positive reviews from Variety , Entertainment Weekly and the Los Angeles Times . Time named it one of the year 's best new series . However , Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly questioned the decision to air the series on The Family Channel , given Flaherty 's subversive humor . Discussing the series in retrospect , Richard Cobbett of PC Gamer criticized its generic storylines and lack of relevance to the game . The series lasted for three seasons ; sixty @-@ six episodes were filmed .
In the early 1990s , LucasArts tasked Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer , both of whom had worked on the Monkey Island series , with designing a sequel to Maniac Mansion . Gilbert and Winnick initially assisted with the project 's writing . The team included voice acting and more detailed graphics , which Gilbert had originally envisioned for Maniac Mansion . The first game 's nonlinear design was discarded , and the team implemented a Chuck Jones @-@ inspired visual style , alongside numerous puzzles based on time travel . Bernard and the Edison family were retained . The sequel , entitled Day of the Tentacle , was released in 1993 .
= = Impact and legacy = =
In 2010 , the staff of GamesTM dubbed Maniac Mansion a " seminal " title that overhauled the gameplay of the graphic adventure genre . Removing the need to guess syntax allowed players to concentrate on the story and puzzles , which created a smoother and more enjoyable experience , according to the magazine . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed agreed : he believed that the design was " infinitely more elegant and intuitive " than its predecessors , and that it freed players from " guessing @-@ game frustration " . Designer Dave Grossman , who worked on Lucasfilm Games ' later Day of the Tentacle and The Secret of Monkey Island , felt that Maniac Mansion had revolutionized the adventure game genre . Although 1985 's Uninvited had featured a point @-@ and @-@ click interface , it was not influential . Maniac Mansion 's implementation of the concept was widely imitated in other adventure titles . Writing in the game studies journal Kinephanos , Jonathan Lessard argued that Maniac Mansion led a " Casual Revolution " in the late 1980s , which opened the adventure genre to a wider audience . Similarly , Christopher Buecheler of GameSpy called the game a contributor to its genre 's subsequent critical adoration and commercial success .
Reed highlighted the " wonderfully ambitious " design of Maniac Mansion , in reference to its writing , interface and cast of characters . Game designer Sheri Graner Ray believed the game to challenge " damsel in distress " stereotypes through its inclusion of female protagonists . Conversely , writer Mark Dery argued that the goal of rescuing a kidnapped cheerleader reinforced negative gender roles . The Lucasfilm team built on their experiences from Maniac Mansion and became increasingly ambitious in subsequent titles . Gilbert admitted to making mistakes — such as the inclusion of no @-@ win situations — in Maniac Mansion , and he applied these lessons to future projects . For example , the game relies on timers rather than events to trigger cutscenes , which occasionally results in awkward transitions : Gilbert worked to avoid this flaw with the Monkey Island series . Because of Maniac Mansion 's imperfections , however , Gilbert considers it his favorite of his games .
According to writers Mike and Sandie Morrison , Lucasfilm Games became " serious competition " in the adventure genre after the release of Maniac Mansion . The game 's success solidified Lucasfilm as one of the leading producers of adventure games : authors Rusel DeMaria and Johnny Wilson described it as a " landmark title " for the company . In their view , Maniac Mansion — along with Space Quest : The Sarien Encounter and Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards — inaugurated a " new era of humor @-@ based adventure games " . This belief was shared by Reed , who wrote that Maniac Mansion " set in motion a captivating chapter in the history of gaming " that encompassed wit , invention and style . The SCUMM engine was reused by Lucasfilm in eleven later titles ; improvements were made to its code with each game . Over time , rival adventure game developers adopted this paradigm in their own software . GamesTM attributed the change to a desire to streamline production and create enjoyable games . Following his 1992 departure from LucasArts — a conglomeration of Lucasfilm Games , ILM and Skywalker Sound formed in 1990 — Gilbert used SCUMM to create adventure games and Backyard Sports titles for Humongous Entertainment .
In 2011 , Richard Cobbett summarized Maniac Mansion as " one of the most intricate and important adventure games ever made " . Retro Gamer ranked it as one of the ten best Commodore 64 games in 2006 , and IGN later named it one of the ten best LucasArts adventure game . Seven years after the NES version 's debut , Nintendo Power named it the 61st best game ever . The publication dubbed it the 16th best NES title in 2008 . The game 's uniqueness and clever writing were praised by Nintendo Power : in 2010 , the magazine 's Chris Hoffman stated that the game is " unlike anything else out there — a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure with an awesome sense of humor and multiple solutions to almost every puzzle . " In its retrospective coverage , Nintendo Power several times noted the ability to microwave a hamster , which the staff considered to be an iconic scene . In March 2012 , Retro Gamer listed the hamster incident as one of the " 100 Classic Gaming Moments " .
Maniac Mansion enthusiasts have drawn fan art of its characters , participated in tentacle @-@ themed cosplay and produced a trailer for a fictitious film adaptation of the game . German fan Sascha Borisow created a fangame remake , entitled Maniac Mansion Deluxe , with enhanced audio and visuals . He used the Adventure Game Studio engine to develop the project , which he distributed free of charge on the Internet . By the end of 2004 , the remake had over 200 @,@ 000 downloads . A remake with three @-@ dimensional graphics called Meteor Mess was created by the German developer Vampyr Games , and , as of 2011 , another group in Germany is producing one with art direction similar to that of Day of the Tentacle . Fans have created an episodic series of games based on Maniac Mansion as well . Gilbert has said that he would like to see an official remake , similar in its graphics and gameplay to The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition and Monkey Island 2 Special Edition : LeChuck 's Revenge . However , he expressed doubts about its potential quality , in light of George Lucas ' enhanced remakes of the original Star Wars trilogy .
= East Carolina University =
East Carolina University is a public , doctoral / research university in Greenville , North Carolina , United States . Named East Carolina University by statute and commonly known as ECU or East Carolina , the university is the third @-@ largest in North Carolina . The Association of Public and Land Grant Universities designates East Carolina as a Sea Grant university and an Innovation and Economic Prosperity campus .
Founded on March 8 , 1907 as a teacher training school , East Carolina has grown from 43 acres ( 17 ha ) to almost 1 @,@ 600 acres ( 647 ha ) today . The university 's academic facilities are located on five properties : Main Campus , Health Sciences Campus , West Research Campus , the Field Station for Coastal Studies in New Holland , North Carolina and the Millennial Research and Innovation Campus in Greenville 's warehouse district . The nine undergraduate colleges , graduate school , and four professional schools are located on these four properties . All of the non @-@ health sciences majors are located on the main campus . The College of Nursing , College of Allied Health Sciences , The Brody School of Medicine , and School of Dental Medicine are located on the health science campus . There are ten social sororities , 16 social fraternities , four historically black sororities , five historically black fraternities , one Native American fraternity , and one Native American sorority . There are over 300 registered clubs on campus including fraternities and sororities .
= = History = =
Public Laws of North Carolina , 1907 , Chapter 820 titled An Act to Stimulate High School Instruction in the Public Schools of the State and Teacher Training is the official law chartering East Carolina Teachers Training School ( ECTTS ) on March 8 , 1907 by the North Carolina General Assembly . The chairman of its original Board of Trustees , Thomas Jordan Jarvis , a former Governor of North Carolina now known as the " Father of ECU " , participated in groundbreaking ceremonies for the first buildings on July 2 , 1908 in Greenville , North Carolina and ECTTS opened its doors on October 5 , 1909 . Although its purpose was to train " young white men and women " , there were no male graduates until 1932 . In 1920 , ECTTS became a four – year institution and renamed East Carolina Teachers College ( ECTC ) ; its first bachelor 's degrees were awarded the following year in education . A master 's degree program was authorized in 1929 ; the first such degree granted by ECTC was in 1933 . Progress toward full college status was made in 1948 with the designation of the bachelor of arts as a liberal arts degree , and the bachelor of science as a teaching degree . A change of name to East Carolina College in 1951 reflected this expanded mission . Over the objections of Governor Dan K. Moore , who opposed the creation of a university system separate from the Consolidated University of North Carolina , ECC was made a regional university effective July 1 , 1967 , and assumed its present name , East Carolina University . The university did not remain independent for long ; on July 1 , 1972 , it was incorporated into the University of North Carolina System , the successor to the Consolidated University . Today , ECU is the third – largest university in North Carolina with 21 @,@ 589 undergraduate and 5 @,@ 797 graduate students , including the 308 medicine and 52 dental students .
= = Campus = =
East Carolina is separated into three distinct campuses : Main Campus , Health Sciences Campus , and West Research Campus . It owns two sports complexes : Blount Recreational Sports Complex and North Recreational Complex . It owns a field station in New Holland , North Carolina .
= = = Main = = =
The main campus , also known as the east campus , is about 530 acres ( 2 km2 ) in an urban residential area of downtown Greenville . The 158 buildings on main campus comprise more than 4 @.@ 6 million square feet ( 325 @,@ 000 m ² ) of academic , research , and residential space . Many of the Main Campus buildings feature the Spanish – Mission style architecture ; inspiration drawn from Thomas Jarvis ' time as an ambassador to Brazil . He wanted to bring the unique architecture to eastern North Carolina . On the main campus , there are five districts : Campus Core , Downtown District , Warehouse District , Athletic fields and the South Academic District . On the Campus Core , there are 15 residence halls which are divided into three separate neighborhoods . The distinct feature of the main campus is the mall , which is a large tree – laden grassy area where many students go to relax . In the middle of the mall is the replica of the cupola on the original Austin building .
= = = = Athletic fields = = = =
The varsity athletics fields are located south of the College Hill residential neighborhood . Fourteenth Street divides College Hill to the north , with the athletic fields to the south . Charles Boulevard borders the fields to the west and Greenville Boulevard borders it to the south . A residential neighborhood and Elmhurst Elementary School are the eastern borders . The northern portion of the area sits Dowdy @-@ Ficklen Stadium , Minges Coliseum , and Minges Natatorium , along with parking . The Murphy Center , which is the primary strength and conditioning , and banquet building , is located between Dowdy @-@ Ficklen and Minges Coliseum . The Tennis Complex , Ward Sports Medicine Building , Scales Field House , and the Pirate Club Building also surround Dowdy @-@ Ficklen . The Ward Sports Medicine Building houses offices for football and basketball , Pirate Club , media relations , and the director of athletics . The Scales Field House provides locker rooms , offices and equipment storage . The Pirate Club Building houses a ticket office , other offices , and an area for Pirate Club members . South of those facilities is the Cliff Moore Practice Facility which has a pair of natural grass fields and one FieldTurf field designed exclusively for the football team . On the southern border of the practice facility is Clark @-@ LeClair Stadium , which is the men 's baseball stadium . It opened in 2005 and seats 3 @,@ 000 in permanent seating with another 2 @,@ 000 located in the outfield . At the southern end of the fields is the Olympic Sports Complex , which include women 's soccer stadium , softball stadium , track and field facility , and Olympic Sports Team building . The Olympic Sports Complex was completed in 2011 with a price of $ 23 @.@ 4 million . The Smith @-@ Williams Center is a $ 17 million basketball development and practice facility , opened in 2013 . The football stadium is planning for a $ 40 million upgrade . The upgrades will include a new press , club , and suite areas , and upper deck , all located on the south side . This addition will increase the capacity from 50 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 .
East Carolina has spent $ 92 million on athletic projects from 1998 @-@ 2011 . Including the proposed projects , this is increased to $ 145 million .
= = = Health Sciences = = =
The Health Sciences campus is situated beside Vidant Medical Center ( VMC ) . VMC was originally Pitt County Memorial Hospital . After becoming a private non @-@ profit hospital , the renaming occurred . VMC , an 861 – bed flagship Level I Trauma Center , serves as the academic medical center for The Brody School of Medicine . Vidant Health owns VMC , leases or owns six and manages one . The area is about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Main Campus on 206 acres ( 0 @.@ 8 km2 ) with nearly 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 square feet ( 121 @,@ 000 m2 ) of academic and research space in 62 buildings . Other buildings besides VMC include Brody Medicine Science Building , the East Carolina Heart Institute , Leo Jenkins Cancer Center , and the Allied Health building composed of the College of Nursing , Laupus Medical Library and College of Allied Health Sciences . The 117 @,@ 000 square feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m2 ) Family Medicine Center opened in the fall of 2011 . Ross Hall , which will house the School of Dental Medicine , will be just under 200 @,@ 000 square feet is currently being built .
= = = West Research = = =
West Research Campus lies on approximately 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) west of the Health Sciences Campus . It consists of four buildings with 36 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 300 m2 ) on the former Voice of America site . Approximately 367 acres ( 1 @.@ 49 km2 ) are designated wetlands and large areas of biology , botany and other sciences field study sites . It has an environmental health onsite wastewater demonstration facility which is open to the public and all educators . It is also the home of the North Carolina Institute for Health and Safety in Agriculture , Forestry , and Fisheries with an administrative and several support buildings .
= = = = Institutes and centers = = = =
The Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University
East Carolina Heart Institute
Leo W. Jenkins Cancer Center
Innovation Design Lab
Family Medicine Center
UNC Coastal Studies Institute
Center for Epidemiology and Outcomes Research
Small Business Institute
Institute for Coastal Science and Policy
Pediatric Healthy Weight Research and Treatment Center
Center for Sustainable Tourism
Center for Sustainability
Center for Natural Hazards
Center for Geographic Information Science
Center for GIScience
Center for Applied Computational Studies
Center for Science , Technology , Engineering and Mathematics Education
Center for Survey Research
Lost Colony Center for Science & Research
East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute
Pocosin Arts Riverside Lodge
NC Agromedicine Institute
Golden LEAF Educational Consortium
= = = Community Service Learning Centers = = =
The School of Dental Medicine proposes to create 10 community service learning centers to be located in rural and underserved areas throughout the state of North Carolina . The fourth @-@ year students will be learning and providing care for the community for one year in these community centers . Five community centers have been announced . They are located in Ahoskie , Elizabeth City , Lillington , Spruce Pine , and Sylva . The other locations will be announced at a future time .
= = = Field Station for Coastal Studies = = =
The field station is located in New Holland , North Carolina . The area serves as a field station for the coastal studies , coastal resource management , and biology programs . The main goal of the field station is economic development into the region through both environmental education and eco – tourism . It also serves as a facility for small retreats and as a base for research on coastal issues . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 . It is adjacent to the 49 @,@ 925 @-@ acre ( 202 km2 ) Mattamuskeet Wildlife Refuge .
= = = North Recreational Complex = = =
North Recreational Complex ( NRC ) is an athletic complex located on a 129 @-@ acre ( 522 @,@ 044 @.@ 5 m2 ) parcel of land north of East Carolina University 's main campus . The NRC is one of the Nation 's largest recreational complexes . It will augment the Blount Intramural Sports Fields located behind the Carol Belk Building on Charles Boulevard . The first of three phases of the complex opened on September 2 , 2008 . Phase one includes eight lighted fields , a 5 @.@ 6 acres ( 0 km2 ) lake with a beach , walking trails / areas , and a field house . The complex is located near the intersection of the North Carolina Highway 33 and U.S. Route 264 .
Phase II opened in August 2011 , with the grand opening occurring on September 15 , 2011 . This phase includes a 5 @.@ 6 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 0 km2 ) lake on with a 51 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 700 m2 ) beach . A 2 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 190 m2 ) boat house is also located there . Canoes and kayaks can be rented at the boathouse for use in the lake . Other amenities include sand volleyball courts , horseshoes , grills , fitness equipment , six walking / running trails , a disc golf course , and an Odyssey Course which includes a 300 @-@ foot zip line .
= = = UNC Coastal Studies Institute = = =
Main page : UNC Coastal Studies Institute
ECU houses and manages the UNC Coastal Studies Institute ( UNC @-@ CSI ) which is an inter @-@ university , marine research institute located on Roanoke Island in Manteo along the Croatan Sound on the Outer Banks , established in 2003 focusing on Estuarine Ecology and Human Health , Coastal Processes and Engineering , Public Policy and Coastal Sustainability , and Maritime Heritage .
= = Colleges and schools = =
ECU is home to nine undergraduate colleges , a graduate school , and four professional schools . The oldest school is the modern day College of Education . The University offers 16 doctoral degree programs , 4 first professional degree programs , 76 master 's degree programs , and 102 bachelor 's degree programs .
ECU 's liberal arts college is the Thomas Harriot College of Arts and Sciences . It consists of 16 departments , making it the third largest College . The liberal arts college has its roots in the beginning of the University .
The College of Business is a professional school consisting of six departments with undergraduate concentrations in each , plus the Miller School of Entrepreneurship and a Master of Business Administration and Master of Science in Accounting program . The College 's beginnings came in 1936 when the Department of Commerce was organized . It later changed to the Department of Business Education , and then to the Department of Business . Finally , in 1960 , the School of Business was formed . The college undergraduate program was accredited in 1967 , and the graduate program was accredited in 1976 by The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business . The college is a governing school of the Graduate Management Admission Council . The college runs a Small Business Institute to advise small business owners on how to succeed .
The College of Education is the oldest and largest college at ECU . It houses and administers all of the education majors and an international open access journal , the Journal of Curriculum and Instruction . There are 17 undergraduate degree programs , 22 graduate degree programs , six advanced certifications , and the Doctor of Education program . The College prepares more professionals for North Carolina schools than any other university in the state . The College scored higher than other North Carolina universities when the state board evaluated teacher education programs in 2006 . In addition , the Institution of Higher Education Performance Report showed ECU was first in the number of graduates who were employed in public schools across the state . The college is considered one of the exemplary professional preparation programs according to the North Carolina State Board of Education 's Higher Education Performance Report .
The College of Fine Arts and Communication comprises four schools that range from dance to design and broadcast journalism . The college officially opened on July 1 , 2003 , but can trace its roots to ECU founding ; the school hired art and music professionals in 1907 to train teachers .
The College of Health and Human Performance is made up of three departments and handles all of the recreational and exercise degrees at East Carolina University . It took on its name in 2003 , but traces its legacy to the Department of Physical Education in 1930 . It was the 1930 East Carolina Teachers College Planning Document number two priority . In 1938 , the Department of Physical Education was established and Physical education became a specialty area for high school teachers .
The College of Human Ecology houses four departments and one school along with two institutes . It was first incorporated in 1968 and started to admit students in 1971 . " The Carolyn Freeze Baynes Institute for Social Justice is an international forum for addressing questions , presenting ideas , and developing innovations . The Institute 's focus in these activities is the identification of injustices and development of more just alternatives through systematic professional research , scholarship , and public presentation of findings and ideas . "
The College of Engineering and Technology comprises four departments . The college offers nine degrees including engineering , computer science , construction management , design , distribution and logistics , industrial engineering technology , information and computer technology , and industrial technology .
The College of Allied Health Sciences encompasses the health science majors outside of nursing . The school offers over 15 majors . All of the health sciences majors are located in the Allied Health Sciences building which is on the Health Sciences Campus beside The Brody School of Medicine . It was established in the 1967 – 68 school year .
The College of Nursing is a professional school that offers one undergraduate degree , Bachelor of Science in Nursing . The school was created in 1959 and now offers Bachelor of Science , Masters , and Ph.D programs . The college has over 100 faculty teaching the students everything about the nursing field while practicing in the under @-@ served Eastern North Carolina . There are three departments within this school : Department of Undergraduate Nursing Science Junior Division , Department of Undergraduate Nursing Science Senior Division , and the Department of Graduate Nursing Science . On October 12 , 2007 , the University of North Carolina Board of Governors permitted the re – designation of the School of Nursing to the College of Nursing . The National League for Nursing named the college a Center of Excellence . The college produces more nurses than any other school in the Mid @-@ Atlantic region .
The Graduate School consist of 85 master 's degree , 21 doctoral programs and 62 certificates . It coordinates the graduate offerings of all departments in the nine colleges . The School also runs the non – professional degree programs of the professional School of Medicine . The school offers 17 master 's degree in Accounting , Arts , Business Administration , Construction Management , Education , Environmental Health , Fine Arts , Library Science , Music , Nursing , Occupational Therapy , Public Administration , Public Health , School AdministrationScience , Social Work and Teaching . It also offers four doctoral degrees in Audiology , Education , Philosophy , and Physical Therapy .
The Brody School of Medicine is a professional school at the university . It consists of seven graduate majors , plus the Doctor of Medicine , all located on the Health Sciences Campus . The first appropriations were approved in 1974 , with the first medical students arriving in 1977 . The medical school is one of five in North Carolina .
The School of Dental Medicine is a professional school at the university . The school graduates one degree , Doctor of Dental Medicine . It will also have two residencies in Advanced Education in General Dentistry and Dental General Practice . The school also will offer a specialty program in Pedodontics . It was founded on February 24 , 2006 at the East Carolina Board of Trustees meeting . The dental school was unanimously approved by the UNC System Board of Governors as well . The facilities are located on the Health Sciences Campus and will house the first three years of education . Dental students will complete their final year at ECU Community Service Learning Centers to be located throughout the state . The School of Dental Medicine is one of two dental schools in the state .
= = Research = =
Randolph Chitwood , a cardiothoracic surgeon with East Carolina , performed the first minimally invasive robotic @-@ assisted mitral @-@ valve heart surgery in the United States . East Carolina researchers also developed an electronic fluency device called SpeechEasy ; the device is designed to improve the fluency of a person who stutters by changing the sound of the user 's voice in his or her ear . Walter Pories , a faculty member at The Brody School of Medicine developed the standard procedure for gastric bypass surgery . Researchers here also first discovered that 80 % of obese / type 2 diabetic patients who underwent this surgical procedure had a reversal of the disease . The Biofeedback Lab is currently developing techniques to help service members recover from posttraumatic stress disorders and traumatic brain injuries they received in Afghanistan and Iraq . The in vitro fertilization program is ranked first in North Carolina and fourth overall in the United States . Jason Bond , a former scientist in the Department of Biology , discovered many new species of spiders , including Myrmekiaphila neilyoungi and Aptostichus stephencolberti .
During an archaeological dig on Hatteras Island in 1998 , archaeologists discovered a 10 @-@ carat gold English signet ring from the 16th century , among other artifacts . The discovered ring was the first material connection between The Lost Colony on Roanoke Island and the Algonquian peoples on Croatan Island . In 2011 , underwater archaeologists raised the anchors of the Queen Anne 's Revenge , the flagship vessel of Blackbeard , near Beaufort .
= = = Libraries = = =
J.Y. Joyner Library is the main library located beside the Mall on the main campus . It holds nearly 1 @.@ 9 million bound volumes , 2 @.@ 1 million pieces of microform , 532 @,@ 000 government documents , and more than 24 @,@ 000 journal subscriptions . The library , which houses the East Carolina manuscript collection , is the largest library east of Raleigh . It is one of the leading repositories in the nation for modern naval and maritime history . It also holds materials related to North Carolina , the tobacco industry , worldwide missionary activities , and American military history . The library is the official repository of the records of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary . The J. Edgar Hoover Collection on International Communism contains many items dealing with communism worldwide . The Rare Book Collections has items dating from 1589 , including a 1733 Edward Moseley map , the first to comprehensively map the colony of North Carolina and the only original copy in the United States .
The Music Library is a branch of Joyner Library located on the first floor of A.J. Fletcher Music Center . It houses approximately 93 @,@ 000 items , including the entire audio recording collection . It is the largest music collection east of Raleigh . The primary users of the library are faculty and students within the School of Music and the School of Theatre and Dance , but anyone can use its resources . It began in 1958 @-@ 59 academic year when a small library was created . Today a staff of five oversee the library duties .
The William E. Laupus Library is the medical and health library for East Carolina . It is the primary library for the Brody School of Medicine , the College of Nursing , the College of Allied Health Sciences , and the School of Dental Medicine . It holds approximately 160 @,@ 000 volumes ( print and non – print ) and 10 @,@ 000 current print , non – print , and electronic serial titles . In 2006 , it moved to the Health Sciences Building on the Health Sciences campus . The library is named for Dr. Laupus , a former Dean of Brody School of Medicine .
= = Student life = =
= = = Greek life = = =
There are ten social sororities at the East Carolina Campus , most of which own a house located at or near 5th or 10th Street . There are currently 17 social fraternities at East Carolina . The majority are located off or near 5th Street or 10th Street . Of the 17 social fraternities , seven currently do own a house . Greek life started in 1958 with the introduction of four social fraternities : Kappa Alpha Order , Lambda Chi Alpha , Pi Kappa Alpha , and Theta Chi . Two years later , eight of the ten social sororities were founded .
National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council ( NPHC ) has a presence on campus , as well . There are four historically black sororities and five historically black fraternities . There are over 18 honor and 13 service or religious fraternities or sororities at ECU .
= = = Athletics = = =
ECU 's sports teams , nicknamed the Pirates , compete in NCAA Division FBS as a full – member of the American Athletic Conference ( The American ) . The Pirates joined The American on July 1 , 2014 . Jeff Compher is the Athletic Director . The football team is supported by world @-@ class spirit groups , such as the East Carolina University Marching Pirates , National Award winning Cheerleading squads , and spirit teams . Facilities include the 50 @,@ 000 seat Dowdy @-@ Ficklen Stadium for football , the 8 @,@ 000 – seat Williams Arena at Minges Coliseum for men 's and women 's basketball , and Clark @-@ LeClair Stadium , with a seating capacity of 3 @,@ 000 ( max capacity of 6 @,@ 000 + when including outfield " Jungle " areas ) for baseball . The Ward Sports Medicine building comprises 82 @,@ 095 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 600 m2 ) and houses the athletic department , Pirate Club offices and the Human Performance Laboratory . Athletes train in the Murphy Center a 52 @,@ 475 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 875 m2 ) edifice , housing the strength and conditioning facilities , along with banquet rooms , sport memorabilia , and an academic enhancement center . The Murphy Center was built for approximately $ 13 million and opened its doors to ECU student – athletes in June 2002 .
= = = Diversity = = =
The EDC Mini @-@ grant Project @-@ The Office of Equity , Diversity , and Community Relations developed this project to improve East Carolina University 's number of diversity studies , programs , and groups . This project intends to supply resources and funds towards diversity proposals offered by students , campus organizations , faculty , and staff . These programs include monitoring cultural awareness educational seminars , to improve departmental climate , to recruit diverse students , for research for curriculum improvement , among others .
= = Administration = =
There have been six presidents and seven Chancellors in the university 's history . Robert Herring Wright was inaugurated as the first president of ECTTS on November 13 , 1909 . The chief administrator changed names after ECU joined the UNC System in 1972 . The chancellor is chosen by the University of North Carolina Board of Governors on the recommendation of the board 's president , and he reports to the 12 – member Board of Trustees at ECU . Four of the twelve trustees are picked by the Governor of North Carolina , while the other eight are picked by the Board of Governors . The ECU student body president is an ex officio member of the Board of Trustees . The current chancellor , Cecil Pope Staton , Jr . , has held that post since replacing chancellor Steve Ballard on July 1 . 2016
The University of North Carolina Board of Governors are the policy @-@ making body legally charged with " the general determination , control , supervision , management , and governance of all affairs of the constituent institutions . " It has 32 voting members who are elected by the General Assembly for four @-@ year terms .
= = Rankings = =
In 2012 , East Carolina was classified by U.S. News & World Report as a National University in its second @-@ tier rankings . In 2010 , Forbes ranked the school 36th in its America 's Best College Buys story .
In the 2012 edition of U.S. News & World Report , The Brody School of Medicine is ranked 10th in the country for primary care physician preparation , 13th in the rural medicine specialty and 14th in family medicine . In 2010 , Brody was ranked seventh on the social mission scale .
The College of Business is named one of the best business schools according to The Princeton Review for the fifth year in a row . The College of Business is also named by GetEducated.com as the third best buy for affordability and quality in the Online Masters of Business Administration ( AACSB @-@ accredited ) category .
In 2009 , the university was awarded the Patriot Award . The Patriot Award recognizes employers who go above and beyond what the law requires in supporting their employees who serve in the National Guard or reserves . In 2010 , the university was awarded the Secretary of Defense Employer Support Freedom Award . It is the highest recognition given by the U.S. Government to employers for their outstanding support of their employees who serve in the Guard and Reserve .
= = Songs = =
" Hail to Thy Name So Fair " is the alma mater at East Carolina University . It first appeared in the 1940 @-@ 41 East Carolina Teachers College ( ECTC ) Student Handbook . It was written by Harold A. McDougle ( ' 44 ) who became a part @-@ time instructor in the Music Department from 1946 @-@ 47 . The Marching Pirates perform the song during all home football and basketball games . At every home football game , after the National Anthem is played by the band , the Alma Mater is played followed by the E.C. Victory song . At the end of football games , the football team walks to the student section to sing the Alma Mater and E.C. Victory song in unison .
= = Notable alumni = =
Pirate graduates have been influential in teaching , business , and the arts . Actress Emily Procter , Beth Grant , and screenwriter Kevin Williamson , creator of Scream and Dawson 's Creek , graduated from East Carolina . Acclaimed screen actress Sandra Bullock attended , but graduated later after leaving to pursue her acting career . Marcus Crandell ( born June 1 , 1974 , in Charlotte , North Carolina ) is a former quarterback and current coach in professional Canadian football ; he played 11 seasons for the Edmonton Eskimos , Calgary Stampeders and Saskatchewan Roughriders from 1997 to 2008 while also spending time in NFL Europe and the XFL . Crandell was named the Grey Cup Most Valuable Player after the Stampeders won the 89th Grey Cup in 2001 . Class of 1974 Alumnus Rick Atkinson , wrote An Army at Dawn : The War in North Africa , 1942 – 1943 followed by " The Day of Battle , The War in Sicily , 1943 – 1944 " and Dan Neil wrote criticism on automobiles ; both received Pulitzer Prizes . The most notable teaching alumnus is Ron Clark , a teacher , author , and founder of the Ron Clark Academy in Atlanta , Georgia . James Maynard graduated with a degree in psychology and founded the Golden Corral restaurant chain . Kelly King is the current chief executive officer for BB & T and graduated with an undergraduate degree in business accounting and a master 's of business administration . Former Jacksonville Jaguars quarterback David Garrard attended where he majored in Construction Management . Chris Johnson was drafted by the Tennessee Titans in the first round of the 2008 NFL Draft . WWE Chairman and CEO Vincent K. McMahon and his wife Linda McMahon both graduated with a degree in business administration as well . Scott Avett of the folk @-@ rock band The Avett Brothers earned degrees in 1999 and 2000 . Henry " Gizmo " Williams , Canadian Football League inductee , graduated from East Carolina University .
= We Are the World 25 for Haiti =
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " is a charity single recorded by the supergroup Artists for Haiti in 2010 . It is a remake of the 1985 hit song " We Are the World " , which was written by American musicians Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie , and was recorded by USA for Africa to benefit famine relief in Africa . Initially , in late 2009 , it had been suggested to Richie and Quincy Jones — producer of the original " We Are the World " — that a re @-@ cut version of the song be re @-@ released under the title " Live 25 " . Following the magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake in Haiti , which devastated the area and killed thousands of people , it was agreed that the song would be re @-@ recorded by new artists , in the hope that it would reach a new generation and help benefit the people of Haiti .
The song was recorded in fourteen and a half hours by over eighty artists on February 1 , 2010 . It was produced by Quincy Jones , and executively produced by Lionel Richie , and Haitian @-@ American musician Wyclef Jean . A music video directed by Paul Haggis was released to accompany and promote the song . The song was also recorded in Spanish by a Latin supergroup and was named Somos el Mundo . The song was directed by Emilio Estefan and his wife , Gloria Estefan .
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " is musically structured similar to " We Are the World " , but includes a rap verse which was written by some of the song 's hip hop artists . Michael Jackson died months before the song 's release , but his material from the 1985 recording sessions was incorporated into the song and music video , as per the request of his mother , Katherine . His sister Janet duets with him on the song , and his nephews Taj , TJ , and Taryll — collectively known as 3T — feature on the track 's chorus .
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " was released on February 12 , 2010 , during the opening ceremony of the 2010 Winter Olympics , as a CD single and a music download . Critically , " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " received generally negative reviews by contemporary music reviewers , with criticism focused on the song 's new musical additions , as well as the choice of artists who appear on the track . Some critics have even named it one of the worst songs of all time . However , the song was commercially successful worldwide , charting within the top 20 in multiple countries .
= = Background = =
In 1985 , " We Are the World " , a song and charity single originally recorded by USA for Africa was released . It was written by American musicians Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie , and produced by Quincy Jones and Michael Omartian for the album We Are the World . The song was well received by music critics and was the recipient of several awards . The song was a worldwide commercial success , as it topped music charts throughout the world and became the fastest @-@ selling American pop single in history , as well as the first single to be certified multi @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . " We Are the World " was the best selling pop single of all time until it was eclipsed by Elton John 's 1997 version of " Candle in the Wind " .
On January 12 , 2010 , Haiti was struck by a magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake . It was the country 's most severe earthquake in over 200 years and caused widespread damage . The epicenter of the quake was just outside the Haitian capital Port @-@ au @-@ Prince . It has been estimated that the death toll could reach 200 @,@ 000 . Before the earthquake , Jones and Richie had planned to organize a re @-@ recording of " We Are the World " on January 28 , 2010 — the 25th anniversary of the original recording of the song . Randy Phillips , who was a key figure in the song being re @-@ issued , said that " We Are The World " producer Ken Kragen had suggested to re @-@ cut " We Are the World " and title it " Live 25 " . However , Lionel Richie and Jones were " very lukewarm " about the idea . Phillips commented that ,
" [ They felt ] that what happened 25 years ago was iconic and they did everything they could for Africa at that time , and they didn 't feel re @-@ cutting the song really made any sense . Basically , Lionel didn 't really want to do it , and we kind of let it die by not issuing the publishing license , because Lionel owns the copyright along with Michael Jackson 's estate . That was in November / December [ 2009 ] . They had gotten Visa on board as an underwriter of that effort , and I think they were going to try and premiere it at the World Cup . "
However , because of the devastation caused in Haiti , these plans were postponed . Phillips said that Jones had called Lionel and said , " this is what this song is written for , as a fundraising vehicle for causes , tragedies , catastrophes like this . Why don 't we take over the process , call our friends , and actually do this ? " Lionel understood the urgency of Haiti , and in January 2010 , it was agreed that " We Are the World " would be re @-@ recorded to help benefit Haiti , similar to how the original recording helped famine relief in Africa . Richie commented , " Unfortunately , sometimes it takes a hit record to make someone decide to save a life . I want this song to be the battle cry again . Every once in a while , you have to wake the world up . We slept right through Katrina . If we are not a socially aware culture , we 're going to fail . "
= = Recording = =
The new version of the song was recorded on February 1 , 2010 , in a session lasting 14 hours . Eighty @-@ five musicians were reportedly involved in the song 's recording , which was held in the same place as the original , at Henson Recording Studio on Beverly Boulevard in Los Angeles , California . Also similar to the 1985 process , some of the participating musicians were already in Los Angeles to attend an awards ceremony : the 52nd Grammy Awards . Jones said of the recording session , " It was a big challenge . It takes a serious army and serious emotional architecture . I 've never seen such a diverse group of people , and they came for the right reasons . " The recording process brought together diverse artists , with the oldest being 83 @-@ year @-@ old Tony Bennett and the youngest being 9 @-@ year @-@ old Ethan Bortnick .
The new version features updated lyrics and music , such as a rap segment including LL Cool J , will.i.am , Snoop Dogg & 7 others pertaining to Haiti , described as a " Greek chorus extension " , which was written by will.i.am. Other writers included Kanye West , Jones and LL Cool J. Lionel Richie and Jones revealed that Michael Jackson 's sister Janet duets with her late brother , as per a request from their mother , Katherine . In the official video , there is archive footage of Michael Jackson from the original 1985 recording . Richie said that he agreed with Katherine 's request , commenting , " It made me feel more secure about this . We definitely felt a void . He 's the other parent [ to the song ] . " The production team for the song included Humberto Gatica , RedOne , Mervyn Warren , Patti Austin and Rickey Minor . RedOne said that it took a week to create the new arrangement for " We Are The World 25 For Haiti " . He commented that he wanted to keep the " class of the original one " and did not want to " mess it up , because it 's too good . " He noted that he wanted to make the song " sound more now and current " while keeping the originals " whole chord progressions , the feeling and the vibe , but brought fresher sounds that are more now . "
Haitian @-@ American musician Wyclef Jean also serves as a producer . In addition , Wyclef Jean sings the first line of the second chorus in Haitian Creole . Richie said new artists were selected for the song so the song could be aimed at a new audience , commenting , " We have a familiar song that kids learn in school . Why not bring in Miley Cyrus and the Jonas Brothers and let them address the issues ? " adding that " It was designed so that we wouldn 't have any of the originals there , so that we could pass on the baton to the next generation " . Phillips said that the producers received 80 percent of the people they wanted as recording artists for the song . In addition to Jean , Haitian actor Jimmy Jean @-@ Louis , most famous for playing The Haitian on Heroes , appears in the chorus .
At the time of the recording , numerous artists commented on the process , the 1985 version of the song and co @-@ writer Michael Jackson . R & B singer Jordin Sparks revealed that , despite having been born after the release of the original , the song had a " huge impact " on her . Celine Dion said that the release of the song would not only benefit the Haitian people , but also serve as a remembrance of " the passion [ Michael ] Jackson had for helping those in need " . Lionel Richie and Quincy Jones echoed Dion 's sentiments and further stated that if the singer were alive , he would have wanted to be just as involved as he had been a quarter of a century ago . According to Phillips , there was a " handful " of musicians who either declined or could not rearrange their schedules for the song 's recording , including country singer Taylor Swift , who was going to be touring in Australia .
= = Artists for Haiti = =
Conductors
Quincy Jones
Lionel Richie
Mervyn Warren
Soloists ( in order of appearance )
Chorus
= = Release , promotion , proceeds = =
The 2010 version of " We Are the World " , released under the name Artists for Haiti , debuted on the NBC television network on February 12 during their coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics opening ceremony . When the song premiered in its paid time spot , the video was edited in length , due in part to the time spent introducing the song . However , the full @-@ length music video was shown on NBC the following day during daytime Olympic coverage .
Similar to marketing of " We Are the World " , a music video of the song was filmed and released . The music video was directed by Academy Award @-@ winning film director Paul Haggis . Haggis said that he finished the video 12 hours early . Haitian film students were involved in the video as part of the production crew . The official video for the song was formatted similar to the original ; the video opens with the song 's title with the recording artists ' signatures surrounding it , as well as clips of the artists performing their parts in the recording studio and included archive footage of Michael Jackson performing his part of the song . The video was intercut with clips showing people in Haiti following the earthquake .
= = Critical reviews and responses = =
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " received extremely negative reviews from contemporary music critics . The song was criticized for its use of Auto @-@ Tune , the choice of recording artists , and for the song 's rap . Chris Richards , a writer for The Washington Post , described the song as being " horribly oversung " . Richards commented that the most " disappointing " thing about the song was that " there were too few voices from the country , rock and Latin music communities . " He also noted that " nobody can argue with its worthy cause " because of the song 's proceeds to relief in Haiti , but remarked that the song did not have " We Are the World " ' s " original thrill " due to the song 's " panoply of voices " . Jon Pareles , a writer for The New York Times , remarked that while the song 's " Hollywood gloss " was " durable " , the song has " all the pitfalls of a Hollywood remake " . Parales commented that the quality of the song and performance " rises or falls on its talent pool " and criticized the choice of male musicians compared to " We Are the World " ' s original male artists .
US Magazine mentioned that " this version features second @-@ by @-@ second unexplainable absurdities , including Justin Bieber being given the opening verse , Nicole Scherzinger and other Z @-@ listers assigned more than one prime slot , and Wyclef Jean 's incomprehensible yodeling " . Maura Johnston , a writer for MTV , wrote more positively about the song , commenting favorably on the contemporary artists ' performances in living up to their predecessors . " Despite the different faces , the overall feel is similar to the original 's , " Johnston wrote . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson , a writer for Entertainment Weekly , gave the song a mixed review , noting that We Are the World 25 for Haiti was not as good as the original : " All in all , I can ’ t say this new ' We Are the World ' measured up to the 1985 version . "
Eight days after the Artists for Haiti 2010 celebrity remake was released , a " video response " to the song 's official YouTube video was posted by Internet personality and singer @-@ songwriter Lisa Lavie , and was " favorited " on the YouTube channel of the We Are The World Foundation . Lavie 's " We Are the World 25 for Haiti ( YouTube Edition ) " excluded the rap segment and minimized the Auto @-@ tune that were the subject of critical reviews of the celebrity version . Lavie 's video , an Internet collaboration of 57 unsigned or independent YouTube musicians geographically distributed around the world , received positive reception from media , including CNN ( " certainly is a sign of the times " ) and ABC World News with Diane Sawyer ( " Persons of the Week " ... " in effect saying , We are the world , too ... who proved that anthem is not just for glittering names . " ) Both videos link to the We Are the World Foundation for donations .
Rolling Stone said its readers " mostly agreed " with the assessment of a February 27 , 2010 Saturday Night Live parody : " Recently , the music world came together to record ' We Are the World 2 , ' a song to raise awareness of the Haiti earthquake disaster ; sadly , the song itself was a disaster , " with several impersonators dubbing the parody " We Are the World 3 : Raising Awareness of the ' We Are the World 2 ' Disaster . "
= = Chart performance = =
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " debuted within the top 30 in multiple territories . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " charted at number 27 on the Spanish Singles Chart on the charts issue date February 14 , 2010 . The song debuted at number 17 in New Zealand on the charts issue date of February 15 , 2010 . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " peaked within the top five , charting at number three in Norway on the charts issue date of February 16 , 2010 ; the chart 's position is currently the song 's highest charting international territory since its release . The song debuted at number 25 in France on the issue date of February 13 .
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " charted at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 , behind Kesha 's " Tik Tok " . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " charted higher in its debut week than the original version , which entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 21 . According to Billboard , the song 's charting position stemmed mainly from download sales , with a reported 96 % of the song 's charting being from such sales . Following the song 's debut during the Olympics , 246 radio stations sampled the song in the United States . Radio stations in New York expressed that they would play the song frequently to raise awareness of Haitian citizens in need . Other radio stations throughout the United States echoed similar responses on the song getting airplay .
The song also sold over 267 @,@ 000 downloads in three days . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " debuted at number eight on the Canadian Hot 100 dated for February 27 . The song also debuted at number six in Belgium Wallonia and Flanders , as well at debuting at number 17 in Sweden . The song also charted at number 28 in Denmark . The song entered Irish charts at number nine . In the song 's second week of release in Norway , " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " moved up two spaces , topping the chart . Unlike the song 's chart performance in territories like Norway , the song dropped four places on the Billboard Hot 100 to sixth place and stayed in the charts for only five weeks more .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly = = =
= = = Year @-@ end = = =
= = Track listings = =
Short version " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " - 3 : 25
Long version " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " - 6 : 57
= Gethsemane ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Gethsemane " is the twenty @-@ fourth and final episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on May 18 , 1997 . It was directed by R.W. Goodwin , and written by series creator Chris Carter . " Gethsemane " featured guest appearances by Charles Cioffi , Sheila Larken and Pat Skipper , and introduced John Finn as recurring character Michael Kritschgau . The episode helped to explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Gethsemane " earned a Nielsen household rating of 13 @.@ 2 , being watched by 19 @.@ 85 million people in its initial broadcast .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder is shown evidence of alien life which may actually be part of a huge government hoax designed to deflect attention from secret military programs . Meanwhile , Scully struggles with her cancer in the face of hostility from her brother , who believes she should no longer be working .
" Gethsemane " was filmed on one of the series ' most elaborate and costly sets , replicating an icy mountaintop inside a refrigerated building using real snow and ice . Shooting for exterior scenes took place on Vancouver 's Mount Seymour , occurring just a week before Duchovny 's wedding . The episode , which has been described by Carter as pondering " the existence of God " , has received mixed responses from critics , with its cliffhanger ending frequently being cited as its main failing .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens in medias res to police investigating a dead body in the apartment of FBI agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) confirms the unseen body 's identity and leaves . She subsequently appears before an FBI panel led by Section Chief Scott Blevins ( Charles Cioffi ) , reviewing her work with Mulder on the X @-@ Files .
In Canada 's St. Elias Mountains , a frozen extraterrestrial body is discovered by an expedition team . Professor Arlinsky , the team 's leader , sends ice core samples containing presumably alien DNA to Mulder . Scully has the samples tested and confirms the DNA 's non @-@ terrestrial origin , but is attacked by a man who steals the samples . Scully learns that her attacker is Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) , a Defense Department employee . When she tracks down Kritschgau and holds him at gunpoint , he reveals that he might be killed .
Meanwhile , Mulder and Arlinsky return to the mountains , but finds that most of the expedition members have been shot dead . The sole survivor is a man named Babcock , who reveals that he has saved the alien corpse from theft by burying it . Together , the three men bring the corpse to the United States . There , Mulder and Arlinsky perform an autopsy on the corpse , believing it belongs to a genuine extraterrestrial . After Mulder leaves to meet with Scully , a mysterious assassin , Scott Ostelhoff , arrives and kills Arlinsky .
Scully introduces Mulder to Kritschgau , who claims that everything Mulder thinks he knows about aliens is a
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La Dulzura ( 2010 )
= = Band members = =
= = = Current members = = =
Willy Rodríguez — Bass Guitar , Vocals
Boris Bilbraut — Drums , Vocals
Omar Silva — Guitar , Bass Guitar
Juanqui Sulsona — Piano , Keyboards
Eliut González — Guitar
Eggie Santiago — Organ , Keyboards
Ernesto Rodriguez — Percussion
Patricia Lewis — Vocals
Adrianna Betancourt — Vocals
Victor Vazquez — Trombone
Kalani Trinidad — Flute & Saxophone
Jahaziel Garcia — Trumpet
= = = Former members = = =
Iván Gutiérrez — piano , brass arrangements
Sergio Orellana — keyboards , organ
Melvin Villanueva — piano
Juan Costa — rhythm guitar
Raúl Gaztambide — organ
Eduardo Fernández — trombone
Javier Joglar — tenor saxophone , flute
Luis Rafael Torres — tenor saxophone , alto saxophone , flute
Juan José " Cheo " Quiñones — trumpet
María Soledad Gaztambide — vocals
Yarimir Cabán , better known professionally as Mima — vocals
Eduardo " Edo " Sanz — drums , percussion
Omar Cruz — percussion
Beto Torrens , Juansi — percussion
Bayrex Jimenez — piano , keyboards
= Bridgewater Canal =
The Bridgewater Canal connects Runcorn , Manchester and Leigh , in North West England . It was commissioned by Francis Egerton , 3rd Duke of Bridgewater , to transport coal from his mines in Worsley to Manchester . It was opened in 1761 from Worsley to Manchester , and later extended from Manchester to Runcorn , and then from Worsley to Leigh .
The canal is connected to the Manchester Ship Canal via a lock at Cornbrook ; to the Rochdale Canal in Manchester ; to the Trent and Mersey Canal at Preston Brook , southeast of Runcorn ; and to the Leeds and Liverpool Canal at Leigh . It once connected with the River Mersey at Runcorn but has since been cut off by a slip road to the Silver Jubilee Bridge .
Often considered to be the first " true " canal in England , it required the construction of an aqueduct to cross the River Irwell , one of the first of its kind . Its success helped inspire a period of intense canal building in Britain , known as " canal mania " . It later faced intense competition from the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and the Macclesfield Canal . Navigable throughout its history , it is one of the few canals in Britain not to have been nationalised , and remains privately owned . Pleasure craft now use the canal which forms part of the Cheshire Ring network of canals .
= = Design and construction = =
Francis Egerton , 3rd Duke of Bridgewater , owned some of the coal mines dug to supply north west England with fuel for the steam engines instrumental in powering England 's industrial revolution . The duke transported his coal along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and also by packhorse , but each method was inefficient and expensive ; river transport was subject to the vagaries of river navigation , and the amount of coal packhorses could carry was limited by its relative weight . The duke 's underground mines also suffered from persistent flooding , caused by the geology of the Middle Coal Measures , where the coal seam lies beneath a layer of permeable sandstone .
Having visited the Canal du Midi in France and watched the construction of the Sankey Canal in England , the duke 's solution to these problems was to build an underground canal at Worsley , connected to a surface canal between Worsley and Salford . In addition to easing overland transport difficulties and providing drainage for his mines , an underground canal would provide a reliable source of water for the surface canal , and also eliminate the need to lift the coal to the surface ( an expensive and difficult proposition ) . The canal boats would carry 30 long tons ( 30 t ) at a time , pulled by only one horse – more than ten times the amount of cargo per horse that was possible with a cart . The duke and his estate manager John Gilbert produced a plan of the canal , and in 1759 obtained an Act of Parliament , enabling its construction .
James Brindley was brought in for his technical expertise ( having previously installed a pumping system at the nearby Wet Earth Colliery ) , and after a six @-@ day visit suggested varying the route of the proposed canal away from Salford , instead taking it across the River Irwell to Stretford and thereon into Manchester . This route would make connecting to any future canals much easier , and would also increase competition with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation company . Brindley moved into Worsley Old Hall and spent 46 days surveying the proposed route , which to cross the Irwell would require the construction of an aqueduct at Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell . At the duke 's behest , in January 1760 Brindley also travelled to London to give evidence before a parliamentary committee . The duke therefore gained a second Act of Parliament , which superseded the original .
Brindley 's planned route began at Worsley and passed southeast through Eccles , before turning south to cross the River Irwell on the Barton Aqueduct . From there it continued southeast along the edge of Trafford Park , and then east into Manchester . Although a connection with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation was included in the new Act , at Hulme Locks in Castlefield ( on land previously occupied by Hulme Hall ) , this was not completed until 1838 . The terminus would be at Castlefield Basin , where the nearby River Medlock was to help supply the canal with water . Boats would unload their cargoes inside the duke 's purpose @-@ built warehouse . There were no locks in Brindley 's design , demonstrating his ability as a competent engineer . The Barton Aqueduct was built relatively quickly for the time ; work commenced in September 1760 and the first boat crossed on 17 July 1761 .
The duke invested a large sum of money in the scheme . From Worsley to Manchester its construction cost £ 168 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 23 @,@ 348 @,@ 370 in 2015 ) , but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761 , the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half . This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building , known as Canal Mania . Along with its stone aqueduct at Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell , the Bridgewater Canal was considered a major engineering achievement . One commentator wrote that when finished , " [ the canal ] will be the most extraordinary thing in the Kingdom , if not in Europe . The boats in some places are to go underground , and in other places over a navigable river , without communicating with its waters " .
In addition to the duke 's warehouse at Manchester , more buildings were built by Brindley and extended to Alport Street ( now called Deansgate ) . The warehouses were of timber @-@ frame design , with load @-@ bearing hand @-@ made brick walls , supported on cast iron posts . The duke 's warehouse was badly damaged by fire in 1789 but was rebuilt .
= = = Manchester to Runcorn extension = = =
In September 1761 , with his assistant Hugh Oldham , Brindley surveyed an extension from Longford Bridge to Hempstones , near Halton , Cheshire . He assisted in obtaining Parliamentary approval for the Bridgewater Canal Extension Act of 1762 which allowed the construction of an extension to the canal , from Manchester , to the River Mersey at Runcorn . Despite objections from the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company , Royal assent was given on 24 March 1762 . A junction , Waters Meeting , was created in Trafford Park , at which the new extension branched south through Stretford , Sale , Altrincham , Lymm and finally to Runcorn .
In December 1761 Brindley undertook a survey of the route at Runcorn . His initial plan was to make the terminus at Hempstones , east of Runcorn Gap , but following a study of the tides and depth of water there , he decided instead to build the terminus west of Runcorn Gap . This change was designed to accommodate Mersey flats , although the low fixed bridges required that traffic on the canal be able to lower or unship their masts . Runcorn basin was almost 90 feet ( 27 m ) above the Mersey , so a flight of ten locks , described as " the wonder of their time " , was built to connect the two . Nine locks had a fall of 2 metres ( 7 ft ) , with a fall at the river lock of more than 6 metres ( 20 ft ) at low water . It allowed vessels to enter and leave the canal on any tide . The connection to the Mersey was made on 1 January 1773 . The river 's tidal action tended to deposit silt around the lower entrance to the locks , so to counteract this a channel , equipped with gates at each end and known as the Duke 's Gut , was cut through the marshes upriver from the locks . At high tide the gates were closed , and with the ebb of the tide were opened to release water , which scoured the silt from the entrance to the locks . The cut created an island , known as Runcorn Island , crossed by Castle Bridge .
The connection to Manchester was delayed by Sir Richard Brooke of Norton Priory . Concerned that boatmen might poach his game and wildfowl , Brooke did not want the canal to pass through his land . The Act included several stipulations : the canal should not come within 325 metres ( 1 @,@ 066 ft ) of his house ; the towpath should be on the south side of the canal , furthest away from Brooke 's house ; there should be no quays , buildings , hedges or fences to obstruct the view ; no vessels were to be moored within 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) of the house , other than during construction . Eventually , though , a compromise was reached . This included the construction of a link to the Trent and Mersey Canal at Preston Brook ( permitted by the Trent and Mersey Canal Act of 1766 ) , and the building of the canal 's terminus to the west of Runcorn Gap . The Trent and Mersey link gave the Duke access to the Midlands , and forestalled the Weaver Trustees from making their own junction with the canal . The new extension also met with opposition from the Mersey and Irwell Navigation , until the duke purchased a controlling interest in the company . The first part of the new extension was opened in 1767 , and completed in full by March 1776 , but Brindley did not live to see its completion ; it was continued by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Hugh Henshall .
The total cost of the canal , from Worsley to Manchester and from Longford Bridge to the Mersey at Runcorn , was £ 220 @,@ 000 . Alongside the Mersey , the duke built Runcorn Dock , several warehouses , and Bridgewater House , a temporary home from which he could supervise operations at the Runcorn end . Two locks up from the tideway was a small dry dock .
= = = Sale to Stockport branch = = =
In 1766 the Duke gained a fourth act of parliament for a branch canal between Sale Moor and Stockport which was to follow the valley of the Mersey . The Act was applied for to counter a proposed canal that would give the towns of Stockport and Macclesfield access to the Mersey , via the River Weaver . The work was not done , the Act lapsed and this section of canal was never built .
Over two decades later , the nearby Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal had sought a connection to other waterways , and it appears that the Duke had planned to limit the activities of the new company . On 15 December 1792 the Duke purchased a portion of the Ringspiggot estate in Salford which blocked the MB & BC 's plans to build a riverside basin and wharfs there .
= = = Worsley to Leigh extension = = =
In 1795 the duke secured a fifth Act which enabled him to extend the canal a further 5 miles ( 8 km ) from Worsley via Boothstown , Astley Green and Bedford to Leigh . The new extension enabled the supply to Manchester of coal from Leigh and the surrounding districts . On 21 June 1819 an Act of Parliament was enacted to create a link between this extension and the Wigan branch of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal .
Access to the canal brought about a rapid development in coal mining on the Manchester Coalfield west of Worsley . Chaddock pits in the east of Tyldesley were connected to an underground level from Worsley . In 1820 , to ease congestion at the Delph in Worsley , Chaddock Pit was connected to the canal at Boothstown basin by an underground canal , the Chaddock Level which ran in a north west direction from the canal at Boothstown to the pit . Sometime after 1840 Samuel Jackson built a narrow gauge tramroad worked by horses from his Gin Pit Colliery to Marsland Green where he installed cranes and tipplers to load barges at a wharf . The tramroad was later worked by locomotives . In 1867 the Fletchers built a private railway line and the Bedford Basin with facilities for loading coal from Howe Bridge onto barges . Astley Green Colliery began winding coal on the north bank of the canal in 1912 . In the 1940s and 50s coal was sent to Barton Power Station and Runcorn Gas Works .
= = = Connection to Rochdale Canal = = =
Upon completion of the Rochdale Canal in 1804 , the two canals were joined at Castlefield . This connection may have been a factor in the failure of the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal Company 's rival scheme to build a canal between Bury and Sladen . The River Medlock , a major source of water for the canal and which was almost as badly polluted as the nearby Irwell , was diverted through a tunnel under the canal at Castlefield by Charles Edward Cawley , a civil engineer for the Salford Corporation and later MP for Salford . The canal was from that point supplied by the much purer water of the Rochdale Canal .
= = = Mines = = =
Worsley Delph , in Worsley , originally a centuries @-@ old sandstone quarry near Worsley Brook , was the entrance to the Navigable Levels . It is now a Scheduled Monument . Two entrances , built years apart , allow access to the specially built M @-@ boats ( also known as Starvationers ) , the largest of which could carry 12 long tons ( 12 t ) of coal . Inside the mines 46 miles ( 74 km ) of underground canal on four levels , linked by inclined planes , were constructed . The mines ceased production in 1887 . As the canal passes through Worsley , iron oxide from the mines has , for many years , stained the water bright orange . The removal of this colouration is currently the subject of a £ 2 @.@ 5 million remedial scheme .
= = = Traffic = = =
In 1791 the mines at Worsley produced 100 @,@ 282 long tons ( 101 @,@ 891 t ) of coal , 60 @,@ 461 long tons ( 61 @,@ 431 t ) of which were " sold down the navigation " ; 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) of rocksalt was also transported from Cheshire . Sales of coal were £ 19 @,@ 455 , and nearly £ 30 @,@ 000 was earned from other cargoes . Passenger traffic in 1791 brought in receipts of £ 3 @,@ 781 .
The canal also carried passengers and was in keen competition with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company ( M & IN ) . The journey down river by the latter route took eight hours ( nine hours in the up direction ) while the journey on the Bridgewater canal took nine hours each way . Fares were similar but the Bridgewater route was said to be " more picturesque " . Boating men also used the canal . They lifted their small lightweight boats out of the M & IN at Runcorn , and carried them a short distance up the steep streets onto the Bridgewater Canal .
Barges on the canal continued to be towed by horses until the middle of the 19th century , when they were replaced by steam @-@ powered boats after a fatal epidemic spread through the horse population . The " dense smoke " produced by the steam barges and their " harsh unnecessary whistling " proved unpopular with some local residents , who also began to suffer from a condition known as canal throat , " no doubt caused by the foul emanations given off by its [ the Bridgewater Canal 's ] horribly filthy water " .
The canal carried commercial freight traffic until 1975 ; the last regular cargo was grain from Liverpool to Manchester for BOCM . It is now used mainly by pleasure craft and hosts two rowing clubs – Trafford Rowing Club and Manchester University Boat Club .
= = Bridgewater Trustees = =
The Duke of Bridgewater died on 8 March 1803 . By his will the income from the canal was to be paid to his nephew George Leveson @-@ Gower , the Marquess of Stafford ( later the 1st Duke of Sutherland ) . On his death it was to go to Stafford 's second son Francis , provided he changed his name to Egerton ; and then to his heirs and successors . The management of the company was placed in the hands of three trustees . These were Sir Archibald Macdonald , who was Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer , Edward Venables @-@ Vernon @-@ Harcourt , at the time the Bishop of Carlisle and later the Archbishop of York , and , as Superintendent , Robert Haldane Bradshaw , the Duke 's agent . Bradshaw managed the estate , for which he received a salary of £ 2 @,@ 000 a year and the use of the duke 's mansions at Worsley and Runcorn . The other two trustees had each married nieces of the duke and were " dummy trustees " .
During the time the canal was administered by the Bridgewater Trustees , it made a profit every year . Until his retirement in 1834 , the administration was carried out entirely by Bradshaw . It has been calculated that the average annual profit between 1806 and 1826 was of the order of 13 per cent , and in 1824 , the best year , it was 23 per cent . Bradshaw found it difficult to delegate , and complained of being over @-@ worked , but he was also regarded as being a " formidable bargainer " . In 1805 he was approached by the proprietors of the nearby Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal to resolve a dispute with a Salford landowner , but his response was delayed . In 1810 there was a general agreement with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company ( M & IN ) to simultaneously raise freight charges . However any cooperation between the two companies was short @-@ lived and by 1812 the Mersey and Irwell had reduced their charges . Further competition was to come from other carriers who used the canal ; in 1824 the traffic carried by private companies exceeded that carried by the Trustees for the first time . However , in time more profit came from " tonnage traffic " ( that carried by private companies ) than from the Bridgewater 's own carriage of freight . Bradshaw 's administration saw increased deterioration of the fabric of the canal , the locks , docks and warehouses . The undertakings were starved of capital largely owing to inadequate provision for it in the duke 's will . There were also problems caused by silting around the entrance to the Mersey and by the changing channels of the river itself .
During the 1820s there was increased dissatisfaction with the canals . They did not cope well with increasing volumes of cargo , and they were perceived as monopolistic , and the preserve of the landed gentry class . There was increased interest in the possibility of railway construction . The possible construction of a railway between Liverpool and Manchester was vigorously opposed by Bradshaw , who refused railway surveyors access to land owned by the Trustees . When the first bill was presented to parliament in 1825 , the Trustees opposed and it was overthrown . However , later in the year Lord Stafford , possibly persuaded to do so by William Huskisson , invested £ 100 @,@ 000 ( one @-@ fifth of the required capital ) , in the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . Following this the Trustees withdrew their opposition to the construction of the railway ; they did not petition against the second bill , which was passed in 1826 . At the same time as he made his investment in the railway , Lord Stafford advanced £ 40 @,@ 000 for improvements to the canal . This was spent mainly on a second line of locks at Runcorn , which were completed in 1828 , plus new warehouses at Manchester and Liverpool . The additional line of locks cost £ 35 @,@ 000 and was used for traffic heading to Manchester , while the old line was used for traffic passing down to the Mersey .
In 1830 the new railway opened and by the end of the year was carrying freight . Bradshaw immediately went into competition by lowering the rates of carriage on the canal and by offering improved terms to the private carriers . By so doing he managed to maintain the volume of traffic carried by the canal , both freight and passengers , at a time when the country was suffering a trade depression . However Bradshaw 's tactics led to a sharp decline in profits . At the same time costs were rising , partly due to the use of steamboats on the Mersey . Further competition came with the opening of the Macclesfield Canal in 1831 which gave separate access to Manchester from the Midlands . In November 1831 Bradshaw suffered a stroke , as a result of which he lost the use of his left arm and leg , and there is evidence that it also impaired his judgement .
Matters came to a head in 1833 , the year in which the canal made its lowest profit since the death of the Duke . On 19 July the Marquess of Stafford ( now the 1st Duke of Sutherland ) died and the profits from the canal passed to Francis Egerton . On 25 September Bradshaw 's son , Captain James Bradshaw , who had been acting as a deputy superintendent to the Trustees , and who had been expected to succeed his father as Superintendent , committed suicide . The agent for both Francis Egerton and his older brother , who was now the 2nd Duke of Sutherland , was James Loch . The events that followed were " stage @-@ managed by Loch " . He reported to Francis Egerton that Bradshaw was no longer fit to be Superintendent , and then persuaded Bradshaw to retire on his full salary . It had been expected that he would appoint his other son , William Rigby Bradshaw , as his successor , but Loch persuaded him to appoint James Sothern in the position ; Sothern had been the principal agent of the Trust since December 1832 . He took over the position of Superintendent on 3 February 1834 . The appointment of Sothern was not a success . Charges were made against him of dishonesty and of nepotism . He entered into disputes and disagreements with Loch , with Francis Egerton , and with the other two trustees . ( Sir Archibald Macdonald had died in 1826 ; by this time his place had been taken by the 10th Earl of Devon ) . To avoid a costly lawsuit , at the end of 1836 Sothern agreed to retire on various conditions which included receipt of £ 45 @,@ 000 . On 1 March 1837 , he was succeeded as Superintendent by James Loch .
Loch was extremely busy and did not have time to deal with the detailed administration of the Trust . He therefore looked for a deputy to take on these duties . His first choice was Richard Smith who was the mine agent to the Trustees of the 1st Earl of Dudley . However this was perceived as poaching and it led to such controversy that Smith declined the offer and recommended his son , George Samuel Fereday Smith for the post . Fereday Smith was appointed as Deputy Superintendent in March 1837 on a salary of £ 600 a year , half of the salary which had been offered to his father . Loch immediately undertook a reorganisation of the administration and efficiency of the business , restored the agreement with the Old Quay Company to raise freight charges , and improved the facilities for passengers , including the introduction of " swift boats " . By 1837 , the Trustees employed around 3 @,@ 000 people ( including those working in the colliery and in Worsley Yard ) , making it one of the largest employers in the country at the time . Since the death of the Duke the amount of freight carried by the canal had almost trebled ; in 1803 it carried 334 @,@ 495 long tons ( 339 @,@ 863 t ) of goods and in 1836 968 @,@ 795 long tons ( 984 @,@ 341 t ) .
In 1843 a new dock , the Francis Dock , was opened at Runcorn . The late 1830s and early 1840s had seen increased competition between the Bridgewater Canal on the one hand , and other canal companies and the railways on the other . The most dangerous of the rivals was the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company who started to reduce their rates again in 1840 . This led to a price war between the two canal companies and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway , who had previously cooperated on rates . Eventually , in desperation , the Bridgewater Trustees bought the Mersey and Irwell and took over its ownership on 1 January 1844 . During the same year competition with other canals was further reduced by agreements made with the Ellesmere and Chester Canal Company and with the Anderton Carrying Company . In 1844 the canal made a profit of £ 76 @,@ 410 , the second highest during the time it was administered by the Trustees .
Having seen off competition from other canal companies , the next major threat was to come from the railways . This was the period in the mid @-@ 1840s known as the Railway Mania . The railways competed with the canals in three ways ; by building , or threatening to build , new lines which would be in direct competition with the canals ; by amalgamation into giant companies ( such as the Midland and the London and North Western companies ) , which gave them more political power ; and by taking over ownership of canal companies . On 13 April 1844 The Times newspaper reported that the canal was to be emptied of water , and converted into a railway , although nothing came of this scheme . In 1845 , in return for concessions , the Trustees supported the Grand Junction Railway in its campaign to build a more direct line to Liverpool , which crossed the Mersey over a bridge at Runcorn Gap . However the bill was overthrown in the House of Lords . Competition from the railways and other canals led to a decline in the trading and the profits between 1845 and 1848 , but there was no " disastrous collapse " . During this time the Trustees and their representatives were engaged in vigorous campaigns in Parliament to protect their interests .
By October 1844 a bonding warehouse had been built in Manchester and the first cargo to arrive was announced in a letter to the Manchester Guardian , later printed in The Times :
FIRST ARRIVAL IN THE PORT OF MANCHESTER OF A CARGO OF GOODS FOR BOND
We have great pleasure in recording the first arrival in the Port of Manchester of a vessel , with an entire cargo of wines and spirits removed in bond , and for bonding in Manchester . The vessel , a flat named the Express , was wholly laden with a valuable cargo of wines and spirits , in all about 40 tons weight , belonging to Mr. William Gibb , spirit merchant , of this town , whose active and long @-@ continued exertions in the struggle to obtain the privilege of bonding for this great and important borough are about to be acknowledged in the form of a substantial mark of respect and gratitude by his fellow @-@ townsmen . The Express arrived from Liverpool on Saturday evening ; but it was yesterday morning before she began to unload . She is lying in the Bridgewater Canal , Knott Mill where the Duke 's trustees have constructed a large bonding vault , which Mr. Gibb has taken and had licensed for the purpose , and we believe he is now removing his stock of wine and spirits from other ports to Manchester , for the greater convenience of sampling and sale . The lockers , gaugers , and other officers of Customs were in attendance , superintending the unloading of the vessel and thus have commenced the operations of the Manchester Custom @-@ house . It is a gratifying circumstance that a gentleman who took so prominent a part in the struggle to obtain the boon of bonding for Manchester should be the first to enjoy the fruits of its success . We hope ere long to record the general operation of the system ; though it will require a little time , perhaps , as it must have a beginning . - Manchester Guardian
However , this venture was less successful than expected , as is evidenced by a letter to The Observer later that year , also printed in The Times :
MANCHESTER A BONDING PORT
After the pressing demands which have been made by some of our principal manufacturing towns for the privileges of inland bonded warehouses for goods subject to Customs duties , it would naturally be supposed that the formation of a Custom @-@ house establishment at Manchester would have occasioned a vast quantity of business in that extensive seat of British manufacturers ; but we are informed that the result is very different from what had been expected . Although the system has been introduced into Manchester only as an experiment and a large establishment has been formed entirely of old and experienced officers ; under the impression that the extent of business there would require the constant services of well tried men , we believe that , up to the present period , little trade has passed through the Manchester Custom @-@ house and the officers ' duties are nearly approaching to a sinecure . The total annual expense of this establishment , exclusive of that for the Custom @-@ house and warehouse is £ 2 @,@ 620 . The town council of the borough of Manchester , however , are made liable , under the act of the 7th and 8th of Victoria cap 81 , to the charges of maintaining this establishment , and the public are thereby exonerated from the expense .
- Observer
Between 1849 and 1851 the competition between the Trustees and the railway companies intensified . Agreements and alliances were made and broken . Their major opponents were the London and North Western Railway and the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway who reduced tariffs and took business away from the canals . For the first time the railways carried more trade between Liverpool and the towns of central Lancashire than the canals . The value of the traffic carried by the Bridgewater Canal in 1851 was the lowest in the time it was administered by the Trustees . In 1851 the Earl of Ellesmere hosted a visit to Manchester by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . They stayed at Worsley Hall , with a view of the canal , and were given a trip between Patricroft railway station and Worsley Hall , on state barges . Large crowds had gathered to cheer the royal party , which apparently frightened the horses drawing the barge so much that they fell into the canal .
The Trustees spent much time between 1851 and 1855 in negotiations to ease the competition , especially that from the London and North Western Railway . The most likely allies seemed to be other railway companies , including the Shrewsbury and Birmingham and the Shrewsbury and Chester railway companies , and the Great Western Railway . Of these , the most likely seemed to be the Great Western Railway who , in their concern to expand northwards were willing to help the Trustees with the carriage of their traffic to the south . However years of negotiations came to no agreement and , in the end , the Trustees ' railway deal was done with the London and North Western Railway , who agreed to cooperate with the onward passage of the Trustees ' traffic .
On 28 June 1855 James Loch , the Superintendent , died and was succeeded by Hon. Algernon Fulke Egerton , Lord Ellesmere 's third son . He was then aged 29 , and had been educated at Harrow and Christ Church , Oxford ; he had been destined for a political life and had no experience of managing coal mines or canals . Since James Loch had been appointed , he had been mainly in control of the management of the Trustees , assisted by his son George Loch . During this time the role of Fereday Smith had been diminished ; initially appointed as Deputy Superintendent , his position was reduced to that of Principal Agent in 1845 . With the arrival of the inexperienced Algernon Egerton , Fereday Smith had a much greater say in the management . During the previous four years the Lochs had been reluctant to invest in improvements to the canal or Runcorn Dock , despite the increasing demand for the passage of goods through the dock , and the profits made during these years became stagnant . Fereday Smith had been keen on expansion and now his opportunity came . He first reduced the top @-@ heavy administration of the Trust , and then took on the planning of the expansion of the business . The steamers owned by the Trustees had been neglected and were in a poor state ; these were repaired or sold .
George Loch , who had been opposed to using the Trustees ' investments for improvements to the canals or docks , died in 1857 . Between 1857 and 1872 the Trustees provided more capital for improvements from their own resources than at any previous time . The Runcorn and Weston Canal was built in 1858 – 59 , providing a connection between Runcorn Docks and the Weaver Navigation . A new half tide dock , the Alfred Dock was opened at Runcorn in 1860 . Electric telegraph was installed in 1861 – 62 .
In 1862 the 2nd Earl of Ellesmere died and his son and heir , the 3rd Earl was a minor , aged 15 . This gave Algernon Egerton even more power to invest the profits of the company in developments . Negotiations were made to increase sea @-@ borne trade , both British and foreign , through the canal . Building started on a new dock at Runcorn in 1867 . Work was carried out in the Mersey estuary around the docks to improve access for vessels . Some of this was carried out in conjunction with the London and North Western Railway who were building a bridge across Runcorn Gap to take their line from Weaver Junction to Liverpool ; the railway paid half the cost of the improvements , amounting to about £ 20 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @.@ 6 million today ) . Improvements were made to the Trustees ' facilities at Liverpool , to the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and to the Bridgewater Canal itself . Agreements were made with the railway companies to cooperate on the transit of goods and the rates of carriage and " the Trustees ' fortunes entered a calmer phase " .
= = Subsequent owners = =
In 1872 the Bridgewater Navigation Company Ltd was formed , and on Monday 9 September the canal was purchased in the names of Sir Edward William Watkin and William Philip Price , respectively chairmen of the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway and the Midland Railway for £ 1 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 . The canal was sold again in 1885 , when the Manchester Ship Canal Company paid the Bridgewater Navigation Company £ 1 @,@ 710 @,@ 000 for all their property . The construction of the ship canal forced the removal of Barton Aqueduct and the construction of Barton Swing Aqueduct , as the former was too low for the vessels which would use the new canal . In 1907 The Manchester Ship Canal ( Bridgewater Canal ) Act 1907 was passed , permitting coal mining near the canal between Monton Bridge and Leigh , in exchange for which the mine owners were obliged to pay the associated costs of keeping the canal open and navigable .
In 1923 Bridgewater Estates Ltd was formed to acquire the Ellesmere family estate in Worsley . In 1984 Bridgewater Estates Ltd was purchased by a subsidiary of Peel Holdings . In 1987 Highams acquired a majority shareholding of the Manchester Ship Canal Company ( subsequently the shares held by Highams were transferred to Peel Holdings ) . In 1994 the Manchester Ship Canal Company became a wholly owned subsidiary of the Peel Holdings group . In 2004 ownership of the Manchester Ship Canal Company was transferred to the Peel Ports group .
= = Current status = =
The Bridgewater is often considered to be the first true canal in Britain , as it relied upon existing watercourses as sources of water rather than as navigable routes . It now terminates in Runcorn basin , just before the disused flight of 10 locks which ( before the approach road to the Silver Jubilee Bridge was built ) used to lower the canal to the Runcorn Docks on the River Mersey and later , to the Manchester Ship Canal . The old line of locks in Runcorn fell into disuse in the late 1930s , and they were closed under the Ship Canal Act of 1949 and filled in . The Ship Canal Act of 1966 allowed the closure and filling in of the newer line of locks . The gates from this flight of locks were removed and installed at Devizes on the Kennet and Avon Canal . The Duke 's warehouse in Manchester was demolished in 1960 .
The canal has suffered three breaches ; one soon after opening , another in 1971 near the River Bollin aqueduct , and another in the summer of 2005 when a sluice gate failed in Manchester . Cranes are located at intervals along the canal 's length to allow boards to be dropped into slots in the banks . These allow sections of the canal to be isolated in the event of a leak .
The canal now forms an integral part of the Cheshire Ring network of canals . Pleasure craft have been allowed on the canal since 1952 .
The new road crossing of the Mersey now under construction may allow a realignment of the Bridge approach road and the complete restoration of the original flight of locks – thus re @-@ opening the link to Runcorn Docks , the Runcorn and Weston Canal , the River Mersey , the Manchester Ship Canal , and the River Weaver . This would create a new ring route for leisure boats involving the Trent and Mersey Canal , the Anderton Boat Lift and the River Weaver .
The Hulme Locks Branch Canal in Manchester is now disused , and on 26 May 1995 was replaced by the nearby Pomona Lock .
= = = Bridgewater Way = = =
The Bridgewater Way is a scheme to redevelop the canal and make it more accessible to users , particularly cyclists . The 40 @-@ mile development , which includes a new towpath , will form part of the National Cycle and Footpath Network as Regional Route number 82 .
= Jules Massenet =
Jules Émile Frédéric Massenet ( French : [ ʒyl emil fʁedeʁik masnɛ ] ; 12 May 1842 – 13 August 1912 ) was a French composer of the Romantic era best known for his operas , of which he wrote more than thirty . The two most frequently staged are Manon ( 1884 ) and Werther ( 1892 ) . He also composed oratorios , ballets , orchestral works , incidental music , piano pieces , songs and other music .
While still a schoolboy , Massenet was admitted to France 's principal music college , the Paris Conservatoire . There he studied under Ambroise Thomas , whom he greatly admired . After winning the country 's top musical prize , the Prix de Rome , in 1863 , he composed prolifically in many genres , but quickly became best known for his operas . Between 1867 and his death forty @-@ five years later he wrote more than forty stage works in a wide variety of styles , from opéra @-@ comique to grand @-@ scale depictions of classical myths , romantic comedies , lyric dramas , as well as oratorios , cantatas and ballets . Massenet had a good sense of the theatre and of what would succeed with the Parisian public . Despite some miscalculations , he produced a series of successes that made him the leading composer of opera in France in the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
Like many prominent French composers of the period , Massenet became a professor at the Conservatoire . He taught composition there from 1878 until 1896 , when he resigned after the death of the director , Ambroise Thomas . Among his students were Gustave Charpentier , Ernest Chausson , Reynaldo Hahn and Gabriel Pierné .
By the time of his death , Massenet was regarded by many critics as old @-@ fashioned and unadventurous although his two best @-@ known operas remained popular in France and abroad . After a few decades of neglect , his works began to be favourably reassessed during the mid @-@ 20th century , and many of them have since been staged and recorded . Although critics do not rank him among the handful of outstanding operatic geniuses such as Mozart , Verdi and Wagner , his operas are now widely accepted as well @-@ crafted and intelligent products of the Belle Époque .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Massenet was born at Montaud , then an outlying hamlet and now a part of the city of Saint @-@ Étienne , in the Loire . He was the youngest of the four children of Alexis Massenet ( 1788 – 1863 ) and his second wife Eléonore @-@ Adelaïde née Royer de Marancour ( 1809 – 1875 ) ; the elder children were Julie , Léon and Edmond . Massenet senior was a prosperous ironmonger ; his wife was a talented amateur musician who gave Jules his first piano lessons . By early 1848 the family had moved to Paris , where they settled in a flat in Saint @-@ Germain @-@ des @-@ Prés . Massenet was educated at the Lycée Saint @-@ Louis and , from either 1851 or 1853 , the Paris Conservatoire . According to his colourful but unreliable memoirs , Massenet auditioned in October 1851 , when he was nine , before a judging panel comprising Daniel Auber , Fromental Halévy , Ambroise Thomas and Michele Carafa , and was admitted at once . His biographer Demar Irvine dates the audition and admission as January 1853 . Both sources agree that Massenet continued his general education at the lycée in tandem with his musical studies .
At the Conservatoire Massenet studied solfège with Augustin Savard and the piano with François Laurent . He pursued his studies , with modest distinction , until the beginning of 1855 , when family concerns disrupted his education . Alexis Massenet 's health was poor , and on medical advice he moved from Paris to Chambéry in the south of France ; the family , including Massenet , moved with him . Again , Massenet 's own memoirs and the researches of his biographers are at variance : the composer recalled his exile in Chambéry as lasting for two years ; Henry Finck and Irvine record that the young man returned to Paris and the Conservatoire in October 1855 . On his return he lodged with relations in Montmartre and resumed his studies ; by 1859 he had progressed so far as to win the Conservatoire 's top prize for pianists . The family 's finances were no longer comfortable , and to support himself Massenet took private piano students and played as a percussionist in theatre orchestras . His work in the orchestra pit gave him a good working knowledge of the operas of Gounod and other composers , classic and contemporary . Traditionally , many students at the Conservatoire went on to substantial careers as church organists ; with that in mind Massenet enrolled for organ classes , but they were not a success and he quickly abandoned the instrument . He gained some work as a piano accompanist , in the course of which he met Wagner who , along with Berlioz , was one of his two musical heroes .
In 1861 Massenet 's music was published for the first time , the Grande Fantasie de Concert sur le Pardon de Ploërmel de Meyerbeer , a virtuoso piano work in nine sections . Having graduated to the composition class under Ambroise Thomas , Massenet was entered for the Conservatoire 's top musical honour , the Prix de Rome , previous winners of which included Berlioz , Thomas , Gounod and Bizet . The first two of these were on the judging panel for the 1863 competition . All the competitors had to set the same text by Gustave Chouquet , a cantata about David Rizzio ; after all the settings had been performed Massenet came face to face with the judges . He recalled :
Ambroise Thomas , my beloved master , came towards me and said , " Embrace Berlioz , you owe him a great deal for your prize . " " The prize , " I cried , bewildered , my face shining with joy . " I have the prize ! ! ! " I was deeply moved and I embraced Berlioz , then my master , and finally Monsieur Auber . Monsieur Auber comforted me . Did I need comforting ? Then he said to Berlioz pointing to me , " He 'll go far , the young rascal , when he 's had less experience ! "
The prize brought a well @-@ subsidised three @-@ year period of study , two @-@ thirds of which was spent at the French Academy in Rome , based at the Villa Medici . At that time the academy was dominated by painters rather than musicians ; Massenet enjoyed his time there , and made lifelong friendships with , among others , the sculptor Alexandre Falguière and the painter Carolus @-@ Duran , but the musical benefit he derived was largely self @-@ taught . He absorbed the music at St Peter 's , and closely studied the works of the great German masters , from Handel and Bach to contemporary composers . During his time in Rome , Massenet met Franz Liszt , at whose request he gave piano lessons to Louise @-@ Constance " Ninon " de Gressy , the daughter of one of Liszt 's rich patrons . Massenet and Ninon fell in love , but marriage was out of the question while he was a student with modest means .
= = = Early works = = =
Massenet returned to Paris in 1866 . He made a living by teaching the piano and publishing songs , piano pieces and orchestral suites , all in the popular style of the day . Prix de Rome winners were sometimes invited by the Opéra @-@ Comique in Paris to compose a work for performance there . At Thomas 's instigation , Massenet was commissioned to write a one @-@ act opéra comique , La grand 'tante , presented in April 1867 . At around the same time he composed a Requiem , which has not survived . In 1868 he met Georges Hartmann , who became his publisher and was his mentor for twenty @-@ five years ; Hartmann 's journalistic contacts did much to promote his protégé 's reputation .
In October 1866 Massenet and Ninon were married ; their only child , Juliette , was born in 1868 . Massenet 's musical career was briefly interrupted by the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 , during which he served as a volunteer in the National Guard alongside his friend Bizet . He found the war so " utterly terrible " that he refused to write about it in his memoirs . He and his family were trapped in the Siege of Paris but managed to get out before the horrors of the Paris Commune began ; the family stayed for some months in Bayonne , in southwestern France .
After order was restored , Massenet returned to Paris where he completed his first large @-@ scale stage work , an opéra comique in four acts , Don César de Bazan ( Paris , 1872 ) . It was a failure , but in 1873 he succeeded with his incidental music to Leconte de Lisle 's tragedy Les Érinnyes and with the dramatic oratorio , Marie @-@ Magdeleine , both of which were performed at the Théâtre de l 'Odéon . His reputation as a composer was growing , but at this stage he earned most of his income from teaching , giving lessons for six hours a day .
Massenet was a prolific composer ; he put this down to his way of working , rising early and composing from four o 'clock in the morning until midday , a practice he maintained all his life . In general he worked fluently , seldom revising , although Le roi de Lahore , his nearest approach to a traditional grand opera , took him several years to complete to his own satisfaction . It was finished in 1877 and was one of the first new works to be staged at the Palais Garnier , opened two years previously . The opera , with a story taken from the Mahabharata , was an immense success and was quickly taken up by the opera houses of eight Italian cities . It was also performed at the Hungarian State Opera House , the Bavarian State Opera , the Semperoper , Dresden , the Teatro Real in Madrid , and the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden , in London . After the first Covent Garden performance , The Times summed the piece up in a way that was frequently to be applied to the composer 's operas : " M. Massenet 's opera , although not a work of genius proper , is one of more than common merit , and contains all the elements of at least temporary success . "
This period was an early high point in Massenet 's career . He had been made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1876 , and in 1878 he was appointed professor of counterpoint , fugue and composition at the Conservatoire under Thomas , who was now the director . In the same year he was elected to the Institut de France , a prestigious honour , rare for a man in his thirties . Camille Saint @-@ Saëns , whom Massenet beat in the election for the vacancy , was resentful at being passed over for a younger composer . When the result of the election was announced , Massenet sent Saint @-@ Saëns a courteous telegram : " My dear colleague : the Institut has just committed a great injustice " . Saint @-@ Saëns cabled back , " I quite agree . " He was elected three years later , but his relations with Massenet remained cool .
Massenet was a popular and respected teacher at the Conservatoire . His pupils included Bruneau , Charpentier , Chausson , Hahn , Leroux , Pierné , Rabaud and Vidal . He was known for the care he took in drawing out his pupils ' ideas , never trying to impose his own . One of his last students , Charles Koechlin , recalled Massenet as a voluble professor , dispensing " a teaching active , living , vibrant , and moreover comprehensive " . According to some writers , Massenet 's influence extended beyond his own students . In the view of the critic Rodney Milnes , " In word @-@ setting alone , all French musicians profited from the freedom he won from earlier restrictions . " Romain Rolland and Francis Poulenc have both considered Massenet an influence on Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande ; Debussy was a student at the Conservatoire during Massenet 's professorship but did not study under him .
= = = Operatic successes and failures , 1879 – 96 = = =
Massenet 's growing reputation did not prevent a contretemps with the Paris Opéra in 1879 . Auguste Vaucorbeil , director of the Opéra , refused to stage the composer 's new piece , Hérodiade , judging the libretto either improper or inadequate . Édouard @-@ Fortuné Calabresi , joint director of the Théâtre de la Monnaie , Brussels , immediately offered to present the work , and its première , lavishly staged , was given in December 1881 . It ran for fifty @-@ five performances in Brussels , and had its Italian premiere two months later at La Scala . The work finally reached Paris in February 1884 , by which time Massenet had established himself as the leading French opera composer of his generation .
Manon , first given at the Opéra @-@ Comique in January 1884 , was a prodigious success and was followed by productions at major opera houses in Europe and the United States . Together with Gounod 's Faust and Bizet 's Carmen it became , and has remained , one of the cornerstones of the French operatic repertoire . After the intimate drama of Manon , Massenet once more turned to opera on the grand scale with Le Cid in 1885 , which marked his return to the Opéra . The Paris correspondent of The New York Times wrote that with this new work Massenet " has resolutely declared himself a melodist of undoubted consistency and of remarkable inspiration . " After these two triumphs , Massenet entered a period of mixed fortunes . He worked on Werther intermittently for several years , but it was rejected by the Opéra @-@ Comique as too gloomy . In 1887 he met the American soprano Sibyl Sanderson . He developed passionate feelings for her , which remained platonic , although it was widely believed in Paris that she was his mistress , as caricatures in the journals hinted with varying degrees of subtlety . For her , the composer revised Manon and wrote Esclarmonde ( 1889 ) . The latter was a success , but it was followed by Le mage ( 1891 ) , which failed . Massenet did not complete his next project , Amadis , and it was not until 1892 that he recovered his earlier successful form . Werther finally received its first performance in February 1892 , when the Vienna Hofoper asked for a new piece , following the enthusiastic reception of the Austrian premiere of Manon .
Though in the view of some writers Werther is the composer 's masterpiece , it was not immediately taken up with the same keenness as Manon . The first performance in Paris was in January 1893 by the Opéra @-@ Comique company at the Théâtre Lyrique , and there were performances in the United States , Italy and Britain , but it met with a muted response . The New York Times said of it , " If M. Massenet 's opera does not have lasting success it will be because it has no genuine depth . Perhaps M. Massenet is not capable of achieving profound depths of tragic passion ; but certainly he will never do so in a work like Werther " . It was not until a revival by the Opéra @-@ Comique in 1903 that the work became an established favourite .
Thaïs ( 1894 ) , composed for Sanderson , was moderately received . Like Werther , it did not gain widespread popularity among French opera @-@ goers until its first revival , which was four years after the premiere , by when the composer 's association with Sanderson was over . In the same year he had a modest success in Paris with the one @-@ act Le portrait de Manon at the Opéra @-@ Comique , and a much greater one in London with La Navarraise at Covent Garden . The Times commented that in this piece Massenet had adopted the verismo style of such works as Mascagni 's Cavalleria rusticana to great effect . The audience clamoured for the composer to acknowledge the applause , but Massenet , always a shy man , declined to take even a single curtain call .
= = = Later years , 1896 – 1912 = = =
The death of Ambroise Thomas in February 1896 made vacant the post of director of the Conservatoire . The French government announced on 6 May that Massenet had been offered the position and had refused it . The following day it was announced that another faculty member , Théodore Dubois , had been appointed director , and Massenet had resigned as professor of composition . Two explanations have been advanced for this sequence of events . Massenet wrote in 1910 that he had remained in post as professor out of loyalty to Thomas , and was eager to abandon all academic work in favour of composing , a statement repeated by his biographers Hugh Macdonald and Demar Irvine . Other writers on French music have written that Massenet was intensely ambitious to succeed Thomas , but resigned in pique after three months of manoeuvring , once the authorities finally rejected his insistence on being appointed director for life , as Thomas had been . He was succeeded as professor by Gabriel Fauré , who was doubtful of Massenet 's credentials , considering his popular style to be " based on a generally cynical view of art " .
With Grisélidis and Cendrillon complete , though still awaiting performance , Massenet began work on Sapho , based on a novel by Daudet about the love of an innocent young man from the country for a worldly @-@ wise Parisienne . It was given at the Opéra @-@ Comique in November 1897 , with great success , though it has been neglected since the composer 's death . His next work staged there was Cendrillon , his version of the Cinderella story , which was well received in May 1899 .
Macdonald comments that at the start of the 20th century Massenet was in the enviable position of having his works included in every season of the Opéra and the Opéra @-@ Comique , and in opera houses around the world . From 1900 to his death he led a life of steady work and , generally , success . According to his memoirs , he declined a second offer of the directorship of the Conservatoire in 1905 . Apart from composition , his main concern was his home life in the rue de Vaugirard , Paris , and at his country house in Égreville . He was uninterested in Parisian society , and so shunned the limelight that in later life he preferred not to attend his own first nights . He described himself as " a fireside man , a bourgeois artist " . The main biographical detail of note of his latter years was his second amitié amoureuse with one of his leading ladies , Lucy Arbell , who created roles in his last operas . Milnes describes Arbell as " gold @-@ digging " : her blatant exploitation of the composer 's honourable affections caused his wife considerable distress and even strained Massenet 's devotion ( or infatuation as Milnes characterises it ) . After the composer 's death Arbell pursued his widow and publishers through the law courts , seeking to secure herself a monopoly of the leading roles in several of his late operas .
A rare excursion from the opera house came in 1903 with Massenet 's only piano concerto , on which he had begun work while still a student . The work was performed by Louis Diémer at the Conservatoire , but made little impression compared with his operas . In 1905 Massenet composed Chérubin , a light comedy about the later career of the sex @-@ mad pageboy Cherubino from Mozart 's The Marriage of Figaro . Then came two serious operas , Ariane , on the Greek legend of Theseus and Ariadne , and Thérèse , a terse drama set in the French Revolution . His last major success was Don Quichotte ( 1910 ) , which L 'Etoile called " a very Parisian evening and , naturally , a very Parisian triumph " . Even with his creative powers seemingly in decline he wrote four other operas in his later years – Bacchus , Roma , Panurge and Cléopâtre . The last two , like Amadis , which he had been unable to finish in the 1890s , were premiered after the composer 's death and then lapsed into oblivion .
In August 1912 Massenet went to Paris from his house at Égreville to see his doctor . The composer had been suffering from abdominal cancer for some months , but his symptoms did not seem imminently life @-@ threatening . Within a few days his condition deteriorated sharply . His wife and family hastened to Paris , and were with him when he died , aged seventy . By his own wish his funeral , with no music , was held privately at Égreville , where he is buried in the churchyard .
= = Music = =
= = = Background = = =
In the view of his biographer Hugh Macdonald , Massenet 's main influences were Gounod and Thomas , with Meyerbeer and Berlioz also important to his style . From beyond France he absorbed some traits from Verdi , and possibly Mascagni , and above all Wagner . Unlike some other French composers of the period , Massenet never fell fully under Wagner 's spell , but he took from the earlier composer a richness of orchestration and a fluency in treatment of musical themes .
Although when he chose Massenet could write noisy and dissonant scenes – in 1885 Bernard Shaw called him " one of the loudest of modern composers " – much of his music is soft and delicate . Hostile critics have seized on this characteristic , but the article on Massenet in the 2001 edition of Grove 's Dictionary of Music and Musicians observes that in the best of his operas this sensual side " is balanced by strong dramatic tension ( as in Werther ) , theatrical action ( as in Thérèse ) , scenic diversion ( as in Esclarmonde ) , or humour ( as in Le portrait de Manon ) . "
Massenet 's Parisian audiences were greatly attracted by the exotic in music , and Massenet willingly obliged , with musical evocations of far @-@ flung places or times long past . Macdonald lists a great number of locales depicted in the operas , from ancient Egypt , mythical Greece and biblical Galilee to Renaissance Spain , India and Revolutionary Paris . Massenet 's practical experience in orchestra pits as a young man and his careful training at the Conservatoire equipped him to make such effects without much recourse to unusual instruments . He understood the capabilities of his singers , and composed with close , detailed regard for their voices .
= = = Operas = = =
Massenet wrote more than thirty operas . Authorities differ on the exact total because some of the works , particularly from his early years , are lost and others were left incomplete . Still others , such as Don César de Bazan and Le roi de Lahore , were substantially recomposed after their first productions and exist in two or more versions . Grove 's Dictionary of Music and Musicians lists forty Massenet operas in all , of which nine are shown as lost or destroyed . The " OperaGlass " website of Stanford University shows revised versions as premieres , and The New Grove Dictionary of Opera , does not : their totals are forty @-@ four and thirty @-@ six respectively .
Having honed his personal style as a young man , and sticking broadly with it for the rest of his career , Massenet does not , as some other composers do , lend himself to classification into clearly defined early , middle and late periods . Moreover , his versatility means that there is no plot or locale that can be regarded as typical Massenet . Another respect in which he differed from many opera composers is that he did not work regularly with the same librettists : Grove lists more than thirty writers who provided him with librettos .
The 1954 ( fifth ) edition of Grove said of Massenet , " to have heard Manon is to have heard the whole of him " . In 1994 Andrew Porter called this view preposterous . He countered , " Who knows Manon , Werther and Don Quichotte knows the best of Massenet , but not his range from heroic romance to steamy verismo . " Massenet 's output covered most of the different subgenres of opera , from opérette ( L 'adorable Bel ' -Boul and L 'écureuil du déshonneur – both early , lost pieces ) and opéra @-@ comique such as Manon , to grand opera – Grove categorises Le roi de Lahore as " the last grand opera to have a great and widespread success " . Many of the elements of traditional grand opera are written into later large @-@ scale works such as Le mage and Hérodiade . Massenet 's operas consist of anything from one to five acts , and although many of them are described on the title pages of their scores as " opéra " or " opéra comique " , others have carefully nuanced descriptions such as " comédie chantée " , " comédie lyrique " , " comédie @-@ héroïque " , " conte de fées " , " drame passionnel " , " haulte farce musicale " , " opéra légendaire " , " opéra romanesque " and " opéra tragique " .
In some of his operas , such as Esclarmonde and Le mage , Massenet moved away from the traditional French pattern of free @-@ standing arias and duets . Solos meld from declamatory passages into more melodic form , in a way that many contemporary critics thought Wagnerian . Shaw was not among them : in 1885 he wrote of Manon :
Of Wagnerism there is not the faintest suggestion . A phrase which occurs in the first love duet breaks out once or twice in subsequent amorous episodes , and has been seized on by a few unwary critics as a Wagnerian leit motif . But if Wagner had never existed , Manon would have been composed much as it stands now , whereas if Meyerbeer and Gounod had not made a path for M. Massenet , it is impossible to say whither he might have wandered , or how far he could have pushed his way .
The 21st @-@ century critic Anne Feeney comments , " Massenet rarely repeated musical phrases , let alone used recurrent themes , so the resemblance [ to Wagner ] lies solely in the declamatory lyricism and enthusiastic use of the brass and percussion . " Massenet enjoyed introducing comedy into his serious works , and writing some mainly comic operas . In Macdonald 's view of the comic works , Cendrillon and Don Quichotte succeed , but Don César de Bazan and Panurge are less satisfying than " the more delicately tuned operas such as Manon , Le portrait de Manon and Le jongleur de Notre @-@ Dame , where comedy serves a more complex purpose . "
According to Operabase , analysis of productions around the world in 2012 – 13 shows Massenet as the twentieth most popular of all opera composers , and the fourth most popular French one , after Bizet , Offenbach and Gounod . The most often performed of his operas in the period are shown as Werther ( 63 productions in all countries ) , followed by Manon ( 47 ) , Don Quichotte ( 22 ) , Thaïs ( 21 ) , Cendrillon ( 17 ) , La Navarraise ( 4 ) , Cléopâtre ( 3 ) , Thérèse ( 2 ) , Le Cid ( 2 ) , Hérodiade ( 2 ) , Esclarmonde ( 2 ) , Chérubin ( 2 ) and Le mage ( 1 ) .
= = = Other vocal music = = =
Between 1862 and 1900 Massenet composed eight oratorios and cantatas , mostly on religious subjects . There is a degree of overlap between his operatic style and his choral works for church or concert hall performance . Vincent d 'Indy wrote that there was " a discreet and semi @-@ religious eroticism " in Massenet 's music . The religious element was a regular theme in his secular as well as sacred works : this derived not from any strong personal faith , but from his response to the dramatic aspects of Roman Catholic ritual . The mingling of operatic and religious elements in his works was such that one of his oratorios , Marie @-@ Magdeleine , was staged as an opera during the composer 's lifetime . Elements of the erotic and some implicit sympathy for sinners were controversial , and may have prevented his church works establishing themselves more securely . Arthur Hervey , a contemporary critic not unsympathetic to Massenet , commented that Marie @-@ Magdeleine and the later oratorio Ève ( 1875 ) were " the Bible doctored up in a manner suitable to the taste of impressionable Parisian ladies – utterly inadequate for the theme , at the same time very charming and effective . " Of the four works categorised by Irvine and Grove as oratorios , only one , La terre promise ( 1900 ) , was written for church performance . Massenet used the term " oratorio " for that work , but he called Marie @-@ Magdeleine a " drame sacré " , Ève a " mystère " , and La Vierge ( 1880 ) a " légende sacrée " .
Massenet composed many other smaller @-@ scale choral works , and more than two hundred songs . His early collections of songs were particularly popular and helped establish his reputation . His choice of lyrics ranged widely . Most were verses by poets such as Musset , Maupassant , Hugo , Gautier and many lesser @-@ known French writers , with occasional poems from overseas , including Tennyson in English and Shelley in French translation . Grove comments that Massenet 's songs , though pleasing and impeccable in craftsmanship , are less inventive than those of Bizet and less distinctive than those of Duparc and Fauré .
= = = Orchestral and chamber music = = =
Massenet was a fluent and skilful orchestrator , and willingly provided ballet episodes for his operas , incidental music for plays , and a one @-@ act stand @-@ alone ballet for Vienna ( Le carillon , 1892 ) . Macdonald remarks that Massenet 's orchestral style resembled that of Delibes , " with its graceful movement and bewitching colour " , which was highly suited to classical French ballet . The Méditation for solo violin and orchestra , from Thaïs , is possibly the best known non @-@ vocal piece by Massenet , and appears on many recordings . Another popular stand @-@ alone orchestral piece from the operas is Le dernier sommeil de la Vierge from La Vierge , which has featured on numerous discs since the middle of the 20th century .
A Parisian critic , after seeing La grand ' tante , declared that Massenet was a symphonist rather than a theatre composer . At the time of the British premiere of Manon in 1885 , the critic in The Manchester Guardian , reviewing the work enthusiastically , nevertheless echoed his French confrère 's view that the composer was really a symphonist , whose music was at its best when purely orchestral . Massenet took a wholly opposite view of his talents . He was temperamentally unsuited to writing symphonically : the constraints of sonata form bored him . He wrote , in the early 1870s , " What I have to say , musically , I have to say rapidly , forcefully , concisely ; my discourse is tight and nervous , and if I wanted to express myself otherwise I would not be myself . " His efforts in the concertante field made little mark , but his orchestral suites , colourful and picturesque according to Grove , have survived on the fringes of the repertoire . Other works for orchestra are a symphonic poem , Visions ( 1891 ) , an Ouverture de Concert ( 1863 ) and Ouverture de Phèdre ( 1873 ) . After early attempts at chamber music as a student , he wrote little more in the genre . Most of his early chamber pieces are now lost ; three pieces for cello and piano survive .
= = = Recordings = = =
The only known recording made by Massenet is an excerpt from Sapho , " Pendant un an je fus ta femme " , in which he plays a piano accompaniment for the soprano Georgette Leblanc . It was recorded in 1903 , and was not intended for publication . It has been released on compact disc ( 2008 ) , together with contemporary recordings by Grieg , Saint @-@ Saëns , Debussy and others .
In Massenet 's later years , and in the decade after his death , many of his songs and opera extracts were recorded . Some of the performers were the original creators of the roles , such as Ernest van Dyck ( Werther ) , Emma Calvé ( Sapho ) , Hector Du
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Pavilion ( 11 million visitors ) , the United States ( 9 million ) , France ( 8 @.@ 5 million ) , and Czechoslovakia ( 8 million ) .
The participating countries were
Countries conspicuously absent were Spain , South Africa , the People 's Republic of China , and many South American countries .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Man and His World ( 1968 @-@ 1984 ) = = =
After 1967 , the exposition struggled for several summer seasons as a standing collection of international pavilions known as " Man and His World " . However , as attendance declined , the physical condition of the site deteriorated , and less and less of it was open to the public . After the 1971 season , the entire Notre Dame Island site closed and three years later completely rebuilt around the new rowing and canoe sprint ( then flatwater canoeing ) basin for Montreal 's 1976 Summer Olympics . Space for the basin , the boathouses , the changing rooms and other buildings was obtained by demolishing many of the former pavilions and cutting in half the area taken by the artificial lake and the canals .
In 1976 , a fire destroyed the acrylic outer skin of Buckminster Fuller 's dome , and the previous year the Ontario pavilion was gutted by a major fire . With the site falling into disrepair , and several pavilions left abandoned and vandalized , it began to resemble ruins of a futuristic city .
In 1980 the Notre Dame Island site was reopened ( primarily for the Floralies ) making both islands simultaneously accessible again , albeit only for a brief time . Minor thematic exhibitions were held at the Atlantic pavilion and Quebec pavilion ( and continued even several years beyond ) . After the 1981 season , the Saint Helen 's Island site permanently closed , shutting out the majority of attractions . Man and His World was able to continue in a limited fashion with the small number of pavilions left standing on Notre Dame Island . However , the few remaining original exhibits closed permanently in 1984 .
= = = Park and surviving relics = = =
After the Man and His World summer exhibitions were discontinued , with most pavilions and remnants demolished between 1985 and 1986 , the former site for Expo 67 on Saint Helen 's Island and Notre Dame Island was incorporated into a municipal park run by the city of Montreal . In 2000 , the park was renamed from Parc des Îles to Parc Jean @-@ Drapeau , after Mayor Jean Drapeau , who had brought the exhibition to Montreal . In 2006 , the corporation that runs the park also changed its name from the Société du parc des Îles to the Société du parc Jean @-@ Drapeau . Two prominent buildings remain in use on the former Expo grounds : the American pavilion 's metal @-@ lattice skeleton from its Buckminster Fuller dome , now enclosing an environmental sciences museum called the Montreal Biosphère ; and Habitat 67 , now a condominium residence . Also , the French and Quebec pavilions now form the Montreal Casino . La Toundra Hall is part of the surviving structural remains of the Canadian pavilion . It is now a special events hall with dining facilities available , while another part of the pavilion serves as the administration building of Parc Jean @-@ Drapeau ( Katimavik 's distinctive inverted pyramid and much of the rest of the Canadian pavilion were dismantled during the 1970s ) .
Place des Nations , where the opening and closing ceremonies were held , remains however in an abandoned and deteriorating state . The Jamaican , Tunisian and Korean pavilion ( roof only ) and the CIBC banking centre also survive . In Cite du Havre the Expo Theatre , Administration and Fine Arts buildings remain . Other remaining structures include sculptures , lampposts and landscaping . The Montreal Metro subway station Berri Uqam still has a " Man and His World " logo and welcome sign above the pedestrian tunnel entrance to the yellow line . La Ronde survives , and since 2001 it has been leased to the New York amusement park company Six Flags . The Alcan Aquarium built for the Expo remained in operation for a number of decades until its closure in 1991 . The Expo 67 parking lot was converted into Victoria STOLport , an experimental short @-@ take off airport for a brief time in the 1970s .
Another attraction on today 's Notre Dame Island site is the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve race track that is used for the Canadian Grand Prix . The Olympic basin is used by many local rowing clubs . A beach was built on the shores of the remaining artificial lake . There are many acres of parkland and cycle paths on both Saint Helen 's Island and the western tip of Notre Dame Island . The site has been used for a number of events such as a BIE @-@ sponsored international botanical festival , Les floralies . The young trees and shrubs planted for Expo 67 are now mature . The plants introduced during the botanical events have flourished also .
= = = Expo 's lasting effects = = =
In a political and cultural context , Expo 67 was seen as a landmark moment in Canadian history . In 1968 , as a salute to the cultural impact the exhibition had on the city , Montreal 's Major League baseball team , the Expos ( now the Washington Nationals ) , was named after the event . 1967 was also the year that invited Expo guest Charles De Gaulle , on July 24 , addressed thousands at Montreal City Hall by yelling out the now famous words : " Vive Montréal ... Vive le Québec ... Vive le Québec Libre ! " ( See Vive le Québec libre speech ) . De Gaulle was rebutted in Ottawa by Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson : " Canadians do not need to be liberated , Canada will remain united and will reject any effort to destroy her unity . " In the years that followed , the tensions between the English- and French @-@ speaking communities would continue . As an early 21st @-@ century homage to the fair , satirists Bowser and Blue wrote a full @-@ length musical set at Expo 67 called The Paris of America , which ran for six sold @-@ out weeks at Centaur Theatre in Montreal in April and May 2003 .
Expo 67 was one of the most successful World Exhibitions , and is still regarded fondly by Canadians . In Montreal , 1967 is often referred to as " the last good year " before economic decline , Quebec sovereignism ( seen as negative from a federalist viewpoint ) , deteriorating infrastructure and political apathy became common . In this way , it has much in common with the 1964 @-@ 65 New York World 's Fair . In 2007 , a new group , Expo 17 , was looking to bring a smaller @-@ scale — BIE sanctioned — exposition to Montreal for Expo 67 's 50th anniversary and Canada 's sesquicentennial in 2017 . Expo 17 hoped a new world 's fair would regenerate the spirit of Canada 's landmark centennial project .
= = In popular culture = =
• An episode of the 1970s television series Battlestar Galactica , " Greetings from Earth Part 2 " , was filmed at the Expo site in 1979 . The Expo structures were used to represent a city on an alien world where the people had all been killed by a long @-@ ago war .
• The 1979 film Quintet , was shot entirely on the site of Expo during winter months , using abandoned pavilions and other ruins to portray a post @-@ apocalyptic landscape .
= = = Multimedia = = =
CBC Archives A look at the transit labour strike ( audio )
CBC Digital Archives - Expo 67 : Montreal Welcomes the World
Expo 67 - A Virtual Experience , from the website of Library and Archives Canada
Historica Minutes TV Commercial Canadian Heritage
Impressions of Expo 67 , National Film Board of Canada
= = = Other websites = = =
The Expo 67 Foundation
Expo 67 in Montreal 's extensive photo collection about the fair
Photos of 140 pavilions at Expo 67
Architecture at Expo 67
Everything you want to know about the Expo 67
The Films of Expo 67 , from Time magazine
Canadian Film Encyclopedia : Films at Expo 67
Expo 67 at ExpoMuseum
Australia at Expo 67 Montreal
Expo 67 in Montreal photo collection and links
The Expo 67 miscellany collection at Hagley Museum and Library includes a variety of publications and ephemera associated with the 1967 International and Universal Exposition .
Expo ' 67 records , 1967 , held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division , New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
= British Aerospace Sea Harrier =
The British Aerospace Sea Harrier is a naval short take @-@ off and vertical landing / vertical take @-@ off and landing jet fighter , reconnaissance and attack aircraft ; the second member of the Harrier Jump Jet family developed . It first entered service with the Royal Navy in April 1980 as the Sea Harrier FRS1 and became informally known as the " Shar " . Unusual in an era in which most naval and land @-@ based air superiority fighters were large and supersonic , the principal role of the subsonic Sea Harrier was to provide air defence of Royal Navy aircraft carriers .
The Sea Harrier served in the Falklands War , both of the Gulf Wars , and the Balkans conflicts ; on all occasions it mainly operated from aircraft carriers positioned within the conflict zone . Its usage in the Falklands War was its most high profile and important success , where it was the only fixed @-@ wing fighter available to protect the British Task Force . The Sea Harriers shot down 20 enemy aircraft during the conflict with one lost to enemy ground fire . They were also used to launch ground attacks in the same manner as the Harriers operated by the Royal Air Force .
The Sea Harrier was marketed for sales abroad , but by 1983 India was the only operator other than Britain after sales to Argentina and Australia were unsuccessful . A second , updated version for the Royal Navy was made in 1993 as the Sea Harrier FA2 , improving its air @-@ to @-@ air abilities and weapons compatibilities , along with a more powerful engine ; this version continued manufacture until 1998 . The aircraft was withdrawn from service early by the Royal Navy in 2006 . The Sea Harrier remained in service for another decade with the Indian Navy until its retirement in 2016 thus ending the career of the historic British jet .
= = Development = =
In the post @-@ war era , the Royal Navy began contracting in parallel with the break @-@ up of the British Empire overseas and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Nations , reducing the need for a larger navy . By 1960 , the last battleship , HMS Vanguard , was retired from the Navy , having been in service for less than fifteen years . Perhaps the biggest sign of the new trend towards naval austerity came in 1966 , when the planned CVA @-@ 01 class of large aircraft carriers destined for the Royal Navy was cancelled . During this time , requirements within the Royal Navy began to form for a vertical and / or short take @-@ off and landing ( V / STOL ) carrier @-@ based interceptor to replace the de Havilland Sea Vixen . Afterward , the first V / STOL tests on a ship began with a Hawker Siddeley P.1127 landing on HMS Ark Royal in 1963 .
A second concept for the future of naval aviation emerged in the early 1970s as the first of a new class of " through deck cruisers " was planned . These were very carefully and politically designated as cruisers to deliberately avoid the term " aircraft carrier " , in order to increase the chances of funding from a hostile political climate against expensive capital ships , they were considerably smaller than the previously sought CVA @-@ 01 . These ships were ordered as the Invincible class in 1973 , and are now popularly recognised as aircraft carriers . Almost immediately upon their construction , a ski @-@ jump was added to the end of the 170 @-@ metre deck , enabling the carriers to effectively operate a small number of V / STOL jets . The Royal Air Force 's Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR1s had entered service in April 1969 . A navalised variant of the Harrier was developed by Hawker Siddeley to serve on the upcoming ships , this became the Sea Harrier . In 1975 , the Royal Navy ordered 24 Sea Harrier FRS.1 ( standing for ' Fighter , Reconnaissance , Strike ' ) aircraft , the first of which entered service in 1978 . During this time Hawker Siddeley became part of British Aerospace through nationalisation in 1977 . By the time the prototype Sea Harrier was flown at Dunsfold on 20 August 1978 the order had been increased to 34 . The Sea Harrier was declared operational in 1981 on board the first Invincible class ship HMS Invincible , and further aircraft joined the ageing HMS Hermes aircraft carrier later that year .
Following their key role in the 1982 Falklands War , several lessons were learned from the aircraft 's performance , which led to approval for an upgrade of the fleet to FRS.2 ( later known as FA2 ) standard to be given in 1984 . The first flight of the prototype took place in September 1988 and a contract was signed for 29 upgraded aircraft in December that year . In 1990 , the Navy ordered 18 new @-@ build FA2s , at a unit cost of around £ 12 million , four further upgraded aircraft were ordered in 1994 . The first aircraft was delivered on 2 April 1993 .
= = Design = =
The Sea Harrier is a subsonic aircraft designed to fill strike , reconnaissance and fighter roles . It features a single Rolls @-@ Royce Pegasus turbofan engine with two intakes and four vectorable nozzles . It has two landing gear on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gear on the wings . The Sea Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying weapons and external fuel tanks . Use of the ski jump allowed the aircraft to take off from a short flight deck with a heavier loadout than otherwise possible , although it can also take off like a conventional loaded fighter without thrust vectoring from a normal airport runway .
The Sea Harrier was largely based on the Harrier GR3 , but was modified to have a raised cockpit with a " bubble " canopy for greater visibility , and an extended forward fuselage to accommodate the Ferranti Blue Fox radar . Parts were changed to use corrosion resistant alloys or coatings were added to protect against the marine environment . After the Falklands War , the Sea Harrier was fitted with the new anti @-@ ship Sea Eagle missile .
The Sea Harrier FA2 featured the Blue Vixen radar , which was described as one of the most advanced pulse doppler radar systems in the world ; the Blue Fox radar was seen by some critics as having comparatively low performance for what was available at the time of procurement . The Blue Vixen formed the basis for development of the Eurofighter Typhoon 's CAPTOR radar . The Sea Harrier FA2 also carried the AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM missile , the first UK aircraft to be provided with this capability . An upgraded model of the Pegasus engine , the Pegasus Mk 106 , was used in the Sea Harrier FA2 ; in response to the threat of radar @-@ based anti aircraft weapons electronic countermeasures were added . Other improvements included an increase to the air @-@ to @-@ air weapons load , look @-@ down radar , increased range , and improved cockpit displays .
The cockpit in the Sea Harrier includes a conventional centre stick arrangement and left @-@ hand throttle . In addition to normal flight controls , the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectorable nozzles . The nozzles point rearward with the lever in the forward position for horizontal flight . With the lever back , the nozzles point downward for vertical takeoff or landing . The usefulness of the vertical landing capability of the Sea Harrier was demonstrated in an incident on 6 June 1983 , when Sub Lieutenant Ian Watson lost contact with the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious and had to land Sea Harrier ZA176 on the foredeck of the Spanish cargo ship Alraigo .
In 2005 , although already timetabled to be retired , a Sea Harrier was modified with an ' Autoland ' system to allow the fighter to perform a safe vertical landing without any pilot interaction . Despite the pitching of a ship posing a natural problem , the system was designed to be aware of such data , and successfully performed a landing at sea in May 2005 .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Royal Navy = = =
= = = = Entry into service = = = =
The first three Sea Harriers were a development batch and were used for clearance trials . The first production aircraft was delivered to RNAS Yeovilton in 1979 to form an Intensive Flying Trials Unit ( also known as 700A Naval Air Squadron ) . In March 1980 the Intensive Flying Trials Unit became 899 Naval Air Squadron and would act as the landborne headquarters unit for the type . The first operational squadron 800 Naval Air Squadron was also formed in March 1980 initially to operate from HMS Invincible before it transferred to HMS Hermes . In January 1981 , a second operation squadron 801 Naval Air Squadron was formed to operate from HMS Invincible .
= = = = Falklands War = = = =
Sea Harriers took part in the Falklands War of 1982 , flying from the aircraft carriers HMS Invincible and HMS Hermes . The Sea Harriers performed the primary air defence role with a secondary role of ground attack ; the RAF Harrier GR3 provided the main ground attack force . A total of 28 Sea Harriers and 14 Harrier GR3s were deployed in the theatre . The Sea Harrier squadrons shot down 20 Argentine aircraft in air @-@ to @-@ air combat with no air @-@ to @-@ air losses , although two Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire and four to accidents . Out of the total Argentine air losses , 28 % were shot down by Harriers .
A number of factors contributed to the failure of the Argentinian fighters to shoot down a Sea Harrier . Although the Mirage III and Dagger jets were faster , the Sea Harrier was considerably more manoeuvrable . Moreover , the Harrier employed the latest AIM @-@ 9L Sidewinder missiles and the Blue Fox radar . Contrary to contemporary reports that " viffing " proved decisive in dogfights , the maneuver was not used by RN pilots in the Falklands as it was only used in emergencies against enemies unfamiliar with the aircraft . The British pilots had superior air @-@ combat training , one manifestation of which was that they thought they noticed Argentinian pilots occasionally releasing weapons outside of their operating parameters . This is now thought to have been Mirages releasing external fuel tanks rather than weapons , and turning away from conflict with the Sea Harrier . This later reduced their capability to fight an effective campaign against the Sea Harrier due to reduced range and lack of external fuel tanks .
British aircraft received fighter control from warships in San Carlos Water , although its effectiveness was limited by their being stationed close to the islands , which severely limited the effectiveness of their radar . The differences in tactics and training between 800 Squadron and 801 Squadron has been a point of criticism , suggesting that the losses of several ships were preventable had Sea Harriers from Hermes been used more effectively .
Both sides ' aircraft were operating in adverse conditions . Argentine aircraft were forced to operate from the mainland because airfields on the Falklands were only suited for propellor @-@ driven transports . In addition , fears partly aroused by the bombing of Port Stanley airport by a British Vulcan bomber added to the Argentinians ' decision to operate them from afar . As most Argentine aircraft lacked in @-@ flight refuelling capability , they were forced to operate at the limit of their range . The Sea Harriers also had limited fuel reserves due to the tactical decision to station the British carriers out of Exocet missile range and the dispersal of the fleet . The result was that an Argentine aircraft could only allow five minutes over the islands to search and attack an objective , while a Sea Harrier could stay near to 30 minutes waiting in the Argentine approach corridors and provide Combat Air Patrol coverage for up to an hour .
The Sea Harriers were outnumbered by the available Argentinian aircraft , and were on occasion decoyed away by the activities of the Escuadrón Fénix or civilian jet aircraft used by the Argentine Air Force . They had to operate without a fleet early warning system such as AWACS that would have been available to a full NATO fleet in which the Royal Navy had expected to operate , which was a significant weakness in the operational environment . However , it is now known that Chile did provide early radar warning to the Task Force . The result was that the Sea Harriers could not establish complete air superiority and prevent Argentine attacks during day or night , nor could they completely stop the daily C @-@ 130 Hercules transports ' night flights to the islands . A total of six Sea Harriers were lost during the war to either enemy fire , accidents or mechanical failure . The total aggregate loss rate for both the Harriers and Sea Harriers on strike operations was 2 @.@ 3 % .
= = = = Operations in the 1990s = = = =
The Sea Harrier saw action in war again when it was deployed in the 1992 – 1995 conflict in Bosnia , part of the Yugoslav Wars . It launched raids on Serb forces and provided air @-@ support for the international taskforce units conducting Operations Deny Flight and Deliberate Force against the Army of Republika Srpska . On 16 April 1994 , a Sea Harrier of the 801 Naval Air Squadron , operating from the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal , was brought down by a Igla @-@ 1 surface @-@ to @-@ air missile fired by the Army of Republika Srpska while attempting to bomb two Bosnian Serb tanks . The pilot , Lieutenant Nick Richardson , ejected and landed in territory controlled by friendly Bosnian Muslims .
It was used again in the 1999 NATO campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in Operation Allied Force , Sea Harriers which operated from HMS Invincible frequently patrolled the airspace to keep Yugoslavian MiGs on the ground . They were also deployed to Sierra Leone on board HMS Illustrious in 2000 , which was itself part of a Royal Navy convoy to supply and reinforce British intervention forces in the region .
= = = = Retirement = = = =
The Sea Harrier was withdrawn from service in 2006 and the last remaining aircraft from 801 Naval Air Squadron were decommissioned on 29 March 2006 . The plans for retirement were announced in 2002 by the Ministry of Defence . The aircraft 's replacement , the F @-@ 35 Lightning II , was originally due in 2012 , the MoD arguing that significant expenditure would be required to upgrade the fleet for only six years of service . By March 2010 , the F @-@ 35 's introduction had been pushed back to 2016 at the earliest , with the price doubled . The decision to retire the Sea Harrier early has been criticised by some officers within the military .
Both versions of Harrier experienced reduced engine performance ( Pegasus Mk 106 in FA2 – Mk 105 in GR7 ) in the higher ambient temperatures of the Middle East , which restricted the weight of payload that the Harrier could return to the carrier in ' vertical ' recoveries . This was due to the safety factors associated with aircraft " land @-@ on " weights . The option to install higher @-@ rated Pegasus engines would not have been as straightforward as on the Harrier GR7 upgrade and would have likely been an expensive and slow process . Furthermore , the Sea Harriers were subject to a generally more hostile environment than land @-@ based Harriers , with corrosive salt spray a particular problem . A number of aircraft were retained by the School of Flight Deck Operations at RNAS Culdrose .
The Royal Navy 's Fleet Air Arm would continue to share the other component of Joint Force Harrier . Harrier GR7 and the upgraded Harrier GR9 were transferred to Royal Navy squadrons in 2006 , but were retired prematurely a few years later due to budget cuts . The UK plans to purchase the STOVL F @-@ 35B to be operated from the Royal Navy 's Future Queen Elizabeth @-@ class aircraft carrier . Although withdrawn from active Royal Navy service , Sea Harriers are used to train naval aircraft handlers at the Royal Navy School of Flight Deck Operations .
= = = Indian Navy = = =
In 1977 , the Indian government approved of plans to acquire the Sea Harrier for the Indian Navy ; prior to this , rumours reportedly were circulating of a potential Indian purchase of the Soviet V / STOL @-@ capable Yak @-@ 36 . The BAE Sea Hawk was phased out from the Indian Navy in 1978 , in preparation for the purchase of Sea Harriers . In November 1979 , India placed its first order for six Sea Harrier FRS Mk 51 fighters and two T Mk 60 Trainers ; the first three Sea Harriers arrived at Dabolim Airport on 16 December 1983 , and were inducted the same year . Ten more Sea Harriers were purchased in November 1985 ; eventually a total of 30 Harriers were procured , 25 for operational use and the remainder as dual @-@ seat trainer aircraft . Until the 1990s , significant portions of pilot training was carried out in Britain due to limited aircraft availability .
The introduction of the Sea Harrier allowed for the retirement of India 's previous carrier fighter aircraft , the Hawker Sea Hawk , as well as for the Navy 's aircraft carrier , INS Vikrant ( ex @-@ HMS Hercules ) , to be extensively modernised between 1987 and 1989 . India has operated Sea Harriers from both the aircraft carriers INS Vikrant and INS Viraat ( ex @-@ HMS Hermes ) . The Sea Harrier allowed several modern missiles to be introduced into naval operations , such as the British anti @-@ ship Sea Eagle missile , and the French Matra Magic missile for air @-@ to @-@ air combat . Other ordnance has included 68 mm rockets , runway @-@ denial bombs , cluster bombs , and podded 30 mm cannons .
There have been a significant number of accidents involving the Sea Harrier ; this accident rate has caused approximately half the fleet to be lost with only 11 fighters remaining in service . Following a crash in August 2009 , all Sea Harriers were temporarily grounded for inspection . Since the beginning of operational service in the Indian Navy , seven pilots have died in 17 crashes involving the Sea Harrier , usually during routine sorties .
In 2006 , the Indian Navy expressed interest in acquiring up to eight of the Royal Navy 's recently retired Sea Harrier FA2s in order to maintain their operational Sea Harrier fleet , Neither the Sea Harrier FA2 's Blue Vixen radar , the radar warning receiver or AMRAAM capability was proposed to be included ; certain US software would be also be uninstalled prior to shipment . By October 2006 , reports emerged that the deal had not materialised due to the cost of airframe refurbishment .
In 2006 , the Indian Navy was in the process of upgrading up to 15 Sea Harriers in collaboration with Israel by installing the Elta EL / M @-@ 2032 radar and the Rafael ' Derby ' medium @-@ range air @-@ to @-@ air BVR missile . This will enable the Sea Harrier to remain in Indian service until beyond 2012 , and also see limited service off the new carriers it will acquire by that time frame . By 2009 , crashes had reduced India 's fleet to 12 ( from original 30 ) . India plans to introduce larger aircraft carriers that can operate Russian MiG @-@ 29K carrier fighters from their flight decks to replace the Sea Harrier .
The Sea Harriers operated from INS Viraat for the last time on 6 March 2016 . On 11 May 2016 , a ceremony was held at INS Hansa , Dabolim , Goa to commemorate the phasing out of Sea Harriers from INAS 300 ( " White Tigers " ) . Sea Harriers and MiG 29Ks performed an air display at the ceremony , marking the final flight of the Sea Harriers in the Indian Navy . INAS 300 subsequently inducted MiG 29K / Kub fighters to replace the retired Sea Harrier fleet .
= = Variants = =
Sea Harrier FRS.1
57 FRS1s were delivered between 1978 and 1988 ; most survivors converted to Sea Harrier FA2 specifications from 1988 .
Sea Harrier FRS.51
Single @-@ seat fighter , reconnaissance and attack aircraft made for the Indian Navy , similar to the British FRS1 . Unlike the FRS1 Sea Harrier , it is fitted with Matra R550 Magic air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . These aircraft were later upgraded with the Elta EL / M @-@ 2032 radar and the Rafael Derby BVRAAM missiles .
Sea Harrier F ( A ) .2
Upgrade of FRS1 fleet in 1988 , featuring the Blue Vixen Pulse @-@ Doppler radar and the AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM missile .
= = Operators = =
India
Indian Navy
Indian Naval Air Arm ( 1983 @-@ 2016 )
United Kingdom
Royal Navy
Fleet Air Arm ( 1978 – 2006 )
= = Survivors = =
A number of surviving Sea Harrier airframes are held by museums and private owners , and some others are at the Royal Navy School of Flight Deck Operations at RNAS Culdrose . The following is an incomplete list of some of the surviving aircraft .
India
One BAe Sea Harrier FRS 51 ( IN @-@ 621 ) preserved at the Naval Aviation Museum ( India ) in Goa , India .
United Kingdom
Nine Sea Harrier FA2s - XZ440 , ZD579 , ZE690 , ZE692 , ZH797 , ZH798 , ZH802 , ZH803 , ZH813 - are still used by the School of Flight Deck Operations at RNAS Culdrose , as of November 2012
Four Sea Harriers ZD611 , ZH804 and ZH811 are stored at RNAS Culdrose , as of 2012 .
Sea Harrier FA2 ZE694 is exhibited at the Midland Air Museum , Coventry .
Two Sea Harriers , an FRS1 XZ493 / 001 / N and an FA2 ( XZ499 ) are also on public display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum at Yeovilton .
Sea Harrier FA2 ZH796 moved to Cosford DSAE in April 2014
Sea Harrier FRS1 / FA2 ZA176 is preserved at the Newark Air Museum
Sea Harrier FRS1 / FA2 XZ457 is restored and on public display at Boscombe Down Aviation Collection
Sea Harrier FA2 ZA195 is displayed at the Tangmere Military Aviation Museum
Sea Harrier FA2 XZ459 is preserved by a private owner near Shoreham Airport .
Sea Harrier T.8 ZD992 was written off in an accident at Yeovilton on 16 November 2000 but was later restored to non @-@ airworthy condition by Everett Aero in Suffolk and is now believed to be privately owned in the Manchester area .
United States
Sea Harrier FA2 serial number XZ439 , Hawker @-@ Siddeley build number 912002 Nalls Aviation St Mary 's County , Maryland . The former Royal Navy Sea Harrier FA2 was purchased in 2006 by Art Nalls , who spent the next two years restoring it to flying condition . In December 2007 , it was damaged in a hard landing , while undergoing testing at Naval Air Station Patuxent River and had to be repaired . The aircraft made its first public appearance at an air show in Culpeper , Virginia in October 2008 . The aircraft is the only privately owned , civilian @-@ flown Harrier in the world . Nalls recently purchased Sea Harrier T.8 ZD993 .
= = Specifications ( Sea Harrier FA2 ) = =
Data from Wilson , Bull , Donald Spick
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 46 ft 6 in ( 14 @.@ 2 m )
Wingspan : 25 ft 3 in ( 7 @.@ 6 m )
Height : 12 ft 2 in ( 3 @.@ 71 m )
Wing area : 201 @.@ 1 ft ² ( 18 @.@ 68 m ² )
Empty weight : 14 @,@ 052 lb ( 6 @,@ 374 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 26 @,@ 200 lb ( 11 @,@ 900 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Rolls @-@ Royce Pegasus turbofan , 21 @,@ 500 lbf ( 95 @.@ 64 kN )
Performance
Maximum speed : 635 knots ( 735 mph , 1 @,@ 182 km / h )
Combat radius : 540 nmi ( 620 mi , 1 @,@ 000 km )
Ferry range : 1 @,@ 740 nmi ( 2 @,@ 000 mi , 3 @,@ 600 km )
Service ceiling : 51 @,@ 000 ft ( 16 @,@ 000 m )
Rate of climb : 50 @,@ 000 ft / min ( 250 m / s )
Armament
Guns : 2 × 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) ADEN cannon pods under the fuselage , with 130 rounds each
Hardpoints : 4 × under @-@ wing pylon stations , and 1 fuselage pylon on centerline plus 2 attach points for gun pods with a total capability of 8 @,@ 000 lb ( 3 @,@ 630 kg ) of payload .
Rockets : 4 × Matra rocket pods with 18 SNEB 68 mm rockets each
Missiles : Air @-@ to @-@ air missiles :
AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder
AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM
R550 Magic ( Sea Harrier FRS51 )
Air @-@ to @-@ surface missile :
ALARM anti @-@ radiation missile ( ARM )
Martel missile ARM
Anti @-@ ship missiles :
Sea Eagle
Bombs : A variety of unguided iron bombs ( including 3 kg and 14 kg practice bombs ) .
Others :
reconnaissance pods or
2 × auxiliary drop tanks for ferry flight or extended range / loitering time
Avionics
Ferranti Blue Vixen all @-@ weather airborne radar
BAE Systems AD2770 Tactical Air Navigation System
Thales MADGE Microwave Airborne Digital Guidance Equipment
Allied Signal AN / APX @-@ 100 mk12 IFF
= = Notable appearances in media = =
The Harrier 's unique characteristics have led to it being featured a number of films and video games .
= Pied currawong =
The pied currawong ( Strepera graculina ) is a medium @-@ sized black passerine bird native to eastern Australia and Lord Howe Island . One of three currawong species in the genus Strepera , it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie of the family Artamidae . Six subspecies are recognised . It is a robust crowlike bird averaging around 48 cm ( 19 in ) in length , black or sooty grey @-@ black in plumage with white undertail and wing patches , yellow irises , and a heavy bill . The male and female are similar in appearance . Known for its melodious calls , the species ' name currawong is believed to be of indigenous origin .
Within its range , the pied currawong is generally sedentary , although populations at higher altitudes relocate to lower areas during the cooler months . It is omnivorous , with a diet that includes a wide variety of berries and seeds , invertebrates , bird eggs and juvenile birds . It is a predator which has adapted well to urbanization and can be found in parks and gardens as well as rural woodland . The habitat includes all kinds of forested areas , although mature forests are preferred for breeding . Roosting , nesting and the bulk of foraging take place in trees , in contrast with the ground @-@ foraging behaviour of its relative , the Australian magpie .
= = Taxonomy = =
The pied currawong was first described by English ornithologist George Shaw in 1790 as Coracias strepera , although Strepera was adopted as a generic name . Its binomial names were derived from the Latin strepera , meaning " noisy " , and graculina for resembling a jackdaw . Pied crow @-@ shrike is an old vernacular name from colonial days , and the term " pied " refers to two or more colors in blotches . Other common names include pied chillawong , currawang , charawack , kurrawack , tallawong , tullawong , mutton @-@ bird , Otway forester , and pied afternoon @-@ tea bird . The onomatopoeic term currawong itself is derived from the bird 's call . However , the exact origin of the term is unclear ; the most likely antecedent is the word garrawaŋ from the indigenous Jagera language from the Brisbane region , although the Darug word gurawaruŋ from the Sydney basin is a possibility . Yungang as well as Kurrawang and Kurrawah are names from the Tharawal people of the Illawarra region .
Its closest relative is the black currawong ( S. fuliginosa ) of Tasmania , which has sometimes been considered a subspecies . Together with the larger grey currawong ( S. versicolor ) , they form the genus Strepera . Although crow @-@ like in appearance and habits , currawongs are only distantly related to true crows , and instead belong to the family Artamidae , together with the closely related Australian magpie and the butcherbirds . The affinities of all three genera were recognised early on and they were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist John Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature . Ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between woodswallows and butcherbirds in 1985 , and combined them into a Cracticini clade , which became the family Artamidae .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Six subspecies are currently recognised , characterised principally by differences in size and plumage . There is a steady change to the birds ' morphology and size the further south they are encountered , with lighter and more greyish plumage , larger body size , and a shorter bill . Southerly populations also show more white plumage in the tail , with less whiteness on the wing .
S. g. graculina is the nominate form , found from the Sydney region north to the Burdekin River in northern Queensland .
S. g. ashbyi , ( critically endangered ) , the western Victorian pied currawong , was described by Australian amateur ornithologist Gregory Mathews in 1913 . It is threatened by hybridization with the neighbouring subspecies nebulosa whose range is expanding westwards . A 2000 estimate placed the number of breeding birds at around 250 . It resembles subspecies nebulosa , with sooty plumage , a long tail and a short bill . There is some doubt over whether ashbyi , which is little known , is a distinct subspecies or a colour morph of nebulosa . It is thought to have evolved after the two populations became separated by basalt plains in western Victoria , with the return of trees after the abandonment of regular Aboriginal burning in the late 18th century contributing to the remixing of populations . Hybrid forms have been identified in the Grampians and Yarra Valley .
S. g. crissalis , ( vulnerable ) the Lord Howe currawong was described by English naturalist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1877 . It appears to have adapted well to human habitation on Lord Howe Island , though the population is small overall , somewhere around 70 – 80 birds . Although regarded as a subspecies , it has yet to be studied with molecular DNA techniques , which may lead to it being reclassified as a separate species .
S. g. magnirostris is found on the Cape York Peninsula to the Normanby River in northern Queensland . First described by Henry Lake White in 1923 , it has a longer and heavier bill and shorter tail than the nominate subspecies . It has been little studied to date .
S. g. robinsoni is found on the Atherton Tableland in northeastern Queensland . First described by Gregory Mathews in 1912 , it is combined with magnirostris by some authors . Little researched , it appears to be smaller than other subspecies .
S. g. nebulosa , found in southeastern New South Wales , the Australian Capital Territory and central Victoria , is very similar to the nominate subspecies but has a shorter bill , longer tail and larger wing . Its upperparts are sooty black , a little paler than the nominate subspecies , and underparts sooty black to slate @-@ grey . The white patch on the primary flight feathers is also smaller . It was first defined in 1999 by ornithologists and bird taxonomists Richard Schodde and Ian Mason . There is a hybrid zone with subspecies graculina in southern and central New South Wales , from Eden north to the Illawarra region and stretching northwest to the Blue Mountains .
= = Description = =
The pied currawong is generally a black bird with white in the wing , undertail coverts , the base of the tail and most visibly , the tip of the tail . It has yellow eyes . Adult birds are 44 – 50 cm ( 17 – 20 in ) in length , with an average of around 48 cm ( 19 in ) ; the wingspan varies from 56 to 77 cm ( 22 to 30 in ) , averaging around 69 cm ( 27 in ) . Adult males average around 320 g ( 11 oz ) , females 280 g ( 10 oz ) . The wings are long and broad . The long and heavy bill is about one and a half times as long as the head and is hooked at the end . Juvenile birds have similar markings to adults but have softer and brownish plumage overall , although the white band on the tail is narrower . The upperparts are darker brown with scallops and streaks over the head and neck , and the underparts lighter brown . The eyes are dark brown and the bill dark with a yellow tip . The gape is a prominent yellow . Older birds grow darker until adult plumage is achieved , but juvenile tail markings only change to adult late in development . Birds appear to moult once a year in late summer after breeding . The pied currawong can live for over 20 years in the wild .
= = = Voice = = =
Pied currawongs are vocal birds , calling when in flight and at all times of the day . They are more noisy early in the morning and in the evening before roosting , as well as before rain . The loud distinctive call has been translated as Kadow @-@ Kadang or Curra @-@ wong . Birds also have a loud , high @-@ pitched whistle , transcribed as Wheeo . The endemic Lord Howe Island subspecies has a distinct , more melodious call .
= = = Similar species = = =
The smaller white @-@ winged chough has similar plumage but has red eyes and is found mainly on the ground . Australian crow and raven species have white eyes and lack the white rump , and the similar @-@ sized Australian magpie has red eyes and prominent black and white plumage . The larger grey currawong is readily distinguished by its lighter grey overall plumage and lack of white feathers at the base of the tail . In northwestern Victoria , the black @-@ winged currawong ( subspecies melanoptera of the grey ) does have a darker plumage than other grey subspecies , but its wings lack the white primaries of the pied currawong .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The pied currawong is common in both wet and dry sclerophyll forests , rural and semi @-@ urban environments throughout eastern Australia , from Cape York Peninsula to western Victoria and Lord Howe Island , where it occurs as an endemic subspecies . In general , the pied currawong is sedentary , although some populations from higher altitudes move to areas of lower elevation in winter . However , evidence for the extent of migration is conflicting , and the species ' movements have been little studied to date . It has adapted well to European presence , and has become more common in many areas of eastern Australia , with surveys in Nanango , Queensland , Barham , New South Wales , Geelong , Victoria , as well as the Northern Tablelands and South West Slopes regions in New South Wales , all showing an increase in population . This increase has been most marked , however , in Sydney and Canberra since the 1940s and 1960s respectively . In both cities , the species had previously been a winter resident only , but now remains year @-@ round and breeds there . They are a dominant species and common inhabitant of Sydney gardens . More recently still , a survey of the population of pied currawongs in southeastern Queensland between 1980 and 2000 had found the species had become more numerous there , including suburban Brisbane . One 1992 survey reported the total number of pied currawongs in Australia had doubled from 3 million birds in the 1960s to 6 million in the early 1990s .
The pied currawong is able to cross bodies of water of some size , as it has been recorded from Rodondo Island , which lies 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) off the coast of Wilsons Promontory in Victoria , as well as some offshore islands in Queensland . It has disappeared from Tryon , North West , Masthead and Heron Islands in the Capricorn Group on the Great Barrier Reef . The presence of the Lord Howe subspecies is possibly the result of a chance landing there .
The pied currawong 's impact on smaller birds that are vulnerable to nest predation is controversial : several studies have suggested that the species has become a serious problem , but the truth of this widely held perception was queried in a 2001 review of the published literature on their foraging habits by Bayly and Blumstein of Macquarie University , who observed that common introduced birds were more affected than native birds . However , predation by pied currawongs has been a factor in the decline of Gould 's petrel at a colony on Cabbage Tree Island , near Port Stephens in New South Wales ; currawongs have been reported preying on adult seabirds . Their removal from the islands halted a decline of the threatened petrels . Furthermore , a University of New England study published in 2006 reported that the breeding success rates for the eastern yellow robin ( Eopsaltria australis ) and scarlet robin ( Petroica boodang ) on the New England Tablelands were improved after nests were protected and currawongs culled , and some yellow robins even re @-@ colonised an area where they had become locally extinct . The presence of pied currawongs in Sydney gardens is negatively correlated with the presence of silvereyes ( Zosterops lateralis ) .
The species has been implicated in the spread of weeds by consuming and dispersing fruit and seed . In the first half of the twentieth century , pied currawongs were shot as they were considered pests of corn and strawberry crops , as well as assisting in the spread of the prickly pear . They were also shot on Lord Howe Island for attacking chickens . However , they are seen as beneficial in forestry as they consume phasmids , and also in agriculture for eating cocoons of the codling moth .
= = Behaviour = =
Pied currawongs are generally tree @-@ dwelling , hunting and foraging some metres above the ground , and thus able to share territory with the ground @-@ foraging Australian magpie . Birds roost in forested areas or large trees at night , disperse to forage in the early morning and return in the late afternoon . Although often solitary or encountered in small groups , the species may form larger flocks of fifty or more birds in autumn and winter . On the ground , a pied currawong hops or struts .
During the breeding season , pied currawongs will pair up and become territorial , defending both nesting and feeding areas . A 1994 study in Sydney 's leafy northern suburbs measured an average distance of 250 m ( 820 ft ) between nests , while another in Canberra in 1990 had three pairs in a 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) segment of pine @-@ tree lined street . Territories have been measured around 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 ha in Sydney and Wollongong , although these were restricted to nesting areas and did not include a larger feeding territory , and 7 @.@ 9 ha in Canberra . Pied currawongs vigorously drive off threats such as ravens , and engage in bill @-@ snapping , dive @-@ bombing and aerial pursuit . They adopt a specific threat display against other currawongs by lowering the head so the head and body are parallel to the ground and pointing the beak out forward , often directly at the intruder . The male predominates in threat displays and territorial defence , and guards the female closely as she builds the nest .
Flocks of birds appear to engage in play ; one routine involves a bird perching atop a tall tree , pole or spire , and others swooping , tumbling or diving and attempting to dislodge it . A successful challenger is then challenged in its turn by other birds in the flock .
The pied currawong bathes by wading into water up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) deep , squatting down , ducking its head under , and shaking its wings . It preens its plumage afterwards , sometimes applying mud or soil first . The species has also been observed anting .
= = = Feeding = = =
The pied currawong is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder , eating fruit and berries as well as preying on many invertebrates , and smaller vertebrates , mostly juvenile birds and bird eggs . Currawongs will hunt in trees , snatching birds and eggs from nests , as well as insects and berries from trees . They also hunt in the air and on the ground . Insects predominate in the diet during summer months , and fruit during the winter . They will often scavenge , eating scraps and rubbish and can be quite bold when seeking food from people , lingering around picnic areas and bird @-@ feeding trays . Beetles and ants are the most common types of insects consumed . Pied currawongs have been recorded taking mice , as well as chickens and turkeys from farms . The pied currawong consumes fruit , including a wide variety of figs , such as the Moreton Bay ( Ficus macrophylla ) , Port Jackson ( F. rubiginosa ) , Banyan ( F. virens ) and Strangler fig ( F. watkinsiana ) , as well as lillypillies ( Syzygium species ) , white cedar ( Melia azedarach ) , plum pine ( Podocarpus elatus ) , and geebungs ( Persoonia species ) . Other fruit is also sought after , and currawongs have been known to raid orchards , eating apples , pears , strawberries , grapes , stone fruit , citrus , and corn . Pied currawongs have been responsible for the spread of the invasive ornamental Asparagus aethiopicus ( often called A. densiflorus ) in the Sydney area , the weedy privet species Ligustrum lucidum and L. sinense , and firethorn species Pyracantha angustifolia and P. rogersiana around Armidale .
Birds forage singly or in pairs in summer , and more often in larger flocks in autumn and winter , during which time they are more likely to loiter around people and urban areas . They occasionally associate with Australian magpies ( Cracticus tibicen ) or common starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris ) when foraging . Birds have also been encountered with grey currawongs ( S. versicolor ) and satin bowerbirds ( Ptilinorhynchus violaceus ) . The species has been reported stealing food from other birds such as the Australian hobby ( Falco longipennis ) , collared sparrowhawk ( Accipiter cirrocephalus ) , and sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo ( Cacatua galerita ) . Pied currawongs will also harass each other . A 2007 study conducted by researchers from the Australian National University showed that white @-@ browed scrubwren ( Sericornis frontalis ) nestlings became silent when they heard the recorded sound of a pied currawong walking through leaf litter .
= = = Breeding = = =
Although found in many types of woodland , the pied currawong prefers to breed in mature forests . It builds a nest of thin sticks lined with grass and bark high in trees in spring ; generally eucalypts are chosen and never isolated ones . It produces a clutch of three eggs ; they are a light pinkish @-@ brown colour ( likened by one author to that of silly putty ) with splotches of darker pink @-@ brown and lavender . Tapered oval in shape , they measure about 30 mm × 42 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 7 in ) . The female broods alone . The incubation period is not well known , due to the difficulty of observing nests , but observations indicate around 30 days from laying to hatching . Like all passerines , the chicks are born naked , and blind ( altricial ) , and remain in the nest for an extended period ( nidicolous ) They quickly grow a layer of ashy @-@ grey down . Both parents feed the young , although the male does not begin to feed them directly until a few days after birth .
The channel @-@ billed cuckoo ( Scythrops novaehollandiae ) parasitizes pied currawong nests , laying eggs which are then raised by the unsuspecting foster parents . The eggs closely resemble those of the currawong hosts . Pied currawongs have been known to desert nests once cuckoos have visited , abandoning the existing currawong young , which die , and a channel @-@ billed cuckoo has been recorded decapitating a currawong nestling . The brown goshawk ( Accipiter fasciatus ) and lace monitor ( Varanus varius ) have also been recorded taking nestlings .
= Love in This Club =
" Love in This Club " is a song by American R & B singer Usher . Featuring rapper Young Jeezy , it was released on February 22 , 2008 as the lead single from Usher 's fifth studio album , Here I Stand . The song was written by Usher , Polow da Don , Young Jeezy , Darnell Dalton , Ryon Lovett , Lamar Taylor and Keith Thomas , and produced by da Don with a Las Vegas @-@ inspired synth @-@ driven beat . Its lyrics refer to seducing someone in a nightclub . The song was originally leaked by da Don prior to its release .
" Love in This Club " received mixed reviews from critics , who praised the song 's production , but criticized it for its slow tempo and lack of originality . The song topped the Billboard Hot 100 as well as the New Zealand Singles Chart , while appearing on multiple other record charts . The accompanying music video , which received a nomination at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , features cameo appearances from several musicians . In the video , R & B singer Keri Hilson plays Usher 's love interest in a club . Usher performed the song at the 2008 BET Awards , as well as on several television programs . A remix of the song , titled " Love in This Club Part II " , features Beyoncé and Lil Wayne .
= = Background = =
Atlanta @-@ based music producer Polow da Don was inspired to create a beat during his weekend stay in Las Vegas for the MTV Video Music Awards . He said of the song , " If you listen to the beat , the synths and everything has a [ Las ] Vegas feel to it . Making love in the club , people in [ Las ] Vegas are kinda wild . " He also noted its Euro influences . When he finished working on the material , da Don felt it fit for Usher , hoping that it would keep female listeners interested in Usher 's music , as his popularity had declined among women since his marriage to stylist Tameka Foster in July 2007 . Da Don and Usher wrote the track with rapper Young Jeezy , Darnell Dalton , Ryon Lovett , Lamar Taylor and Keith Thomas , and it was recorded at Zac Recording , Atlanta and Hitland Studios , Alpharetta .
It was not originally planned for Young Jeezy to appear on the track . After hearing " Love in This Club " , he wanted to contribute to it . Da Don was skeptical , but recorded Young Jeezy 's verse . He played the new version to Usher who , enjoying the new version , allowed the verse to stay . Usher has since called Young Jeezy " one of the greatest rappers of our generation " . According to Alabama rapper Gucci Mane , it was initially intended that he feature on the track , rather than Young Jeezy .
= = Composition = =
" Love in This Club " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B slow jam , with a brass bassline , and shuddering synth @-@ driven beats that have been called " space age " and " sex @-@ drenched " by critics . It contains hip @-@ hop influences . Rap @-@ Up likened the song to Lil Jon 's song , " Lovers and Friends " , on which Usher appeared , while Fraser McAlpine of BBC Radio 1 wrote that it features vague similarities to " No Woman , No Cry " by Bob Marley . According to the sheet music published by Hal Leonard Corporation at Musicnotes.com , the song is written in common time with a tempo of 70 beats per minute and follows the chord progression of C major – E minor – A minor – F major .
About.com 's Mark Edward Nero wrote that " on the song , Usher talks about a lust so immediate , so powerful , that it makes him want to get down [ and have sex ] right then and there " . The song 's chorus consists of the hook , " I wanna make love in this club " . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly called the lyrics of the song " libidinous " .
= = Release and critical reception = =
Early in 2008 , several songs for Usher 's fifth studio album leaked into the Internet , including " Love in This Club " . Usher called the incident an " internal conspiracy " because it was unofficially released beyond his awareness . This also happened to the lead single " Yeah ! " off his 2004 album Confessions , which was intentionally leaked by its producer , Lil Jon , in 2003 . Polow da Don later told that he had leaked " Love in This Club " , echoing Lil John 's actions . He felt the song would be a hit , but that " it was so much back @-@ and @-@ forth between Usher and his record label " and he was tired of waiting on " label politics " . The song was released for sale on February 22 , 2008 .
The production of " Love in This Club " was praised by the Los Angeles Times , as was Usher 's vocal effort . Andy Kellman of Allmusic and Jonathan Tjarks of Austin360.com noted the song as a standout from Here I Stand . Blender rated the song two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , calling it too safe and lethargic . Digital Spy 's Nick Levine enjoyed the song , but noted its lack of originality . Jim Farber from Daily News was not impressed , writing " ' Love in This Club ' doesn 't sound like a club anthem at all . It 's too slow and quiet , and ... its smeary synth hook sounds like a planed @-@ down version of a Justin Timberlake hit . "
Young Jeezy 's addition received clashing responses from reviewers . Billboard 's Sophie Baratta was not impressed with the verse , but called the song " a catchy tune " . Bill Lamb of About.com praised the rapper 's effort , but expected better from Usher after a four @-@ year break since Confessions , writing that he is " retread [ ing ] territory familiar to fans of Akon and T @-@ Pain " , awarding the song two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars . BBC Radio 1 's Fraser McAlpine rated the song four stars out of five , but called Young Jeezy 's rap " growling " and " wheezy " .
This single ranked at number one on the " 10 Best Singles of 2008 " list by American magazine Entertainment Weekly , while Time 's Josh Tyrangiel placed it at number eight on its 2008 " Songs of Summer " list . MTV News listed the song as the fifth @-@ best R & B tune of the year , and it won the Ozone Award for Best Rap / R & B Collaboration . On " The 50 Sexiest Songs of All Time " , compiled by Billboard in 2010 , " Love in Thus Club " placed at number twenty @-@ seven .
= = Chart performance = =
" Love in This Club " debuted at number eighty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 , on the issue dated March 1 , 2008 . The next week it moved to number fifty @-@ one , due to high airplay . The song continued to receive many spins , and in its third week it reached the top of the Hot 100 , gaining the ' Airplay Gainer ' honor the same week . Replacing " Low " by Flo Rida and T @-@ Pain , " Love in This Club " also sold 198 @,@ 000 downloads in that week . On April 5 , 2008 , the song was again named the ' Airplay Gainer ' , however it was shifted from the number @-@ one spot by Leona Lewis ' " Bleeding Love " , having spent three weeks atop the chart . It fell off on June 7 , having spent twelve weeks on the chart . On the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , the song first appeared on February 23 , 2008 at number fifty @-@ one making it the highest debut of the week . On April 12 it replaced Keyshia Cole 's " I Remember " at number one . After four weeks " Love in This Club " was moved from the top spot by Lil Wayne 's " Lollipop " . The song also reached number four on the Pop 100 , and has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . On the year @-@ end charts for 2008 , it was ranked number eight on the Hot 100 , number fifteen on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and number thirteen on the Pop 100 . It was also ranked number eighty @-@ five on the 2000s ' Hot 100 list , and number ninety @-@ nine on the decade @-@ end Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . As of August 1 , 2010 , " Love in This Club " has sold 2 @,@ 453 @,@ 000 units , according to Nielsen Soundscan .
Internationally , the song reached the top ten of numerous singles charts . It reached number six on the Canadian Hot 100 , number four on the UK Singles Chart , number eight on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart , number three on the Irish Singles Chart , and number five on the Japan Hot 100 , and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) and gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Having been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand , it also topped the New Zealand Singles Chart , replacing " No Air " by Jordin Sparks and Chris Brown on May 5 , 2008 . After one week it was removed by Brown 's " Forever " , and was certified platinum on June 1 , 20
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610 . The place of her burial is uncertain but it is likely to have been in either Banagher or Kilmacduagh near Gort , the monastery founded by her son , St. Colman .
= = = Origins = = =
The settlement that grew to become Banagher , originated at a ford on the east bank of the River Shannon . The river banks and surrounding countryside were flood @-@ free all year round . Travellers intending to cross the Shannon converged on this point along tracks which were the forerunners of the modern roads , and a community grew at this crossing point .
Many of the early travellers were pilgrims . North @-@ west of Banagher , on the Connacht side of the river , was the monastic establishment of Clonfert , with the more famous Clonmacnoise a short distance further north . Not far to the south @-@ west on the same side was another monastic foundation , at Meelick . At Meelick , the three provinces , Leinster , Munster and Connacht meet and just south of Banagher in the direction of Birr , the four dioceses of Clonmacnoise , Meath , Killaloe and Clonfert meet .
= = = Military history = = =
At Banagher , there are ridges on both sides of the river and roads were built along these many centuries ago . The first bridge was built over the Shannon at that point as early as 1049 . It was a place of great strategic importance because the Shannon and its lowlands provided a natural barrier between Connacht and Leinster . An army that wanted to cross the river had few choices ; apart from Banagher , the only other suitable places were Athlone , Shannonbridge and Portumna .
The importance of Banagher as a military position on the Shannon and on the highway from Leinster and Munster to Connacht was early appreciated by the English , whose forces seized it about the middle of the 16th century , coming up the river to do so . They constructed some fortifications which they called Fort Frankford ( later Fort Falkland ) and held the place in spite of the fact that the part of Offaly for some miles around Banagher was in the hands of the MacCoghlan clan . The MacCoghlans , aided by boundaries of bog and river , held their territories against all comers for about 500 years , even maintaining a footing by open defiance well into the 17th century . Garry Castle , Clonony Castle , and Moystown Castle are remains of MacCoghlan strongholds . Sometime after 1554 , when Queen Mary married Philip II of Spain , Offaly County was named King 's County in honour of Philip , but it is doubtful if the royal jurisdiction extended to any of the MacCoghlan areas except Banagher . Ultimately , the MacCoghlans were overthrown and their lands were planted by order of James I issued in 1621 .
The town was incorporated by charter of Charles I on 16 September 1628 . The corporation was allowed to elect two members to Parliament and hold two fairs per year , amongst other wide @-@ ranging powers .
In 1628 , a permanent military garrison was established which continued with slight interruptions until 1863 . The defences were further strengthened and it was officially named Fort Falkland , after Henry Cary , 1st Viscount Falkland who was Lord Deputy of Ireland from 1622 – 29 . The forces of the Confederate Catholics took Banagher in 1642 , but it was retaken by the Cromwellian Army in 1650 , under the command of Henry Ireton , Cromwell 's son @-@ in @-@ law . By 1652 the Cromwellian conquest was completed and the transplantation of the Catholic land holders to Connacht began in 1654 . The lands from which they were expelled were divided among the adventurers and the soldiers of Cromwell 's army .
During the Williamite Wars of 1690 – 1691 , the garrison espoused the cause of James II in contrast with that of Birr , which took the side of William . A stone bridge across the Shannon was erected in 1685 , and a Williamite army advancing from Birr in 1690 attempted to break it down but abandoned the attempt as too risky in consequence of the presence of Sarsfield 's Army on the Connacht side . A broken arch of this bridge is still to be seen on that side a few yards below the present bridge of seven arches , which was erected by the Commissioners for the Improvement of Navigation of the Shannon in 1841 – 1843 . The square tower on the lower side of the bridge at the Galway end was erected to protect the old bridge , as was the Salt Battery , with emplacements for four cannons facing west and north , a few hundred yards from town along the Crank Road .
The Irish garrison remained in Banagher without further molestation until the Battle of Aughrim , after which Banagher was evacuated . The English re @-@ occupied the town , where they remained until the middle of the 19th century , when Banagher ceased to be a garrison town .
= = = Economic growth = = =
In the 17th century , Banagher was the centre of a flourishing woollen trade . In 1699 , the impost placed on the export of woollen goods to England practically killed the woollen trade . At the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775 , an embargo placed on the export of foodstuffs to the American Colonies dealt another blow to the trade of Banagher . In 1780 , the British Parliament withdrew all these restrictions and Banagher 's economy began to improve rapidly .
From 1800 to 1847 , Banagher enjoyed a period of prosperity unequalled in its history . Corn growing had long been one of the chief agricultural activities of the district and the opening of the Grand Canal at the end of the 18th century gave easy access to Dublin and Limerick and brought cheap and efficient water transport to the district . Banagher became the outlet for the grain raised in a wide area round the town , and the Banagher corn market on Fridays was one of the largest of its kind in Ireland .
The canal arrived at Shannon Harbour in 1804 , and the water transport facilities stimulated the growth of existing industries and encouraged the establishment of new ones . Neat two and three @-@ storey houses were built on each side of the road in Banagher to provide shops and dwellings for the merchants and other people who came to live there for the canal business . In 1834 , there was a distillery , a brewery , two tanyards , a malthouse and corn mills in full operation in the town . Several craftsmen carried on industries in smaller workshops and in their homes . With the increase in trade and manufactures went a corresponding increase in population . In 1800 , the population was estimated at 1500 ; in 1841 , it was 2836 , and in 1846 , it was estimated at 3000 .
= = = Decline = = =
Contrasted with the flourishing state of trade in the first half of the 19th century is the rapid and sustained decline during the second half . In the period of 40 years from 1841 to 1881 , the population fell from 2836 to 1192 , a loss of over 57 % . By the end of the century , all that remained of the major industries of the town was the malthouse of F.A. Waller & Co . , while all smaller industries had vanished completely .
Various causes contributed to this decline . The abolition of the Corn Laws in 1846 allowed the free importation of grain into these islands . Unable to compete with foreigners , the Irish farmer turned his land to pasture and grew only sufficient grain for his own use . The Banagher corn trade rapidly declined , and would have completely vanished were it not that barley growing was kept alive by Waller 's malthouse . The clearances in East Galway in the years immediately succeeding the Great Irish Famine adversely affected the trade of the town while the smaller industries were unable to compete against the highly organised industries of Britain .
The opening of Banagher Railway station in 1884 , as the terminus of the 29 km ( 18 mi ) Clara to Banagher branch of the Great Southern & Western Railway Company , brought some improvement , with a number of passenger and goods trains every day . However , the fuel crisis of 1947 caused passenger services to be withdrawn from the line and it closed altogether in 1963 . Although the site of the station is now covered by the marina , the trackway can still be seen , minus the track , at the gateway at the eastern corner of the marina .
= = Geography = =
Banagher is situated in north @-@ west County Offaly on the east bank of the River Shannon . It is 106 km ( 66 mi ) south west of Dublin , 14 km ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) south east of Ballinasloe , 27 km ( 17 mi ) south of Athlone and 85 km ( 53 mi ) north east of Limerick . It provides a crossing point between Offaly in Leinster and Galway in Connacht . Although Banagher is located in the flood @-@ plain of the River Shannon , the town itself was developed on high ground and remains virtually flood @-@ free all year round . North of Lough Derg , the River Shannon has a very shallow gradient and regularly floods parts of the surrounding countryside . The resultant wet grassland area , known as the Shannon Callows , is an internationally recognised wild bird and wildlife habitat and is classified as a Special Area of Conservation .
The country on either side of the Shannon in the Offaly @-@ Galway area has been described as " reminiscent of the Fens , cut off and intersected by waterways , by the wide meandering Shannon itself , by its tributaries , the Suck , the Brosna and the Little Brosna and by the Grand Canal ; traversed by a maze of narrow roads . "
The travel writer and biographer , James Pope @-@ Hennessy , described the River Shannon at Banagher in September in his biography of Anthony Trollope : " The month of September in Banagher , and all along the Shannon banks , is visually a glorious one , with golden autumn mornings , the low sun making long shadows of the houses in the street . At dusk the whole river reflects the varied sunsets as the days draw in – effects of palest pink , for instance , striped by cloudy lines of green , or an horizon aflame with scarlet and orange light . "
The Slieve Bloom Mountains lie to the south of Banagher and the town is surrounded by the great bogs of the midlands , particularly to the east and west . The River Brosna is a major tributary of the River Shannon and meets the Shannon at Shannon Harbour , three kilometres north of Banagher .
= = = Climate = = =
Banagher has a temperate climate . Average daily high temperatures are 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) in July and 8 ° C ( 46 ° F ) in January . Precipitation , at an average of 804 mm per annum , is similar to that in much of the midlands and east of Ireland , and is significantly less than the precipitation on the west coast , which averages between 1000 mm and 1250 mm per annum .
= = = Wildlife = = =
In autumn and winter , the extensive flood plain of the Shannon Callows supports a large number of waders , swans , wildfowl and other bird life . The most obvious of all Shannon birds is the mute swan . Also seen are the coot , moorhen and little grebe ( or dabchick ) . The kingfisher is widespread as are the meadow pipit and pied wagtail . The area has one of the largest concentrations of breeding waders in Ireland including lapwing , redshank , sandpiper and godwit .
The corncrake can be seen at the bridge of Banagher in the summer . Once a common summer visitor to Ireland , corncrakes have suffered drastic population declines over the last few decades and are threatened with global extinction . Conservation efforts have focused on changing harvesting times to avoid the nesting season , May to August . The hay meadows of the callows support large numbers of these birds – one of the few places in the world where this globally threatened species is still common .
In winter , the resident bird population is increased by visitors from north @-@ east Europe , in particular the widgeon and Greenland white @-@ fronted goose . Riverside mammals are seen frequently and otters , mink and fox are common . Trout and salmon are less common in the Shannon than they once were , however pike is still plentiful and attracts many anglers .
= = Demographics = =
Banagher was extensively planted by the English , particularly during the periods 1621 – 1642 and 1650 – 1690 . The plantations had a profound impact on Ireland in several ways . The first was the destruction of the native ruling classes and their replacement with the Protestant Ascendancy , of British @-@ origin ( mostly English ) Protestant landowners . Their position was buttressed by the Penal Laws , which denied political and land @-@ owning rights to Roman Catholics . The dominance of this class in Irish life persisted until the late 18th century , and it voted for the Act of Union with Britain in 1800 . As a result , by the early 20th century , Banagher had a mix of Irish of native descent and Irish of English descent and supported two churches , one Catholic and one Protestant , both of which still exist .
During the late 1960s to the early 1980s , a number of German , Dutch and Swiss settlers were attracted to Banagher , mainly because of its proximity to the River Shannon and associated lifestyle . A number of these are still resident in Banagher . As with the majority of towns and cities in Ireland , Banagher has seen an influx of foreign nationals , mostly of Eastern European origin , in recent years and these now make up just over 10 % of the population .
According to the 2011 Census , Banagher has a population of 1 @,@ 653 with 801 male and 852 female residents . This marks a 1 @.@ 0 % increase in population on the 2006 Census .
= = Economy = =
The demise of the once thriving canal and maltings businesses brought about a serious decline in Banagher 's fortunes , including a significant population decrease . However , a number of businesses kept many people in the locality employed during lean times . The most notable of these was Bord na Móna , a semi @-@ state company founded in 1946 to manage the harvesting of peat from Ireland 's bogs , the most extensive of which are located in the midlands . However , the advancement of mechanised harvesting , the exhaustion of the bogs and the closure of a number of peat @-@ fired power stations , means that this is no longer a significant employer in the region . Green Isle Foods had a facility just outside Banagher and provided good employment during the 1970s and 1980s . It was taken out of production some years ago and is now used as a storage facility only . The largest industry in Banagher these days is Banagher Precast Concrete Limited , a company specialising in precast concrete structures . The company employs approximately 50 people and was one of the largest concrete firms in the country , employing over 400 people at its peak in 2008 . It has supplied components for many major projects , including the Aviva Stadium , Croke Park , Channel Tunnel , the Dublin Port Tunnel , Thomond Park and the Limerick Tunnel . Other notable employers include Banagher Sawmills and the cruise liner businesses located at the marina .
= = Transportation = =
Banagher is an important crossing point on the River Shannon and consequently experiences a large volume of through traffic . Two regional roads meet in Banagher ; the R356 , which links the N62 and N65 national primary roads and is known as Harbour Street in Banagher and the R439 which links Birr with Banagher and is known as Main Street in Banagher . Harbour Street leads to the road to Shannon Harbour and Main Street begins at the hill at the southern entrance to the town and leads down to the bridge crossing the Shannon .
A railway station opened in Banagher in 1884 as the terminus for the Clara to Banagher line of the Great Southern & Western Railway Company . It operated both a passenger and goods service until 1947 , when the passenger service was withdrawn . The station closed completely in 1963 .
Banagher was once a main centre for river transportation on the Shannon system . River transportation fell into decline with the advent of rail and road transportation improvements . Banagher is still a major centre for river cruisers , with a number of hire companies operating from an extensive and modern marina .
= = Culture = =
= = = Banagher Fair = = =
As part of the charter of incorporation of 1628 , the corporation was given powers to : " hold two fairs , one on the Feast of St. Philip and Jacob , the other on the Feast of St. Simon and Jude , each to continue for two days . " These feast days equated to 1 May and 28 October . However , a fair was already in existence in Banagher since 1612 and was held in September . These three fairs were certainly still in existence in the mid @-@ 1830s , as they were described in a government @-@ commissioned report in 1835 .
The fairs established by the first corporation continued to gain in size and importance during the 18th century and the early part of the 19th century . In 1826 , the enormous number of 43 @,@ 000 sheep was offered for sale at the September fair , with three @-@ quarters of that number being sold . Pigot 's Directory of 1824 described the workings of the fair : " ... and there are three fairs ; the principal one commences on the 15 September and continues for four days , the first for sheep , the second for horned cattle , the third for horses , and the last day is the country fair for linen , woollens and other merchandise . "
It seems that the fair held in September was the main fair and is the one that has survived to the present . Pope Hennessy described the granting of the charter by Charles I which " empowered them to hold the famous Banagher Great Fair , at which everything from cattle and sheep to boots and basket chairs was on sale . This Fair , the greatest in all the Irish Midlands , began on September 15 and lasted four days . The line of horses tethered on each side of Banagher Main Street stretched from the Shannon river bridge to the crossroads two and a half miles outside the town known as Tailor 's Cross . "
The fair had achieved an international reputation by the early 20th century and a local newspaper report of 1909 states " The Banagher Great Fair was a huge success and among those present were Senor Gelline of Milan to make purchase on behalf of the Italian Government , while Mr. Rodzanko bought for the Russian Government . " The report also stated that " Eighty @-@ nine wagons of horses were entrained at Banagher Railway Station ... this representing in round numbers about 500 horses . "
= = = Architecture , buildings and structures = = =
= = = = Banagher Bridge = = = =
The first bridge that is known to have been built at this point was erected as a " spacious stone bridge of 18 arches " by Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair ( Anglicised Roderic O 'Connor ) , the King of Connacht , around 1049 . However , medieval sources tell of a " bridge of 27 arches of divers ( e ) architectural form , each different from its fellow " , which stood here for over 500 years . A stone bridge of 17 arches was certainly constructed in 1685 and this was detailed in profile drawings by Thomas Rhodes in 1833 . The bridge of 1685 featured prominently in the Williamite War in Ireland of the 17th century and was used by Patrick Sarsfield to retreat to Connacht after his ambush of a Williamite convoy at Ballyneety in Co . Limerick during the Siege of Limerick . Because of its affording Sarsfield and his army a method of advance and retreat , the old bridge was often referred to as Sarsfield 's Bridge . This bridge was blown up in 1843 by gunpowder by a section of the Corps of Royal Engineers . The abutment of this bridge can still be seen adjacent to Cromwell 's Castle on the Connacht side of the river .
The present bridge of seven arches was erected by the Commissioners for the Improvement of Navigation of the Shannon in 1841 – 1843 . The engineer was Thomas Rhodes , one of the commissioners of the Shannon Navigation , whose name can be seen on many of the bridges over the Shannon and on surviving lock mechanisms , notably at Victoria and Athlone locks . This bridge was reconstructed and widened jointly by Offaly County Council and Galway County Council in 1971 . Their work included replacing massive stone parapets on either side of the bridge with aluminium railings , and the removal of a swivel arch which had allowed passage for masted boats .
A heritage review of the bridges of County Offaly in 2005 described Banagher Bridge as of national heritage significance , of high architectural merit and demonstrative of mid @-@ 19th century construction work by a government body . It states " This is the only six @-@ arch masonry span in the county . It is an interesting contrast with the 1750s bridge at Shannonbridge . Although both are approximately the same length , Banagher Bridge achieves the crossing with fewer spans ( six as opposed to 16 ) . It also has the longest masonry arch spans of all the county 's bridges , averaging 17 @.@ 88 m " .
All of the castellations around and near the bridge were built to protect it , including Cromwell 's Castle , The Salt Battery ( Fort Eliza ) , Fort Falkland and the Martello Tower . However , the guns mounted on these forts could be used to destroy the bridge if necessary , as well as to bombard attacking forces on the river .
A narrow quay passes under the old swivel section of the bridge from Waller 's Quay to the marina . A well @-@ worn handrail offers the pedestrian some protection against a slip into the river . This rail has been known as the Duke 's Rail since in 1897 the then Duke of York , later to become George V , paid a state visit to Ireland . The royal party travelled up @-@ river from Portumna on the steamship Countess of Mayo . Disembarking at Waller 's Quay , the Duke was received by Lord Rosse , the Lord Lieutenant of King 's County . The party had to traverse the narrow quay under the bridge to get to Banagher Railway Station , and undoubtedly made good use of the Duke 's Rail . The stretch of the Shannon from Portumna to Banagher was known for some time after as the Duke of York 's Route .
= = = = Barracks = = = =
This former constabulary barracks was built around 1800 . Irregular in plan and now in ruins , it comprises a partially roughcast rendered rubble limestone enclosing wall with a cut stone segmental @-@ headed entrance to the east and is situated to the south of the River Shannon , adjacent to the bridge . Remains of structures within the enclosure include a barrel @-@ vaulted powder magazine built around 1806 , with a gun platform above . These walls are thought to be the perimeter walls of Fort Falkland from 1642 . According to Pigot 's Directory of 1824 , the barracks housed two companies of foot , had apartments for three officers , a bomb and waterproof magazine and an artillery battery mounting three 12 @-@ pound guns . The Directory also states that the barracks was formerly a nunnery ( possibly that of Saint Rynagh , which would have been founded around 580 ) and communicated with Saint Rynagh 's Old Abbey by a subterranean passage of some 400 yards . Although the British garrison had left the town in 1863 , the barracks was looted and burned shortly after the signing of the Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty of 1921 – 22 .
= = = = Bow @-@ fronted Georgian houses = = = =
Banagher has two bow @-@ fronted Georgian buildings dating from the mid @-@ to @-@ late 18th century and both are listed as protected structures . One is a detached seven @-@ bay , two @-@ storey building , called Crank House , due to its location on the corner of Main Street and Crank Road . It was restored in the early 1990s by the Offaly West Enterprise Co @-@ operative Society and opened in 1992 . It now houses an exhibition hall , tourist office , retail and enterprise units and a hostel . It was formerly used as the headquarters for Crann , an NGO dedicated to planting native trees and protecting Ireland 's woodlands . It is now used by the West Offaly Partnership as a Community Enterprise Centre .
The second of these buildings is a terraced , three @-@ bay , three @-@ storey house with an adjoining four @-@ bay , two @-@ storey coach house , which still has its original limestone carriage arch . It has been used as a hotel since the early 19th century and was home to Anthony Trollope during his stay in Banagher in the 1840s . It has a prominent location next to the marina and close to the bridge . Long called The Shannon Hotel , the name was changed to The Royal Shannon in the 1990s . It has ceased to trade as a hotel and is now falling into neglect .
= = = = Charlotte 's Way = = = =
Charlotte 's Way , formerly known as Hill House , is located in a prominent setting close to Saint Paul 's Church of Ireland church . This house was once the home of Charlotte Brontë 's husband , Mr. Nicholls , who returned to Banagher after Charlotte 's death . Nicholls remarried and lived at Hill House until his death in 1906 . The house was sold to a Major Bell in 1919 . He died in 1944 and his wife inherited the property . Florence Bell died in 1959 . This connection to Brontë , one of the most renowned writers of the 19th century , is revealed in its present name , giving the house cultural interest . It is a detached three @-@ bay two @-@ storey house , built in 1753 , with a gabled central bay to the façade with modern porch and single @-@ bay two @-@ storey wing to the south and two @-@ bay two @-@ storey wing to the north . It is now used as a bed and breakfast and visitors can enjoy its restored appearance and sense the history of a place connected in a curious way with the Brontë family .
= = = = Cromwell 's Castle = = = =
The structure that stands on what is known locally as the Canal Bank , called Cromwell 's Castle , primarily derives its current form from the Napoleonic Wars . Similar to the Martello Tower that stands opposite it , on the same bank of the river , Cromwell 's Castle was largely reconstructed as a defensive position to repel any invading fleet coming upstream towards Banagher . The English had established a number of forts on the Leinster bank of the river , including Fort Frankford and , later , Fort Falkland ( see Military History ) . The garrison at Fort Falkland was overrun by the forces of the Confederate Catholics in 1642 but was recaptured by Cromwell 's army in 1650 . The Cromwellians established a new fortification on the Connacht bank of the river leading up to the plantation of Connacht in 1654 . The castle was modified in 1817 to enable it to mount artillery with a platform for a 24 @-@ pound traversing gun constructed on its roof . Its interior became a powder magazine and housed a garrison of 20 soldiers .
Having fallen somewhat into disrepair , the structure came under the care of the Banagher Branch of the Offaly Historical Society in the 1980s and considerable restoration work has been undertaken since then . The Canal Bank on which it stands , is the property of the people of Banagher and is held in trust as a public amenity . Considerable works around the castle have also taken place and the castle , park and riverside walk are open to the public .
= = = = Cuba Court = = = =
Cuba Court , also known as Cuba House , was a house dating from the 1730s and may have been constructed by one George Frazer , a former Governor of Cuba and perhaps to a design of Sir Edward Lovett Pearce , who designed the Irish Houses of Parliament in Dublin . It is certainly known to have been constructed with money from the sugar plantations in Cuba . In his biography of Anthony Trollope , James Pope @-@ Hennessy describes Cuba Court as " a fine example of an Irish country @-@ house of the mid @-@ eighteenth century in the manner of the Dublin architect , Pierce ( sic ) . The building contained ... two circular rooms ... and an avenue of lime trees led to the front door . " The Belfast writer , Maurice Craig , in his 1976 book Classic Irish Houses of the Middle Size , describes Cuba Court as " perhaps the most splendidly masculine house in the whole country . " Towards the end of the 18th century , Cuba Court was the home of Denis Bowes Daly , who was a prominent member of the local ascendancy . Prior to his death in 1821 he had leased Cuba Court to the Army Medical Board on a 61 @-@ year lease . The building was little used as a hospital and the Medical Board was quite happy to give it up to the Commissioners of Education for the purpose of the Royal School , which had eventually been established as a result of the Royal Charter of 1621 .
Charlotte Brontë spent her honeymoon at Cuba Court in 1854 following her marriage to Arthur Bell Nicholls ( See Charlotte Brontë ) . She noted of Cuba Court : " It is very large and looks externally like a gentleman 's country seat – within most of the rooms are lofty and spacious , and some – the drawing room and dining room are handsomely and commodiously furnished . The passages look desolate and bare – our bedroom , a great room of the ground floor , would have looked gloomy when we were shown into it but for the turf fire that was burning in the wide old chimney . "
During the 1820s , the Royal School at Cuba Court was attended by Sir William Wilde , who later married the poet Jane Francesca Agnes Elgee . The couple had two sons : Willie and Oscar Wilde , and a daughter , Isola Francesca , who died in childhood . Another pupil at the school was William Bulfin , the journalist and writer associated with Argentina through his work Tales of the Pampas , who attended in the 1870s . His son , Eamon Bulfin was one of the main participants in the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin and was sentenced to death , but this was commuted to deportation to Argentina where he had been born .
Due to the Irish policy on rates at the time , the house was unroofed in 1946 and this hastened its demise . Pope Hennessy described Cuba Court in 1971 : " Like so many of Ireland 's great houses , Cuba Court is now being slowly but deliberately demolished . The lime trees have long since been hacked down . " In spite of this , it was described as " a superb ruin that could tell the history of Ascendancy Ireland " , as late as 1979 . It was eventually acquired by a local businessman and demolished in the 1980s . Craig describes the loss of Cuba Court as " particularly to be lamented " . A development of four houses was built on the site at Cuba Avenue in 2003 . An archaeological survey revealed nothing of significance .
= = = = Fort Eliza = = = =
Fort Eliza , also known as The Salt Battery , is a freestanding five @-@ sided four @-@ gun battery , constructed around 1812 , and standing on the east side of the River Shannon . Three sides face the river and were formed of broad parapets . The other two sides meet at the rear salient angle at a guardhouse , which is now ruined . The battery is surrounded by a dry moat , with the entrance originally across a drawbridge close to the guardhouse . At the centre of the enclosure was the brick @-@ vaulted powder magazine . This fort , combined with Cromwell 's Castle , the Martello tower and Fort Falkland would have protected both the town and the river crossing from all angles .
= = = = Martello Tower = = = =
Martello towers ( or simply Martellos ) are small defensive forts built in several countries of the British Empire during the 19th century , from the time of the Napoleonic Wars onwards . They stand up to 40 feet ( 12 m ) high ( with two floors ) and typically had a garrison of one officer and 15 – 25 men . Their round structure and thick walls of solid masonry made them resistant to cannon fire , while their height made them an ideal platform for a single heavy artillery piece , mounted on the flat roof and able to traverse a 360 ° arc . Fear of an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte reached panic proportions amongst the authorities in Ireland and England in 1804 and the first towers were built in Ireland that year .
In case an invasion fleet tried to sail up the River Shannon , two towers were built on the middle reaches of the river to defend its crossing points . One of these was located at Meelick and the other at Banagher . The tower at Banagher is located on the west ( Galway ) bank of the river and measures 36 feet ( 11 m ) in diameter and height . The tower was described in 1970 as having " ... no corbels , a ridge around the top , much vegetation growing around it , and its general condition is fair . "
= = = = Memorials and sculptures = = = =
A memorial in the form of a stone Celtic Cross is situated at the eastern side of the town . It is known as the Barnes & McCormack Memorial and dedicated to two local men who were executed in Birmingham in 1940 for their involvement in the Coventry Explosion of 1939 in which five people died . The executions caused a public outcry in Britain and internationally as the men had admitted to constructing the bomb , which was intended to be used to destroy a power station , but claimed not to be involved in planting it . The cross was erected in 1963 by The Barnes & McCormack Memorial Committee in association with The National Graves Committee and bears an inscription in both Irish and English : " In commemoration of Staff Captain James McCormack and Company Captain Peter Barnes , Irish Republican Army , who for love of country , were executed by the British Government at Winson Green Prison , Birmingham on the 7th February 1940 . " The monument was sculpted by Desmond Broe of Dublin and features images of the two men , a female head representing Ireland and symbols of the four provinces .
In December 2011 the Zimbabwean artist , Parazai Havatitye , a sculptor who specialises in wood carving , created a sculpture from a tree stump , entitled The Musician , which is dedicated to the musician Johnny McEvoy , who was born in Banagher in 1945 . The sculpture is located on the main road , at the gate of the marina .
= = = Places of worship = = =
Arising from its history as a plantation garrison town , Banagher has active Catholic and Church of Ireland communities . The lane between Market Square and Pucka Lane ( formerly Queen Street ) is called Church Lane and it is here that the first church in Banagher was sited . The 6th @-@ century abbey of St. Rynagh is now in ruins . This church later became the Church of the Blessed Mary in the 16th century , and was also known as the Church of Banagher . According to tradition , the Cross of Banagher once stood next to a crystal spring in the Market Square . The surviving sandstone shaft of the cross was found in the churchyard by a Birr antiquarian named Thomas Cooke in the 1840s and was in reasonable condition then as he described it in great detail in an article in the Transactions of the Kilkenny Archaeological Society in 1853 . The stone that he found appears to have been part of a sepulchral or commemorative cross , set up at Banagher well to record the death of Bishop William O 'Duffy , who was killed by a fall from his horse in 1297 . Cooke had become so perturbed by the deterioration of the stone by 1852 that he had it removed to his residence in Birr . It is now housed in the National Museum of Ireland in Dublin .
The Church of Ireland community had worshipped at the old church , which was in a ruinous state by 1829 when the new St. Paul 's Church was built at the top of the hill , overlooking the town . The new Catholic church of St. Rynagh 's had been constructed some three years earlier and on land given by the Armstrongs , the most influential and wealthiest Protestant family in the area , who consistently and energetically advocated Catholic Emancipation and repeal of the Penal Laws . This situation demonstrated the friendly relations that existed between the two communities in Banagher during those difficult times for Catholics in Ireland .
St. Rynagh 's Church houses a work by the well @-@ known German sculptor , Imogen Stuart , called The Madonna and Child , a mandorla carved in 1974 . The most outstanding feature of St. Paul 's Church is the Window of the Resurrection , a stained @-@ glass window commemorating the Bell family that was originally intended for Westminister Abbey in London .
= = = Literature and the arts = = =
Banagher has a thriving poetry scene and an annual poetry festival called Readings from the Pallet takes place in local bars . The town was one of the settings for the series Pure Mule , as featured on RTÉ television . The mini @-@ series was an RTÉ production and shot in 2005 in Banagher , Birr and Tullamore . The series was favourably received by the critics , although some locals maintain that it portrays Midlanders in a bad light . The series won four IFTA awards in 2005 .
Johnny McEvoy is a well known singer and songwriter of the country and Irish genre who was born in Banagher in 1945 . He has had a number of chart hits since the 1960s and has toured extensively , both in Ireland and abroad .
The internationally renowned folk @-@ singer Roger Whittaker took up residence in Banagher for about 10 years until 2006 . During the time he purchased and renovated Lairakeen House .
Mark Boylan is a singer / songwriter from Banagher . He was born in 1997 and first came to prominence when he wrote the theme song for the 2011 Cheltenham horse racing festival in England . The song is entitled The Festival and it received over 40 @,@ 000 views on YouTube . Boylan went on to write a song for one of the biggest horse races in the world , The Breeders ' Cup . He performed the song at the event which took place at Churchill Downs in Louisville , Kentucky on 4 November 2011 . The proceeds of the song went to the Permanently Disabled Jockeys Fund ( PDJF ) and the song was made available through the iTunes medium .
In the past Banagher was noted for a number of crafts , including pottery and a popular pottery company , called Crannóg Pottery , was established at the West End by Valerie Landon in the early 1950s . It closed down in the 1980s . The town has also had a number of well @-@ known writers staying for varying periods of time .
= = = = Anthony Trollope = = = =
Banagher 's greatest literary association is probably with Anthony Trollope , who became one of the most successful , prolific and respected English novelists of the Victorian era . Trollope had been employed by the General Post Office in 1835 and was sent to Ireland in September 1841 at the age of 26 . Trollope had had an unhappy life up to that point and remarked in his autobiography : " This was the first good fortune of my life . " After landing in Dublin on 15 September , he travelled by canal @-@ boat to Shannon Harbour and then on to Banagher , arriving on 16 September , which coincided with the second day of the annual Great Fair . Although very much smaller than the town of Birr , which is only eight miles away , Banagher had been chosen as the base of a Postal Surveyorship , probably because its position on the Shannon offered easy access by can boat to Dublin and Limerick .
Trollope established himself at The Shannon Hotel , a long bow @-@ fronted Georgian building , which was over 100 years old at that time . The hotel , which still exists , is located at the bottom of the town , a mere one hundred yards from the river . The post office where Trollope worked was at the top of the town , which is only a matter of minutes on foot . Next to the post office was a two @-@ roomed bungalow which was used by the Postal Surveyor and his new deputy as their working headquarters . This building is often erroneously considered to have been the residence of Trollope himself .
Although Trollope 's initial knowledge of Ireland was limited , he soon discovered that the Irish were good @-@ humoured and clever – " ... the working classes very much more intelligent than those in England . They were not , as they were reputed to be , spendthrifts , but were economical , hospitable and kind . " Their chief defects , he judged , were that they could switch to being very perverse and very irrational , and that they were " but little bound by the love of truth . "
Trollope remained stationed at Banagher until late 1844 when he was transferred to Clonmel . It was while in Banagher that Trollope began to write his first novel , The Macdermots of Ballycloran . He had begun to contemplate this novel whilst walking outside Drumsna in County Leitrim where the ruins of Ballycloran House stood into the 1840s and were still there in the 1970s . Trollope had been up in Leitrim inspecting the accounts of an errant postmaster . He thought the ruins of Ballycloran " one of the most melancholy spots I had ever visited " and he later described it in the first chapter of his novel . Although , his first novel was initially unsuccessful , Trollope was undeterred and in all , went on to write forty @-@ seven novels , as well as dozens of short stories and a few books on travel . He returned to England in 1856 and by the mid @-@ 1860s had reached a fairly senior position within the Post Office hierarchy . Postal history credits him with introducing the pillar box ( the ubiquitous bright red mail @-@ box ) to Britain . Anthony Trollope died in London in 1882 and is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery .
= = = = Charlotte Brontë = = = =
Charlotte Brontë had a brief association with Banagher in the mid @-@ 1850s when she married one Arthur Bell Nicholls , her father 's curate . Nicholls was born of Scottish parents in County Antrim in 1818 . He was orphaned early and subsequently brought up by his uncle , Alan Bell , in Banagher . Alan Bell was headmaster at the Royal School at Cuba Court at that time . The couple honeymooned in Ireland and stayed at Cuba Court for a period in June 1854 . According to Pope Hennessy , Mrs. Nicholls disliked both Banagher and its inhabitants , although she greatly admired the surrounding countryside .
If Bell Nicholls was a poor unknown curate in England – in Banagher he was a member of a respectable family . In a letter quoted by Elizabeth Gaskell in her book The Life of Charlotte Brontë , Charlotte wrote : " My dear husband , too , appears in a new light in his own country . More than once I have had deep pleasure in hearing his praises on all sides . Some of the old servants and followers of the family tell me I am a most fortunate person ; for that I have got one of the best gentlemen in the country .... I trust I feel thankful to God for having enabled me to make what seems a right choice ; and I pray to be enabled to repay as I ought the affectionate devotion of a truthful , honourable man . "
In January 1855 , Brontë discovered she was pregnant . It was accompanied by severe illness and she died on 31 March 1855 , officially from tuberculosis . Mr. Nicholls remained with Brontë 's father for a further six years before returning to Banagher in 1861 , taking with him his wife 's portrait , her wedding dress ( of which a copy has been made ) , some of Charlotte 's letters and other mementoes . Forty years later , when the critic Clement Shorter prepared to write Charlotte Brontë and Her Circle , he found at Banagher among other relics , two diaries of Emily and Anne , in a tin box , and some of Charlotte 's minute childhood writings wrapped in newspaper at the bottom of a drawer .
= = = = James Pope Hennessy = = = =
James Pope @-@ Hennessy came to Banagher in 1970 to write his biography of Anthony Trollope . Pope Hennessy had published his first book , London Fabric in 1939 , for which he was awarded the Hawthornden Prize and was a well @-@ established biographer and travel writer by the time he arrived in Banagher . Among his more notable works were a biography of Queen Mary for which he was rewarded by being created a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1960 , Verandah ( 1964 ) a biography of his grandfather , the Irish colonial governor John Pope Hennessy and Sins of the Fathers ( 1967 ) , an account of the Atlantic slave traffickers .
Like Trollope before him , Pope Hennessy took rooms at The Shannon Hotel , near the river and set about trying to capture the essence of the town which had inspired Trollope 's first novel , The Macdermots of Ballycloran . He proved to be a very popular figure in the town , evidenced by the fact that he was asked to adjudicate at a local beauty pageant and the horse fair . Pope Hennessy gives particular mention to the Corcoran family , the proprietors of The Shannon Hotel in the 1960s and 1970s , for their help in the production of his work . They sold the hotel in 1977 .
Pope Hennessy stayed in Banagher from March 1970 to April 1971 and largely completed his study of Trollope during this time . The finished biography , Anthony Trollope , won the Whitbread Award for Biography in 1972 and is largely regarded as Pope Hennessy 's finest work since Queen Mary . Pope Hennessy grew very fond of Banagher and returned to stay at The Shannon Hotel a number of times before his premature death in 1974 . This is illustrated by his description of Banagher in Anthony Trollope : " ... in Trollope 's words , Banagher then seemed ' little more than a village ' . It retains a quality of friendly village life to this day and can have changed little since Trollope 's time , save that its population has declined to eleven hundred . "
= = = = Sir Jonah Barrington = = = =
Sir Jonah Barrington was born in 1760 near Abbeyleix in the Queen 's County ( Co . Laois ) . He was first elected to Parliament as a member for Tuam in 1790 . He lost this seat in 1798 and was elected as a member for Banagher in 1799 . He voted against the Act of Union in 1801 and as a result he was deprived of his £ 1 @,@ 000 a year sinecure in the Customs House and this also stopped his further advancement . In 1809 he published , in five parts , the first volume of the Historic Memoirs of Ireland . It is thought that he was induced to delay the second volume – the English government shrinking from the exposure of their conduct in carrying the Act of Union , and it was understood that to purchase his silence he was permitted to reside in France from about 1815 .
In 1827 , he published two volumes of Personal Sketches of His Own Times . In 1830 , by an address from both Houses of Parliament , he was removed from the Bench , in consequence of well @-@ proven misappropriation of public moneys . The third volume of Personal Sketches appeared in 1833 as did the delayed volume of his Historic Memoirs . This book was subsequently reproduced in a cheaper form as The Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation . His works are interesting , racy , and valuable – although his statements of fact cannot always be depended on – containing much of personal incident , related in a fascinating style . He died at Versailles on 8 April 1834 .
= = In popular culture = =
The town of Banagher is most likely the source of a phrase that is widely known in many English speaking countries in the world . " That beats Banagher ! " is a common reaction to something extraordinary or to describe something that surpasses everything . The most commonly proposed explanation is that Banagher was entitled to send two members to Parliament following its charter of incorporation in 1628 . It was known as an infamous pocket borough where the members were representative of the landed class , or indeed nominated by the local lord , without a vote taking place at all . When a member of the house spoke of a family ( or rotten ) borough , it was not unusual for someone to reply " Well , that beats Banagher ! "
An alternative explanation is suggested , whereby there was an Irish minstrel called Bannagher , who was famous for telling wonderful stories ; and a line from W.B. Yeats gives this theory some credence : " ' Well ' , says he , ' to gratify them I will . So just a morsel . But Jack , this beats Bannagher . ' " There is also an entry in Captain Francis Grose 's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue of 1785 which says : " He beats Banaghan ; an Irish saying of one who tells wonderful stories . Perhaps Banaghan was a minstrel famous for dealing in the marvellous " .
There are numerous uses of the phrase in literature , including Trollope 's The Kelly 's and the O 'Kellys ( 1848 ) , p . 221 ; James Joyce 's Finnegan 's Wake ( 1939 ) , p . 87 @.@ 31 ; James Plunkett 's Farewell Companions ( 1977 ) , p . 293 and Edna O 'Brien 's Down by the River ( 1996 ) , p . 1 .
The phrase has a riposte : " And Banagher beats the Devil ! " . The origins of this are more difficult to trace but it does feature in a work by the Irish writer Brian Oswald Donn @-@ Byrne , Messer Marco Polo ( 1925 ) , p . 25 , and it is in common usage in Ireland . Trollope asserted on his arrival in Ireland , " I was to live at a place called Banagher on the Shannon which I had heard of because of its having once been conquered , though it had heretofore conquered everything , including the Devil " . Interestingly , a John O 'Donovan , in an Ordnance Survey letter for King 's County in 1838 , attempts to trace the origins of the name Banagher . He states : " Of all the words which enter into Irish nomenclature Beannchair seems the most difficult of explanation " and goes on to say " This name ' beats the Devil . ' " M.F. Kenny in his 2003 book Marathon Marriage uses a story of the devil losing a game of cards to a blacksmith named Banagher at the Black Stile at Garry Castle on the road between Banagher and Birr , as an explanation for the phrase .
= = Education = =
St. Rynagh 's National School ( NS ) caters for children between the ages of 4 and 12 and accommodates approximately 200 students . Secondary education is provided by Banagher College ( Coláiste na Sionna ) , a multi denominational school under the responsibility of Laois and Offaly Education and Training Board . Banagher College is an amalgamation of La Sainte Union Secondary School and St. Rynagh 's Community College . La Sainte Union is a voluntary Catholic School run by the Sisters of La Sainte @-@ Union des Sacrés @-@ Coeurs , a congregation founded in France in 1826 by Abbé Jean @-@ Baptiste Debrabant to promote Christian education . The school was their first in Ireland and opened its doors in 1863 in a house on Main Street when the Abbé arrived with Mother Anatolie Badger and three sisters of the order .
St Rynagh 's CC , originally known as Banagher Vocational School , opened in 1953 with 40 students enrolling under the guidance of the first principal , Ms. Elsie Naughton . Amalgamation discussions began in 1999 and by November 2005 it was agreed that a new school be constructed on the La Sainte Union site . The school accommodates approximately 500 students .
= = Sport = =
Banagher is most associated with the game of hurling and is home to St. Rynagh 's GAA Club . The club was founded in 1961 and represents the parishes of Banagher and Cloghan , with hurling played at Banagher and football at Cloghan . St. Rynagh 's has won 16 Offaly Senior Hurling Championships ( Sean Robins Cup ) and dominated senior hurling in the county from the mid @-@ 1960s to the early 1990s . Outside of the county , St. Rynagh 's were the inaugural winners of the Leinster Senior Club Hurling Championship , in 1971 and have won the title on a further three occasions , 1973 , 1983 and 1994 . The club also contested the first All @-@ Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship final in 1971 , losing to Roscrea from County Tipperary . Three St. Rynagh 's players have captained the Offaly hurling team to All @-@ Ireland success , Padraig Horan in 1981 , Martin Hanamy in 1994 and Hubert Rigney in 1998 . A number of St. Rynagh 's players have also won All Stars – Martin Hanamy ( 3 ) , Aidan Fogarty ( 2 ) , Damien Martin , Padraig Horan , Hubert Rigney and Michael Duignan . Damien Martin was the goalkeeper on the first All Stars team in 1971 , effectively making him the first ever GAA All Star .
Banagher schools have won the All @-@ Ireland Vocational Schools Championship on seven occasions . Banagher College were the most recent winners of the senior championship in 2010 , with Banagher having won on three previous occasions , in 1985 , 1986 and 1989 . Banagher also won a junior championship in 1984 and St. Rynagh 's Banagher won a junior championship in 2004 .
In 1910 , Banagher won the Offaly Senior Football Championship title , playing as Banagher .
Soccer is popular in Banagher and the Banagher United club fields teams in the Midlands Senior and Junior Leagues .
A Billiards and Snooker Hall is located between The Shannon Hotel and the Marina and has an active membership . There is a Pitch & Putt course located adjacent to Cromwell 's Castle on the Canal Bank and part of the river on this bank has been enclosed to form a swimming pool . There is also an active Sub Aqua Club in the town .
= Guitar Hero : Van Halen =
Guitar Hero : Van Halen is the third and final band @-@ specific music rhythm game in the Guitar Hero series . As with the previous games Guitar Hero : Aerosmith and Guitar Hero : Metallica , the game features 25 songs from Van Halen along with 19 additional songs from selected artists that have been inspired by the group . The game was released in retail for the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Wii systems on December 22 , 2009 , in North America , and in February 2010 for PAL regions . However , as part of a promotion with Guitar Hero 5 , the game was shipped to Guitar Hero 5 purchasers in North America prior to its retail release . The game was developed by Neversoft with Underground Development assisting Neversoft on developing the Xbox 360 port and published by Activision .
The game has received mostly negative reviews from critics , most of which consider the game 's quality to be greatly inferior to its predecessor , Guitar Hero : Metallica and other games of the series . The reviewers criticized the lack of former Van Halen members , Sammy Hagar , Michael Anthony and Gary Cherone , the limited tracks selected from Van Halen 's discography , the selection of other tracks included in the game , and the general lack of features introduced in the previous band @-@ centric games and Guitar Hero 5 .
= = Gameplay = =
Guitar Hero : Van Halen is similar to the preceding band @-@ centric game , Guitar Hero : Metallica , featuring support for four players in a single band on lead and bass guitar , drums , and vocals . The game is based off the engine originating from Guitar Hero World Tour , and thus does not feature the additions that are present in Guitar Hero 5 , such as drop @-@ in / drop @-@ out play .
Only the current members of the band — Eddie Van Halen , David Lee Roth , Alex Van Halen and Wolfgang Van Halen — are playable avatars in the game for the Van Halen songs ; former band members Sammy Hagar , Gary Cherone and Michael Anthony are not included . The band appear as they did in 2009 but , by completing challenges in the game , players can unlock their older appearances from the " spandex era [ … ] with the big hair and tight pants " . Despite not being alive during this period of the band 's history , Wolfgang Van Halen 's avatar has a retro outfit copied from the dice @-@ shirt @-@ and @-@ patchwork @-@ jeans getup worn by his father in the video for " Panama " .
A demo of the game was released to Xbox Live on December 9 , 2009 , featuring two Van Halen songs , " Eruption " and " Panama " , along with Weezer 's " Dope Nose " and Killswitch Engage 's " The End of Heartache " .
= = Development = =
While the game was formally announced by Activision on May 7 , 2009 , several sources reported a month earlier that Van Halen was in development . USK , the German software ratings board , posted a content rating for a Van Halen @-@ based game in the series . GameStop temporarily listed the game for pre @-@ order during the month of April . A list of Xbox 360 Achievements was posted to the Internet in early May .
Throughout September 2009 , people who purchased or preordered Guitar Hero 5 in the US were given a code which they could redeem to receive a free copy of Guitar Hero : Van Halen prior to its retail release . These copies began arriving to customers in early October for PlayStation 2 , Xbox 360 , and Wii players , while the PlayStation 3 version was delayed due to a printing error . The game came in a cardboard sleeve with cover art indicating that it was for promotional use .
= = Soundtrack = =
Like the other band @-@ centric Guitar Hero games , Guitar Hero : Van Halen includes 25 songs from the band Van Halen , including 3 guitar solos by Eddie Van Halen , in addition to 19 guest acts . The Van Halen songs in the game are taken during the time when David Lee Roth was in the band , and do not include any works during the period that Sammy Hagar and Gary Cherone were band members ; Activision 's head of music licensing , Tim Riley , notes that the lack of such material was not due to any demands or requests made by David Lee Roth . Riley also stated that most of the guest acts were selected by Wolfgang Van Halen , at the suggestion of Roth . The following songs are included in the game :
^ + Song contains both a single and double bass drums chart . ^ a Song is a guitar solo by Eddie Van Halen .
= = Reception = =
Early reviews of the promotional version of the game received by redeeming a code that came with Guitar Hero 5 were critical of the game . IGN 's Erik Brudvig rated the game 4 @.@ 9 / 10 , citing problems with the lack of relevance of Van Halen relative to the culture of the 2000s , including having their avatars based on their current appearances rather than that of their 80s heyday , the lack of songs from Sammy Hagar 's period in the band , and the lack of features since introduced with Guitar Hero 5 . Brudvig ultimately stated that those who got the game free through the Guitar Hero 5 promotion " got what they paid for " . Robert Workman of Game Daily was less critical of the title , but still noted that the game lacked features , including some mention of Hagar and Gary Cherone and songs from their period with the band , and felt that the title was below the quality of Guitar Hero : Metallica . Both Brudvig and Workman commented positively on the sound recordings and the note tracking of the Van Halen songs .
Guitar Hero : Van Halen reviews following its release were similarly negative . Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica considered the game 's limited coverage of the band 's history to be " a sadly revisionist and dishonest take " , and felt that the non @-@ Van Halen songs clashed with the band 's own material . Kuchera further pointed to Activision 's distribution strategy for the game , stating that he felt that giving the game away free with Guitar Hero 5 showed that Activision did not have confidence in the game . Philip Horton of The Telegraph was critical of the game 's song selection , the band 's modern appearance , and the lack of any additional extras compared with either the previous band @-@ centric games or Guitar Hero 5 , and described it as " the weakest offering in the series to date " . Kate Carter of The Guardian commented that the game is " neither one thing or the other " , as it neither succeeds at bringing anything new to the Guitar Hero series nor fully pays tribute to Van Halen . Computer and Video Games ' review complained about the " shoddy character models " and described it as " the laziest Guitar Hero yet " , and Nathan Meunier of GamePro said that while the Van Halen songs were good and challenging , the remaining tracks did not fit the theme of the game , and that " the lackluster presentation makes the game feel more like a glorified track pack than a true homage " .
Guitar Hero : Van Halen sold fewer than 75 @,@ 000 units across all platforms in North America from December 22 to 31 , 2009 , according to NPD Group . As of April 2010 , the game has sold fewer than 250 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , with only 95 @,@ 000 units sold in North America . These numbers do not include copies of the game distributed in conjunction with Guitar Hero 5 .
= Nancy Mitford =
Nancy Freeman @-@ Mitford CBE ( 28 November 1904 – 30 June 1973 ) , known as Nancy Mitford , was an English novelist , biographer and journalist . One of the renowned Mitford sisters and one of the " Bright Young People " on the London social scene in the inter @-@ war years , she is best remembered for her novels about upper @-@ class life in England and France and for her sharp and often provocative wit . She also established a reputation for herself as a writer of popular historical biographies .
Mitford enjoyed a privileged childhood as the eldest daughter of the Hon. David Freeman @-@ Mitford , later 2nd Baron Redesdale . Educated privately , she had no training as a writer before publishing her first novel in 1931 . This early effort and the three that followed it created little stir ; it was her two semi @-@ autobiographical postwar novels , The Pursuit of Love ( 1945 ) and Love in a Cold Climate ( 1949 ) , that established her reputation . Mitford 's marriage to Peter Rodd in 1933 proved unsatisfactory to both ( they divorced in 1957 after a lengthy separation ) , and during the Second World War she formed a liaison with a Free French officer , Gaston Palew
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49137 .
Voltaire in Love . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1957 . OCLC 459588409 .
The Sun King . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1966 . OCLC 229419330 .
Frederick the Great . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1970 . ISBN 0 @-@ 241 @-@ 01922 @-@ 2 .
= = = Drama = = =
The Little Hut . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1951 . OCLC 317377443 . ( Play , translated and adapted from André Roussin 's La petite hutte )
= = = As editor = = =
The Ladies of Alderley : Letters 1841 – 1850 . London : Chapman & Hall . 1938 . OCLC 408486 .
The Stanleys of Alderley : Letters 1851 – 1865 . London : Chapman & Hall . 1939 . OCLC 796961504 .
Noblesse oblige : An inquiry into the identifiable characteristics of the English aristocracy . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1956 . OCLC 219758991 . The book includes Mitford 's essay " The English Aristocracy " , first published in Encounter , September 1955
= = = Collections of letters = = =
Mosley , Charlotte ( ed . ) ( 1993 ) . Love from Nancy : The Letters of Nancy Mitford . London : Hodder & Stoughton . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 340 @-@ 53784 @-@ 8 .
Mosley , Charlotte ( ed . ) ( 1996 ) . The Letters of Nancy Mitford and Evelyn Waugh . London : Hodder & Stoughton . ISBN 0 @-@ 340 @-@ 63804 @-@ 4 .
Smith , John Saumarez ( ed . ) ( 2004 ) . The Bookshop at 10 Curzon Street : Letters between Nancy Mitford and Heywood Hill 1952 – 73 . London : Frances Lincoln . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7112 @-@ 2452 @-@ 0 .
Mosley , Charlotte ( ed . ) ( 2007 ) . The Mitfords : Letters Between Six Sisters . London : Fourth Estate . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84115 @-@ 790 @-@ 0 .
= = = Other works = = =
Mitford was a prolific writer of articles , reviews , essays and prefaces , some of which were published in two collections : The Water Beetle ( Hamish Hamilton , 1962 ) and A Talent to Annoy ( Hamish Hamilton , 1986 ) . Her translation of Madame Lafayette 's romantic novel La Princess de Clèves was published in America in 1950 , but was heavily criticised .
= Amphicoelias =
Amphicoelias ( / ˌæmfᵻˈsiːliəs / , meaning " biconcave " , from the Greek αμφι , amphi : " on both sides " , and κοιλος , koilos : " hollow , concave " ) is a genus of herbivorous sauropod dinosaur that is probably synonymous with the genus Diplodocus . It includes what has sometimes been estimated to be the largest dinosaur specimen ever discovered , originally named " A. fragillimus " . Based on surviving descriptions of a single fossil bone , scientists had over the years estimated A. fragillimus to have been the longest known animal at 58 metres ( 190 ft ) in length , with potentially a mass of up to 122 @.@ 4 tonnes ( 135 short tons ) . However , because the only fossil remains were lost at some point after being studied and described in the 1870s , evidence survived only in drawings and field notes . More recent analysis of the surviving evidence , and the biological plausibility of such a large land animal , has suggested that the enormous size of this animal were over @-@ estimates due partly to typographical errors in the original 1878 description .
= = Description = =
The type species of Amphicoelias , A. altus , was named by paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope in December 1877 ( though not published until 1878 ) for an incomplete skeleton consisting of two vertebrae , a pubis ( hip bone ) , and a femur ( upper leg bone ) . Cope also named a second species , A. fragillimus , in the same paper . However , all subsequent researchers have considered A. fragillimus to be a synonym of A. altus . Even by 1881 however , it was recognized that A. altus could not be distinguished from other genera , as the features described by Cope were misinterpreted and are widespread . In 1921 , Osborn and Mook assigned additional bones to A. altus — a scapula ( shoulder blade ) , a coracoid ( shoulder bone ) , an ulna ( lower arm bone ) , and a tooth . Henry Fairfield Osborn and Charles Craig Mook noted the overall close similarity between Amphicoelias and Diplodocus , as well as a few key differences , such as proportionally longer forelimbs in Amphicoelias than in Diplodocus . The dentition of Amphicoelias is homodont . Its teeth are shaped like long slender cylindrical rods , are spaced apart and project forward towards the front of the mouth . The femur of Amphicoelias is unusually long , slender , and round in cross section ; while this roundness was once thought to be another distinguishing characteristic of Amphicoelias , it has since been found in some specimens of Diplodocus as well . A. altus was also similar in size to Diplodocus , estimated to be about 25 m ( 82 ft ) long . While most scientists have used these details to distinguish Amphicoelias and Diplodocus as separate genera , at least one has suggested that Amphicoelias is probably the senior synonym of Diplodocus .
= = History = =
Amphicoelias fragillimus was collected by Oramel Lucas , a fossil collector employed by E. D. Cope , shortly after he was hired by Cope in 1877 . Lucas discovered a partial vertebra ( the neural arch and spine ) of the new sauropod species in Garden Park , north of Cañon City , Colorado , close to the quarry that yielded Camarasaurus . The vertebra was in poor condition , but astonishingly large , measuring 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) up to 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) in height . Lucas shipped the specimen to Cope in the spring or early summer of 1878 , and Cope published it as the holotype specimen ( catalogue number AMNH 5777 ) of a new species , A. fragillimus , that August . The name derives from the Latin fragillimus ( " very fragile " ) , referring to the delicateness of the bone produced by very thin laminae ( vertebral walls ) . As revealed in Cope 's notebooks , which he recorded based on Lucas ' report on excavation site locations in 1879 , the specimen came from a hill south of the Camarasaurus quarry now known as " Cope 's Nipple . " While Cope originally wrote that the site belonged to the Dakota Formation ( mid @-@ Cretaceous in age ) , the presence of dinosaurs such as Camarasaurus in the same rocks indicates that they probably belong to the Morrison Formation , which places the age of the site at 150 million years ago in the late Jurassic period , specifically the Tithonian age .
The gigantic bones attributed to A. fragillimus have often been ignored in summaries of the largest dinosaurs partly because , according to various subsequent reports , the whereabouts of both the vertebra and the femur are unknown , and all attempts to locate them have failed . Carpenter , in 2006 , presented a possible scenario for the disappearance of the A. fragillimus specimens . As Cope noted in his description , the neural arch bone material was very fragile , and techniques to harden and preserve fossil bone had not yet been invented ( Cope 's rival , paleontologist O.C. Marsh , was the first to use such chemicals , in the early 1880s ) . Carpenter observed that the fossil bones known from the A. fragillimus quarry would have been preserved in deeply weathered mudstone , which tends to crumble easily and fragment into small , irregular cubes . Therefore , the bone may have crumbled badly and been discarded by someone at the American Museum of Natural History ( possibly even by Cope himself ) soon after he illustrated it in rear view for his paper . Carpenter suggested that this may explain why Cope drew the vertebra in only one view , rather than from multiple angles as he did for his other discoveries .
In 1994 , an attempt was made to relocate the original quarry where A. fragillimus and other species had been found , using ground @-@ penetrating radar in an attempt to image bones still buried in the ground . This attempt failed because the fossilized mudstone bones were the same density as the surrounding rock , making it impossible to differentiate the two . A study of the local topography also showed that the fossil @-@ bearing rock strata was severely eroded , and probably was so at the time Lucas made his discovery of A. fragillimus , indicating that a majority of the skeleton was gone by the time the vertebra and femur were recovered .
Cope 's description of A. fragillimus has been met with skepticism , with some researchers noting that there were typographical errors in his measurements . For example , the measurement units are given in ( obviously incorrect ) centimeters rather than millimeters . Carpenter argued that there is every reason to take Cope at his word , noting that the paleontologist 's reputation was at stake . The discovery took place during the Bone Wars , and Cope 's rival Marsh , who was " ever ready to humiliate " Cope , never called the claims into question . Marsh was known to have employed spies to monitor Cope 's discoveries , and may have even had confirmation of the enormous size of the Amphicoelias fragillimus bones . Paleontologists Henry Fairfield Osborn and C.C. Mook in 1921 , as well as John S. McIntosh in 1998 , also accepted Cope 's data without question in published reviews . In 2015 , Woodruff and Foster published an analysis of the evidence and circumstances surrounding the publication and interpretation of A. fragillimus .
= = Size = =
Producing an estimate of the complete size of A. fragillimus requires scaling the bones of better @-@ known species of diplodocid ( a family of extremely long and slender sauropods ) in the assumption that their relative proportions were similar . In his original paper , Cope did this by speculating on the size of a hypothetical A. fragillimus femur ( upper leg bone ) . Cope noticed that in other sauropod dinosaurs , specifically A. altus and Camarasaurus supremus , the femora were always twice as tall as the tallest dorsal vertebra , and estimated the size of an A. fragillimus femur to be 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) tall .
In 1994 , using the related Diplodocus as a reference , Gregory S. Paul estimated a femur length of 3 @.@ 1 to 4 metres ( 10 to 13 ft ) for A. fragillimus . The 2006 re @-@ evaluation of A. fragillimus by Ken Carpenter also used Diplodocus as a scale guide , finding a femur height of 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 14 to 15 ft ) . Carpenter went on to estimate the complete size of A. fragillimus , though he cautioned that relative proportions in diplodocids could vary from species to species . Assuming the same proportions as the well @-@ known Diplodocus , Carpenter presented an estimated total length of 58 m ( 190 ft ) , which he noted fell within the range presented by Paul in 1994 ( 40 to 60 metres ( 130 to 200 ft ) ) . Carpenter pointed out that even the lowest length estimates for A. fragillimus were higher than those for other giant sauropods , such as the diplodocid Supersaurus ( 32 @.@ 5 metres ( 107 ft ) ) , the brachiosaurid Sauroposeidon ( 34 metres ( 112 ft ) ) , and the titanosaur Argentinosaurus ( 30 metres ( 98 ft ) ) . Carpenter presented more speculative , specific proportions for A. fragillimus ( again , based on a scaled @-@ up Diplodocus ) , including a neck length of 16 @.@ 75 metres ( 55 @.@ 0 ft ) , a body length of 9 @.@ 25 metres ( 30 @.@ 3 ft ) , and a tail length of 32 metres ( 105 ft ) . He estimated the total forelimb height at 5 @.@ 75 metres ( 18 @.@ 9 ft ) and hind limb height at 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) , and the overall height ( at the highest point on the back ) at 9 @.@ 25 metres ( 30 @.@ 3 ft ) . By comparison the blue whale , which is on average the longest living creature , reaches 30 metres ( 98 ft ) in length .
While A. fragillimus was relatively thin , its enormous size still made it very massive . Weight is much more difficult to determine than length in sauropods , as the more complex equations needed are prone to greater margins of error based on smaller variations in the overall proportions of the animal . Carpenter used Paul 's 1994 estimate of the mass of Diplodocus carnegii ( 11 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 11 @.@ 3 long tons ; 12 @.@ 7 short tons ) ) to speculate that A. fragillimus could have weighed up to 122 @.@ 4 metric tons ( 120 @.@ 5 long tons ; 134 @.@ 9 short tons ) . The heaviest blue whale on record weighed about 190 metric tons ( 190 long tons ; 210 short tons ) , and the heaviest dinosaur known from reasonably good remains , Argentinosaurus , weighed 80 to 100 metric tons ( 79 to 98 long tons ; 88 to 110 short tons ) , although if the size estimates can be validated , it could still be lighter than Bruhathkayosaurus , which has been estimated to have weighed 126 metric tons ( 124 long tons ; 139 short tons ) , but is also known from highly fragmentary remains .
Other unpublished estimates have appeared online . A paleoartist on DeviantArt estimated the length of A. fragillimus to be around 73 m ( 240 ft ) , based on a linear scaling of a 26 @.@ 25 meter long , 11 @.@ 5 tonne Diplodocus , assuming that A fragillimus was 2 @.@ 79 times larger in linear dimension . In 2010 , Mike Taylor addressed the issue of A. fragillimus 's size on the blog SV @-@ POW ( Sauropod Vertebrae Picture of the Week ) . Based on comparisons to A. altus and to Diplodocus , he estimated that it may have been around 49 m ( 161 ft ) long and 78 @.@ 5 tonnes . However , he concluded with the disclaimer that it is impossible to determine with any degree of certainty at all how large A. fragillimus was in reality because of the lack of accurate information .
= = Classification and species = =
Edward Drinker Cope described his finds in two 1878 issues of the American Naturalist , and assigned them to the new genus Amphicoelias . He placed it in a unique family , Amphicoeliidae , though this is now considered a nomen oblitum ( forgotten name ) . The genus is usually assigned to the family Diplodocidae , though some modern analyses have found it at the base of the larger group Diplodocoidea or as a diplodocid incertae sedis ( uncertain placement ) . The first named species in the genus , Amphicoelias altus ( holotype specimen AMHD 5764 ) , was discovered by Cope in 1877 . But while it is only represented by a partial skeleton , there are enough diagnostic characteristics to provisionally define the genus . A. altus is known from better remains , but is smaller than A. fragillimus . Cope also named a second species in 1878 : Amphicoelias latus .
The third named Amphicoelias species , A. fragillimus , was known only from a single , incomplete 1 @.@ 5 m tall neural arch ( the part of a vertebra with spines and processes ) , either last or second to last in the series of back vertebrae , D ( dorsal ) 10 or D9 . Based only on an illustration published in 1878 , this vertebra would have measured 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) tall in life . However , it has been argued that the scale bar in the published description contained a typographical error , and the fossil vertebra was in fact only 1 @.@ 38 metres ( 4 @.@ 5 ft ) tall . In addition to this vertebra , Cope 's field notes contain an entry for an " [ i ] mmense distal end of femur ” , located only a few tens of meters away from the giant vertebra . It is likely that this undescribed leg bone belonged to the same individual animal as the neural spine .
In 2010 , a monograph was made available , but not formally published , by Henry Galiano and Raimund Albersdorfer in which they referred a fourth species to Amphicoelias , as " A. brontodiplodocus " based on several complete specimens found in the Dana Quarry of Big Horn Basin , Wyoming and held in a private collection . The specific name referred to their hypothesis based on these specimens that nearly all Morrison diplodocid species are either growth stages or represent sexual dimorphism among members of the genus Amphicoelias , but this analysis has been met with skepticism and the publication itself has been disclaimed by its lead author , explaining that it is " obviously a drafted manuscript complete with typos , etc . , and not a final paper . In fact , no printing or distribution has been attempted " .
Osborn and Mook , in 1921 , provisionally synonymized the three species , sinking A. latus into Camarasaurus supremus , and suggesting also that A. fragillimus is just a very large individual of A. altus , a position which most subsequent studies , including McIntosh 1998 , Foster ( 2007 ) , and Woodruff and Foster ( 2015 ) have agreed with . Carpenter ( 2006 ) disagreed about the synonymy of A. altus and A. fragillimus , however , citing numerous differences in the construction of the vertebra also noted by Cope , and suggested these differences are enough to warrant a separate species or even a separate genus for A. fragillimus . However , he went on to caution that the validity of A. fragillimus as a separate species is nearly impossible to determine without the original specimen to study . Although Amphicoelias latus is clearly not Amphicoelias , it is probably synonymous with Camarasaurus grandis rather than C. supremus because it was found lower in the Morrison Formation and the deeply concave articular faces on the caudal vertebrae are more consistent with C. grandis .
In 2007 , John Foster suggested that the differences usually cited to differentiate Amphicoelias altus from the more well known Diplodocus are not significant and may be due to individual variation . Foster argued that Amphicoelias is probably the senior synonym of Diplodocus , and that if further research bears this out , the familiar name Diplodocus would need to be abandoned in favor of Amphicoelias , as was the case with Brontosaurus and its senior synonym Apatosaurus . In 2015 , Woodruff and Foster reiterated this conclusion , stating that there is only one species of Amphicoelias and that it could be referred to Diplodocus as Diplodocus altus . They considered the name Amphicoelias to be a nomen oblitum . It has also been hypothesized that Amphicoelias should be considered an apatosaurine , and therefore should be placed in the subfamily Apatosaurinae .
The following cladogram of the Diplodocidae after Tschopp , Mateus , and Benson ( 2015 ) instead shows A. altus outside Diplodocinae .
= = Paleobiology = =
In his 2006 re @-@ evaluation , Carpenter examined the paleobiology of giant sauropods , including Amphicoelias , and addresses the question of why this group attained such a huge size . He pointed out that gigantic sizes were reached early in sauropod evolution , with very large sized species present as early as the late Triassic Period , and concluded that whatever evolutionary pressure caused large size was present from the early origins of the group . Carpenter cited several studies of giant mammalian herbivores , such as elephants and rhinoceros , which showed that larger size in plant @-@ eating animals leads to greater efficiency in digesting food . Since larger animals have longer digestive systems , food is kept in digestion for significantly longer periods of time , allowing large animals to survive on lower @-@ quality food sources . This is especially true of animals with a large number of ' fermentation chambers ' along the intestine which allow microbes to accumulate and ferment plant material , aiding digestion . Throughout their evolutionary history , sauropod dinosaurs were found primarily in semi @-@ arid , seasonally dry environments , with a corresponding seasonal drop in the quality of food during the dry season . The environment of Amphicoelias was essentially a savanna , similar to the arid environments in which modern giant herbivores are found , supporting the idea that poor @-@ quality food in an arid environment promotes the evolution of giant herbivores . Carpenter argued that other benefits of large size , such as relative immunity from predators , lower energy expenditure , and longer life span , are probably secondary advantages .
The Morrison Formation environment in which Amphicoelias lived would have resembled a modern savanna , though since grass did not appear until the Late Cretaceous , ferns were probably the dominant plant and main food source for Amphicoelias . Though Engelmann et al . ( 2004 ) dismissed ferns as a sauropod food source due to their relatively low caloric content , Carpenter argued that the sauropod digestive system , well adapted to handle low @-@ quality food , allows for the consumption of ferns as a large part of the sauropod diet . Carpenter also noted that the occasional presence of large petrified logs indicate the presence of 20 – 30 m ( 66 – 98 ft ) tall trees , which would seem to conflict with the savanna comparison . However , the trees are rare , and since tall trees require more water than the savanna environment could generally provide , they probably existed in narrow tracts or " gallery forests " along rivers and gulleys where water could accumulate . Carpenter speculated that giant herbivores like Amphicoelias may have used the shade of the gallery forests to stay cool during the day , and done most of their feeding on the open savanna at night .
= Kesha =
Kesha Rose Sebert ( born March 1 , 1987 ) ( formerly stylized as Ke $ ha ) is an American singer , songwriter , and rapper . In 2005 , at age 18 , Kesha was signed to producer Dr. Luke 's label Kemosabe Records . Her breakthrough came in early 2009 after appearing on American rapper Flo Rida 's number @-@ one single " Right Round " . Her debut album , Animal , and her first extended play , Cannibal , were released in 2010 . Kesha 's music and image propelled her to immediate commercial success , with Animal debuting as the number @-@ one album in the United States . She also achieved two number @-@ one singles , " Tik Tok " and " We R Who We R " , and a string of top @-@ ten singles from the album and its re @-@ release . At the same time , she continued to write songs for other artists , including " Till the World Ends " for Britney Spears . Warrior , her second studio album , was released in December 2012 , spawning Kesha 's eighth top @-@ ten single with " Die Young " , and her ninth and tenth Top 40 hits with " C 'Mon " and " Crazy Kids " . " Tik Tok " is among the best @-@ selling digital singles in history , selling over 14 million units internationally .
Influenced by various genres and artists , Kesha primarily draws inspiration from music of the 1980s ; Madonna , Queen , and Beck have been cited as instrumental to her music . After experimenting with country , pop rock , and electronic music , Kesha stuck with the latter . Thematically , her music generally revolves around escapism , partying , individuality , supernatural moments , rebellion , and grief . Kesha has been involved with animal rights and LGBT activism . She has received several awards and nominations , including her win for MTV Europe Music Award for Best New Act in 2010 . As of November 2013 , she has reportedly sold over 33 million records ( albums , tracks , and ringtones ) in the United States and 60 million records worldwide .
= = Early life = =
Kesha was born in Los Angeles , California . Her mother , Patricia Rose " Pebe " Sebert , is a singer @-@ songwriter who co @-@ wrote the 1978 single " Old Flames Can 't Hold a Candle to You " with Hugh Moffatt for Joe Sun , made popular by country music artist Dolly Parton on her 1980 album Dolly , Dolly , Dolly . Pebe , a single mother , struggled financially while supporting herself , Kesha , and Kesha 's older brother Lagan ; they relied on welfare payments and food stamps to get by . When Kesha was an infant , Pebe would often have to look after her onstage while performing . Kesha says she has no knowledge of her father 's identity . However , a man named Bob Chamberlain who called himself her father approached Star magazine in 2011 with pictures and letters , claiming them as proof that they had been in regular contact as father and daughter before she turned 19 . Her mother is of German and Hungarian ( from Szentes ) descent . One of Kesha 's great @-@ grandfathers was Polish .
Pebe moved the family to Nashville , Tennessee , in 1991 after securing a new publishing deal for her songwriting . Pebe frequently brought Kesha and her brothers along to recording studios and encouraged Kesha to sing when she noticed Kesha 's vocal talent . Kesha attended Franklin High School and Brentwood High School , but claimed that she did not fit in , explaining that her unconventional style ( e.g. , homemade purple velvet pants and purple hair ) did not endear her to other students . She played the trumpet and later the saxophone in the marching band in school , and described herself in an interview with NPR as being a diligent student . After attaining a near @-@ perfect score on her SATs , she was offered a full scholarship at Barnard College , but instead chose to drop out before graduation to pursue her music career .
In addition to taking songwriting classes , Kesha was also taught how to write songs by Pebe , and they would often write together when she returned home from high school . Kesha began recording demos which Pebe would give to people she knew . Kesha was also in a band with Lagan . Kesha and Pebe co @-@ wrote the song " Stephen " together when Kesha was 16 , Kesha then tracked down David Gamson , a producer that she admired , from Scritti Politti who agreed to produce the song . She dropped out of school at 17 , after being convinced by Dr. Luke and Max Martin to return to Los Angeles to pursue a music career , and earned her GED after . Around this time , Pebe answered an ad by reality series The Simple Life , looking for an " eccentric " family to host Paris Hilton and Nicole Richie . The episode aired in 2005 . Luke and Martin had received one of Kesha 's demos from Samantha Cox , senior director of writer / publisher relations at Broadcast Music Incorporated , and were impressed . Two of the demos were described in a cover story for Billboard , the first " a gorgeously sung , self @-@ penned country ballad " and the second " a gobsmackingly awful trip @-@ hop track " where Kesha raps ad lib for a minute when she runs out of lyrics near the end . Dr. Luke stated in an interview for the story that it was the latter track that caught his attention , saying " when you 're listening to 100 CDs , that kind of bravado and chutzpah stand out . "
= = Life and career = =
= = = 2005 – 09 : Career beginnings = = =
In 2005 , at 18 , Kesha was signed to Dr. Luke 's label , Kemosabe Entertainment , and his music publishing company , Prescription Songs . Kemosabe Records is owned by Sony Music Entertainment and is located in Los Angeles , California . Sony Music Entertainment partnered with Dr. Luke to create Kemosabe Records . Some artists that have signed with Kemosabe Records are Juicy J , Rock City , Zara Larsson , Lil Bibby and many others . Kesha later sang background vocals for Paris Hilton 's single , " Nothing in This World " . Dr. Luke became preoccupied with other incoming projects , having enjoyed success writing and producing for pop star Kelly Clarkson 's album , Breakaway . Kesha then signed with David Sonenberg 's management company , DAS Communications Inc . , in 2006 , hardly interacting with Dr. Luke after that . DAS was tasked with obtaining a major label record deal for Kesha in a year 's time in exchange for 20 percent of her music income , with her having the option of ending the relationship if they failed . She worked with several writers and producers while at the company and ended up co @-@ writing Australian pop group The Veronicas ' single , " This Love " with producer Toby Gad . While furthering her career in studio , Kesha earned her living as a waitress . While struggling to get by , she began stylizing her name as Ke $ ha , explaining the dollar sign as an ironic gesture .
Kesha appeared in the video for her friend Katy Perry 's single " I Kissed a Girl " , and sang background vocals for the Dr. Luke @-@ produced song , " Lace and Leather " by Britney Spears in 2008 . DAS soon attracted the attention of songwriter and A & R Kara DioGuardi , who wanted to sign Kesha to Warner Bros. Records . The deal fell through due to her existing contract with Dr. Luke 's label . In September , she terminated her contract with DAS , reuniting with Dr. Luke . Kesha gained exposure in the mainstream media in early 2009 after appearing on rapper Flo Rida 's number one single , " Right Round " . The collaboration happened by accident ; she had walked into a recording session for the song with Flo Rida and Dr. Luke . Flo Rida wanted a female voice for the song ; Dr. Luke then suggested Kesha for the part . Flo Rida liked the end result so much that they did two more tracks . However , she is not credited for her feature on the United States release of " Right Round " and did not collect any money for the part . She also refused to appear in the video , explaining to men 's magazine Esquire that she wanted to make a name for herself on her own terms .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Breakthrough and Animal = = =
After failing to negotiate with Lava Records and Atlantic Records in 2009 , Kesha signed a multi @-@ album deal with RCA Records through Dr. Luke 's imprint . Having spent the previous six years working on material for her debut album , she began putting finishing touches to the album with Luke and Max Martin . For the album , she wrote 200 songs . The album was executive produced by Luke , who produced the majority of the songs with Martin , and producers Benny Blanco and Ammo . The album is primarily of the electropop genre with beats and synths , marking a shift in sound for Luke from then on from his signature pop @-@ rock productions . Animal debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 when it was released in January 2010 . It was certified platinum in the United States and had sold two million albums worldwide by September . The lead single of the album , " Tik Tok " , broke the record in the United States for the highest single week sales , selling 610 @,@ 000 digital downloads , the highest ever by a female artist since tracking began in 2003 . It spent nine weeks at number one and became the longest running number one by a female artist on her debut single since Debby Boone and " You Light Up My Life " in 1977 . As of 2015 , " Tik Tok " has sold about 15 million copies , becoming the second best @-@ selling single in the digital history – being the most sold single in history by a female solo artist . Subsequent singles from the album , " Blah Blah Blah " , " Your Love Is My Drug " and " Take It Off " achieved similar commercial success each reaching the top ten in Australia , Canada , and the United States . Kesha was also featured on two top ten singles by musician Taio Cruz and electro @-@ pop duo 3OH ! 3 .
Kesha 's deliberately unpolished aesthetic and juvenile stage persona , which she described as her own personality " times ten " , quickly made her a deeply polarizing figure . Some of her critics found her output to be unsophisticated , while others felt that she was manufactured and lacked credibility . Kesha 's former managers from DAS Communications Inc. filed a lawsuit later that month , seeking $ 14 million from Kesha and $ 12 million from Luke for commissions on her RCA Records deal , alleging that she had extended the deadline for them to get her a major record label contract and squeezed them out of her career under pressure from Dr. Luke . Kesha launched her own lawsuit in October , citing the California @-@ exclusive Talent Agencies Act and asking the California Labor Commissioner to declare her contract with DAS void because it had acted as an unlicensed talent agent while procuring work for her in California , where only licensed agents can do so . The case was settled in 2012 before the release of her second album . Kesha held a benefit concert on June 16 , 2010 where all proceeds went to aid victims of the May 2010 Tennessee floods from her hometown Nashville . She raised close to $ 70 @,@ 000 from the event . She was a supporting act on the summer North American leg of Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth Tour and was awarded Best New Act at the 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards . In November 2010 , Animal was re @-@ released with a companion extended play , Cannibal . The lead single taken from Cannibal , " We R Who We R " debuted at the top of the Billboard Hot 100 . With two number ones and four top ten hits , Kesha was named Hot 100 Artist of 2010 by Billboard , with " Tik Tok " topping the year @-@ end chart . The follow @-@ up single from Cannibal , " Blow " charted in the top ten on the Hot 100 . As of June 2011 , she has accumulated almost 21 million digital single downloads in the United States alone . In February 2011 , Kesha embarked on her first headlining world tour , Get Sleazy . The tour was expanded with a summer leg due to the first leg selling out and spanned three continents . Kesha also co @-@ wrote the song " Till the World Ends " for American popstar Britney Spears and she was featured on the remix of the song along with rapper Nicki Minaj . After meeting Kesha at the 2010 Grammy Awards and guesting at a number of her concerts , rock singer Alice Cooper asked her to write lyrics for and vocally perform as a devil character for their duet track , " What Baby Wants " , on Cooper 's album , Welcome 2 My Nightmare .
Kesha was named rights group Humane Society of the United States 's first global ambassador for animal rights , for which she is expected to bring attention to such practices as cosmetics testing on animals and shark finning . Kesha received the Wyler Award presented by The Humane Society as a celebrity or public figure who increases awareness of animal issues via the media . She received the award March 23 , 2013 at The 2013 Genesis Awards Benefit Gala . She also appeared alongside rock singer Iggy Pop in a campaign for PETA , protesting the clubbing of baby seals in Canada and later wrote on behalf of the organization to fast food chain McDonald 's over the conditions of their slaughterhouses .
= = = 2012 – 13 : Warrior and hiatus = = =
Kesha 's second studio album , Warrior was released on November 30 , 2012 . She began writing for the album while on her own headlining tour in 2011 . The album featured productions from her main collaborators Dr. Luke and Max Martin , as well as a song by Wayne Coyne , the lead singer of the alternative band The Flaming Lips . Coyne had reached out to Kesha for a collaboration after hearing that she was a fan of the band . Besides working on Kesha 's album , they recorded the song " 2012 ( You Must Be Upgraded ) " for the band 's album , The Flaming Lips and Heady Fwends . To coincide with the release of the album , Kesha released an illustrated autobiography , My Crazy Beautiful Life through Touchstone Books in November 2012 . The first single taken from Warrior was " Die Young " . The song debuted at number thirteen on Billboard Hot 100 and eventually peaked at number 2 . The song also charted across Europe and the Anglosphere and reached the top ten in Australia , Canada , and Belgium . " C 'Mon " , the album 's second single , underperformed commercially ; only peaking at 27 on Billboard Hot 100 and ending her string of top ten hits on the chart . Despite this , " C 'Mon " continued Kesha 's streak of top ten hits ( with nine ) on the Mainstream Top 40 Pop Songs chart graphed by Billboard . In March 2013 , Kesha announced the Warrior Tour , which will support the album . The North American leg was co @-@ headlined with rapper Pitbull . Kesha 's third single from Warrior , " Crazy Kids " , was released in April 2013 and also under @-@ performed , peaking at number 40 on the Hot 100 , number 19 on Mainstream Top 40 , yet did achieve massive success in South Korea and Belgium peaking at numbers 2 , and 5 in those countries respectively . A TV series documentary , Kesha : My Crazy Beautiful Life began airing on MTV in April 2013 .
In July 2013 , The Flaming Lips announced that they hoped to release a full @-@ length collaborative album with Kesha , called Lipsha , although it was eventually cancelled in the winter of the same year . Kesha sent a message to a fan expressing how it was out of her control and that she wanted to release the material , even for free , saying that she did not care about the money . On October 7 , 2013 , Kesha and Pitbull released a collaboration , " Timber " , produced by Luke , which was an international commercial success and became Kesha 's third number @-@ one and her eleventh top 10 single on the Hot 100 chart .
= = = 2014 – present : Personal struggles and lawsuit = = =
In January 2014 , Kesha checked into rehab , following this she chose to use her birth name in favor of her previous moniker , using a normal " s " instead of the symbol " $ " . In June 2014 , Kesha claimed a seat as an Expert in ABC 's Rising Star alongside Brad Paisley and Ludacris .
In October 2014 , Kesha sued producer Dr. Luke for alleged sexual assault and battery , sexual harassment , gender violence , emotional abuse , and violation of California business practices which had occurred over 10 years working together . The lawsuit went on for about a year before Kesha sought a preliminary injunction to release her from Kemosabe Records . On February 19 , 2016 , New York Supreme Court Justice Shirley Kornreich ruled against Kesha 's request . On April 6 , 2016 , Judge Shirley Kornreich rejected all of Kesha 's claims against Dr Luke .
On June 13 , 2015 , Kesha headlined LA ! Pride 2015 Presented by Christopher Street West in West Hollywood , California . On August 4 , 2015 , Kesha signed with SESAC Inc . Kesha guest starred in the second season of the U.S. television series Jane the Virgin , which aired on October 12 , 2015 . The singer played Annabelle , Jane 's hostile neighbor . As of August 2015 , Kesha has released little information about her upcoming third studio album . In her August 2014 Teen Vogue cover interview , Kesha revealed she had recorded 14 new songs while in rehab . On November 2 , 2014 , a new song written by Kesha titled " Lover " , reportedly from Kesha 's upcoming third studio album , was uploaded to Schpilkas ' SoundCloud , who produced the track alongside Spookey Ruben . The track was later included on Ruben 's album " Welsh Rarebits " . On June 10 , 2015 , Kesha posted a photo to Instagram that supposedly teased the title of her upcoming single " Child of the Moon " , but the photo has since been removed . Kesha also spoke about the song in her Teen Vogue interview , saying that it had a " Stevie Nicks @-@ witchy vibe " . In December 2015 , Kesha revealed that she had formed a country music and classic rock @-@ influenced band called Yeast Infection and performed a live show with the band in Nashville on December 23 .
Kesha appeared during Zedd 's slot at the 2016 Coachella festival to perform " True Colors " , a track from Zedd 's second studio album . The cameo marked her first high profile public performance since her ongoing legal battle with Dr. Luke . A studio version of the collaboration was released as a single on April 29 , 2016 . Kesha covered Bob Dylan 's song " It Ain 't Me Babe " at the 2016 Billboard Music Awards .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style and image = = =
Kesha wrote or co @-@ wrote every song on her first two albums and considers herself a songwriter primarily , writing for artists including Britney Spears and Miley Cyrus . She possesses a " strong , sneering vibrato " , with a distinct yodel @-@ like quality to her voice ; she employs actual yodeling on the songs , " Tik Tok " and " Cannibal " . Having previously done country , pop rock , and electro , she had a clear idea of the synthpop sound that she wanted for her debut album . The genre was popular at the time , with many of her peers releasing similar output as well . Both of her albums are of the genre with catchy hooks and synthesized productions often compared to pop singer Dev by music critics , creating misunderstandings among the fans of the two . " Party at a Rich Dude 's House " and " C U Next Tuesday " have 1980s derived backing , while " Stephen " begins with " Kansas @-@ style vocal harmonies " . With the lyrics , " Oh my Nicolas Cage , you 're so old / you 're prehistoric / you 're like a dinosaur / D @-@ I @-@ N @-@ O @-@ S @-@ A @-@ you are a dinosaur " , " Dinosaur " follows a verse @-@ chorus formula , reminiscent of " Girlfriend " ( 2007 ) by Avril Lavigne and " Hollaback Girl " ( 2005 ) by Gwen Stefani ; the song uses the overt symbolism of dinosaurs , carnivory , and other primitive motifs to tell the story of an older man who preys on younger women . According to Kesha , the song is based on true events . While her vocals on Animal were heavily processed with auto @-@ tune , often to produce rapid stuttering or over @-@ pitch corrected vocal effects , leading to questions on vocal talent , she expressed confidence in her abilities , showing some of her vocal talent in the ballads " Animal " and " Hungover " on the album .
Kesha 's second studio album Warrior used considerably less autotune , although it still showed in a number of songs . The album 's piano and guitar @-@ driven ballads such as " Love Into The Light " , " Wonderland " and " Past Lives " display Kesha 's vocal ability . Kesha also uses a trademark talky " white @-@ girl " rapping style with exaggerated discordant phrasing and enunciation . Her vocal technique has led her to be credited as a rapper , a topic she disagreed with until fellow rappers André 3000 , Wiz Khalifa , and Snoop Dogg endorsed her . On the subject , she said : " The first time someone called me a rapper , I started laughing . I was shocked , and thought it was hilarious . It 's crazy and funny to me . " The New York Times said Kesha " threatens to become the most influential female rapper of the day , or at least the most popular . Pretending Kesha isn 't a rapper is no longer feasible . " " Crazy Kids " and " C 'Mon " took greater shifts into " party rap " . Most of her lyrics chronicle her relationships and partying ; the lighthearted subject matter of the latter and her unfiltered language saw many critics criticizing her for releasing frivolous and crass music . Jonah Weiner of Slate , however , stated that her jarring lyrics allowed her songs to become more memorable . In " Blah Blah Blah " and " Boots & Boys " , she objectifies men to poke fun at how male fronted rock bands and rappers can get away with objectifying women and not vice versa . The title track to her debut , " Animal " , is more aspirational and is intended to inspire people to embrace their individuality . Much more experimental than Animal , her second album , Warrior , contains dubstep elements and explores erotic experiences Kesha encountered with ghosts on the song , " Supernatural " . Overall , Kesha said the theme of Warrior is magic .
Critics praised Warrior for its rock music influences , despite the album being deeply rooted in technopop . Applauding the album 's rock sound , Rolling Stone called the album Kesha 's rock manifesto . Rock icons The Flaming Lips , Iggy Pop , and Alice Cooper have collaborated with Kesha , endorsing her as a rock singer . Cooper told Billboard , " I immediately looked at her and went , ' This girl is not a pop diva . She 's a rock singer . ' She would much rather be the female Robert Plant than the next Britney Spears . " The A.V. Club noted that Warrior proved Kesha a capable vocalist and songwriter . The Washington Post said that the album the is " pure fun " , acknowledging her proneness for finding good hooks despite her sometimes vapid lyricism .
= = = Influences = = =
Kesha 's musical influences consist of hip hop , punk rock , crunkcore , glam rock , 1980s pop , dance music and classic country . Her country influences of Dolly Parton and Johnny Cash come from her mother 's country songwriting , while her older brother exposed her to hip @-@ hop and punk bands , Fugazi , Dinosaur Jr. and the Beastie Boys . She has additionally cited Beck , Queen , David Bowie , Led Zeppelin , Madonna , Elton John , Aaron Neville , Britney Spears , Bob Dylan , The Damned , The Velvet Underground , Blondie and graffiti artist Banksy as influences . She credits her straightforward story @-@ based lyrics to her love for the honest storytelling style of country music , while the title track from her debut album was created with music from alternative rock bands The Flaming Lips and Arcade Fire in mind . She singled out the Beastie Boys as a major influence , telling Newsweek that she had always wanted to be like them and aspired to make " youthful , irreverent anthems " as well . She called her debut album , Animal , an homage to the Beastie Boys ' Licensed to Ill and credited the creation of the rap driven " Tik Tok " to her love for the Beastie Boys ' rap music . For her first headlining tour , Kesha wanted to emulate the stage theatrics of Iggy Pop 's performances . She listed Pop 's The Idiot as well as Led Zeppelin and AC / DC as inspirations for her second studio album , Warrior , intended to feature 1970s rock inspired music . Warrior , to this effect , includes a collaboration with Pop himself .
She draws inspiration from classic films as well . Her stage makeup is characterized by dramatic glitter makeup at her right eye , inspired by A Clockwork Orange . The video for " Your Love is My Drug " features animated sequences inspired by the The Beatles ' film , Yellow Submarine , while the Get Sleazy tour was described as having a " post @-@ apocalyptic Mad Max vibe . "
= = Personal life = =
Kesha is a vegetarian and an ordained minister , having been ordained online . She also has performed legal commitment ceremonies for both gay and heterosexual couples . She talked about her sexual orientation with Seventeen magazine in 2013 , " I don 't love just men . I love people . It 's not about a gender . " She made a similar statement to Out magazine in 2010 , when she confessed to simply " liking people " : " I wouldn ’ t say I ’ m gay or straight . I don ’ t like labeling things anyway . "
On January 3 , 2014 , Kesha checked into Timberline Knolls Residential Treatment Center , the rehab facility in Lemont , Illinois , for eating disorder treatment . Kesha 's mother Pebe Sebert confirmed that the eating disorder Kesha was suffering with is bulimia nervosa and that she had been struggling with it since she was signed . She also alleged that Dr. Luke was partly the cause of Kesha 's eating disorder , saying that Luke had allegedly told her to lose weight after he signed her , comparing the shape of her body to a refrigerator . Sebert asserted that this had caused Kesha 's disorder to worsen . Kesha had completed her treatment on March 6 , 2014 , after spending two months in rehab .
= = Discography = =
Animal ( 2010 )
Warrior ( 2012 )
= = Tours = =
Headlining
Get Sleazy Tour ( 2011 )
North American Tour 2013 ( with Pitbull ) ( 2013 )
Warrior Tour ( 2013 – 15 )
Mad Decent Block Party ( 2016 )
Residency shows
Kesha Live at Intrigue ( 2016 )
Opening act
Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 )
= = Filmography = =
Bravo Supershow ( 2007 )
Walt Disney 's Princess Ke $ ha ( 2011 )
Katy Perry : Part of Me ( 2012 )
Jem and the Holograms ( 2015 )
Bad Moms ( 2016 )
= The Devil Wears Nada =
" The Devil Wears Nada " is the fifth episode of the twenty @-@ first season of The Simpsons . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 15 , 2009 . In the episode , Marge and a group called the " Charity Chicks " pose for a history @-@ oriented calendar in hopes of raising money for charity , but Marge becomes the talk of the town due to the erotic poses she made after a few drinks of red wine . Meanwhile , Carl is chosen as the newest supervisor at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , and hires Homer to be his personal assistant .
The episode was written by Tim Long and directed by Nancy Kruse . It was broadcast soon after the character Marge had appeared on the cover of Playboy , though there was no connection between the episode and the cover ; the idea for the episode was conceived first , and Marge 's appearance was due to an unrelated offer from Playboy . Since airing , " The Devil Wears Nada " has received mixed reviews from television critics . It was watched by approximately 9 @.@ 04 million viewers during its original broadcast . Clips showing the satirical appearances of French president Nicolas Sarkozy and his wife Carla Bruni in the episode became Internet hits in France , with hundreds of thousands of views on Dailymotion and YouTube .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens at a retirement party for the current Sector 7G supervisor at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant . Just as Homer , Lenny , and Carl are celebrating their freedom from supervision , plant owner Mr. Burns arrives and chooses Carl as the new supervisor , after quickly deducing that he is the only semi @-@ competent employee of the three . Meanwhile , in an effort to raise money , Marge and her " Charity Chicks " philanthropic group decide to follow the Springfield Police Department 's lead and pose for a history @-@ themed " sexy " calendar . At the photo studio , however , Marge does not want to show any skin . The photographer loosens her up with red wine , and she ends up revealing more than she planned . Marge and her erotic poses are soon the hottest talk in town .
Back at the plant , Carl makes Homer his new executive assistant . That evening , Marge 's libido pumped up by the male population 's positive feedback on her calendar is running high , but Homer is too overworked and exhausted to satisfy her . This becomes an unhappy trend , and Marge feels ignored . Homer tries to make up for it by taking Marge out to a hotel . During their attempt to have a romantic night together , Homer receives a phone call from Carl who tells him they are going to Paris on a business trip . When Homer leaves the Simpsons ' house the next morning , a frustrated Marge throws a mallet after his retreating taxicab , and she accidentally knocks out neighbor Ned Flanders instead and invites him and his children over for a family dinner by way of apology .
In Paris , Carl is having a great time flirting with a beautiful woman , and he reveals to Homer that he plans to extend their stay indefinitely . Homer is devastated , and walks forlornly through the streets where everything reminds him of Marge . Back in Springfield , Bart and Lisa bail on Marge 's dinner , and Ned shows up alone because Rod and Todd have been grounded . The innocent dinner soon turns romantic , and Marge and Ned nearly kiss , until Marge catches sight of her wedding photo in Ned 's glasses and realizes that it would be wrong . Homer , meanwhile , has forced Carl to give him his old job back by revealing that the
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woman Carl has been flirting with is actually Carla Bruni , the wife of Nicolas Sarkozy , the President of France . Homer arrives home just as Marge is bidding Ned goodnight , and Homer and Marge make love , undisturbed at last .
= = Production = =
" The Devil Wears Nada " was written by Tim Long and directed by Nancy Kruse . It is partly based on the film The Devil Wears Prada , especially the scenes that feature an overworked and over @-@ utilized Homer . The episode aired soon after the character Marge had appeared on the cover of the real @-@ life adult magazine Playboy . Executive producer Al Jean told the Toronto Sun that this episode was " a little bit of a reference to Marge 's recent encounter with Playboy " . Jean explained , though , that the writers came up with the storyline for " The Devil Wears Nada " over a year before the episode aired and they did not know back then that Marge would become a Playboy cover girl . Jean said that was " an independent offer from Playboy . But we thought , to be smart , we should probably have the episode and Marge 's cover come out around the same time . " In regards to Marge 's explicit plotline in the episode , Jean commented that the Simpsons staff is " always a bit nervous when we push the boundaries or do something unusual and I usually think that 's where we do our best stuff , and this episode is definitely one of those cases . "
= = Reception = =
During the episode 's original broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on November 15 , 2009 , it was watched by approximately 9 @.@ 04 million viewers . In the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 4 @.@ 2 rating ( up 2 % from the previous episode ) and a 10 % share . It was the second @-@ highest rated television series in the 8 : 00 p.m. timeslot , following Football Night in America , which received a 5 @.@ 3 rating and 15 @.@ 1 million viewers .
Since airing , " The Devil Wears Nada " has received mixed reviews from television critics . AOL TV 's Jason Hughes was positive about it , commenting that " everything about the episode worked , from Marge 's sexy calendar to Ned Flanders ' role in the final moments . " He added that he thought the episode featured " the heart I felt was missing all season . The love between Homer and Marge dominated this episode , coming in equal strength from both sides . " Hughes concluded that " The Devil Wears Nada " featured " good moments for humor " and that it was " perfectly balanced , written and executed " .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club was less positive , giving the episode a C + rating . He commented that because there have already been so many episodes about Homer and Marge 's marital troubles , it becomes more difficult every time to make the episodes emotional . VanDerWerff added that " while the flip side of the usual husband / wife sexual dynamics had a few promising jokes in it and while there were the usual funny sight gags and one @-@ liners , the entirety of the episode felt stale . [ ... ] There 's no way Homer or Marge will ever cheat on each other , and that makes a story like this essentially boring . " IGN 's Robert Canning gave the episode a rating of 6 @.@ 2 out of 10 , calling it disappointing . He commented that he enjoyed the first act of the episode because it had a lot of potential storylines , but it went downhill from there and became boring . Canning added : " This was another case of the series returning to familiar storylines . It 's tough to get away from this one — trouble in the bedroom — as they are a married couple and this is , essentially , a sitcom . Unfortunately , ' The Devil Wears Nada ' doesn 't give the story anything new . " Similarly to VanDerWerff , Canning did not find the episode enjoying because it was obvious that Marge and Ned would not have " a night of passion " since " Marge is too loving a wife and Ned is too good a Christian " .
= = = Reaction in France = = =
" The Devil Wears Nada " features the satirical appearances of French president Nicolas Sarkozy and his wife Carla Bruni . In the episode , Carl is approached by Bruni at a reception at Élysée Palace , the official residence of the president , where she tells him that she wants " to make love , right now . " Homer later reveals to Carl that the woman he has been seeing is Bruni , and threatens to tell Sarkozy if he does not get his old job back . Carl does not believe Homer will tell , so Homer calls Sarkozy ( who is seen eating cheese and drinking red wine in his office with Bruni ) . Sarkozy answers the phone saying " You 're getting cosy with Sarkozy . " At this point , Carl gives in , and Homer hangs up the phone .
Unlike other high @-@ ranking politicians such as Tony Blair , who have guest starred on The Simpsons , the couple did not actually lend their voices to the show and the appearances were made without their permission . Agence France @-@ Presse wrote that as a result , it was a " harsher " parody in comparison to the parodies on the show of people that have provided their own voices . The Daily Mail described Bruni 's portrayal in the episode as a " sex @-@ mad femme fatale " and " chain @-@ smoking man @-@ eater " , and the French newspaper Le Figaro said she was characterized as " a nymphomaniac with an exaggerated French accent " . Bruni had previously attracted media attention in the United States because of her many reported partners and lovers . A reporter for The Times in Paris , Charles Bremner , wrote that her " sulphurous former image as the girlfriend of rock stars and celebrities was mocked by [ the episode ] . "
Clips on YouTube and Dailymotion showing Sarkozy 's and Bruni 's appearances were viewed hundreds of thousands of times in France , becoming Internet hits . According to Agence France @-@ Presse , the cameos " passed largely unnoticed in France until Friday [ November 22 ] , when news websites started linking to pirated clips of the episode , creating a buzz which saw more than 117 @,@ 000 fans linking to the DailyMotion site alone . " As of Saturday November 23 , the Dailymotion clip had received 440 @,@ 000 hits . Reactions to the clips were mixed from the French viewers . The Daily Mail wrote that a spokesman working for the Élysée Palace said in November 2009 that " they had no comment to make on the latest mockery of their first couple " . Bruni 's spokeswoman did not respond to requests for comment either , but Bremner reported that Bruni " laughed when asked about the programme " .
The French news website Rue 89 commented that the episode provided the writers with a good opportunity to mock all the French clichés , including the accent , the cheese , the cheek kissing between men , and the supposed nymphomania . This was not the first time that France had been made fun of on The Simpsons . For example , the writers had previously come up with the derogatory phrase " cheese @-@ eating surrender monkeys " as a description of the French people , and had made fun of the French in the first season episode The Crepes of Wrath .
= Ocean Rain =
Ocean Rain is the fourth studio album by the English post @-@ punk band Echo & the Bunnymen . It was released on 4 May 1984 and reached number four on the UK Albums Chart , number 87 on the United States Billboard 200 , number 41 on the Canadian RPM 100 Albums and number 22 on the Swedish chart . Since 1984 the album has been certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry . Ocean Rain includes the singles " The Killing Moon " , " Silver " and " Seven Seas " .
The band wrote the songs for the new album in 1983 . In early 1984 they recorded most of the album in Paris using a 35 @-@ piece orchestra , with other sessions taking place in Bath and Liverpool . Receiving mixed reviews the album was originally released as an LP and a cassette in May 1984 before it was reissued on CD in August . The album was reissued on CD in 2003 , along with the other four of the band 's first five studio albums , having been remastered and expanded before again being reissued in 2008 with a live bonus disc . The artwork for the album was designed by Martyn Atkins and the photography was by Brian Griffin . Echo & the Bunnymen played a number of concerts in 2008 where they performed Ocean Rain in full and with the backing of an orchestra .
= = Background = =
Following the poor reception of Echo & the Bunnymen 's third album , 1983 's Porcupine , the band recorded the single " Never Stop " . The title track of the single was produced by Hugh Jones , who had produced the band 's second album , 1981 's Heaven Up Here . The single introduced a new sound for the band with an expanded arrangement including congas , marimbas , violins and cellos . After " Never Stop " was released on 8 July 1983 the band toured the Outer Hebrides in Scotland before two successful concerts at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 18 and 19 July . Also that month , the band was filmed by RPM Productions for the Channel 4 documentary series Play at Home . Filmed in a café used by the band they recorded acoustic versions of two old songs , " Stars Are Stars " and " Villiers Terrace " , as well as two new songs , " The Killing Moon " and " Silver " , for their episode of Play at Home titled Life at Brian 's .
After spending some time in Liverpool writing new songs for the album , the band recorded their sixth session for John Peel 's radio show on BBC Radio 1 on 6 September 1983 . The songs recorded were " Nocturnal Me " , " Ocean Rain " , " My Kingdom " and " Watch Out Below " , which would all later appear on the band 's fourth album Ocean Rain – " Watch Out Below " was later renamed " The Yo Yo Man " . When the band 's John Peel session was broadcast on 10 October 1983 , the punk zine Jamming said , " [ The songs ] hint at a readjustment and a period of new positive recovery . "
Echo & the Bunnymen were booked to headline a two @-@ week youth festival at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon on the evening of 23 October 1983 . Due to a high demand for tickets a matinee performance was added . The matinee concert at Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon saw the live debut of " The Killing Moon " , " Seven Seas " and " Silver " . With representatives from the band 's record company and lead singer Ian McCulloch 's mother in the audience , the performance was nervous and uncertain ; although the evening performance , without the record company representatives and McCulloch 's mother , was much improved .
At the end of 1983 Echo & the Bunnymen recorded a live special called A Crystal Day for the Channel 4 programme The Tube . Ignoring their old material , the band played " The Killing Moon " , " Nocturnal Me " , " Ocean Rain " – which had now developed into a ballad – and an early version of " Thorn of Crowns " called " Cucumber " .
= = Recording and music = =
The band recorded and self @-@ produced " The Killing Moon " – which was released on 20 January 1984 – at Crescent Studio in Bath , Somerset . After catching a cold , McCulloch completed the recording of the vocals for the song at Amazon Studio in Liverpool , where de Freitas also completed the drumming . The band then went to Paris where they were booked into Les Studios des Dames and Studio Davout . Henri Loustau , the engineer at des Dames , assisted on the string passages and Adam Peters provided the string arrangements and played cello and piano . McCulloch , not happy with the lead vocals he had recorded in Paris , re @-@ recorded most of the vocals at Amazon Studio in Liverpool .
Continuing the band 's prominent use of strings – which began with the 1982 single " The Back of Love " – they recorded Ocean Rain using a 35 @-@ piece orchestra . Lead guitarist Will Sergeant said , " We wanted to make something conceptual with lush orchestration ; not Mantovani , something with a twist . It 's all pretty dark . ' Thorn of Crowns ' is based on an eastern scale . The whole mood is very windswept : European pirates , a bit Ben Gunn ; dark and stormy , battering rain ; all of that . " During recording De Freitas used xylophones and glockenspiels in addition to his usual percussion , bass player Les Pattinson used an old reverb machine at des Dames and Sergeant 's solo on " My Kingdom " was played using a Washburn acoustic guitar which he distorted through a valve radio .
= = Cover = =
As with their previous albums , the album cover was designed by Martyn Atkins and the photography was by Brian Griffin . With the band wanting to continue the elemental theme of the previous three albums , the photograph used on the front cover of the album is a picture of the band in a rowing boat which was taken inside Carnglaze Caverns , Liskeard , Cornwall . In his 2002 book Turquoise Days : The Weird World of Echo & the Bunnymen , author Chris Adams describes the cover as " a perfect visual representation of arguably the Bunnymen 's finest album " .
The picture on the front cover of the original album was kept for the 2003 reissue . However , the design was altered slightly by graphic designer Rachel Gutek of the design company guppyart . This release contains an expanded booklet written by music journalist Max Bell giving the background to the album . The booklet contains a number of photographs which are credited to Sergeant and Pattinson .
= = Releases = =
Ocean Rain was first released on 4 May 1984 as an LP and on cassette by Korova in Europe . It was subsequently released by Sire Records in the United States on 14 May and on CD in Europe and the United States on 24 August 1984 . The album was marketed as " the greatest album ever made " and McCulloch later said it was because they believed it was . Although he also said it was meant as a joke when he said , " That wasn 't my idea ! I was on the phone to [ Rob Dickins , managing director of Warner Bros. ] , just joshing and I said ' Oh , it 's the greatest album ever made . ' And he used it on the poster . " In a 2005 interview for Record Collector magazine , Sergeant asked , " Why not ? " . After wondering " what all the fuss was about " , he went on to ask , " Doesn 't every band think that way when they 've got a new record out ? "
Along with the other four of the band 's first five albums , Ocean Rain was remastered and reissued on CD in 2003 – these releases were marketed as 25th anniversary editions . Eight bonus tracks were added to the album : " Angels and Devils " , which had been recorded at The Automatt in San Francisco , was the B @-@ side to the single " Silver " and was produced by The Bunnymen and Alan Perman ; five Life at Brian 's – Lean and Hungry tracks ( " All You Need Is Love " , " The Killing Moon " , " Stars Are Stars " , " Villiers Terrace " and " Silver " ) which had been recorded for the Channel 4 programme Play at Home ; and two live tracks ( " My Kingdom " and " Ocean Rain " ) which were recorded for A Crystal Day , a Channel 4 special for The Tube . The Life at Brian 's – Lean and Hungry track , " Silver " , and the two A Crystal Day tracks had previously been unreleased .
The reissued album in 2003 was produced by Andy Zax and Bill Inglot . A collector 's edition was released in October 2008 which , while still including " Angels and Devils " , replaced the bonus tracks of the 25th anniversary edition with the extended 12 @-@ inch single versions of " Silver " and " The Killing Moon " . The collector 's edition also includes a bonus disc containing a recording of the band 's 1983 Royal Albert Hall concert .
There were three tracks from the original Ocean Rain album which have been released as singles . The first of these was " The Killing Moon " which was released on 20 January 1984 . The second single was " Silver " which was released on 13 April 1984 . The final single to be released from the original album was " Seven Seas " which was released on 6 July 1984 . This was the first time Echo & the Bunnymen have released more than two singles from one album .
= = Reception = =
The album was released to mixed reviews . Describing Echo & the Bunnymen 's change from the more rock sound of their previous albums to the lighter sound of Ocean Rain , music journalist Max Bell said in his 1984 review for The Times newspaper , " This time vocalist Ian McCulloch has tempered his metaphysical songs with a romantic sweetness and the band 's melodies are more to the fore . Acoustic guitars , brushes and sparingly used keyboards all add to the album 's optimistic warmth and there is a consistency of atmosphere in songs like ' Seven Seas ' and ' Silver ' , the current single , which justifies the departure . "
However , Rolling Stone described the album as " too often a monochromatic dirge of banal existential imagery cloaked around the mere skeleton of a musical idea " . Saying that the album had some nifty choruses and nice atmospheres , the review went on to say it " evinces too little melodic development and too much tortured soul @-@ gazing " . In his 1984 review for NME , Biba Kopf said , " ... Ocean Rain has been designed to buttress the notion of the group 's importance . Not unnaturally the results have the opposite effect . " He went on to criticise McCulloch 's lyrics , which he described as " tired juxtapositions of mysterious buzzwords , nonsense , and banality " , and the music , " mellotron @-@ style wash of strings and bleating wood winds " .
Ocean Rain reached number four on the UK Albums Chart in its first week of release and stayed on the chart for 26 weeks . In the United States it entered the Billboard 200 at number 172 on 9 June 1984 and stayed on the chart for 11 weeks , reaching a peak of number 87 . It entered the Canadian RPM 100 Albums chart at number 89 before it reached a peak of number 41 . Staying on the Swedish chart for three weeks the album reached a peak of number 22 . As of 1984 , Ocean Rain has been certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for having sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies .
Of the singles from the album ; " The Killing Moon " , which was released on 20 January 1984 , reached number nine on the UK Singles Chart and number seven on the Irish Singles Chart ; " Silver " , released on 13 April 1984 , reached number 30 on the UK Singles Chart and number 14 on the Irish Singles Chart ; and " Seven Seas " , released on 6 July 1984 , reached number 16 on the UK Singles Chart and number 10 on the Irish Singles Chart .
= = Legacy = =
The album still attracts mixed critical commentary . In a highly positive retrospective review on AllMusic , Jason Ankeny gave the album a 5 @-@ star rating . He described the album as " dramatic and majestic " , praising the " sweeping string arrangements and hauntingly evocative production . " He felt that in comparison to the band 's album Porcupine , the " conventional and simple structural parameters " of Ocean Rain made it Echo & the Bunnymen 's " most beautiful and memorable effort " and he asserted that " The Killing Moon " was the band 's " unrivalled pinnacle " .
When reissued in 2003 , Andrew Harrison in Blender described the album as " a portrait of splendid derangement with spectacular orchestrations " . Mojo said the album had " effervescent songs , sympathetically orchestrated " .
In his 2005 book Rip It Up and Start Again : Post Punk 1978 – 1984 , British music journalist Simon Reynolds describes the album as " lush , orchestrated and [ ... ] overtly erotic " . Mark Blacklock , in Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , wrote that the album 's confidence , lush strings , romance , warmth and poetry , means that " it stands the test of time better than any other Bunnymen album " .
Among less positive commentaries , Pitchfork described the album as being " stuffed with queasy midtempo tracks and bizarre orchestration " although they did say that the album was not impenetrable , ultimately giving it an 8 @.@ 6 / 10 . Reviewing the collector 's edition for the BBC , Chris Jones described the album as " the point where the cracks began to show , but were masked with such beauty as to hardly matter " . Jones went on to say how the 35 @-@ piece orchestra helped on tracks such as " Nocturnal Me " but made others , such as " The Yo @-@ Yo Man " , " flounder under the weight of intrusive arrangements " .
= = Ocean Rain tour = =
On 16 September 2008 , Echo & the Bunnymen played a concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London playing the album with the backing of a 16 @-@ piece orchestra . Two similar concerts subsequently took place at Radio City in New York City on 1 October 2008 and at the Liverpool Echo Arena on 27 November 2008 . These concerts were played with a 10 @-@ piece orchestra which was conducted by Rupert Christie . The posters used to advertise the concerts have the image of the band from the cover of the album overlaying an image of the venue . Further concerts took place in Europe and North America during 2009 .
The concerts were received well . Simon O 'Hagan , reviewing the London concert in The Independent , described it as " a moving , memorable evening " and went on to describe McCulloch 's voice as " torn silk " and " magnificent " . Giving the London concert five out of five stars , Angus Batey , writing in The Guardian , described " The Killing Moon " as a " dizzying high " which was " topped by ' Ocean Rain ' itself , where the strings are held back until the end of the second verse so that they hit with a euphoric punch of almost physical intensity , sunny melodic optimism piercing the lyrics ' chiaroscuro of storm clouds and ' blackest thoughts ' . " However , Adam Sweeting , for The Daily Telegraph , said the orchestra " often didn 't add much beyond a vague sonic sludge " .
Reviewing the New York concert for Rolling Stone , Jim Allen described Radio City as an " appropriately dramatic , grandiose setting " , and added that McCulloch " was in fine voice , growling and sneering wondrously " . Reviewing the Liverpool concert , Jade Wright wrote in the Liverpool Echo that McCulloch " was on form – one part Lou Reed , one part Oliver Reed , with a bit of Jim Morrison thrown in for good measure . "
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Will Sergeant , Ian McCulloch , Les Pattinson and Pete de Freitas except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= Washington State Route 161 =
State Route 161 ( SR 161 ) is a 36 @.@ 25 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 58 @.@ 34 km ) state highway serving Pierce and King counties in the U.S. state of Washington . The highway begins at SR 7 southwest of Eatonville and travels north as Meridian Avenue to Puyallup , becoming concurrent with SR 512 and SR 167 . SR 161 continues northwest as the Enchanted Parkway to end at an intersection with SR 18 in Federal Way , west of Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) . The highway serves the communities of Graham and South Hill before reaching Puyallup and the communities of Edgewood , Milton , and Lakeland South before reaching Federal Way .
SR 161 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering , replacing three Secondary State Highways ( SSHs ) : Secondary State Highway 5D ( SSH 5D ) and SSH 5G , both established in 1937 , and SSH 5N , established in 1955 . SSH 5D served as a connector between Federal Way and Puyallup and SSH 5G served as a connector between Puyallup and South Hill . SSH 5N connected Eatonville to South Hill and was extended south towards La Grande in 1967 . SR 161 was moved onto a bypass of Puyallup in the 1980s and formed concurrencies with SR 167 and SR 512 as a result . As of 2013 , projects to expand the highway in Edgewood and Milton and adding new offramps at the I @-@ 5 and SR 18 interchange are in progress .
= = Route description = =
SR 161 begins southwest of Eatonville and north of La Grande in rural Pierce County at an intersection with SR 7 . The highway travels northeast to pass the Charles Lathrop Pack Experimental and Demonstration Forest and cross the Little Mashel River into Eatonville . The roadway crosses the Mashel River into Downtown Eatonville , turning north onto Mashell Avenue and later Washington Avenue . SR 161 turns west onto Meridian Avenue north of Eatonville High School and leaves the city on a two @-@ lane highway . Meridian Avenue continues north through rural Pierce County , passing Clear Lake and Tanwax Lake , before entering the community of Graham and crossing a Tacoma Rail line near Graham @-@ Kapowsin High School . SR 161 travels north and passes South Hill and Pierce County Airport ( Thun Field ) before entering Puyallup . The highway turns northwest at the South Hill Mall onto 31st Avenue and intersects the SR 512 freeway in a partial cloverleaf interchange , beginning a 3 @.@ 41 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 49 km ) concurrency .
SR 161 and SR 512 travel north on a freeway in Puyallup , intersecting Meridian Street at the Puyallup Fairgrounds and Pioneer Avenue at a partial cloverleaf interchange . After the intersection with Pioneer Avenue , the freeway travels over a BNSF rail line that serves Puyallup Station and crosses the Puyallup River before a trumpet interchange with SR 167 . At the interchange , SR 512 ends and SR 161 northbound turns west on a 1 @.@ 83 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 95 km ) wrong @-@ way concurrency with SR 167 , designated as traveling southbound . SR 161 turns north onto Meridian Avenue at Fort Malone as SR 167 travels south into Downtown Puyallup , and the highway continues north and crosses a Union Pacific rail line . Meridian Avenue continues north into to form the boundary between Edgewood and Milton , where the highway intersects Milton Way , the former route of SR 514 . SR 161 turns northwest into King County as the Enchanted Parkway , passing through Lakeland South and Wild Waves Theme Park before crossing over I @-@ 5 . The Enchanted Parkway turns north into Federal Way and ends at an intersection with SR 18 , located between SR 99 and I @-@ 5 .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that between 340 and 99 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the highway , mostly in the Puyallup area .
= = History = =
SR 161 was formed during the 1964 highway renumbering as the successor to SSH 5N from Primary State Highway 5 ( PSH 5 ) north of La Grande to South Hill , SSH 5G from South Hill to U.S. Route 410 ( US 410 ) in Puyallup , and SSH 5D from US 410 north of Puyallup to US 99 Federal Way . The highway was also concurrent with US 410 , signed in 1926 , between the eastern end of SSH 5G in Downtown Puyallup and the southern end of SSH 5D . SSH 5D and SSH 5G were established during the creation of the Primary and secondary state highways in 1937 , and SSH 5N was established in 1955 to Eatonville and extended south to PSH 5 near La Grande in 1967 after SR 161 was created . SR 161 , including the concurrency with US 410 , was signed into law in 1970 as a highway extending from SR 7 near Eatonville to US 99 . US 410 was replaced with an extension of SR 167 in the Tacoma area and US 12 east of the Cascade Mountains in 1967 and the highway was shortened from US 99 to SR 18 in 1971 .
SR 161 was moved east onto a bypass of Puyallup , creating concurrences with SR 512 and SR 167 , in the late 1980s , and designated , within King County , as the Enchanted Parkway in 1987 as the last major revision to the highway . A freeway extension to SR 167 between Tacoma and Puyallup has been proposed since the 1990s and would create a new interchange with SR 161 north of the Puyallup River , but as of 2013 the freeway has not been built . The eastbound ramps at end of the concurrency between SR 161 and SR 167 was realigned in late 2008 to reduce congestion and started recent improvements to the highway . WSDOT is widening the Enchanted Parkway through the Edgewood and Milton area from 2 lanes to 4 lanes with wider shoulders and sidewalks to be completed by 2027 . The interchange between I @-@ 5 and SR 18 is being reconstructed in Federal Way , with a new flyover ramp from westbound SR 18 to SR 161 being completed in September 2012 . Another ramp , from southbound I @-@ 5 to SR 161 , is under construction .
= = Major intersections = =
= Glutinoglossum glutinosum =
Glutinoglossum glutinosum , commonly known as the viscid black earth tongue or the glutinous earthtongue , is a species of fungus in the family Geoglossaceae ( the earth tongues ) . Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere , it has been found in northern Africa , Asia , Europe , and North America . Although previously thought to exist in Australasia , collections made from these locations have since been referred to new species . G. glutinosum is a saprophytic species that grows on soil in moss or in grassy areas . The smooth , nearly black , club @-@ shaped fruitbodies grow to heights ranging from 1 @.@ 5 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) . The head is up to 0 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) long , and the stipes are sticky . Several other black earth tongue species are quite similar in external appearance , and many can be reliably distinguished only by examining differences in microscopic characteristics , such as spores , asci , and paraphyses . First described in 1796 as a species of Geoglossum , the fungus has gone through several changes of genera in its taxonomic history . It was placed in its current genus , Glutinoglossum , in 2013 .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fungus was first officially described in 1796 as Geoglossum glutinosum by Dutch mycologist Christiaan Hendrik Persoon , who proposed several defining characteristics , including the black color ; the smooth , compressed , club @-@ shaped head ( clavula ) with grooves ; and the somewhat curved and glutinous stipe . In 1908 , Elias Judah Durand transferred it to Gloeoglossum , a genus he circumscribed to contain species with paraphyses ( filamentous , sterile cells interspersed between the asci ) present as a continuous gelatinous layer on the stipe ; Gloeoglossum has since been reduced to synonymy with Geoglossum . In 1942 Japanese mycologist Sanshi Imai thought the species should be in Cibalocoryne , a genus name used earlier by Frigyes Ákos Hazslinszky , and so published Cibalocoryne glutinosa . Later authors thought Cibalocoryne to be ambiguous , and the name was synonymized with Geoglossum . Persoon also described the species Geoglossum viscosum ( 1801 ) and the variety Geoglossum glutinosum var. lubricum ( 1822 ) , but both of these taxa were placed into synonymy with G. glutinosum by Elias Judah Durand in 1908 .
The species was transferred by Vincent Hustad and colleagues to the newly created genus Glutinoglossum in 2013 when molecular analysis revealed that it and the species G. heptaseptatum formed a well @-@ defined clade in the Geoglossaceae . In 2015 , Hustad and Andrew Miller published an emended description of G. glutinosum with a narrower range of spore dimensions , suggesting that material collected in Australia and New Zealand represent unique species , which they referred to G. australasicum and G. exiguum . These species , along with G. americanum and G. methvenii , were added to Glutinoglossum in 2015 . Hustad and Miller noted their new spore size range for G. glutinosum were more closely aligned with those given by Durand in his measurements of Persoon 's type specimen .
The specific epithet glutinosum is derived from the Latin word gluten , meaning " glue " . The species is commonly known as the " viscid black earth tongue " or the " glutinous earthtongue " .
= = Description = =
The club @-@ shaped fruitbodies , which have a distinct blackish head and a more lightly colored stipe ( dark brown ) , grow to heights ranging from 1 @.@ 5 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) . The head is up to 0 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) tall and ranges in shape from fuse @-@ shaped to narrowly ellipsoidal to nearly cylindrical , and is somewhat compressed on the sides . The nearly black , somewhat waxy head has a vertical groove down the middle . The stipe has a glutinous , dark grey @-@ brown surface .
The spores are smooth and cylindrical , sometimes with a slight swelling in the middle , and sometimes slightly curved ; they measure 59 – 65 by 4 – 5 µm . G. glutinosum spores have between two and seven septa , although three is most typical in mature specimens . The thin @-@ walled asci ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are cylindrical to narrowly club @-@ shaped , eight @-@ spored , and typically measure 200 – 265 µm long by 12 – 16 µm wide . Ascospores occupy about the upper two @-@ thirds to three @-@ quarters of the ascus , leaving a hyaline ( transparent ) base . The paraphyses , hyaline at the base and brown in the upper regions , are 4 – 11 µm wide , and longer than the asci . Cells at the end of the paraphyses are pear @-@ shaped ( piriform ) or spherical , brownish , and measure 8 – 10 µm wide . The sticky material on the stipe is a gelatinous matrix made of a layer of paraphyses .
Although black earth tongue species are generally not worth eating , Charles McIlvaine opined in his 1902 work One Thousand American Fungi that , if stewed , G. glutinosum is " delicious . "
= = = Similar species = = =
Geoglossum nigritum is similar in appearance to Glutinoglossum glutinosum , but lacks a slimy stipe . Trichoglossum species , such as the common T. hirsutum , have a velvety surface texture acquired from thick @-@ walled bristles called setae . Several other earth tongue species are roughly similar in external appearance to G. glutinosum , and can be difficult to distinguish from that species without considering distribution and microscopic characteristics such as the size and shape of the asci , ascospores , and paraphyses . Geoglossum peckianum and G. uliginosum can develop a glutinous stipe ; the former has spores measuring 90 – 120 by 6 – 7 µm with 14 septa , while the latter has spores that are 60 – 80 by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 µm with 7 septa . The Australasian species Glutinoglossum methvenii is distinguished from G. glutinosum by its short , stout ascospores ( mostly measuring 70 – 80 by 5 – 6 µm ) and the presence of curved to hooked paraphyses tips . G. australasicum , the most abundant Glutinoglossum species in Australasia , has asci measuring 205 – 270 by 17 – 20 µm , while those of G. exiguum are 165 – 260 by 13 @.@ 5 – 17 µm . The latter species tends to have smaller fruitbodies , up to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) tall .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Glutinoglossum glutinosum is a saprophytic species . Its fruitbodies grow scattered on soil in moss beds or in grassy areas . North American collections are typically associated with hardwoods , while European collections are often made in pasture and dune slacks . The fungus has been used as an indicator of medium @-@ quality grassland in the UK . In India , it has been encountered on the soil of oak forests , and among mosses on stony slopes at an elevation of 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 60
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takes her from her first audition song to the mega @-@ hits she unleashed this past year ... This is a thrilling tour de force . "
Likewise , Mike Diver of BBC Online reviewed the album positively , praising the narrating story of the performances , calling it " polished , [ and ] professional " . Diver further noted that Beyoncé 's vocals " peak and dip , tremble and roar , mercifully without ever hitting Mariah Carey levels of skull @-@ rattling intensity " . He added that the album would look predictable because it was an " entirely second @-@ guessable affair with each movement telegraphed and every realigned arrangement ( bombast turned down , jazz and funk switched up ) meeting the listener 's expectations head on " . The Huffington Post 's Mike Ragogna compared Beyoncé with Diana Ross during the concert , adding , " Beyoncé 's I Am ... Yours is a satisfying decade @-@ and @-@ then @-@ some retrospective that reveals the artist 's interesting back story with a personal warmth " . Nate Chinen of The New York Times noted that the album documents a smaller show than the other ones Beyoncé usually makes . He further stated , " But the stagecraft — wind machines , lasers , arena lighting — keeps a viewer at a worshipful remove ... Of course Beyoncé has always fared better with declaration than with disclosure , framing her sentiments as actions . Still , the old @-@ fashioned extravagance of this production ... feels like some kind of honesty : it 's a sincere gesture from a show @-@ business savant . "
= = = Recognition = = =
Before the release of I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas , Rap @-@ Up listed it as one of the " most notable releases " for the fall of 2009 . Likewise , MTV News placed the album on its list of " Holiday Album Preview " . USA Today 's Mike Snider also mentioned it on his list of " Music @-@ video DVDs that make worthy gifts this season " comparing its acoustic style to the VH1 Storytellers series . Jay Lustig of New Jersey On @-@ Line listed I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas in two of his lists of most notable albums in the fourth quarter of 2009 . Mark Edward Nero of the website About.com put it in his list of " 2009 Holiday Gift Guide for R & B Fans " . The live performance of " Halo " ( 2009 ) , which is featured on the album , was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 53rd Grammy Awards . The live recording charted at number fifty @-@ eight on the Canadian Hot 100 chart . On The Village Voice 's 2009 Pazz & Jop albums list , the DVD was ranked at number 1 @,@ 643 .
= = Chart performance = =
I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas debuted at number one on the US Billboard Top Music Video chart , becoming Beyoncé 's second number @-@ one DVD in that country . The following week , it fell to number two , but later rebounded to the top where it stayed for the next seven consecutive weeks . It spent ten weeks inside the top five – eight of them at the top . In 2009 , the album sold 99 @,@ 000 copies in the US , making it the sixth best @-@ selling music DVD of the year . As of December 29 , 2010 it had sold 162 @,@ 000 units in the US , and ranked at number fifteen on the DVD year @-@ end chart of 2010 . It additionally became the best @-@ selling music video of 2010 in the US . It was certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping over 200 @,@ 000 copies . I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas spent a total of fifty two weeks on the chart .
Outside the US , I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas peaked at number eleven on the Australian DVD Chart and on the Australian Urban Albums Chart . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting sales of over 15 @,@ 000 copies . It became the forty @-@ fourth best @-@ selling DVD of 2010 in Australia . On the New Zealand Music DVD Chart , the album peaked at number six . I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas debuted at number twenty four on the UK R & B Albums Chart on December 19 , 2009 . The next week it fell at number thirty one , and it was last seen in the top forty of the chart on January 2 , 2010 , at number thirty three .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Allmusic and album 's liner notes .
= = Release history = =
= 2012 ( film ) =
2012 is a 2009 American science fiction disaster film directed by Roland Emmerich . It stars John Cusack , Chiwetel Ejiofor , Amanda Peet , Oliver Platt , Thandie Newton , Danny Glover , and Woody Harrelson . The film was produced by Centropolis Entertainment and distributed by Columbia Pictures . Filming began in August 2008 in Vancouver , although it was originally planned to be filmed in Los Angeles . The plot follows novelist Jackson Curtis as he attempts to bring his family to refuge , amidst the events of a geological and meteorological super @-@ disaster . The film includes references to Mayanism , the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar , and the 2012 phenomenon in its portrayal of cataclysmic events unfolding in the year 2012 .
After a prolonged marketing campaign comprising the creation of a website from the point of view of the main character , and a viral marketing website on which filmgoers could register for a lottery number to save them from the ensuing disaster , the film was released internationally on November 13 , 2009 . Critics gave 2012 mostly mixed reviews , praising its special effects and dark tone compared to Emmerich 's other work , but criticizing its screenplay and 158 @-@ minute length . However , it was a huge commercial success , and one of the highest @-@ grossing films of 2009 .
= = Plot = =
In 2009 , American geologist Adrian Helmsley visits astrophysicist Satnam Tsurutani in India and learns that neutrinos from a massive solar flare are heating the Earth 's core . In Washington , D.C , Helmsley presents his information to White House Chief of Staff Carl Anheuser , who takes him to meet the President .
In 2010 , U.S. President Thomas Wilson and other international leaders begin a secret project to ensure humanity 's survival . The G8 nations , plus China , start building nine enormous arks , capable of carrying 100 @,@ 000 people each , near Cho Ming , Tibet , in the Himalayas . A Buddhist monk named Nima is evacuated while his brother Tenzin joins the Ark project . Funding is raised by selling tickets for € 1 billion per person . By 2011 , valuable items are moved to the arks with the help of art expert and First Daughter Dr. Laura Wilson .
In 2012 , struggling science fiction writer Jackson Curtis is a chauffeur in Los Angeles for Russian billionaire Yuri Karpov . Jackson 's former wife Kate , and their children Noah and Lilly , live with Kate 's boyfriend , plastic surgeon Gordon Silberman . Jackson takes Noah and Lilly camping in Yellowstone National Park . When they find an area fenced off by the U.S. Army , Jackson takes his kids over the fence . They are caught and taken to see Adrian , who recognizes Jackson from his works , all of which he has read . Released from military custody , they meet Charlie Frost , who hosts a radio show from the park .
That night , after the military evacuates from Yellowstone , Jackson watches Charlie 's video of Charles Hapgood 's theory that polar shifts and the Mesoamerican Long Count Calendar predict that the 2012 phenomenon will occur . Charlie tells Jackson that anyone who plotted to inform the public was killed . Shortly after Jackson and the kids return home , earthquakes begin devastating California ; Jackson heeds Charlie 's warning and rents a private plane . He rescues his family as the Earth crust displacement begins and escape Los Angeles with the plane as the entire state of California sinks into the Pacific Ocean .
The group flies to Yellowstone to retrieve a map from Charlie displaying the location of the arks . They escape as the Yellowstone Caldera erupts spectacularly ; Charlie stays behind to broadcast the eruption and is killed . The group later lands in Las Vegas to find a larger plane ; they meet Yuri , his twin sons , Alec and Oleg , girlfriend Tamara and pilot Sasha . Sasha and Gordon fly them out in an available Antonov An @-@ 500 aircraft as the Yellowstone ash cloud destroys Las Vegas .
Helmsley , Anheuser and Laura Wilson are flying to the Arks aboard Air Force One . Knowing that his daughter would survive , President Wilson martyrs himself by remaining in the capital to address the nation one last time as billions being killed by devastating earthquakes and megatsunamis worldwide . With the entire presidential line of succession gone , Anheuser assumes the post of acting commander @-@ in @-@ chief , despite not being a part of it .
When the group reaches China , the plane runs out of fuel . Sasha continues flying the plane as the others escape using a Bentley Continental Flying Spur stored in the cargo hold . Sasha is killed when the plane crashes ; the others are spotted by helicopters from the Chinese army . Yuri and his sons , possessing tickets , are taken to the Arks , leaving the Curtis family , Tamara and Gordon behind . The remaining group are picked up by Nima and taken to the Arks with his grandparents . With the help of Tenzin , they stow away on Ark 4 , where the United States contingent is aboard . As a megatsunami topples over the Himalayas and approaches the site , an impact driver becomes lodged in the gears of the Ark 's doors , preventing a boarding gate from closing , which in turn prevents the ship from starting its engines . In the ensuing chaos , Yuri , Tamara and Gordon are killed . Tenzin is injured while Ark 4 begins filling with water and is set adrift . Jackson and Noah dislodge the impact driver , and the crew regains control of the Ark before it smashes into Mount Everest . Jackson reunites with his family , and he and Kate reconcile .
Twenty @-@ seven days later as waters recede ; the three arks approach the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa where the Drakensberg mountain range has emerged , now the " Tallest Mountain Range on Earth " . Adrian starts a relationship with Laura while Jackson and Kate rekindle their relationship .
= = = Alternate ending = = =
An alternate ending is featured on the DVD release of the film . After Captain Michaels , the captain of Ark 4 , announces that they are heading to the Cape of Good Hope , he tells Adrian that he has a phone call waiting for him . Adrian discovers that his father Harry is still alive . Harry tells his son that he , Tony ( whose arm is in a sling ) , and some of the passengers and crew survived the megatsunami that struck the Genesis . Captain Michaels states that they should have a visual on the ocean @-@ liner shortly . After Kate thanks Laura for taking care of Lily , Laura tells Jackson that she liked his book . Jackson then gives Noah his cell phone back which he recovered during Ark 4 's flooding . Lily then announces that she sees an island . The Arks arrive at the shipwrecked Genesis and the survivors on the beach .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
The credits cite the bestselling book Fingerprints of the Gods by author Graham Hancock as inspiration for the film , and in an interview with the London magazine Time Out , Emmerich states : " I always wanted to do a biblical flood movie , but I never felt I had the hook . I first read about the Earth 's Crust Displacement Theory in Graham Hancock 's Fingerprints of the Gods . "
Director Emmerich and composer @-@ producer Harald Kloser had an extremely close relationship and also co @-@ wrote a spec script entitled 2012 , which was marketed to major studios in February 2008 . Nearly all studios met with Emmerich and his representatives to hear the director 's budget projection and story plans , a process that the director had previously gone through with the films Independence Day ( 1996 ) and The Day After Tomorrow ( 2004 ) . Later that month , Sony Pictures Entertainment won the rights for the spec script , planning to distribute it under Columbia Pictures and was produced for less than budgeted . According to Emmerich , the film was eventually produced for about $ 200 million .
Filming was originally scheduled to begin in Los Angeles , California , in July 2008 but instead commenced in Kamloops , Savona , Cache Creek and Ashcroft in British Columbia , Canada . Due to the possible 2008 Screen Actors Guild strike , filmmakers set up a contingency plan for salvaging the film . Uncharted Territory , Digital Domain , Double Negative , Scanline , Sony Pictures Imageworks and others were hired to create computer animated visual effects for 2012 .
Although the film depicts the destruction of several major cultural and historical icons around the world , Emmerich stated that the Kaaba was also considered for selection . Kloser opposed the idea out of fear that a fatwā might be issued against him .
= = = Marketing = = =
The film was promoted in a marketing campaign by a fictional organization , the " Institute for Human Continuity " ; this entailed a fictitious book written by Jackson Curtis entitled Farewell Atlantis , and streaming media , blog updates and radio broadcasts from the apocalyptic zealot Charlie Frost on his website This Is The End .
On November 12 , 2008 , the new studio released the first teaser trailer for 2012 that showed a tsunami surging over the Himalayas and interlaced a purportedly scientific message suggesting that the world would end in 2012 , and that the world 's governments were not preparing its population for the event . The trailer ended with a message to viewers to " find out the truth " by searching " 2012 " on search engines . The Guardian criticized the marketing effectiveness as " deeply flawed " and associated it with " websites that make even more spurious claims about 2012 " .
The studio also launched a viral marketing website operated by the fictional Institute for Human Continuity , where filmgoers could register for a lottery number to be part of a small population that would be rescued from the global destruction . David Morrison of NASA received over 1000 inquiries from people who thought the website was genuine , and condemned it . " I 've even had cases of teenagers writing to me saying they are contemplating suicide because they don 't want to see the world end , " he said . " I think when you lie on the internet and scare children to make a buck , that is ethically wrong . " Another viral marketing website promotes Farewell Atlantis , a fictional suspense novel about the events of 2012 .
Comcast had also organized a " roadblock campaign " to promote the film , where a two @-@ minute scene from the film was broadcast across 450 American commercial television networks , local English @-@ language and Spanish @-@ language stations , and 89 cable outlets within a ten @-@ minute window between 10 : 50 PM EDT / PDT and 11 : 00 PM EDT / PDT on October 1 , 2015 . The scene featured the destruction of Los Angeles and ended with a cliffhanger , with the entire 5 @-@ minute @-@ 38 @-@ second clip made available on Comcast 's Fancast web site . The trade newspaper Variety estimated that , " The stunt will put the footage in front of 90 % of all households watching ad @-@ supported TV , or nearly 110 million viewers . When combined with online and mobile streams , that could increase to more than 140 million " .
= = Soundtrack = =
The original score for the film was composed by Harald Kloser and Thomas Wander . Singer Adam Lambert contributed a song for the film titled " Time for Miracles " and expressed his gratitude for the opportunity in an interview with MTV .
The film 's soundtrack consists of 24 tracks , and it includes the songs " Fades Like a Photograph " by Filter and " It Ain 't the End of the World " , performed by George Segal and Blu Mankuma , which were featured in the film . The trailer music was Master of Shadows by Two Steps From Hell .
= = Release = =
2012 was released on November 13 , 2009 .
According to the studio , the film could have been completed for the summer release date , but the date change would give more time to the production . The film was released on November 13 , 2009 in Sweden , Canada , Denmark , Mexico , India and the United States , and was released on November 13 , 2009 in Japan .
The DVD and Blu @-@ ray for 2012 was released on March 2 , 2010 . The 2 @-@ Disc Blu @-@ ray Edition includes over 90 minutes of special features , including Adam Lambert 's music video " Time for Miracles " , and a Digital Copy for PSP , PC , Mac & iPod . The European release date of 2012 on DVD was March 2 , 2010 ; it includes the same special features as the North American version .
A limited 3D version was re @-@ released exclusively in select Cinemex theaters in Mexico in February 2010 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
2012 earned $ 166 @,@ 112 @,@ 167 in North America and $ 603 @,@ 567 @,@ 306 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 769 @,@ 679 @,@ 473 . Worldwide , it is the fifth highest @-@ grossing 2009 film and the fifth highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Sony / Columbia , behind Sam Raimi 's Spider @-@ Man trilogy and Skyfall . It is also the second highest @-@ grossing film directed by Roland Emmerich , behind Independence Day ( 1996 ) . On its worldwide opening weekend , it made $ 230 @.@ 5 million , marking the fourth @-@ largest opening both of 2009 and for Sony / Columbia .
In North America , it grossed $ 65 @,@ 237 @,@ 614 on its first weekend , ranking number one . Its opening is the fourth largest for a disaster film . The film grossed $ 166 @,@ 112 @,@ 167 in total .
Outside North America , it is the 28th highest @-@ grossing film , the fourth highest @-@ grossing 2015 film , and the second highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Sony / Columbia , after Skyfall . It earned $ 165 @.@ 2 million on its opening weekend , which ranks as the 14th largest opening . Its largest opening was recorded in France and the Maghreb region ( $ 18 @.@ 0 million ) . In total earnings , its three highest @-@ grossing territories after North America are France and the Maghreb region ( $ 44 @.@ 0 million ) , Japan ( $ 42 @.@ 6 million ) , and Germany ( $ 37 @.@ 7 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes shows that only 39 % of 238 critics gave the film a positive review , with a rating average of 5 out of 10 . The site 's consensus is that " Roland Emmerich 's 2012 provides plenty of visual thrills , but lacks a strong enough script to support its massive scope and inflated length . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 1 – 100 reviews from film critics , gave the film a 49 rating score based on 34 reviews .
Roger Ebert was enthusiastic about the film , giving it 3 ½ stars out of 4 , saying it " delivers what it promises , and since no sentient being will buy a ticket expecting anything else , it will be , for its audiences , one of the most satisfactory films of the year " . Both Ebert and Claudia Puig of USA Today called the film the " mother of all disaster movies " . In contrast , Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film a negative review and compared it to Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen : " Beware 2012 , which works the dubious miracle of almost matching Transformers 2 for sheer , cynical , mind @-@ numbing , time @-@ wasting , money @-@ draining , soul @-@ sucking stupidity . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = North Korean ban = = =
North Korea had reportedly banned possession or viewing of the film . The year 2012 was the 100th anniversary of the birth of the nation 's founder , Kim Il @-@ sung , and has been designated by the North Korean government as " the year for opening the grand gates to becoming a rising superpower " . Thus a movie depicting the year in a negative light was found to be offensive by the North Korean government . Several people in North Korea had reportedly been arrested for possessing or viewing imported copies of the movie and charged with " grave provocation against the development of the state . "
= = Canceled television spin @-@ off = =
In 2010 , Entertainment Weekly announced that there had been a plan for a spin @-@ off television series entitled 2013 that would have served as a follow @-@ up to the film . Executive producer of 2012 Mark Gordon told EW that " ABC will have an opening in their disaster @-@ related programming after Lost ends , so people would be interested in this topic on a weekly basis . There 's hope for the world despite the magnitude of the 2012 disaster as seen in the film . After the movie , there are some people who survive , and the question is how will these survivors build a new world and what will it look like . That might make an interesting TV series . " However , plans were later scrapped due to future budget concerns . This would have been Emmerich 's third film to get a spinoff , the first being Stargate ( with its TV series Stargate SG @-@ 1 , Stargate Infinity , Stargate Atlantis , Stargate Universe ) , and the second being Godzilla ( with its cartoon sequel Godzilla : The Series ) .
= New York State Route 306 =
New York State Route 306 ( NY 306 ) is a north – south state highway in western Rockland County , New York , in the United States . NY 306 runs from NY 59 in the hamlet of Monsey to U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) in Ladentown , on the western boundary of the village of Pomona . The road is currently 5 @.@ 33 miles ( 8 @.@ 58 km ) long ; however , it originally extended south to the New Jersey state line and north to Willow Grove Road ( former NY 210 ) when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
= = Route description = =
NY 306 begins at NY 59 in the Ramapo hamlet of Monsey and proceeds north as Main Street through part of the business district of Monsey . After passing Maple Avenue in the Jewish village of Kaser , NY 306 becomes Monsey – Ladentown Road for the rest of its run . NY 306 quickly leaves the small village and reenters the town of Ramapo .
Roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Kaser , NY 306 intersects County Route 74 ( CR 74 ) . Ramapo High School is located just east of NY 306 on CR 74 . NY 306 then passes a fairly large cemetery called Church of the West Hempstead Cemetery . NY 306 continues north past CR 80 , and enters the village of Wesley Hills . There it passes a small shopping center , and proceeds into residential areas . Finally , NY 306 enters Pomona at CR 86 . The route ends shortly afterward at US 202 .
= = History = =
When NY 306 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it extended from the New Jersey state line in the south to Willow Grove Road ( then part of NY 210 ) in the north via East Saddle River Road , Monsey – Ladentown Road , and Call Hollow Road . NY 306 was truncated to its current northern terminus at US 202 in Ramapo ( now part of the village of Pomona ) c . 1939 and to its modern southern end at NY 59 in Monsey c . 1962 . The former extensions of NY 306 are now largely maintained by Rockland County as CR 73 ( East Saddle River Road ) and CR 75 ( Call Hollow Road north of the Ramapo town line ) . The current southern terminus of NY 306 in Monsey was the proposed southwestern terminus of the Spring Valley Bypass , a bypass of NY 45 and NY 59 that was never built .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Rockland County .
= Coming Home ( Diddy – Dirty Money song ) =
" Coming Home " is a song by American rapper and producer Diddy and his band Dirty Money , from their debut album Last Train to Paris ( 2010 ) . It was released on November 21 , 2010 , as the album 's fourth single . The contemporary hip @-@ hop pop song was written by Jermaine Cole , Diddy , Jay @-@ Z , Alex da Kid and Skylar Grey . Kid and Jay @-@ Z produced the song while Grey featured vocals on the song 's chorus . Jay @-@ Z and Kid gifted the song to Diddy for Last Train to Paris . Autobiographically written , " Coming Home " is inspired by moments in Diddy 's life , the loss of his close friend , The Notorious B.I.G and references to classic songs by Dionne Warwick , McFadden & Whitehead and Smokey Robinson & the Miracles .
Critics praised the redemptive ballad for the personal themes and lyrics which were a snapshot of Diddy 's life . Praise was also given for Grey 's soft vocals which complemented the warmth of the song . An accompanying music video , directed by Rich Lee , follows the trio wandering through the desert in search of home only to find burned belongings and the shell of a home . Singled out as one of the album 's highlights , " Coming Home " was promoted with live TV performances including at the American Music Awards on November 21 , 2010 , the WWE Tribute to the Troops concert , and the March 10 , 2011 episode of American Idol which marked the first live performance of the song featuring Skylar Grey .
To date , " Coming Home " is Diddy @-@ Dirty Money 's most successful single and the highest charting single from Last Train to Paris . Aside from amassing one million digital sales , it peaked at number eleven on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and number nine in Canada . Internationally , the single topped both Belgium Ultratip charts and the Swiss Singles Chart , as well as reaching top five in the UK . This comes in addition to breaking onto the A @-@ playlists on British urban music radio and mainstream radio , and topping the UK R & B Singles chart for three consecutive weeks .
= = Inspiration and composition = =
" Coming Home " is a downtempo hip @-@ hop and pop song , that opens with a " simple piano intro " and a " delicate vocal verse from Skylar Grey " . It was written by Diddy , Skylar Grey , Jay @-@ Z , J.Cole , and Alex " da Kid " Grant , and produced by Jay @-@ Z and Grant . When speaking to Kid about what he wanted , Diddy said , " I want a beat that makes me feel like a white man in a basement in Atlanta " . Diddy later called " Coming Home " a gift from Jay @-@ Z and Kid . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , by EMI Music Publishing , the song was written in the key of D major with a time signature of common time and a tempo of 69 beats per minute . It follows the basic chord progression of G – D – Bm – F ♯ m . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV noted that the concept and theme of the song were similar to events in Diddy 's life , " referencing mistakes he has made in the past and that he wants to put behind him . " Rodriguez also noted the song 's tribute to The Notorious B.I.G , in the line " I miss you , B.I.G. " The chorus features vocals from the group 's female members , Kalenna Harper and Dawn Richards , as well as background vocals from fellow Bad Boy Records recording artist Cassie . The trio use a vocal range of A3 – A4 . Grey also sings some of the vocals , predominately during the song 's opening chorus .
Rap @-@ Up magazine reflected on the lyrics of the song , calling them a personal reflection of Diddy 's life and career thanks to lines like " What am I ‘ posed to do when the club lights come on / It ’ s easy to be Puff , but it ’ s harder to be Sean / What if my twins ask why I ain ’ t married their mom ? " Scott Schetler from AOL Radio Blog noted how Diddy referenced a different popular song in each verse . Lamb particularly noted the strong autobiographical lyrics , and the references to the 1979 hit song " Ain 't No Stoppin ' Us Now " by McFadden & Whitehead . Other songs referenced include Dionne Warwick 's " A House Is Not a Home " ( 1964 ) and Smokey Robinson & the Miracles ' " The Tears of a Clown " ( 1970 ) . Rodriguez said " Diddy do [ es ] some soul @-@ searching in his rhymes as the chorus echoes his need for salvation . "
Lamb compared the song to Diddy 's early releases , saying that " ' Coming Home ' [ welcomes ] Diddy back to the upper ranks of pop @-@ oriented hip hop artists " . Additionally , Diddy told MTV that although the track had autobiographical elements , it was part of the album 's " conceptual love story narrated by his character " . When asked by Live Lounge 's Trevor Nelson what " Coming Home " was based on , Diddy said :
" Coming Home " goes to everybody out there who 's going through a struggle or obstacle . I 've been lost in life , I 'm still lost in life in these sense of trying to find your way back to that person who your grandmother or father wanted you to be . Sometimes you get lost through drug addiction or you break up with up your partner or remission from cancer etc. you struggle to find your way back to yourself . That 's what " Coming Home " is about .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , " Coming Home " was generally met with a positive reception from music critics , who praised the autobiographical lyrics and composition of Skylar Grey 's vocals with the Alex da Kid and Jay @-@ Z production . Becky Bain of Idolator wrote , " We have to give some credit to Diddy ( or Jay @-@ Z , if he did indeed write [ the lyrics ] ) for dropping some truly introspective lyrics instead of the usual not @-@ so @-@ subtle Cîroc vodka promotions . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson from Entertainment Weekly agreed , and noted " Coming Home " as one of Last Train to Paris ' highlights , saying it was a " must download " as the album 's only " redemptive ballad " . Jim Farber of the New York Daily News also noted the song 's redemptive themes . He said ' Coming Home ' is the " only song which breaks the flow " of Last Train to Paris , " Diddy confesses to everything from bad parenting to fear of commitment . It 's an interesting moment but an unnecessary one . " Meanwhile , About.com 's Bill Lamb awarded the song four out of five stars , calling it the first " pop hit single " in a long time " [ which ] matches the size of his public persona " . He praised the " beautifully sung chorus by Skylar Grey " and Diddy 's deep " autobiographical lyrics " . Lamb noted that the song " didn 't have the same intensity of emotional impact " other Alex da Kid productions ( Eminem 's " Love the Way You Lie " ) but it did " deliver a warmth and sense of hope that is a good match with the current holiday season . " A reviewer from Sound Savvy said " The latest single ' Coming Home ' is another example of some of the great work found on the album . ... it ’ s a heartfelt anthem of triumph and survival – somber but not depressing . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Coming Home " premiered on October 31 , 2010 , just prior to the fourth game of the Baseball World Series . It made its U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart debut at number sixty @-@ one on December 11 , 2010 , three weeks after its release . In its third week on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , the single experienced a 92 % increase in sales , which amounted to 65 @,@ 000 copies . As a result , the song vaulted from number forty @-@ four to number seventeen on the Digital Songs chart causing the single to move from number fifty @-@ one to twenty @-@ four on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart , number nine on the U.S. Pop Songs , number seven on the Canadian Hot 100 chart , and number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It also peaked at number fifteen on the Radio Songs . Consequently , " Coming Home " outperformed all of the group 's previous singles on the Hot 100 and Digital Songs charts . Additionally , " Coming Home " also peaked higher than two of the three songs mentioned in the lyrics . " Ain 't No Stoppin ' Us Now " by McFadden & Whitehead reached number thirteen , while Dionne Warwick 's " A House Is Not a Home " only reached number seventy @-@ nine . The song experience some crossover success , including on the Rap Songs chart where it reached number twenty @-@ one . By the end of January 2011 , " Coming Home " had sold one million digital copies in the United States . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on April 19 and 2 × platinum on May 17 , 2011 .
Internationally , the single got off to a strong start in Belgium , debuting on both the Flanders Tip and Wallonia Tip charts at number twenty @-@ six . " Coming Home " would later top both Tip charts , before impacting on the main Ultratop charts . On the Flanders Ultratop Singles chart , the song peaked at number seventeen , while on the Wallonia chart it peaked at number twenty @-@ seven . " Coming Home " debuted in Switzerland at number forty @-@ eight , and dropped seven places to number fifty @-@ five in its second week . In its third week , the single rose fifteen places to number forty , and then continued to rise , eventually reaching number one on the Swiss Singles Chart . As a result of reaching number one , " Coming Home " is Diddy 's highest charting single in Switzerland in fourteen years ; his last number one in Switzerland was " I 'll Be Missing You " with Faith Evans and 112 in 1997 . " Coming Home " made its Australian Singles Chart debut at number forty @-@ nine and is thus the first single from Diddy @-@ Dirty Money to chart within the top @-@ fifty . It is since peaked at number four , and number two on the Australian Urban Singles Chart . The single had equal success in Germany , peaking at number four for two weeks .
" Coming Home " was also successful in other territories too , also peaking in the top @-@ ten in Austria , France , Ireland , New Zealand and Poland . On December 15 , 2010 the single was added to the playlists on British mainstream radio and a week later to the playlists on British urban music radio . Following its release , " Coming Home " debuted at number four on the UK Singles Chart , becoming Diddy 's most successful single in that country since 2006 's " Come to Me " with Nicole Scherzinger . Additionally the single topped the UK R & B Chart and as a consequence , " Coming Home " is Diddy @-@ Dirty Money 's most successful single in the United Kingdom . In its second week , the single held on to its position of number four on the singles chart , which came in addition to maintaining its position at the top of the UK R & B Singles chart for three consecutive weeks . According to a press release by Interscope Records , as of March 25 , 2011 , " Coming Home " has sold 1 @.@ 8 million digital downloads worldwide .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The accompanying music video made its worldwide premiere through E ! Online on November 29 , 2010 . It was filmed entirely in the Mojave Desert , just outside Palm Springs , CA . The video was the first of three released in the three weeks counting down to the album 's release . Album cuts " Somebody to Love Me " and " Ass on the Floor " ( featuring Swizz Beatz ) received video releases on December 10 and December 13 , respectively . " Coming Home " was directed by Rich Lee and according to Steven Gottlieb , of Video Static , the theme drew comparisons to some of Diddy 's earliest work . " ' Coming Home ' has Diddy choppering onto a dry lake bed which is dotted by the charred remains of a luxurious lifestyle . "
= = = Synopsis = = =
" Coming Home " starts with scenes of a black helicopter flying over the desert . In some of the shots , Diddy can be seen looking out on to the horizon . As the song progresses into its main verses , the camera follows Diddy walking through the desert . In the background and foreground , the fire @-@ damaged remnants of a home such as a TV set , fur coats and a stereo system are scattered across the landscape . During the chorus Dawn Richard and Kalenna Harper take place in front of the camera , walking behind Diddy miming Grey 's words . Later in the clip , during the second verse , Diddy sits in a burned out building singing to himself . Outside , a burned out vehicle is parked . Then during the song 's bridge , red smoke surrounds Diddy as the helicopter , from the opening scene , comes to land . However , this time Richard and Harper are seated inside waiting for Diddy . As the song fades , the helicopter flies over the desert toward the horizon .
= = = Reception = = =
Staff from E ! Online seemed impressed with the video 's concept and choice of background scenery . They said " what better place for some introspection than the desert , right ? No sexy bikini @-@ clad ladies or blue @-@ haired Nicki Minajs to distract you , and when you 're done , just call up the helicopter to pick you up ( Pro tip : Hang your leg outside of the chopper for extra cool points . ) " . Stephen Gottlieb from Video Static said " It 's a nice bookend with Diddy 's – then Puff Daddy – first solo video , " Can 't Nobody Hold Me Down , " which featured him and Mase introducing an era of big budget hip @-@ hop while driving a Rolls convertible across the desert . " While Ed Easton Jr. from 92 @.@ 3 Now FM drew comparisons to Diddy 's earlier video for his 1997 hit single " Been Around the World " , thus awarding the video six out of ten . However Easton was annoyed with the number of videos being released and said that fans were waiting for the actual album to be released .
= = Live performances and usage in media = =
Diddy @-@ Dirty Money performed the song live for the first time at the 2010 American Music Awards on November 21 , 2010 . For the performance the group were joined on stage by a full orchestra , with Diddy dressed in all @-@ black but the other half of the group dressed in white gowns . The group reprised this performance on the December 4 , 2010 airing of Saturday Night Live along with the debut performance of the next scheduled single " Ass On the Floor " . On December 14 , 2010 the group performed " Coming Home " on two separate occasions . First Diddy appeared on daytime chatshow , The View , for an interview and was then joined by Richard and Harper to perform " Coming Home " then later the trio performed on the Late Show with David Letterman . Four days later , the group performed the ballad at the WWE Tribute to the Troops concert . On January 20 , 2011 , The group performed the song live in the United Kingdom , on the Radio 1 Live Lounge . Diddy @-@ Dirty Money then returned to the United States , where they performed " Coming Home " for the first time with Skylar Grey , on season ten of American Idol , on March 10 , 2011 . The song was used as entrance music by UFC Light Heavyweight champion Jon Bones Jones before his successful title defense against Quinton Rampage Jackson . Also , during the pre @-@ game introductions for the New York Knicks ' 2010 @-@ 11 NBA game against the Milwaukee Bucks on February 23 , 2011 ( and home debut of newly acquired Syracuse Orange alumnus Carmelo Anthony ) , the song was used in a pre @-@ game video , welcoming Melo " home " ( he started his NBA career with the Denver Nuggets after leaving the Orange ) to New York . There is also a kid / teen @-@ friendly version of the song performed by the cast of Nickelodeon 's popular TV show iCarly , which can be heard on the show 's second soundtrack , entitled iSoundtrack II . It was the official theme song to WWE 's WrestleMania 29 , and at the event , Sean Combs and Skylar Grey performed it live in front of a sold out venue of 80 @,@ 676 in MetLife Stadium . Though not used as the official theme song , " Coming Home " has been used in almost every advertisement for the ABC drama series Resurrection . On December 4 , 2013 , The Fast and the Furious team released a tribute video to Paul Walker after the actor 's untimely death , which contained excerpts from Coming Home . On December 30 , 2014 newly hired Michigan Wolverines head football coach Jim Harbaugh was introduced to the public during a brief halftime ceremony with the song playing as he walked onto center court . On October 28 , 2014 , an instrumental was a part of the Cleveland Cavaliers pre @-@ game introductions as it was the first game back in Cleveland for LeBron James since 2010 . As Dwyane Wade returned to his hometown of Chicago in 2016 , a video using the song was created to mark the occasion .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
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steel and was fueled by magnesium in order to ensure that the flame showed up properly during the opening ceremony . It was also designed by Ralph Lavers , with the frame for the torch created by EMI , and the magnesium candle supplied by Wessex Aircraft Engineering . Neither the suppliers nor designer charged a fee for the final torch .
= = = Planned torch route = = =
Key
* As planned
Source : The Official Report of the Organising Committee for the XIV Olympiad
= = = Torch route = = =
While the general negotiation with other countries and the specific route were handled by the Organising Committee for the Games , the detailed organisation was delegated to a subgroup led by F.W. Collins . Due to cost implications , the extensive route conducted by the 1936 Games was ruled out . Instead , the simplest route from Olympia to London was to be used , going by sea to Italy and then run through Switzerland and France . The route was modified only when Luxembourg and Belgium both requested that the torch travel their territories . A longer Greek route was planned , but reduced from an expected 750 kilometres ( 470 mi ) down to 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) due to concerns over instability in the country and a lack of security .
The torch lighting ceremony took place on 17 July 1948 in Olympia , Greece . As with the 1936 Summer Olympic relay , the torch relay was begun by focusing the sun 's rays onto kindling using a parabolic reflector , which then lit the first torch . The kindling was conducted by a Girl Guide leader from Pyrgos , Elis . She was only chosen the previous evening due to the unsettled state of the country ; the Athenian girl who was trained for the ceremony was unable to travel to Olympia . In a symbolic gesture , the first runner , Corporal Dimitrelis of the Greek Army , laid down his arms and removed his military uniform before taking his torch in hand . The kindling material for the first torch was handed over as a gift from the Chairman of the Greek Olympic Committee to Collins , for Princess Elizabeth . It was then run to the Greek coast at Katakolo , where at 7 pm it boarded the Greek destroyer Hastings bound for the island of Corfu . It stayed overnight in the city of Corfu , and boarded HMS Whitesand Bay at 1 : 30 pm the following day where the flame was switched to a specially equipped butane gas torch in order to ensure that there was a 48 @-@ hour lifespan available for the flame , despite the crossing only being expected to take 22 hours .
The ship dropped the torch off in Bari at 12 : 30 pm on 19 July . It was run north through several Italian cities before crossing the Simplon Pass into Brig , Switzerland on 23 July . From there it was run west until leaving the country at Perly @-@ Certoux , and entering France at Saint @-@ Julien @-@ en @-@ Genevois . The route then detours from the direct route to take in Luxembourg and into Belgium before re @-@ entering France at Lille on 28 July , finally departing the country at Calais . HMS Bicester carried the torch across the English Channel to Dover , arriving at 8 : 25 pm on 28 July . It travelled through several towns in the South East of England until it arrived at Wembley , where it arrived only thirty seconds late after the entire journey . That delay may have only been in the final few hundred yards of the relay down Olympic Way outside of Empire Stadium as the pressure of the crowds on the torch carrier and their escorts reduced the pace to walking speed . Special celebrations were held at each border crossing , and at Pierre de Coubertin 's tomb in Lausanne , Switzerland .
It was agreed for a secondary Olympic Flame to be lit in Torquay during the games , and a secondary torch relay was conducted to take the flame from Wembley south to the coast to Torquay . The arrangements were the same as from Dover to Wembley but in reverse .
= 2011 – 12 Washington Capitals season =
The 2011 – 12 Washington Capitals season was the franchise 's 38th season in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Washington finished the year as the seventh place team in the Eastern Conference . In the opening round of the playoffs , they matched up with the defending Stanley Cup champion Boston Bruins . Due to injuries , the Capitals were forced to play rookie goaltender Braden Holtby . Washington 's defeat of the Bruins marked the first time in NHL history in which all seven games of a series were decided by one goal . Facing the East 's top seed in the Conference Semifinals , Washington was defeated in seven games by the New York Rangers . Holtby was lauded for his playoff performance , where he recorded a .935 save percentage and was credited with putting Washington in a position to win each game .
Washington won their first seven games , setting a franchise record for consecutive victories to start a season . Shortly after , however , an early season slump prompted the benching of offensive star players Alexander Ovechkin and Alexander Semin in separate games . The moves failed to produce results , and Head Coach Bruce Boudreau was eventually replaced by Dale Hunter . Boudreau 's firing came seven days after he won his 200th game as an NHL head coach , achieving the feat faster anyone in NHL history . Under Hunter , the Capitals battled the Florida Panthers for the Southeast Division title , ultimately losing out on their fifth @-@ straight division title on the final day of the season . Two days after Washington 's playoff elimination , Hunter stepped down as head coach ; Adam Oates was hired as his replacement .
Individually , Alexander Ovechkin and Dennis Wideman were named to the All @-@ Star Game . Due to a suspension for a reckless hit , however , Ovechkin elected not to attend the game to avoid being a distraction . Four Capitals were named one of the NHL 's weekly three stars – a total of five times throughout the season . Three players made their NHL debut , while Mike Knuble played in his 1,000th game .
= = Off @-@ season = =
During the off @-@ season , the Capitals made several player changes . One of the players that was not retained by the team , Matt Bradley , started a controversy with his comments from a radio interview in Ottawa . In the interview , Bradley said his former team was " a little bit too nonchalant and guys weren ’ t disciplined the way they should have been , " which he claimed were the two biggest reasons why the team was not able to advance past the second round of the Stanley Cup playoffs . He later stated that Head Coach Bruce Boudreau did not give the most ice time to players who were playing well , but went with his star players . He further noted that Boudreau was a " great coach " who had been put in a tough position . When asked to point out examples , Bradley stated that Alexander Semin " could easily be the best player in the league , " but he " just doesn ’ t care , " further noting , " When you 've got a guy like that , you need him to be your best player , or one of your best players , and when he doesn 't show up , you almost get the sense that he wants to be back in Russia . " Semin 's agent came to his client 's defense , stating he " always cares . " Teammate Mike Knuble noted that because Semin speaks limited English , the language barrier affects the way that he is perceived , further noting that the interview comments were something Bradley regretted . When asked about the comments , former Capitals forward David Steckel stated that , " It 's not like he went out and told lies . " Bradley later apologized for his comments in an interview with the Sun Sentinel .
Including Bradley , the Capitals lost six players who played for them in the playoffs , as well as back @-@ up goaltender Semyon Varlamov . [ note 1 ] To replace some of the departed players , Washington traded its 2011 first round draft pick to the Chicago Blackhawks for veteran winger Troy Brouwer , who was a member of the Blackhawks ' Stanley Cup championship team in 2010 . They then signed Joel Ward as a free agent , adding grit and the hopes that he could duplicate his 2011 playoff success . Ward scored seven goals and 13 points in 12 playoff games with the Nashville Predators , after scoring 10 goals and 29 points in 80 regular season games . In net , they added veteran Tomas Vokoun , who was considered to be one of the top goaltenders in the 2011 free agent class . He signed a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 5 million contract , well below his believed market value , to have a chance at winning the Stanley Cup . After making these and other off @-@ season moves , the Capitals were over the NHL salary cap . The expectation was that defenseman Tom Poti would not be able to play due to injury and Washington would be forced to place him on long @-@ term injured reserve , where his $ 2 @.@ 9 million salary would not count against the cap total . Unexpectedly , Poti told the Capitals that he would be ready to play by training camp . Poti , however , failed his medical exam prior to training camp and was placed on long @-@ term injured reserve .
= = Regular season = =
= = = October – November = = =
In the season opener against the Carolina Hurricanes , Boudreau made a " surprise " decision to start goaltender Michal Neuvirth . Boudreau stated that the reason behind his decision was a reward for Neuvirth 's hard work in training camp . Prior to the Capitals ' second game , Neuvirth sustained a bruised foot and was unable to play . In his Capitals debut , Vokoun struggled , allowing five goals on 28 shots , but nevertheless Washington won the game 6 – 5 in a shootout . In the post @-@ game interview , Vokoun blamed himself for the high number of goals and thanked his teammates for getting him the win in a game he should have lost . Vokoun rebounded in his second game , making 39 saves in a 3 – 2 win over the Pittsburgh Penguins . He continued his strong play and was named the NHL 's third star of the week ending October 23 and helped the Capitals to a franchise @-@ record seven game winning streak to start a season .
After losing two straight games , Washington was down 4 – 3 to the Anaheim Ducks in the final minutes of the game . With the goaltender pulled , Boudreau decided to play the third line of Joel Ward , Brooks Laich and Jason Chimera with Nicklas Backstrom as the extra attacker . Boudreau stated that he was " playing a hunch " by leaving star forward Alexander Ovechkin on the bench . The move paid off , however , as Backstrom scored to force overtime . He also scored the game winner in overtime assisted by Ovechkin . When asked about being left on the bench in a post @-@ game interview , Ovechkin stated that Laich 's line deserved to be on the ice – though the video showed Ovechkin visibly upset about being left on the bench . The following day , Ovechkin stated that he was upset about not being on the ice in the final minutes , but that he understood Boudreau 's decision . The Hockey News ' Ken Campbell applauded the benching of Ovechkin stating that in the past Boudreau had shown a willingness to continually put his star players out on the ice despite how they were playing and accepted the consequences . Campbell noted the move was Boudreau " addressing his most glaring problem as a coach " .
Following the benching incident , the Capitals went 2 – 5 – 0 leading up to their November 21 game against the Phoenix Coyotes . [ note 2 ] For the game , Boudreau again made headlines for not playing one of his star players , this time making Alexander Semin a healthy scratch ( a non @-@ dressing player ) . Semin led the team in penalties @-@ in @-@ minutes ( PIMs ) , as well as being tied for second in the NHL with 14 minor penalties . Boudreau previously benched Semin for the second half of a game against the New Jersey Devils after the winger had taken two minor penalties and was deemed not focused . Washington defeated Phoenix in the game 4 – 3 . NBC 's Mike Halford echoed Campbell 's statement when discussing the benching of Semin , commenting that it was a " bold move " and the latest in a series of messages sent by Boudreau . Halford further questioned if the new stance would eventually cost Boudreau his job .
The benchings did not produce the desired results , however , as the Capitals lost six of eight games , with Ovechkin scoring only one goal during the same stretch . As a result , Washington fired Boudreau on November 28 and replaced him with former Capitals captain Dale Hunter . Hunter was the head coach of the Ontario Hockey League 's ( OHL ) London Knights when he was hired . During his time with London , he set an OHL record for fastest coach to 300 and 400 career wins . The Capitals lost Hunter 's coaching debut 2 – 1 to the St. Louis Blues . The following day , Boudreau spoke to the media about being fired , stating that General Manager George McPhee made the " right decision at the time " and that despite speculation , he did not feel that Ovechkin was a problem , stating that he " worked as hard and tried as hard as he could . "
= = = December – January = = =
The Capitals did not give Hunter his first NHL win until his third game , a 3 – 2 win over the Ottawa Senators that broke a four @-@ game losing streak . Brooks Laich scored the game @-@ winning goal just 12 seconds into the overtime period . The goal would prove to be the fastest overtime goal scored during the 2011 – 12 NHL regular season . In the rematch four days later , Ovechkin appeared to spear Senators forward Chris Neil . Following a Neil hit on Ovechkin , the pair skated up the ice , whereupon Neil fell to the ice following the alleged spear . Neil was given an unsportsmanlike conduct penalty for diving . A spearing penalty , if called , would have resulted in a five @-@ minute major penalty and a game misconduct . Later in the game , Ovechkin scored the eventual game @-@ winning goal , his first goal in six games . When asked about the incident after the game , Neil described it as a " pitchfork in the gut , " while Ovechkin stated he was " not the type of guy who spears players . " The following day , a league spokesman stated that Ovechkin would not be suspended or fined for the incident .
The December 28 game against the New York Rangers marked the return of fourth line forward Jay Beagle , who previously missed 31 games with a concussion suffered in a fight against the Pittsburgh Penguins ' Arron Asham . The fight itself had generated a minor controversy , as Asham , an experienced fighter , made celebratory gestures after knocking out Beagle , who was in his first career NHL fight . Several Capitals expressed their displeasure with Asham after the game , while Asham himself later called his actions " classless . " Beagle 's work ethic in his return was called contagious by teammate Matt Hendricks , and he helped the Capitals to a 4 – 1 victory .
In late December , Ovechkin went on a seven @-@ game point streak that featured the two @-@ point games in the final four games of the streak . In conjunction with the point streak , he scored eight goals in nine games . [ note 3 ] Washington went 5 – 1 – 1 during the streak , which was eventually snapped in a 5 – 2 loss to the San Jose Sharks on January 7 . In the game prior to the streak being snapped , Capitals ' defenseman Mike Green returned from a groin injury that had kept him out of the lineup for 23 games . Washington defeated the Calgary Flames 3 – 1 in the contest , which moved their record to 9 – 0 – 0 with Green in the line @-@ up . However , the news coming out of the game was not all good . During the game , the Capitals ' leading scorer , Nicklas Backstrom , was elbowed in the head by the Flames ' Rene Bourque . Backstrom underwent concussion testing , which proved inconclusive ; he suffered from what was described as " concussion @-@ like symptoms " and was eventually placed on the injured reserve . For his actions , Bourque was suspended five games for delivering the elbow . Compounding the Capitals ' injury problem was the loss of Mike Green in just his second game back ; he re @-@ injured his groin during the contest and was placed on the long @-@ term injured reserve . During a game against the Pittsburgh Penguins , Ovechkin delivered a hit to Pittsburgh defenseman Zbynek Michalek . On the hit , Ovechkin launched himself into Michalek 's shoulder , where the force of the hit caused Ovechkin to make contact with Michalek 's head . Later in the game , Michalek delivered an elbow to the back of Matt Hendricks ' head , driving it into the glass . The following day , it was announced that Ovechkin was suspended for three games for the reckless hit despite not receiving a penalty on the play during the game . Vice President of Player Safety Brendan Shanahan stated the length of the suspension took into account that Ovechkin was a repeat offender , having been suspended twice before and fined twice as well . It also took into consideration that Michalek was not injured on the play . Despite his own actions , Michalek avoided a fine or suspension . Without Ovechkin , Backstrom or Green , Washington nonetheless defeated defending Stanley Cup champion Boston Bruins in the final game before the All @-@ Star break to move into first place in the Southeast Division .
Washington had two players named to the NHL All @-@ Star Game . Despite having a poor season by his standards , Alexander Ovechkin was named to the Game . However , due to his suspension , Ovechkin announced that he did not want to be a distraction at the game ; he was " not comfortable " going , and declined to attend the All @-@ Star weekend . Dennis Wideman was the Capitals ' other All @-@ Star representative . He recorded 34 points heading into the break while averaging over 24 minutes of ice time per game .
= = = February – April = = =
Washington started the second half of the season with a 2 – 2 – 1 record . In their next game , against the Winnipeg Jets , the Capitals lost a two @-@ goal lead late in the game , eventually losing in a shootout . The loss knocked the Capitals out of first place in their division and they dropped from third to ninth in the conference . Washington lost their next two games before defeating the Southeast Division @-@ leading Florida Panthers 2 – 1 . The game marked goaltender Tomas Vokoun 's first game in Florida after leaving the team as a free agent in the off @-@ season . With the win , Washington moved two points behind the Panthers . Despite being close , however , Washington could not build any momentum , later losing their next three games before closing out the month of February on a three @-@ game win streak .
Washington continued its inconsistent play into the month of March , losing three games before going on a four @-@ game winning streak leading up to another game against the Winnipeg Jets . During the loss to the Jets , Vokoun re @-@ aggravated a reoccurring groin injury ; he had been dealing with the injury since late February , and it forced him out of the lineup . Braden Holtby was recalled to serve as the team 's back @-@ up . During Vokoun 's absence , Ovechkin began a goal @-@ scoring streak , notching nine goals in seven games , culminating in a two @-@ goal performance during a 3 – 0 victory over the Minnesota Wild . The scoring steak helped Ovechkin to be named NHL 's third star of the week . The win moved the Capitals into the eighth and final playoff spot . They did not remain there long , however , as their next game was a lost 5 – 1 to the Buffalo Sabres , who passed Washington for eighth place . The following game , against the Boston Bruins , Vokoun returned to action , but played only 18 : 25 before the same injury forced him from the game . Although the Capitals won the game , it was Vokoun 's final game of the season as well as his last as a Capital , with Vokoun later describing the injury as a " pretty severe [ groin ] tear . " Washington 's final game of March marked the return of Nicklas Backstrom , who had missed 40 games with a concussion . The Capitals won the game 3 – 2 in a shootout , moving them back into eighth place .
Entering April , the Capitals had a chance to clinch a playoff spot against the Tampa Bay Lightning . The game was tied 2 – 2 with 1 : 03 remaining when Steven Stamkos scored , leading Tampa to the eventual 4 – 2 victory . Facing the Division @-@ leading Panthers in their next game , Washington succeeded in clinching a playoff spot with a 4 – 2 win of their own . The victory also gave the Capitals a chance at winning their Division in their final game . During the game , Neuvirth was hurt when former Capital Marco Sturm fell on top of him while he was making a save . Neuvirth left after the incident and did not return . Neuvirth suffered a lower body injury and was not ready to return for the final game or the start of the playoffs . Washington won its final game of the year behind a 35 @-@ save performance from Holtby , clinching at least the seventh seed in the Eastern Conference pending the outcome of Florida ’ s game . A win by the Panthers in their final game , however , prevented Washington from winning their fifth @-@ straight Division title and moving into the third playoff seed .
= = Playoffs = =
Finishing the regular season as the seventh seed , Washington was matched up with the defending champion Boston Bruins . As Tomas Vokoun and Michal Neuvirth were still injured , the Capitals were forced to start Braden Holtby in Game 1 . Through the first two periods , Boston was in control of the game , out @-@ shooting Washington 26 – 7 . Despite the disparity in shots , the game remained tied 0 – 0 after regulation . Washington lost the game shortly into overtime . They rebounded to tie the series when Nicklas Backstrom scored in double overtime of game two . Through the first two games of the series , Holtby stopped 72 of 74 Bruins ' shots . In Game 3 , the two teams again looked to be heading to overtime tied 3 – 3 late in the third when Backstrom took a penalty . Zdeno Chara scored on the man advantage with under two minutes remaining , giving Boston the win . After the game ended , Backstrom was given a match penalty for intent to injure following a cross @-@ check to Rich Peverley . Backstrom received a one @-@ game suspension for his actions . Without Backstrom in Game 4 , the Capitals evened the series with a 2 – 1 victory that featured a 44 @-@ save performance from Holtby . The Capitals took their first lead in the series thanks to a Troy Brouwer power @-@ play goal with 1 : 27 left in regulation of game five . Facing elimination , Boston did not trail throughout Game 6 and was in position to win late in the third . However , an Alexander Ovechkin goal led to overtime , were Tyler Seguin scored to force a seventh and deciding game . Game 7 went to overtime , where a dump @-@ in attempt was blocked by Mike Knuble , giving him a breakaway . He took a backhand that was stopped by Boston 's Tim Thomas . Joel Ward followed the play and scored the game @-@ winning goal on the rebound . With Washington 's victory in the series , Holtby became just the third rookie goaltender in NHL history to defeat the reigning Stanley Cup champions . It was also the first playoff series in NHL history which all seven games were decided by one goal .
In the second round , Washington was matched up with the top @-@ seeded New York Rangers . After losing Game 1 by giving up two goals in a 1 : 30 span , Washington took a 2 – 0 lead in Game 2 , only to have the Rangers come back and tie the score in the third period . The Capitals , however , won the game on an Ovechkin power @-@ play goal late in the third . Game 3 was a triple @-@ overtime contest that ended when Marian Gaborik scored to give New York a 2 – 1 win . The 114 : 41 game was the 20th longest game in NHL history , and Washington 's third @-@ longest game in franchise history . Washington evened the series in Game 4 with a one @-@ goal win . In the win , Ovechkin was benched for the majority of the third period , where after the tilt , he noted that the most important thing was that the Capitals won the game . Washington looked to be heading for their first series lead as Game 5 was coming to an end . The Capitals were leading 2 – 1 with 21 @.@ 3 seconds remaining when Joel Ward took a double minor penalty for high @-@ sticking . On the ensuing power play , Brad Richards scored with 6 @.@ 6 seconds left in regulation to tie the game . The Rangers remained on the power play to start the overtime period , with Ward serving the second half of his double minor when Marc Staal scored to give New York the win . Facing elimination in Game 6 , Washington took the lead 1 : 28 into the game on an Ovechkin power play tally . They did not trail in the game and won 2 – 1 to force Game 7 . Ovechkin 's goal was the 30th of his post @-@ season career , which tied him for the Capitals all @-@ time franchise record with Peter Bondra . In the deciding game , Brad Richards scored 1 : 32 into the first period helping New York to the eventual 2 – 1 victory and the series win . Holtby finished the playoffs with a 1 @.@ 95 goals against average , a .935 save percentage and was praised for his " breakout " performance while being credited with giving the Capitals a " chance to win every game . "
= = Post @-@ season = =
Two days after the loss , Head Coach Dale Hunter stepped down for personal reasons . General Manager George McPhee announced that he would take his time considering candidates to replace Hunter . The search lasted a month @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half before the team hired former NHL and Capitals star , Adam Oates . The intention was to have a coach that combined the up @-@ tempo style implored by Bruce Boudreau and the " defense first " system of Hunter . McPhee said of the hiring " you try to get the smartest guy in the room " and he believed Oates was that person . Ovechkin noted that he was excited to play under a coach he believed would bring more offense back to Washington 's system . Oates ' hiring came on the same day that he was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame as a player .
= = Standings = =
= = = Divisional standings = = =
= = = Conference standings = = =
Divisions : AT – Atlantic , NE – Northeast , SE – Southeast
x – Qualified for playoffs , y – Clinched division , z – Clinched conference ( and division )
= = Schedule and results = =
= = = Pre @-@ season = = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
Key : Win Loss Clinch Playoff Series Eliminated from playoffs
= = Player statistics = =
= = = Skaters = = =
Note : GP
= Games played ; G =
Goals ; A
= Assists ; Pts =
Points ; + / −
= Plus / Minus ; PIM =
Penalty Minutes
= = = Goaltenders = = =
Note : GP
= Games Played ; Min =
Time On Ice ( minutes ) ; W
= Wins ; L =
Losses ; OT
= Overtime Losses ; GA =
Goals Against ; GAA = Goals Against Average ; SA = Shots Against ; SV
= Saves ; Sv % =
Save Percentage ; SO = Shutouts
= = Awards and records = =
Entering the season , Boudreau had amassed 189 wins in 309 NHL games . The win total put him on track to surpass Don Cherry as the fastest head coach to reach 200 NHL victories . After reaching 199 wins , Washington went on a four @-@ game losing streak before finally earning Boudreau the milestone win . Despite the losing streak , Boudreau registered his 200th win in 326 games , eclipsing Cherry 's previous mark of 341 games . While Boudreau set the record , he had the advantage of overtime and shootout victories , which did not exist during Cherry 's coaching career . Boudreau was fired seven days after setting the record .
Besides Ovechkin 's March and Vokoun 's third star award , Washington had players named NHL weekly stars three other times . Backstrom was named a third star after recording four points in two games . John Carlson earned third star honors with back @-@ to @-@ back three @-@ point games and finishing the week with seven points . Ovechkin received the first of his two star awards by scoring eight points in six games in January .
= = = Awards = = =
= = = Record = = =
= = = Milestones = = =
= = Transactions = =
Going into the off @-@ season , there was concern over the future of goaltender Semyon Varlamov . Washington had given the restricted free agent a qualifying offer , giving the Capitals the right to match any other NHL offers or receive draft pick compensation if they did not match . Though Washington had control of his negotiating rights , Varlamov indicated that he would leave the NHL to play in the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) . He stated that while he wanted to play in the NHL , he did not want to be a back @-@ up . If Varlamov left the League , Washington would not receive any compensation but would retain his NHL rights . In the KHL , a war for Varlamov 's services was developing . Lokomotiv Yaroslav claimed to retain Varlamov 's KHL rights and wanted to sign him to a contract around $ 2 million a season . Alternatively , SKA Saint Petersburg filed a complaint with the KHL , stating his rights were not owned because his original contract with Yaroslav predated the formation of the KHL and was therefore invalid . Before the situation could be resolved , the Capitals traded Varlamov 's rights to the Colorado Avalanche for a first round pick in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft , along with a conditional second @-@ round selection 2012 or 2013 . Following the trade , team owner Ted Leonsis noted that Varlamov " wanted assurances that we couldn ’ t make to him . " He was disappointed , but wished Varlamov well with Colorado . The Avalanche then signed the goaltender to a three @-@ year , $ 8 @.@ 5 million contract , thus keeping him in the NHL .
= = = Trades = = =
= = 2011 draft picks = =
The 2011 NHL Entry Draft was held in St. Paul , Minnesota , on June 24 and 25 . Heading into the draft , the Capitals had only five picks due to a variety of trades , which was tied for the fewest in franchise history . Believing that they had prospect depth in their organization and not seeing an available player who could help immediately , Washington traded their first round pick for Troy Brouwer . With just late round selections remaining , the Capitals decided to take players that required time to develop . Three of their four picks were in , or set to attend , college . Fourth @-@ round pick Steffen Soberg , the lone player not attending college , played in the GET @-@ ligaen , Norway 's highest level of competition . At the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships , he posted the second @-@ highest save percentage in the tournament and was considered one of Norway 's top three players , though no Norwegian goaltender has ever played an NHL game .
source :
Draft notes
The Capitals ' first @-@ round pick in the draft was traded to the Chicago Blackhawks in exchange for Troy Brouwer .
The Capitals ' second @-@ round pick in the draft , along with Brian Pothier and Oskar Osala , was traded to the Carolina Hurricanes in exchange for Joe Corvo in 2010 .
The Capitals ' third @-@ round pick in the draft , along with Jake Hauswirth , was traded to the Florida Panthers in exchange for Dennis Wideman .
= Cris and Cru Kahui homicides =
The deaths of brothers Christopher Arepa and Cru Omeka Kahui ( 20 March 2006 – 18 June 2006 ) , two New Zealand infants from a Māori family who died in Auckland 's Starship Children 's Hospital after being admitted with serious head injuries , highlighted the fact that Māori children are more than twice as likely to die as a result of abuse than non @-@ Māori and that New Zealand ranks fifth highest among OECD nations for child deaths due to maltreatment according to a 2003 UNICEF report .
Their family initially refused to cooperate with police in the homicide investigation into the children 's deaths . The father , 21 @-@ year @-@ old , Christopher Sonny Kahui was charged with their murder . His defence was that the mother was responsible for the deaths . After a six @-@ week trial , the jury took just one minute to acquit him .
A coroner 's report released in July 2012 concluded that the children 's injuries occurred " whilst they were in the sole custody , care and control of their father " .
= = Before deaths = =
Chris and Cru Kahui were the two survivors of triplets born prematurely at 29 weeks on 20 March 2006 at the National Women 's Hospital in Grafton , New Zealand . They spent six weeks at the Kidz First neonatal intensive care unit at Middlemore Hospital . During this time , nurses and social workers at the facility had informally raised concerns with a Department of Child , Youth and Family Services worker , as the parents , Chris Kahui and Macsyna King , did not spend a lot of time with the babies . According to the hospital , parents not visiting is not considered child abuse , but was a " cause for concern " .
Because the infants were still technically patients of Middlemore Hospital , hospital workers regularly visited the family home . During their last visit to the hospital , Chris and Cru were reported to be healthy and well @-@ fed . However , an autopsy showed that the infants had suffered fractured ribs in an incident prior to the fatal injuries .
= = Deaths = =
On 13 June , the infants ' mother , Macsyna King , returned to the house after being away overnight . She found that the boys suffered extensive bruises , and that their grandfather , William " Banjo " Kahui , had performed cardiopulmonary resuscitation on them . Police said the grandfather was not the only person in the house at the time . According to former MP John Tamihere , a member of the Kahui extended family had said " a young relative " was caring for the babies the day they were fatally injured . King and her husband took their children to the family G.P. , who ordered immediate hospitalisation for the infants . The Coroner made a finding that Chris Kahui refused to take the children to hospital , running away from the family car and leaving a distraught Macsyna King carrying two babies in their carriers into the hospital on her own . Doctors immediately discovered that the infants had serious brain injuries . After the infants were transferred to Starship Hospital , hospital workers notified the police . The Kahui infants were ultimately taken off life support , with Cru being the first to die at 5 a.m. on 18 June . Chris died at 6 : 45 p.m. later in the day . The deaths resulted in an initial serious assault investigation by the New Zealand Police before charges were upgraded to homicide .
Both infants had suffered skull fractures from blunt force trauma and Chris Kahui had a broken femur . An orthopaedic specialist told The Sunday Star @-@ Times that in order to break the femur of a baby , the bone would have to bend at a 90 degree angle , ruling out an accidental cause of the injury .
The bodies were released to the family on 21 June and taken to the Manurewa marae for a tangihanga ( funeral rites ) . They were buried at the Manukau City cemetery on 24 June .
While the infants were in hospital , Child , Youth and Family removed a 12 @-@ month @-@ old brother Shane and their female cousin Cayenne , aged six months from two rented Housing New Zealand homes — one in Clendon , the other in Mangere — where the Kahui babies had lived . Police said they were treated in hospital for injuries resulting from " neglect " . They had been found to be malnourished and " dirty " . According to the Herald on Sunday newspaper , the two children were to be returned to the family in September 2006 . But neither the parents or so @-@ called " Tight 12 " of family members who initially refused to cooperate with police , would be their caregivers .
= = Homicide investigation = =
The police believe that , while the infants were in hospital prior to their deaths , the family was uncooperative with any investigation . Pita Sharples , the co @-@ leader of the Māori Party , said the family had agreed to talk to police on 26 June , but this did not happen . Following the deaths , Sharples said he was disgusted by the Kahui family 's behaviour . He claimed some members of the family were more interested in going " to the pub and have a drink " than coming forward to police . Prime Minister Helen Clark said it was " absolutely shocking " for the family to hide behind the funeral while everyone in the country was " shocked and revolted " by the injuries . There were even reports that gang members were threatening the Kahui family in utu ( or revenge ) over their refusal to speak .
After refusing to speak to police in the week after the death , police went to family homes on 27 June . At least four family members , including the children 's mother and aunt , were escorted to police stations . By 4 July , at least 20 extended family members were questioned , as well as 90 medical practitioners and staff who were in contact with the babies . Forensic scientists removed items such as clothing from the Kahui homes . By September , police said that the family was no longer " stone @-@ walling " their inquiries , but a prima facie case had yet to be established . Sunday News reported on 17 September that the list of suspects was down to three and an arrest was imminent . This was followed by a police statement nine days later stating that they now knew who was responsible for the deaths . However , other family members could still be charged with related crimes .
Two half @-@ sisters of the infants ' mother Macsyna King , appeared on TVNZ 's Sunday 23 July episode . They claimed that Macsyna and her brother , Robert King , had told them the name of the killer . TVNZ censored the name when one of the women said it , but the gender was revealed to be male . The infants ' paternal grandmother , who appeared the next day on TV3 's Campbell Live , contradicted this information , stating that the killer was female .
The homes where the babies lived were also home to at least nine adult occupants , eight of whom were on some form of social welfare . They may have been receiving payments totalling between $ 845 and $ 1395 a week , depending on their age and circumstances . Work and Income New Zealand launched an investigation to see whether all the payments were legitimate . Two instances of substantiated benefit fraud were found for one individual . The Clendon house had been occupied for two to three months , but neighbours had not noticed that babies were living there . According to the neighbours , Tuesday and Thursday nights were " party nights , " as this was when benefit payments were received . Loud music and fighting were often heard . One neighbour said that a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old female appeared on their doorstep at 3 : 30 a.m. one morning after she said an older man at the Clendon house attempted to sexually assault her .
= = = Murder arrest = = =
The 1 October edition of the Sunday Star @-@ Times newspaper published an interview with the infants ' father , Chris Kahui . Kahui said that he did not kill his sons , but if Police could not find anyone else , " I go down for something I didn 't do " . Investigators called Kahui 's interview with the police on 3 October a " major development " .
On 26 October , a " carload of detectives " had gone to several addresses looking for Chris Kahui , who was brought in for questioning . At 10 p.m. , it was announced in a press conference that a 21 @-@ year @-@ old man had been arrested and charged with the murder of the infants , and would appear in the Manukau District Court the next day . No other family members faced charges with relation to the deaths .
Contrary to this , the Sunday News reported on 31 December 2006 that , according to an unnamed source , a second arrest was expected . Neither the exact charges that would be laid nor the relationship of the person to the infants were revealed . Three weeks later the same newspaper said four people involved in the investigation had been summoned to the appear at the Manukau district court on 24 January . Sources told the newspaper that the new charges relate to dead infants and a pre @-@ school child . One of those to be charged was Macsyna King , the mother of Chris and Cru . None of these charges eventuated .
According to the Herald on Sunday , the Microsoft Word file containing the press release announcing the arrest of Kahui had actually been created five days earlier , and the last edit was the day before the arrest . In the same article , the Herald reported the Police were questioning whether Kahui was actually the biological father of the infants . DNA tests later confirmed that he was the father .
= = = Court appearances = = =
Kahui appeared in the Number One court of the Manukau District Court on 27 October for a two @-@ minute hearing , where he was formally charged with murder . He was asked not to plead ; however , outside the court , Kahui 's lawyer , Lorraine Smith , said her client would " fight the charges " . He was remanded in police custody until 10 November when he was freed on bail . A pre @-@ depositions hearing was held 17 January .
A second pre @-@ depositions hearing was intended to take place on 21 March . This was so his lawyer could read 60 files of evidence collected by police , and for a medical expert from Australia to become available . This second hearing was delayed because the defence was still waiting for the medical report from Australia . The depositions hearing was finally set for 18 June , with a brief court appearance on 18 April . This date was later changed to sometime on 13 August .
Kahui was found not guilty on Thursday 22 May 2008 , after only one minute of deliberation by the jury . The officer who led the police investigations into the murders , Detective Inspector John Tims , said he was " disappointed " at the verdict , finding " no evidence to support a charge against any other person and that includes the mother , Macsyna King " . He acknowledged the prosecutor , who had " said in his opening and closing address that there is no new evidence to support a charge being laid against the mother , Macsyna King " . No charges were laid against Macsyna King .
Kahui 's lawyer has threatened to lodge a complaint with the Police Complaints Authority over Police handling of the prosecution of her client for the murder of Chris and Cru Kahui .
= = Coroner 's report = =
Coroner Gary Evans released a report into the deaths of the children in July 2012 . He found that the twins had suffered the brain injuries which led to their deaths during the afternoon or early evening of 12 June 2006 , at a time " whilst they were in the sole custody , care and control of their father " , Chris Kahui . He said there was no evidence or fact to support that injuries being caused by the children 's mother , Macsyna King . Chris Kahui , who gave evidence to the coroner 's inquest , attempted to prevent the publication of the report .
= Frank Underwood ( House of Cards ) =
Francis J. " Frank " Underwood is a fictional character and the protagonist of the American version of House of Cards . He is portrayed by Kevin Spacey . He is a variation of Francis Urquhart , the protagonist of the British novel and television series House of Cards , from which the American Netflix series is adapted . He is married to Claire Underwood ( Robin Wright ) , but also had a sexual relationship with Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) in season 1 . He made his first appearance in the series ' pilot episode , " Chapter 1 " .
Underwood is from Gaffney , South Carolina . He graduated from The Sentinel , a fictionalized version of The Citadel , The Military College of South Carolina , and Harvard Law School . Some of Underwood 's dialogue throughout the series is presented in a direct address to the audience , a narrative technique that breaks the fourth wall . The character speaks with a Southern accent . During season 1 , he is the Democratic Majority Whip in the United States House of Representatives . In season 2 , he is the newly appointed Vice President of the United States , before becoming President of the United States in the season finale .
Frank is described as manipulative , conniving , Machiavellian , sociopathic , and even evil . Throughout the series , he manipulates and destroys several people for his own ends , and commits murder twice .
Spacey has received positive reviews for his portrayal of Frank Underwood , but the character itself has been criticized for it 's repetitive nature and one dimensionality . Spacey shared the distinction of being among the first three leading web @-@ television roles to be nominated for Primetime Emmy Awards at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards . Spacey has also been nominated for two Golden Globe Awards , winning one , and five Screen Actors Guild Awards , including two cast nominations and including two wins , for his performance .
= = Background and description = =
= = = Early life = = =
Francis J. Underwood was born on November 5 , 1959 to Catherine and Calvin T. Underwood in Gaffney , South Carolina . He is an only child . He was raised in impoverished circumstances , with the threat of bank foreclosure on their farm they lived on . He entered the The Sentinel , a military school in Charleston , South Carolina , loosely based on The Citadel , The Military College of South Carolina , in 1976 of which he was nearly expelled from due to suffering grades after he volunteered for a U.S. Senate campaign in 1980 , however , he graduated soon after and was accepted into Harvard Law School that fall . Despite poor grades at The Sentinel , he was able to graduate from law school in 1984 . He had a homosexual relationship with his friend from military school , Tim Corbet , during his first year of law school . Underwood was raised Christian , but privately holds God in complete contempt .
= = = Family = = =
Underwood 's great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , Corporal Augustus Elijah Underwood , was a Confederate soldier who served in the 12th South Carolina Infantry Regiment of McGowan 's Brigade at the Battle of Spotsylvania . He served at the Bloody Angle on May 12 , 1864 , during the Civil War and was killed by a bludgeon to the back of the head from his own regiment during the middle of the night . Underwood is fascinated by his ancestry . When Underwood fell in a coma following an assassination attempt , Augustus appears in several of his hallucinations . However , he dismisses the Confederacy as weak and calls their cause of preserving the institution of slavery " asinine " . His great @-@ great grandfather was two when Augustus was killed .
His father , Calvin T. Underwood , was a peach farmer in his home town of Gaffney who died at the age of 43 of a heart attack . The Underwoods lived in poverty , and nearly lost the farm when Frank was a child ; to get a bank loan and avoid foreclosure , his father attended a meeting of the Ku Klux Klan , of which the bank manager was a member . Underwood speaks fondly of his father in public , but this is a political ploy ; in his asides to the audience , Underwood describes his father as a weak man who accomplished nothing with his life . He even urinates on his father 's grave in season 3 . Despite disliking his father , however , Underwood was influenced by him . Calvin was an abusive alcoholic , and caused his wife and son years of misery . Underwood has said that when he was 13 , he walked in on his father putting a shotgun in his mouth . Calvin asked him to pull the trigger , which he refused to do . He has stated that his biggest regret is not killing his father when he had the chance .
= = = Political career = = =
= = = = South Carolina Legislature = = = =
Underwood was elected at the age of 25 to the South Carolina State Senate as one of the youngest members in the state 's legislative history after graduating from Harvard in 1984 . He was re @-@ elected to the state senate at 29 in 1988 for his second , and last , term as a State Senator .
= = = = Representative Election = = = =
Underwood was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1990 as a Democratic representative for the 5th Congressional District of South Carolina , being sworn in around January 1991 . He won another 11 consecutive elections , winning his final term in 2012 . He was elected Whip for the Democratic Party in 2005 , serving as House Majority Whip between 2005 and 2013 .
Often , Underwood 's thoughts throughout the series are presented in a direct address to the audience , a narrative technique known as breaking the fourth wall . Immediately prior to starring in House of Cards , Spacey had starred in a production of William Shakespeare 's Richard III as Richard III of England , a character that serves as a partial basis for both Urquhart and Underwood . His last name is derived from Oscar Underwood , who served as the first Democratic House Minority Whip from about 1900 to 1901 . Among his few vices are smoking cigarettes . He has a hobby of playing video games ; when the Secret Service cuts off his online gaming service after he becomes Vice President , he takes up creating model figurines .
Spacey viewed portraying Underwood for a second season as a continuing learning process . " There is so much I don ’ t know about Francis , so much that I 'm learning ... I 've always thought that the profession closest to that of an actor is being a detective ... We are given clues by writers ... Then you lay them all out and try to make them come alive as a character who ’ s complex and surprising , maybe even to yourself . "
Underwood 's sexuality is ambiguous throughout much of the first two seasons ; he has sexual liaisons with both men and women , but he is never explicitly identified by any sexual label . Before Season 2 , various sources speculated about his homosexuality . It is revealed in " Chapter 8 " he had an experience with homosexuality in college . Underwood and Claire are never depicted having sex in season 1 . Slate journalist Hanna Rosin noted : if Frank and Claire Underwood were a real @-@ life Washington couple and they were found each to be having an affair , he would be accused of being " secretly gay , turned on by women only when he can use them for a pure power play " . Other sources make no definite stance on Underwood 's sexuality , but hypothesize that he is not sexually attracted to Claire . In season 2 , Underwood is involved in a threesome with Claire and Secret Service agent Edward Meechum ( Nathan Darrow ) , while in season 3 , there is a moment of sexual tension between Underwood and his biographer , Tom Yates ( Paul Sparks ) . The same season , however , also features the only scene in the series in which Underwood and Claire have sex exclusively with each other .
According to Time television critic James Poniewozik , by the end of the first episode , it becomes clear that Underwood both literally and figuratively uses meat as his metaphor of choice . He may begin a day with a celebratory rack of ribs , because " I 'm feelin ' hungry today ! " , and he depicts his life with meat metaphors . For example , he describes the White House Chief of Staff with grudging admiration : " She ’ s as tough as a two @-@ dollar steak " and plans to destroy an enemy the way " you devour a whale . One bite at a time " . He also endures a tedious weekly meeting with House leaders , as he tells the audience , by " [ imagining ] their lightly salted faces frying in a skillet . "
Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter notes that , in Season 2 , with Underwood 's new position as Vice President , " He 's got more power now and that means he instills more fear in his enemies " . At one point during the season , he states " The road to power is paved with hypocrisy and casualties . I need to prove what the vice president is capable of . " Underwood and Claire " continue their ruthless rise to power as threats mount on all fronts . "
= = = Underwood vs. Urquhart = = =
Underwood is an Americanized version of the original BBC series lead character Francis Urquhart , a Machiavellian post @-@ Margaret Thatcher Chief Whip of the Conservative Party . Urquhart employs deceit , cunning , murder , and blackmail to influence and pursue the office of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . According to series producer Beau Willimon , the change in last name stemmed from the " Dickensian " feeling and " more legitimately American " sounding resonance of the name ' Underwood ' . Whereas Urquhart is an aristocrat by birth , Underwood is a self @-@ made man . Urquhart was one of television 's first antiheroes , whereas Underwood follows the more recent rash of antiheroes that includes Tony Soprano of The Sopranos , Walter White of Breaking Bad , and Dexter Morgan of Dexter . However , unlike most other antiheroes , Underwood is not forced into immorality either by circumstance ( White ) , birth ( Soprano ) or upbringing ( Morgan ) . In his review of Season 2 , Slant Magazine 's Alan Jones writes that Underwood is evil by choice . Although the character is based on the BBC show 's lead character , in interviews during the writing and filming of season 2 , creator and showrunner Willimon said that he used Lyndon B. Johnson as a source of themes and issues addressed in House of Cards . Unlike the right @-@ wing Urquhart , who leads the Conservative Party , the center @-@ left Underwood is a member of the Democratic Party , but cares little for ideology in favor of " ruthless pragmatism " in furthering his own political influence and power .
= = = Relationship with Claire Underwood = = =
Stelter described Frank and Claire Underwood as a " scheming " couple . Michael Dobbs , the author of the trilogy of novels upon which the British miniseries is based , compares the compelling nature of their relationship favorably to the characters in the original miniseries , and likens them to Macbeth and Lady Macbeth . Underwood has strong feelings for Claire , and frequently plots with her at night . He says , " I love that woman . I love her more than sharks love blood . " While Underwood is Machiavellian , Claire , like Lady Macbeth , encourages her husband to do whatever is necessary to seize power . Hank Stuever of The Washington Post describes her as an ice @-@ queen wife . She encourages his vices while noting her disapproval of his weakness , saying , " My husband doesn ’ t apologize ... even to me . " Her overt encouragement gives a credibility to their symbiosis . Smith says " The Underwoods have proven themselves almost robotic in their pursuit of power . " Upon viewing a four @-@ episode preview of season 2 , Goodman says the series " ... sells husband and wife power @-@ at @-@ all @-@ costs couple ... as a little too oily and reptilian for anyone 's good . " Willimon notes that " What 's extraordinary about Frank and Claire is there is deep love and mutual respect , but the way they achieve this is by operating on a completely different set of rules than the rest of us typically do . " Los Angeles Times critic Mary McNamara makes the case that House of Cards is a love story on many levels , but most importantly between Underwood and Claire . It is a story about a man who will commit almost any crime imaginable while in pursuit of power and a political wife who gives him the encouragement to pursue that power .
Underwood and Claire engage in a threesome with their Secret Service bodyguard Edward Meechum at one point in season 2 , but have otherwise largely given up intramarital and extramarital sex in favor of their pursuit of power . International Business Times critic Ellen Killoran notes that this may relate back to Underwood 's quotation of Oscar Wilde to Zoe Barnes in Season 1 : " A great man once said , ' everything is about sex except sex . Sex is about power . ' " Avoiding sex may retain the balance of power in their relationship . His relationship with Claire is the epicenter of season 2 .
= = = Relationship with Zoe Barnes = = =
Underwood develops an intimate relationship with Washington Herald and Slugline reporter Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) , with Claire 's knowledge . As the show begins , Barnes is desperate to rise from covering the Fairfax County Council beat to covering what 's going on behind the veil of power in the Capitol hallways . " By the end of the first episode , Barnes is among the cadre of Underwood 's accomplices . They begin a relationship , with Barnes promising to earn his trust and not " ask any questions " in return for his supplying her with sensitive political information . Toward the end of Season 1 , she ends their personal relationship and begins investigating his connection to Congressman Peter Russo 's apparent suicide ( Underwood had in fact killed him by locking him in his car in a closed garage ) . Underwood ultimately kills Barnes in the season 2 premiere , by pushing her in front of an oncoming Washington Metro train after she begins to follow clues related to the murder .
= = = Relationship with Edward Meechum = = =
Underwood is fond of the head of his Secret Service detail , Edward Meechum ( Nathan Darrow ) , and it is hinted several times that they harbor unacknowledged sexual feelings for each other . When Meechum stumbles upon Underwood watching pornography , Underwood and Claire joke about there being sexual chemistry between the two men . Shortly after Underwood becomes vice president , he , Claire and Meechum have a threesome .
Meechum remains Underwood 's bodyguard once he becomes the president , and there does not appear to be any continuing sexual relationship . Meechum remains fiercely loyal , however ; he warns Underwood 's biographer Tom Yates ( Paul Sparks ) not to write anything that would damage Underwood 's reputation . In season 4 , Underwood traces Meechum 's hand with a marker on one of the walls of the White House when he wants to replace a confederate painting ; Meechum suggests he put up something he likes instead .
When Lucas Goodwin shoots Underwood during a campaign event , Meechum trades fire with the assassin , and both are killed instantly . Meechum 's death is one of the tragedies Claire mentions in a press briefing for a gun control bill she is sponsoring , and Underwood has him buried in Arlington National Cemetery , a rare privilege for a Secret Service agent . When Underwood recovers and finds that Meechum 's hand tracing has been painted over , he expresses grief and regret at the loss to Claire , who says that Meechum was one of the few people who truly understood them .
= = = Breaking the fourth wall = = =
Spacey summed up Underwood 's relationship with the viewer - i.e. whenever he breaks the fourth wall - as being like that of a " best friend " and " the person [ he trusts ] more than anyone . " Because of this , his asides to the viewer serves as an indication of Underwood 's true feelings and intentions - typically when he is feigning politeness and courtesy to people whom he despises . In the season 2 premiere , after having gone the whole episode without doing so , Underwood addresses the viewer directly , saying , " Did you think I had forgotten you ? Perhaps you hoped I had . " In addition , in season 3 , after an argument with Claire that ends with her storming out on him , he looks directly at the viewer and snaps , " What 're you lookin ' at ? ! " For the first four seasons , Underwood was the only character to break the fourth wall until the very end of the fourth season , during which his wife Claire - though silent - addresses the camera directly with Frank .
= = Biography = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
At the start of the show , Underwood is a Democratic Majority Whip in the House of Representatives , where he has represented South Carolina 's 5th congressional district since 1990 .
Underwood is passed over for an appointment as United States Secretary of State even though he had been promised the position after ensuring the election of Colorado Governor Garrett Walker ( Michel Gill ) as President . Walker 's Chief of Staff Linda Vasquez ( Sakina Jaffrey ) gives him this news prior to the January 2013 United States presidential inauguration . With the aid of Claire , and his fiercely loyal Chief of Staff Doug Stamper ( Michael Kelly ) , Underwood uses his position as House Whip to seek retribution . He quickly allies with Washington Herald reporter Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) , whom he uses to undermine his rivals via the press . The viciousness of Underwood 's manipulations escalates over the course of the season . He befriends Pennsylvania Rep. Peter Russo ( Corey Stoll ) , encouraging him to quit drinking and run for Governor of Pennsylvania ; then his underlings create enough pressure in the race to push Russo into publicly falling off the wagon and ruining his career , and finally murders him and makes it look like suicide . He then persuades Vice President Jim Matthews ( Dan Ziskie ) to resign so he can run for the office he previously held , Governor of Pennsylvania , the race being wide open following Russo 's death . In the season finale , " Chapter 13 " , Underwood is appointed Vice President to replace Matthews .
= = = Season 2 = = =
Underwood assumes the position of Vice President of the United States . Over the course of the season , he " faces challenges from similarly ambitious businessmen , the Chinese government and Congress itself " as he continues to pursue his political aspirations . His plotline revolves around battles with billionaire Raymond Tusk ( Gerald McRaney ) , involving Chinese money laundering . Over the course of the season his biggest challenges are the institutional power of the Office of the President and Tusk 's power as a billionaire industrialist .
He finds new rivals in Tusk , who seeks to maintain his position as Walker 's right @-@ hand adviser against Underwood 's intrusion , and his former communications director , Remy Danton ( Mahershala Ali ) , who is now a lobbyist working with Tusk .
At the beginning of the season , Underwood is trying to erase all links to Russo 's death . Thus , he kills Barnes by shoving her in front of an oncoming Washington Metro train , and frames her colleague and lover Lucas Goodwin ( Sebastian Arcelus ) for cyberterrorism . Another early task for newly promoted Underwood is finding his own replacement as House Majority Whip . He supports Jacqueline Sharp ( Molly Parker ) , a military veteran and third @-@ term Representative from California , although he refrains from offering public backing .
Toward the end of the season , Underwood orchestrates Walker 's downfall . He secretly leaks the details of the money laundering , for which Walker is blamed . While publicly supporting Walker , Underwood works behind the scenes to have him impeached , with Sharp 's help . In the season finale , " Chapter 26 " , Walker resigns , and Underwood succeeds him as President of the United States .
= = = Season 3 = = =
Season 3 begins with Underwood 's presidency off to a rocky start : six months into his term , he is unpopular with the public , and Congress is blocking his attempts to move legislation forward . He plans to secure his legacy with an ambitious jobs bill , America Works , but the Democratic Congressional leadership refuses to support it ; they also tell him that they will not support him if he seeks the presidential nomination in the next election . To make matters worse , Claire 's nomination for United States Ambassador to the United Nations is defeated after she makes a gaffe during a Senate nomination hearing .
Underwood announces that he will not run for reelection , and advocates for America Works , which he intends to pay for by stripping entitlement programs . He fails to get the jobs bill through Congress and uses that as a reason to renege on his promise to not run in 2016 . Solicitor General Heather Dunbar ( Elizabeth Marvel ) announces that she will seek the presidential nomination , and actually gives Underwood a battle . Underwood convinces Sharp to get married so she can announce her candidacy , for the sole reason of sapping women ’ s votes from Dunbar , at which point she will withdraw and accept the nomination for VP . After the presidential debate , where Underwood attacks Dunbar and Sharp , she announces her withdrawal from the race , and gives her support to Dunbar . Ultimately , however , Underwood wins the Iowa caucuses .
Meanwhile , the Underwoods ' marriage is faltering . Underwood gives Claire the ambassador job in a recess appointment , but she is forced to resign in order to solve a diplomatic crisis . Claire begins to question whether she still loves her husband , and they get into an ugly fight in which he tells her that she is nothing without him . Season 3 ends with Claire leaving Underwood as he prepares for the New Hampshire primary .
= = = Season 4 = = =
Underwood trails Dunbar in the polls , eventually losing the New Hampshire primary . Realizing that he needs Claire to win , he persuades her to come back by promising to support her run for a Senate seat in Texas . However , he sandbags her prospective candidacy by endorsing a political ally 's daughter , in order to keep Claire focused on his campaign . On the day of the South Carolina primary , Claire retaliates by arranging for two compromising photos to be leaked : one of Underwood 's father with a Klansman , and one of Underwood posing with a Confederate Civil War re @-@ enactor , putting his campaign in jeopardy . Underwood deduces that Claire was behind the leaks , and confronts her . Claire calmly admits what she did , and puts forth a proposition : that she run as his vice president . He angrily rejects the idea .
Lucas Goodwin is released from prison and , seeking revenge for Barnes ' death , shoots Underwood at a campaign rally , hitting him in the liver . He also mortally wounds Meechum , who manages to kill him before succumbing to his wounds . Underwood is rushed to the hospital for immediate surgery , rendering him in a coma . It is soon discovered that he needs a liver transplant . Stamper manages to bump him to the top of the transplant list , and he survives . Once he recovers , he agrees to let Claire run as his vice president .
After Dunbar drops out of the race due to the discovery of a meeting she 'd had with Goodwin a few days before the attempt on Underwood 's life , Underwood begins planning to maneuver Claire into the VP spot and to use the NSA to illegally obtain voter information and spy on the Republican nominee , Will Conway ( Joel Kinnaman ) . This happens while Underwood and Claire advocate for a controversial gun control bill for the sole purpose of creating an atmosphere divisive enough to weed out potential running mates . During the resulting open convention , Underwood intimidates the front @-@ runner , Secretary of State Catherine Durant ( Jayne Atkinson ) , into surrendering her delegates , and uses the public sympathy from Claire 's mother 's death to ensure that he and Claire are nominated .
When American extremists loyal to the terrorist group Islamic Caliphate Organization ( ICO ) kidnaps a suburban family , Underwood allows Conway to negotiate with them , making his opponent look like a hero - and then releases NSA data that proves Conway illegally influenced Congress . Soon afterward , however , Underwood is hit with two crises at once : ICO 's leader orders his followers to kill one of the hostages , while journalist Tom Hammerschmidt ( Boris McGiver ) exposes Underwood 's crimes in the Washington Herald . Facing disgrace and possible impeachment , Underwood decides to declare war on ICO and allow the public to see the hostage die in order to distract from the scandal and create an atmosphere of widespread fear that he and Claire can exploit in the weeks before the election .
= = Critical response = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
The New York Times ' David Itzkoff called Underwood a " scheming politician " who does " some of the most evil and underhanded things imaginable " . Brian Stelter of The New York Times said Underwood " … is on a quest for power that ’ s just as suspenseful as anything on television . " New York Daily News critic Don Kaplan says " … conniving Congressman Frank Underwood , is easily one of the most complex antiheroes on TV — except he ’ s not on TV " . David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle describes the character as one who " all but salivates over the chance to use his considerable power to gain more power , especially if it involves pulling the rug out from under some colleagues and the wool over the eyes of others . "
Andrew Davies , the producer of the original UK TV series , feels that Underwood lacks the " charm " of the original character , Francis Urquhart .
The Independent praised Spacey 's portrayal as a more " menacing " character , " hiding his rage behind Southern charm and old @-@ fashioned courtesy , " while The New Republic noted that " When Urquhart addressed the audience , it was partly in the spirit of conspiratorial fun . His asides sparked with wit . He wasn 't just ruthlessly striving , he was amusing himself , mocking the ridiculousness of his milieu . There is no impishness about Spacey ’ s Frank Underwood , just numb , machine @-@ like ambition . Even his affection for his wife is a calculation . "
Poniewozik praises Underwood 's accent , saying " Spacey gives Underwood a silky Southern accent you could pour over crushed ice and sip with a sprig of mint on Derby Day . " Nancy deWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal describes the accent as a " mild but sometimes missing Carolina accent " . Time listed Frank Underwood among the 11 most influential fictional characters in 2013 .
= = = Season 2 = = =
According The Kansas City Star 's Smith , " Frank hasn ’ t changed , and neither has his brand of Machiavellian political theater " and " Spacey has lost none of his smarmy magnetism as the cartoonish villain " . According to Variety 's Brian Lowry , " Kevin Spacey ’ s showy performance as an unscrupulous politician " is foremost among the show 's strengths , but the show 's weakness is the " failure to present its scheming protagonist with equally matched foes " . Lowry feels that as conniving as Underwood is , it is unfathomable that " nobody else in a town built on power seems particularly adept at recognizing this or combating him " . Goodman says " Spacey is nothing if not constantly magnetic " . The delayed use of the fourth wall is perceived as clever . Alison Willmore of Indiewire says that " Unlike Walter White or Tony Soprano , Frank feels at peace with his ruthless pragmatism and what he does in pursuit of power , and reminds us of the fact in his asides to the camera ... he may be a ruthless sociopath , but there 's something to admire there " . However Willmore noted that Frank became lighter in season 2 noting that the season was " ... delivered with more of a wink by Frank than before . "
Poniewozik notes that " It also remains a delight to watch Spacey pump the humid breath of life into House of Cards ’ arid Capitol chill . If only his character weren ’ t so dominant of his surroundings as well . One reason the series ’ movements can feel so mechanical is that , so far , no one seems nearly in Underwood ’ s league : not the adversaries he battles directly , nor the sad sacks that he gulls without their even knowing it . " Chuck Barney of the San Jose Mercury News notes that the preview episodes show that " Frank 's " Survivor " -like back @-@ stabbing is beginning to feel a bit repetitive . " and that his lack of an adversarial foil has become an issue : " ... things always seem to fall neatly into place for him . Even his showdowns with the president ( Michel Gill ) come off as one @-@ sided ... " Verne Gay of Newsday notes that " Frank Underwood has no remorse , no superannuated sense of Washington tradition or decorum , and certainly no second thoughts . He is TV 's perfect monster of the moment - a compleat malefactor , with a pleasing honey @-@ toned drawl . "
Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times says " By positing a Johnsonesque power broker and master schemer who wields cabalistic influence behind the scenes , House of Cards assigns order and purpose to what , in real life , is too often just an endless , baffling tick @-@ tack @-@ toe stalemate . " NPR 's Eric Deggans says that Underwood " blends velvety charm and mesmerizing menace like no other character on television " .
New York Observer critic Drew Grant notes that although the series aired during the golden age of dramatic antiheroes , Underwood 's villainy has become trite : " House of Cards is a good reminder , however , that there is a reason Iago wasn ’ t the center of Othello . Unrelenting , unexplained cruelty can be as pedantic as constant kindness . "
However , Hitfix reviewer , Alan Sepinwall was highly critical of Spacey 's performance and accused
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him of " hamming it up " and " phoning it in on a not very good show to begin with " .
= = = Season 3 = = =
Reviews for season 3 of House of Cards were mostly positive . However , a few critics found the Underwood character was becoming repetitive : the critical consensus on the review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes held that , " Season three introduces intriguing new political and personal elements to Frank Underwood 's character , even if it feels like more of the same for some . " Ed Power of The Daily Telegraph wrote , " Everyone in House of Cards has an agenda - a secret twitching in the attic . The thrill , and the horror , may lie in the degree to which we catch reflections of real life in its dark , cool contours . "
Some critics opined that the Underwood character is less interesting once he achieves his goal of becoming president and actually has to govern . " You could take the show seriously just as long as you didn ’ t have to take it seriously , as long as it only took place in the dream world of imaginary fantasy politics , " wrote Aaron Bady of The New Republic , who compared Underwood unfavorably with Josiah Bartlett of The West Wing . " But when a cartoon becomes president , it starts to look too fake to be real , but too real to be a cartoon . Frank plays the role of President Bartlett , a cartoon president doing things that would actually , in reality , be kind of great . But Bartlett was too good to be true , and the old Frank was too evil to be true . President Underwood is just too dull to be a fantasy , and so the props take center stage . "
Critics continued to praise Spacey 's performance , however . Don Kaplan of The New York Daily News wrote , " Underwood ’ s bottomless appetite for dark dealing keeps Spacey so deliciously detestable you can ’ t help but keep rooting for the bad guy to win . "
= = = Season 4 = = =
In season 4 , Jacob Solworthy wrote in his review of the first six episodes of season four : " Until now , ' House of Cards ' has centred on the character 's outward expression of power -- not to mention his hunger for it -- but the writers have shrewdly stripped that back , instead focusing on the character 's internal fears in a way not dissimilar from Tony 's dream sequences in ' The Sopranos ' , " he later added , " You 'll never root for Frank more than you do by the end of these six episodes . "
On the other hand , Daniel Fienberg from The Hollywood Reporter was critical of Spacey 's performance , writing : " Spacey 's performance , which at least had an appealingly theatrical extravagance when the series began , has grown less enjoyable . Having reached a pinnacle , there 's no way to root for Frank 's striving anymore , if you ever were , but House of Cards has yet to commit to urging us to root for Frank 's downfall . "
There was also considerable mention of the evolution of Underwood 's relationship with Claire . " [ T ] heir partnership has morphed into an entirely professional exercise , with a shared lust for power having supplanted more conventional matrimonial bonds , " wrote Brian Lowry of Variety . The Atlantic 's Spencer Kornhaber remarked , however , that the utter ruthlessness displayed by Underwoods in the season finale may have represented a " jump the shark " moment for the series : " The Underwoods have murdered a politician and a journalist , and some innocents have also been collateral damage to their activities . Now , though , they ’ ve set out to maintain their power at the cost of mass casualties . Netflix hasn ’ t said how many seasons are to come , but it ’ s hard to imagine the show being watchable for all that much longer now that this rubicon of despicability has been crossed . "
Some compared Underwood 's storyline in season 4 to the 2016 U.S. presidential election . Brian Moyland of The Guardian wrote , " ' House of Cards ' has never felt like the real presidency : Frank Underwood is evil incarnate , bumping off junior Congressmen and pushing journalists in front of trains . But now that , in real life , we 're in the throes of such a bizarre presidential race , his machinations are starting to look almost viable . There are several parallels between Underwood 's re @-@ election campaign and the 2016 campaigns of Donald Trump , Ted Cruz , Hillary Clinton and Bernie Sanders . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 3rd Critics ' Choice Television Awards , Spacey was nominated for Best Actor in a Drama Series for his portrayal of Underwood .
On July 18 , 2013 , Netflix earned the first Primetime Emmy Award nominations for original online only web television for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards . Three of its web series , Arrested Development , Hemlock Grove , and House of Cards , earned nominations . For the first time , three Primetime Emmy nominations for lead roles were from web television series : Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series to Spacey for his portrayal of Frank Underwood , Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series to Robin Wright for her portrayal of Claire Underwood , and Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series to Jason Bateman for his portrayal of Michael Bluth in Arrested Development . Spacey submitted " Chapter 1 " for consideration to earn his nomination . Spacey also earned a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor in a Television Series Drama and a Screen Actors Guild nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series nominations .
In season 2 , Spacey won the Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Television Series Drama at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards and Screen Actors Guild Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series at the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards , as well as nominations for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards and a Screen Actors Guild nomination for Outstanding by an Ensemble in a Drama Series .
In season 3 , Spacey was nominated for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series at the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards , his third nomination for the role . He also was nominated for both Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 22nd Screen Actors Guild Awards .
The season 4 performance earned a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series at the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards .
= Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement =
Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement is a poem written by English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1796 . Like his earlier poem The Eolian Harp , the poem discusses Coleridge 's understanding of nature and his married life , which was suffering from problems that developed after the previous poem . Overall , the poem focuses on humanity 's relationship with nature in its various aspects ranging from experiencing an Edenic state to having to abandon a unity with nature in order to fulfill a moral obligation to humanity . The discussion of man 's obligation to each other leads into a discussion on the difference between the life of a philosopher and the life of a poet . By the end of the poem , the narrator follows the philosophical path in a manner similar to what Coleridge sought to do . The response to the poem from critics was mostly positive with many of them emphasizing the religious aspects of the poem in their analysis .
= = Background = =
After marrying Sarah Fricker in autumn 1795 , Coleridge left their home at Clevedon and began to travel throughout England in order to meet with various philosophers and political theorists . In part , he was trying to meet with people so he could raise subscriptions for his various works . During this time , he would write home constantly to his pregnant wife and was concerned about her state of health . His feelings of guilt , along with a fever that he treated with laudanum , affected him greatly and caused him to express these feelings in a letter to Josiah Wade on 10 February 1796 : " My past life seems to me like a dream , a feverish dream ! all one gloomy huddle of strange actions , and dim @-@ discovered motives ! Friendships lost by indolence , and happiness murdered by mismanaged sensibilities . "
After the letter , Coleridge returned to his wife who was now living with her family at Redcliffe Hill , Bristol . As he wrote The Eolian Harp to commemorate coming to his home at Clevedon , Coleridge composed Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement on leaving it . The poem was not included in Coleridge 's 1796 collection of poems as it was probably still incomplete , but it was published in the October 1796 Monthly Magazine under the title Reflections on Entering into Active Life . A poem Which Affects Not to be Poetry . Reflections was included in Coleridge 's 28 October 1797 collection of poems and the collections that followed . Of his early poems , Coleridge believed that Reflections was his best .
= = Poem = =
The poem begins with an idealisation of a " Valley of Seclusion " :
In the open air
Our Myrtles blossom 'd ; and across the porch
Thick Jasmins twined : the little landscape round
Was green and woody , and refresh 'd the eye .
It was a spot which you might aptly call
The Valley of Seclusion ! ( lines 4 – 9 )
The poem continues with a goodbye to the valley and asks if his life of pleasure was appropriate :
I was constrain 'd to quit you . Was it right ,
While my unnumber 'd brethren toil 'd and bled ,
That I should dream away the entrusted hours
On rose @-@ leaf beds , pampering the coward heart
With feelings all too delicate for use ? ( lines 44 – 48 )
The narrator describes the reasons why he is leaving Clevedon along with the allowance of remembering his former life there after his work is done :
I therefore go , and join head , heart , and hand ,
Active and firm , to fight the bloodless fight
Of Science , Freedom , and the Truth in CHRIST .
Yet oft when after honourable toil
Rests the tir 'd mind , and waking loves to dream
My Spirit shall revisit thee , dear Cot ! ( lines 60 – 65 )
= = Themes = =
The themes of Reflections are connected to Coleridge 's The Eolian Harp as the scene for both is the same . The land of Clevedon is praised and seen full of life , and it serves as contrast to escaping from the real world into fantasy and pondering about the abstract . Both poems also describe Coleridge 's relationship with his wife and feelings of sexual desire . The imagination aspects of the poem represent an unwillingness to accept nature on its own and rejects the conclusion of The Eolian Harp . Although the land of Clevedon can bring one closer to God , one cannot just simply exist in such an area but must seek out truth .
Feeling the need to seek out truth creates a separation between the mind of a poet and the mind of a philosopher . The poem reconciles the two by allowing the pursuer of truth to reflect on his time of simply enjoying nature and God 's presence . However , the philosopher aspect is dominant and the individual must go out and try to help humanity . Nature can be soothing , but the narrator must reject the Edenic quality of nature because such a state is not yet appropriate . The Edenic imagery figures into many of Coleridge 's poems and is reinforced with the image of myrtle trees and takes on many forms within his poetry . In Reflections , to dwell in an Edenic state is a paradise in which the narrator leaves voluntarily because he cannot ignore the problems of the world like a coward . Instead , the individual is compelled to join with humanity and even the lowest form of benefiting humanity is superior to doing nothing at all .
The image of nature and other themes reappears in Fears in Solitude ( 1798 ) . The later poem recreates the " Valley of Seclusion " image in the form of a dell . Even the image of a passerby looking in on the cottage found in Reflection is repeated . Similarly , the compulsion to enter into the world and help humanity is included , but it is altered from being motivated by guilt to a warning message against a possible invasion from outside forces . As such , Fears in Solitude does not seek to leave the location to help humanity , but to stay as a protector over his family .
In Coleridge 's own life , he tried to follow the path of the philosopher , but the 10 July 1834 entry in Table Talk admits that he was unable to do so : " so I own I wish life and strength had been spared to me to complete my Philosophy . For , as God hears me , the originating , continuing , and sustaining wish and design in my heart were to exalt the glory of his name ; and , which is the same thing in other words , to promote the improvement of humanity . But visum aliter Deo , and his will be done . "
In terms of Coleridge 's marriage , Reflections differs from The Eolian Harp by saying that there were problems within the marriage , especially with it distracting Coleridge from nature and the world outside of the home that he shared with his wife . The poem expresses feelings of solitude and confinement , and there is a difference between the worlds inside and outside of the cottage in a similar manner to the focus found within Coleridge 's Kubla Khan . This is especially true with a focus from the private to the public spheres . Within the outside world , the poem 's narrator is separate from humanity , but his focus is ever on humanity and contains both a religious and political component . The image of " One Life " within the poem compels him to abandon the sensual pleasures of the cottage and to pursue a path of helping humanity .
= = Critical response = =
The Critical Review saw favor with " To the River Otter " and Reflections in their review of the 1797 collection of Coleridge 's poem . The July review claims that the poem " evince a feeling heart . The comparison between the weeping eyes of a humane friend and the unmoved face of another equally benevolent , and the contrast between the latter and those who merely affect sympathy , are well drawn . "
During the 20th century , Virginia Radley declares that Reflections " although not so striking in imagery as is the ' Eolian Harp , ' still has much to recommend it in this respect [ ... ] The impression left with the reader that the cottage and its surroundings are inestimably lovely , quiet , and peaceful is a paramount one , while the dead lines [ ... ] do not move the reader at all , except to make him wonder if the move from Clevedon for the cause of humanity was a necessary one . " Richard Haven argues that the poem 's image of the moral path is weak because " the returned traveller can only dismiss his ascent to another mode of being as a pleasant but useless memory " .
Anthony Harding believes " it is important to recognize that it steps outside the idyllic but circumscribed scene of ' The Eolian Harp ' , and admits the impossibility , in a fallen world , of human self @-@ sufficiency . " Oswald Doughty states that the " most important additions " to Coleridge 's 1797 edition of poems included Reflections . Richard Holmes points out that both Reflections and The Eolian Harp " mark a new stage in Coleridge 's exploration of the sacred relations between man and nature , which gradually become more serious and impassioned as they carry increasingly theological implications behind his Romanticism . "
= HMS Pioneer ( R76 ) =
HMS Pioneer was a Colossus @-@ class aircraft carrier built for the Royal Navy during World War II . She was modified whilst under construction into an aircraft maintenance carrier . The ship arrived in Australia in mid @-@ 1945 to support operations by the British Pacific Fleet against Japanese forces . She supported the British attacks on the Japanese Home Islands from mid @-@ June until the end of the war in August from a base in the Admiralty Islands . The ship and her facilities were used to help repair Hong Kong 's infrastructure in late 1945 and she returned to the UK in early 1946 . Pioneer was immediately placed in reserve upon her arrival and she was sold in 1954 for scrap .
= = Design , description and construction = =
The Colossus @-@ class carriers were intended to meet a shortage of naval flight decks . Their design was based on that of the Illustrious @-@ class aircraft carriers , but modified to permit rapid construction in commercial yards . Pioneer was not completed to her original design ; the success of the maintenance aircraft carrier Unicorn prompted modification of the ship , whilst under construction , to an aircraft maintenance ship without aircraft catapults .
Pioneer had an overall length of 695 feet ( 211 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 80 feet 4 inches ( 24 @.@ 5 m ) , and a draught of 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) at deep load . She displaced 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) at standard load . Each of the ship 's two sets of Parsons geared steam turbines drove one propeller shaft . Steam was supplied by four Admiralty three @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers operating at a pressure of 400 psi ( 2 @,@ 758 kPa ; 28 kgf / cm2 ) . The turbines were designed for a total of 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave Pioneer a speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . The ship carried 3 @,@ 196 long tons ( 3 @,@ 247 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 8 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 700 km ; 9 @,@ 800 mi ) at 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) .
In order to maximize space for workshops and stores , the ship 's arresting gear and catapult were not fitted ; two large deckhouses were added to port of the island and on the rear of the flight deck . The ship had a single hangar , 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 33 m ) high . Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by two aircraft lifts ( elevators ) ; each measured 34 by 45 feet ( 10 @.@ 4 m × 13 @.@ 7 m ) . Two large cranes were mounted on the flight deck to move aircraft and stores to and from the flight deck . The ship carried two small self @-@ propelled lighters to allow unflyable aircraft to be transferred between ships or to shore facilities . Bulk petrol storage consisted of 98 @,@ 600 imperial gallons ( 448 @,@ 000 l ; 118 @,@ 400 US gal ) . The ship 's crew totaled 854 , plus 222 in her aircraft repair department .
The ship was equipped with six quadruple mounts for the 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk VIII gun ( " pom @-@ pom " ) . These gun mounts could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of + 80 ° . The Mk VIII 2 @-@ pounder gun fired a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) 0 @.@ 91 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 41 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 590 m / s ) to a distance of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 96 – 98 rounds per minute . She was also fitted with 19 Bofors 40 mm autocannon in single mounts . The Bofors fired a 0 @.@ 719 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 326 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 890 ft / s ( 880 m / s ) . It had a rate of fire of about 120 rounds per minute and a maximum range of 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) . All of the guns were mounted on the flight deck , not in sponsons on the side of the hull like her half @-@ sisters that were completed as aircraft carriers . Each " pom @-@ pom " mount was provided with a separate fire @-@ control director fitted with a Type 262 gunnery radar .
Pioneer was ordered on 7 August 1942 under the name Ethalion , but was renamed Mars later in 1942 . She was laid down at Vickers @-@ Armstrong in Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness on 2 December and was launched on 20 May 1944 The ship was renamed Pioneer in July 1944 after the decision had been made to convert her to an aircraft maintenance ship. and was completed on 8 February 1945 .
= = Service = =
After working up , Pioneer sailed for Australia on 30 March 1945 . She arrived in Sydney on 13 May and was transferred to Manus Island , in the Admiralty Islands , on 21 June to prepare for operations off Japan . She was still there when Japan surrendered on 15 August and had repaired 24 aircraft since her arrival . Pioneer arrived in Hong Kong in late September to help with the rebuilding of the colony 's infrastructure . Her sailors restored power , telephone service and repaired trains and buses . She made one trip back to Manus , but was back in Hong Kong in late November . The ship sailed for Sydney the following month and departed for the UK on 17 February 1946 . Upon her arrival , she was placed in reserve . Pioneer was sold to Thomas W. Ward Ltd for scrap in September 1954 and broken up in Inverkeithing .
= Pythagorean theorem =
In mathematics , the Pythagorean theorem , also known as Pythagoras ' theorem , is a fundamental relation in Euclidean geometry among the three sides of a right triangle . It states that the square of the hypotenuse ( the side opposite the right angle ) is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides . The theorem can be written as an equation relating the lengths of the sides a , b and c , often called the " Pythagorean equation " :
<formula>
where c represents the length of the hypotenuse and a and b the lengths of the triangle 's other two sides .
Although it is often argued that knowledge of the theorem predates him , the theorem is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras ( c . 570 – c . 495 BC ) as it is he who , by tradition , is credited with its first recorded proof . There is some evidence that Babylonian mathematicians understood the formula , although little of it indicates an application within a mathematical framework . Mesopotamian , Indian and Chinese mathematicians all discovered the theorem independently and , in some cases , provided proofs for special cases .
The theorem has been given numerous proofs – possibly the most for any mathematical theorem . They are very diverse , including both geometric proofs and algebraic proofs , with some dating back thousands of years . The theorem can be generalized in various ways , including higher @-@ dimensional spaces , to spaces that are not Euclidean , to objects that are not right triangles , and indeed , to objects that are not triangles at all , but n @-@ dimensional solids . The Pythagorean theorem has attracted interest outside mathematics as a symbol of mathematical abstruseness , mystique , or intellectual power ; popular references in literature , plays , musicals , songs , stamps and cartoons abound .
= = Pythagorean proof = =
The Pythagorean Theorem was known long before Pythagoras , but he may well have been the first to prove it . In any event , the proof attributed to him is very simple , and is called a proof by rearrangement .
The two large squares shown in the figure each contain four identical triangles , and the only difference between the two large squares is that the triangles are arranged differently . Therefore , the white space within each of the two large squares must have equal area . Equating the area of the white space yields the Pythagorean Theorem , Q.E.D.
That Pythagoras originated this very simple proof is sometimes inferred from the writings of the later Greek philosopher and mathematician Proclus . Several other proofs of this theorem are described below , but this is known as the Pythagorean one .
= = Other forms of the theorem = =
As pointed out in the introduction , if c denotes the length of the hypotenuse and a and b denote the lengths of the other two sides , the Pythagorean theorem can be expressed as the Pythagorean equation :
<formula>
If the length of both a and b are known , then c can be calculated as
<formula>
If the length of the hypotenuse c and of one side ( a or b ) are known , then the length of the other side can be calculated as
<formula>
or
<formula>
The Pythagorean equation relates the sides of a right triangle in a simple way , so that if the lengths of any two sides are known the length of the third side can be found . Another corollary of the theorem is that in any right triangle , the hypotenuse is greater than any one of the other sides , but less than their sum .
A generalization of this theorem is the law of cosines , which allows the computation of the length of any side of any triangle , given the lengths of the other two sides and the angle between them . If the angle between the other sides is a right angle , the law of cosines reduces to the Pythagorean equation .
= = Other proofs of the theorem = =
This theorem may have more known proofs than any other ( the law of quadratic reciprocity being another contender for that distinction ) ; the book The Pythagorean Proposition contains 370 proofs .
= = = Proof using similar triangles = = =
This proof is based on the proportionality of the sides of two similar triangles , that is , upon the fact that the ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar triangles is the same regardless of the size of the triangles .
Let ABC represent a right triangle , with the right angle located at C , as shown on the figure . Draw the altitude from point C , and call H its intersection with the side AB . Point H divides the length of the hypotenuse c into parts d and e . The new triangle ACH is similar to triangle ABC , because they both have a right angle ( by definition of the altitude ) , and they share the angle at A , meaning that the third angle will be the same in both triangles as well , marked as θ in the figure . By a similar reasoning , the triangle CBH is also similar to ABC . The proof of similarity of the triangles requires the triangle postulate : the sum of the angles in a triangle is two right angles , and is equivalent to the parallel postulate . Similarity of the triangles leads to the equality of ratios of corresponding sides :
<formula>
The first result equates the cosines of the angles θ , whereas the second result equates their sines .
These ratios can be written as
<formula>
Summing these two equalities results in
<formula>
which , after simplification , expresses the Pythagorean theorem :
<formula>
The role of this proof in history is the subject of much speculation . The underlying question is why Euclid did not use this proof , but invented another . One conjecture is that the proof by similar triangles involved a theory of proportions , a topic not discussed until later in the Elements , and that the theory of proportions needed further development at that time .
= = = Euclid 's proof = = =
In outline , here is how the proof in Euclid 's Elements proceeds . The large square is divided into a left and right rectangle . A triangle is constructed that has half the area of the left rectangle . Then another triangle is constructed that has half the area of the square on the left @-@ most side . These two triangles are shown to be congruent , proving this square has the same area as the left rectangle . This argument is followed by a similar version for the right rectangle and the remaining square . Putting the two rectangles together to reform the square on the hypotenuse , its area is the same as the sum of the area of the other two squares . The details follow .
Let A , B , C be the vertices of a right triangle , with a right angle at A. Drop a perpendicular from A to the side opposite the hypotenuse in the square on the hypotenuse . That line divides the square on the hypotenuse into two rectangles , each having the same area as one of the two squares on the legs .
For the formal proof , we require four elementary lemmata :
If two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other , each to each , and the angles included by those sides equal , then the triangles are congruent ( side @-@ angle @-@ side ) .
The area of a triangle is half the area of any parallelogram on the same base and having the same altitude .
The area of a rectangle is equal to the product of two adjacent sides .
The area of a square is equal to the product of two of its sides ( follows from 3 ) .
Next , each top square is related to a triangle congruent with another triangle related in turn to one of two rectangles making up the lower square .
The proof is as follows :
Let ACB be a right @-@ angled triangle with right angle CAB .
On each of the sides BC , AB , and CA , squares are drawn , CBDE , BAGF , and ACIH , in that order . The construction of squares requires the immediately preceding theorems in Euclid , and depends upon the parallel postulate .
From A , draw a line parallel to BD and CE . It will perpendicularly intersect BC and DE at K and L , respectively .
Join CF and AD , to form the triangles BCF and BDA .
Angles CAB and BAG are both right angles ; therefore C , A , and G are collinear . Similarly for B , A , and H.
Angles CBD and FBA are both right angles ; therefore angle ABD equals angle FBC , since both are the sum of a right angle and angle ABC .
Since AB is equal to FB and BD is equal to BC , triangle ABD must be congruent to triangle FBC .
Since A @-@ K @-@ L is a straight line , parallel to BD , then rectangle BDLK has twice the area of triangle ABD because they share the base BD and have the same altitude BK , i.e. , a line normal to their common base , connecting the parallel lines BD and AL . ( lemma 2 )
Since C is collinear with A and G , square BAGF must be twice in area to triangle FBC .
Therefore , rectangle BDLK must have the same area as square BAGF
= AB2 .
Similarly , it can be shown that rectangle CKLE must have the same area as square ACIH =
AC2 .
Adding these two results , AB2 + AC2
= BD × BK + KL × KC
Since BD =
KL , BD × BK + KL × KC
= BD ( BK + KC ) =
BD × BC
Therefore , AB2 + AC2 = BC2 , since CBDE is a square .
This proof , which appears in Euclid 's Elements as that of Proposition 47 in Book 1 , demonstrates that the area of the square on the hypotenuse is the sum of the areas of the other two squares . This is quite distinct from the proof by similarity of triangles , which is conjectured to be the proof that Pythagoras used .
= = = Proofs by dissection and rearrangement = = =
We have already discussed the Pythagorean proof , which was a proof by rearrangement . The same idea is conveyed by the leftmost animation below , which consists of a large square , side a + b , containing four identical right triangles . The triangles are shown in two arrangements , the first of which leaves two squares a2 and b2 uncovered , the second of which leaves square c2 uncovered . The area encompassed by the outer square never changes , and the area of the four triangles is the same at the beginning and the end , so the black square areas must be equal , therefore a2 + b2 = c2 .
A second proof by rearrangement is given by the middle animation . A large square is formed with area c2 , from four identical right triangles with sides a , b and c , fitted around a small central square . Then two rectangles are formed with sides a and b by moving the triangles . Combining the smaller square with these rectangles produces two squares of areas a2 and b2 , which must have the same area as the initial large square .
The third , rightmost image also gives a proof . The upper two squares are divided as shown by the blue and green shading , into pieces that when rearranged can be made to fit in the lower square on the hypotenuse – or conversely the large square can be divided as shown into pieces that fill the other two . This way of cutting one figure into pieces and rearranging them to get another figure is called dissection . This shows the area of the large square equals that of the two smaller ones .
= = = Einstein 's proof by dissection without rearrangement = = =
Albert Einstein gave a proof by dissection in which the pieces need not get moved . Instead of using a square on the hypotenuse and two squares on the legs , one can use any other shape that includes the hypotenuse , and two similar shapes that each include one of two legs instead of the hypotenuse . In Einstein 's proof , the shape that includes the hypotenuse is the right triangle itself . The dissection consists of dropping a perpendicular from the vertex of the right angle of the triangle to the hypotenuse , thus splitting the whole triangle into two parts . Those two parts have the same shape as the original right triangle , and have the legs of the original triangle as their hypotenuses , and the sum of their areas is that of the original triangle . Because the ratio of the area of a right triangle to the square of its hypotenuse is the same for similar triangles , the relationship between the areas of the three triangles holds for the squares of the sides of the large triangle as well .
= = = Algebraic proofs = = =
The theorem can be proved algebraically using four copies of a right triangle with sides a , b and c , arranged inside a square with side c as in the top half of the diagram . The triangles are similar with area <formula> , while the small square has side b − a and area ( b − a ) 2 . The area of the large square is therefore
<formula>
But this is a square with side c and area c2 , so
<formula>
A similar proof uses four copies of the same triangle arranged symmetrically around a square with side c , as shown in the lower part of the diagram . This results in a larger square , with side a + b and area ( a + b ) 2 . The four triangles and the square side c must have the same area as the larger square ,
<formula>
giving
<formula>
A related proof was published by future U.S. President James A. Garfield ( then a U.S. Representative ) . Instead of a square it uses a trapezoid , which can be constructed from the square in the second of the above proofs by bisecting along a diagonal of the inner square , to give the trapezoid as shown in the diagram . The area of the trapezoid can be calculated to be half the area of the square , that is
<formula>
The inner square is similarly halved , and there are only two triangles so the proof proceeds as above except for a factor of <formula> , which is removed by multiplying by two to give the result .
= = = Proof using differentials = = =
One can arrive at the Pythagorean theorem by studying how changes in a side produce a change in the hypotenuse and employing calculus .
The triangle ABC is a right triangle , as shown in the upper part of the diagram , with BC the hypotenuse . At the same time the triangle lengths are measured as shown , with the hypotenuse of length y , the side AC of length x and the side AB of length a , as seen in the lower diagram part .
If x is increased by a small amount dx by extending the side AC slightly to D , then y also increases by dy . These form two sides of a triangle , CDE , which ( with E chosen so CE is perpendicular to the hypotenuse ) is a right triangle approximately similar to ABC . Therefore , the ratios of their sides must be the same , that is :
<formula>
This can be rewritten as <formula> , which is a differential equation that can be solved by direct integration :
<formula>
giving
<formula>
The constant can be deduced from x
= 0 , y =
a to give the equation
<formula>
This is more of an intuitive proof than a formal one : it can be made more rigorous if proper limits are used in place of dx and dy .
= = Converse = =
The converse of the theorem is also true :
For any three positive numbers a , b , and c such that a2 + b2
= c2 , there exists a triangle with sides a , b and c , and every such triangle has a right angle between the sides of lengths a and b .
An alternative statement is :
For any triangle with sides a , b , c , if a2 + b2 =
c2 , then the angle between a and b measures 90 ° .
This converse also appears in Euclid 's Elements ( Book I , Proposition 48 ) :
" If in a triangle the square on one of the sides equals the sum of the squares on the remaining two sides of the triangle , then the angle contained by the remaining two sides of the triangle is right . "
It can be proven using the law of cosines or as follows :
Let ABC be a triangle with side lengths a , b , and c , with a2 + b2
= c2 . Construct a second triangle with sides of length a and b containing a right angle . By the Pythagorean theorem , it follows that the hypotenuse of this triangle has length c =
√ a2 + b2 , the same as the hypotenuse of the first triangle . Since both triangles ' sides are the same lengths a , b and c , the triangles are congruent and must have the same angles . Therefore , the angle between the side of lengths a and b in the original triangle is a right angle .
The above proof of the converse makes use of the Pythagorean Theorem itself . The converse can also be proven without assuming the Pythagorean Theorem .
A corollary of the Pythagorean theorem 's converse is a simple means of determining whether a triangle is right , obtuse , or acute , as follows . Let c be chosen to be the longest of the three sides and a + b > c ( otherwise there is no triangle according to the triangle inequality ) . The following statements apply :
If a2 + b2
= c2 , then the triangle is right .
If a2 + b2 > c2 , then the triangle is acute .
If a2 + b2 < c2 , then the triangle is obtuse .
Edsger Dijkstra has stated this proposition about acute , right , and obtuse triangles in this language :
sgn ( α + β − γ ) =
sgn ( a2 + b2 − c2 ) ,
where α is the angle opposite to side a , β is the angle opposite to side b , γ is the angle opposite to side c , and sgn is the sign function .
= = Consequences and uses of the theorem = =
= = = Pythagorean triples = = =
A Pythagorean triple has three positive integers a , b , and c , such that a2 + b2 = c2 . In other words , a Pythagorean triple represents the lengths of the sides of a right triangle where all three sides have integer lengths . Evidence from megalithic monuments in Northern Europe shows that such triples were known before the discovery of writing . Such a triple is commonly written ( a , b , c ) . Some well @-@ known examples are ( 3 , 4 , 5 ) and ( 5 , 12 , 13 ) .
A primitive Pythagorean triple is one in which a , b and c are coprime ( the greatest common divisor of a , b and c is 1 ) .
The following is a list of primitive Pythagorean triples with values less than 100 :
( 3 , 4 , 5 ) , ( 5 , 12 , 13 ) , ( 7 , 24 , 25 ) , ( 8 , 15 , 17 ) , ( 9 , 40 , 41 ) , ( 11 , 60 , 61 ) , ( 12 , 35 , 37 ) , ( 13 , 84 , 85 ) , ( 16 , 63 , 65 ) , ( 20 , 21 , 29 ) , ( 28 , 45 , 53 ) , ( 33 , 56 , 65 ) , ( 36 , 77 , 85 ) , ( 39 , 80 , 89 ) , ( 48 , 55 , 73 ) , ( 65 , 72 , 97 )
= = = Incommensurable lengths = = =
One of the consequences of the Pythagorean theorem is that line segments whose lengths are incommensurable ( so the ratio of which is not a rational number ) can be constructed using a straightedge and compass . Pythagoras 's theorem enables construction of incommensurable lengths because the hypotenuse of a triangle is related to the sides by the square root operation .
The figure on the right shows how to construct line segments whose lengths are in the ratio of the square root of any positive integer . Each triangle has a side ( labeled " 1 " ) that is the chosen unit for measurement . In each right triangle , Pythagoras 's theorem establishes the length of the hypotenuse in terms of this unit . If a hypotenuse is related to the unit by the square root of a positive integer that is not a perfect square , it is a realization of a length incommensurable with the unit , such as √ 2 , √ 3 , √ 5 . For more detail , see Quadratic irrational .
Incommensurable lengths conflicted with the Pythagorean school 's concept of numbers as only whole numbers . The Pythagorean school dealt with proportions by comparison of integer multiples of a common subunit . According to one legend , Hippasus of Metapontum ( ca . 470 B.C. ) was drowned at sea for making known the existence of the irrational or incommensurable .
= = = Complex numbers = = =
For any complex number
<formula>
the absolute value or modulus is given by
<formula>
So the three quantities , r , x and y are related by the Pythagorean equation ,
<formula>
Note that r is defined to be a positive number or zero but x and y can be negative as well as positive . Geometrically r is the distance of the z from zero or the origin O in the complex plane .
This can be generalised to find the distance between two points , z1 and z2 say . The required distance is given by
<formula>
so again they are related by a version of the Pythagorean equation ,
<formula>
= = = Euclidean distance in various coordinate systems = = =
The distance formula in Cartesian coordinates is derived from the Pythagorean theorem . If ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) are points in the plane , then the distance between them , also called the Euclidean distance , is given by
<formula>
More generally , in Euclidean n @-@ space , the Euclidean distance between two points , <formula> and <formula> , is defined , by generalization of the Pythagorean theorem , as :
<formula>
If Cartesian coordinates are not used , for example , if polar coordinates are used in two dimensions or , in more general terms , if curvilinear coordinates are used , the formulas expressing the Euclidean distance are more complicated than the Pythagorean theorem , but can be derived from it . A typical example where the straight @-@ line distance between two points is converted to curvilinear coordinates can be found in the applications of Legendre polynomials in physics . The formulas can be discovered by using Pythagoras 's theorem with the equations relating the curvilinear coordinates to Cartesian coordinates . For example , the polar coordinates ( r , θ ) can be introduced as :
<formula>
Then two points with locations ( r1 , θ1 ) and ( r2 , θ2 ) are separated by a distance s :
<formula>
Performing the squares and combining terms , the Pythagorean formula for distance in Cartesian coordinates produces the separation in polar coordinates as :
<formula>
using the trigonometric product @-@ to @-@ sum formulas . This formula is the law of cosines , sometimes called the Generalized Pythagorean Theorem . From this result , for the case where the radii to the two locations are at right angles , the enclosed angle Δθ = π / 2 , and the form corresponding to Pythagoras 's theorem is regained : <formula> The Pythagorean theorem , valid for right triangles , therefore is a special case of the more general law of cosines , valid for arbitrary triangles .
= = = Pythagorean trigonometric identity = = =
In a right triangle with sides a , b and hypotenuse c , trigonometry determines the sine and cosine of the angle θ between side a and the hypotenuse as :
<formula>
From that it follows :
<formula>
where the last step applies Pythagoras 's theorem . This relation between sine and cosine is sometimes called the fundamental Pythagorean trigonometric identity . In similar triangles , the ratios of the sides are the same regardless of the size of the triangles , and depend upon the angles . Consequently , in the figure , the triangle with hypotenuse of unit size has opposite side of size sin θ and adjacent side of size cos θ in units of the hypotenuse .
= = = Relation to the cross product = = =
The Pythagorean theorem relates the cross product and dot product in a similar way :
<formula>
This can be seen from the definitions of the cross product and dot product , as
<formula>
with n a unit vector normal to both a and b . The relationship follows from these definitions and the Pythagorean trigonometric identity .
This can also be used to define the cross product . By rearranging the following equation is obtained
<formula>
This can be considered as a condition on the cross product and so part of its definition , for example in seven dimensions .
= = Generalizations = =
= = = Similar figures on the three sides = = =
A generalization of the Pythagorean theorem extending beyond the areas of squares on the three sides to similar figures was known by Hippocrates of Chios in the 5th century BC , and was included by Euclid in his Elements :
If one erects similar figures ( see Euclidean geometry ) with corresponding sides on the sides of a right triangle , then the sum of the areas of the ones on the two smaller sides equals the area of the one on the larger side .
This extension assumes that the sides of the original triangle are the corresponding sides of the three congruent figures ( so the common ratios of sides between the similar figures are a : b : c ) . While Euclid 's proof only applied to convex polygons , the theorem also applies to concave polygons and even to similar figures that have curved boundaries ( but still with part of a figure 's boundary being the side of the original triangle ) .
The basic idea behind this generalization is that the area of a plane figure is proportional to the square of any linear dimension , and in particular is proportional to the square of the length of any side . Thus , if similar figures with areas A , B and C are erected on sides with corresponding lengths a , b and c then :
<formula>
<formula>
But , by the Pythagorean theorem , a2 + b2
= c2 , so A + B =
C.
Conversely , if we can prove that A + B
= C for three similar figures without using the Pythagorean theorem , then we can work backwards to construct a proof of the theorem . For example , the starting center triangle can be replicated and used as a triangle C on its hypotenuse , and two similar right triangles ( A and B ) constructed on the other two sides , formed by dividing the central triangle by its altitude . The sum of the areas of the two smaller triangles therefore is that of the third , thus A + B =
C and reversing the above logic leads to the Pythagorean theorem a2 + b2 = c2 .
= = = Law of cosines = = =
The Pythagorean theorem is a special case of the more general theorem relating the lengths of sides in any triangle , the law of cosines :
<formula>
where θ is the angle between sides a and b .
When θ is 90 degrees ( π /
|
Long
|
wikitext-103-excerpt
|
2 radians ) , then cosθ = 0 , and the formula reduces to the usual Pythagorean theorem .
= = = Arbitrary triangle = = =
At any selected angle of a general triangle of sides a , b , c , inscribe an isosceles triangle such that the equal angles at its base θ are the same as the selected angle . Suppose the selected angle θ is opposite the side labeled c . Inscribing the isosceles triangle forms triangle ABD with angle θ opposite side a and with side r along c . A second triangle is formed with angle θ opposite side b and a side with length s along c , as shown in the figure . Thābit ibn Qurra stated that the sides of the three triangles were related as :
<formula>
As the angle θ approaches π / 2 , the base of the isosceles triangle narrows , and lengths r and s overlap less and less . When θ
= π / 2 , ADB becomes a right triangle , r + s =
c , and the original Pythagorean theorem is regained .
One proof observes that triangle ABC has the same angles as triangle ABD , but in opposite order . ( The two triangles share the angle at vertex B , both contain the angle θ , and so also have the same third angle by the triangle postulate . ) Consequently , ABC is similar to the reflection of ABD , the triangle DBA in the lower panel . Taking the ratio of sides opposite and adjacent to θ ,
<formula>
Likewise , for the reflection of the other triangle ,
<formula>
Clearing fractions and adding these two relations :
<formula>
the required result .
The theorem remains valid if the angle <formula> is obtuse so the lengths r and s are non @-@ overlapping .
= = = General triangles using parallelograms = = =
Pappus 's area theorem is a further generalization , that applies to triangles that are not right triangles , using parallelograms on the three sides in place of squares ( squares are a special case , of course ) . The upper figure shows that for a scalene triangle , the area of the parallelogram on the longest side is the sum of the areas of the parallelograms on the other two sides , provided the parallelogram on the long side is constructed as indicated ( the dimensions labeled with arrows are the same , and determine the sides of the bottom parallelogram ) . This replacement of squares with parallelograms bears a clear resemblance to the original Pythagoras 's theorem , and was considered a generalization by Pappus of Alexandria in 4 A.D.
The lower figure shows the elements of the proof . Focus on the left side of the figure . The left green parallelogram has the same area as the left , blue portion of the bottom parallelogram because both have the same base b and height h . However , the left green parallelogram also has the same area as the left green parallelogram of the upper figure , because they have the same base ( the upper left side of the triangle ) and the same height normal to that side of the triangle . Repeating the argument for the right side of the figure , the bottom parallelogram has the same area as the sum of the two green parallelograms .
= = = Solid geometry = = =
In terms of solid geometry , Pythagoras 's theorem can be applied to three dimensions as follows . Consider a rectangular solid as shown in the figure . The length of diagonal BD is found from Pythagoras 's theorem as :
<formula>
where these three sides form a right triangle . Using horizontal diagonal BD and the vertical edge AB , the length of diagonal AD then is found by a second application of Pythagoras 's theorem as :
<formula>
or , doing it all in one step :
<formula>
This result is the three @-@ dimensional expression for the magnitude of a vector v ( the diagonal AD ) in terms of its orthogonal components { vk } ( the three mutually perpendicular sides ) :
<formula>
This one @-@ step formulation may be viewed as a generalization of Pythagoras 's theorem to higher dimensions . However , this result is really just the repeated application of the original Pythagoras 's theorem to a succession of right triangles in a sequence of orthogonal planes .
A substantial generalization of the Pythagorean theorem to three dimensions is de Gua 's theorem , named for Jean Paul de Gua de Malves : If a tetrahedron has a right angle corner ( like a corner of a cube ) , then the square of the area of the face opposite the right angle corner is the sum of the squares of the areas of the other three faces . This result can be generalized as in the " n @-@ dimensional Pythagorean theorem " :
Let <formula> be orthogonal vectors in ℝn . Consider the n @-@ dimensional simplex S with vertices <formula> . ( Think of the ( n − 1 ) -dimensional simplex with vertices <formula> not including the origin as the " hypotenuse " of S and the remaining ( n − 1 ) -dimensional faces of S as its " legs " . ) Then the square of the volume of the hypotenuse of S is the sum of the squares of the volumes of the n legs .
This statement is illustrated in three dimensions by the tetrahedron in the figure . The " hypotenuse " is the base of the tetrahedron at the back of the figure , and the " legs " are the three sides emanating from the vertex in the foreground . As the depth of the base from the vertex increases , the area of the " legs " increases , while that of the base is fixed . The theorem suggests that when this depth is at the value creating a right vertex , the generalization of Pythagoras 's theorem applies . In a different wording :
Given an n @-@ rectangular n @-@ dimensional simplex , the square of the ( n − 1 ) -content of the facet opposing the right vertex will equal the sum of the squares of the ( n − 1 ) -contents of the remaining facets .
= = = Inner product spaces = = =
The Pythagorean theorem can be generalized to inner product spaces , which are generalizations of the familiar 2 @-@ dimensional and 3 @-@ dimensional Euclidean spaces . For example , a function may be considered as a vector with infinitely many components in an inner product space , as in functional analysis .
In an inner product space , the concept of perpendicularity is replaced by the concept of orthogonality : two vectors v and w are orthogonal if their inner product <formula> is zero . The inner product is a generalization of the dot product of vectors . The dot product is called the standard inner product or the Euclidean inner product . However , other inner products are possible .
The concept of length is replaced by the concept of the norm | | v | | of a vector v , defined as :
<formula>
In an inner @-@ product space , the Pythagorean theorem states that for any two orthogonal vectors v and w we have
<formula>
Here the vectors v and w are akin to the sides of a right triangle with hypotenuse given by the vector sum v + w . This form of the Pythagorean theorem is a consequence of the properties of the inner product :
<formula>
where the inner products of the cross terms are zero , because of orthogonality .
A further generalization of the Pythagorean theorem in an inner product space to non @-@ orthogonal vectors is the parallelogram law :
<formula>
which says that twice the sum of the squares of the lengths of the sides of a parallelogram is the sum of the squares of the lengths of the diagonals . Any norm that satisfies this equality is ipso facto a norm corresponding to an inner product .
The Pythagorean identity can be extended to sums of more than two orthogonal vectors . If v1 , v2 , ... , vn are pairwise @-@ orthogonal vectors in an inner @-@ product space , then application of the Pythagorean theorem to successive pairs of these vectors ( as described for 3 @-@ dimensions in the section on solid geometry ) results in the equation
<formula>
= = = Sets of m @-@ dimensional objects in n @-@ dimensional space = = =
The broadest generalization of the Pythagorean theorem , introduced by Donald R. Conant and William A. Beyer , applies to a wide range of objects and sets of objects in any number of dimensions . Specifically , the square of the measure of an m @-@ dimensional set of objects in one or more parallel m @-@ dimensional flats in n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space is equal to the sum of the squares of the measures of the orthogonal projections of the object ( s ) onto all m @-@ dimensional coordinate subspaces .
In mathematical terms :
<formula>
where :
<formula> is a measure in m @-@ dimensions ( a length in one dimension , an area in two dimensions , a volume in three dimensions , etc . ) .
<formula> is a set of one or more non @-@ overlapping m @-@ dimensional objects in one or more parallel m @-@ dimensional flats in n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space .
<formula> is the total measure ( sum ) of the set of m @-@ dimensional objects .
<formula> represents an m @-@ dimensional projection of the original set onto an orthogonal coordinate subspace .
<formula> is the measure of the m @-@ dimensional set projection onto m @-@ dimensional coordinate subspace <formula> . Because object projections can overlap on a coordinate subspace , the measure of each object projection in the set must be calculated individually , then measures of all projections added together to provide the total measure for the set of projections on the given coordinate subspace .
<formula> is the number of orthogonal , m @-@ dimensional coordinate subspaces in n @-@ dimensional space ( Rn ) onto which the m @-@ dimensional objects are projected ( m ≤ n ) :
<formula>
For example , for a set of one or more two @-@ dimensional parallel objects in three @-@ dimensional space , m
= 2 and n =
3 . Therefore , the coordinate subspace calculation for this scenario is : x
= 3 ! / 2 ! ( 3 @-@ 2 ) ! =
3 * 2 * 1 / 2 * 1 * 1
= 6 / 2 =
3
Thus , three coordinate planes ( xy @-@ plane , xz @-@ plane , and yz @-@ plane ) are required to capture the necessary projections for calculating the area of the set . If the set contained one @-@ dimensional parallel line segments instead , three coordinate axes ( x , y , and z ) , rather than planes , would be needed to capture the projections for calculating the length of the set .
= = = = Applied to sets containing a single object = = = =
This generalized formula can be applied in the simplest case to a single one @-@ dimensional object , a line segment , in two @-@ dimensional space . The animation illustrates this case with a line segment shown in blue and its projections onto the x- and y- axes shown in green . The lengths of the projections squared and added together are equal to the length of the original line segment squared . This produces the familiar Pythagorean theorem formula :
<formula>
where c is the length of the original line segment , a is the length of the segment projected onto the x @-@ axis , and b is the length of the segment projected onto the y @-@ axis . In the animation , a2
= 27 , b2 =
9 , and c2 = 36 . Bringing the line segment together with its coordinate projections forms the traditional right triangle .
Similarly , for any two @-@ dimensional object in three @-@ dimensional space , the formula can be stated as :
<formula>
where D is the area of a specified two @-@ dimensional object , A is the area of the object 's projection onto the xy @-@ coordinate plane , B is the area of the object 's projection onto the xz @-@ coordinate plane , and C is the area of the object 's projection onto the yz @-@ coordinate plane .
The animation showing a blue three @-@ by @-@ three square object in three dimensions of space illustrates this application of the generalization to an object of more than one dimension . As the orientation of the object changes , the proportions of the green coordinate plane projections adjust accordingly , so the squares of the areas of the projections always add up to the same value : the square of the area of the original object . In this case , the sum of the squares of the projection areas always add up to 81 .
= = = = Applied to sets containing multiple objects = = = =
The generalization applies equally to sets of multiple objects , as long as they are in the same plane or parallel planes . The measures of the objects in such a set can be added together and essentially treated as a single object . The multiple line @-@ segment animation illustrates the generalization applied to a set of three one @-@ dimensional objects in three dimensions of space . In this case , two sequential line segments exist in parallel to a third line segment . Because lines are one @-@ dimensional , the coordinate subspaces onto which they are projected must also be one @-@ dimensional . Thus , projections appear on the coordinate axes rather than on the coordinate planes . The lengths of the projected line segments on a given axis are summed , then squared , then added to the total lengths squared on the other axes . The result is the squared sum of the lengths of the original line segments . For the sake of simplicity , when projections are single points of zero length , they are not shown , since they do not affect the calculations .
The generalization applies to flat objects of any shape , regular or irregular . The multi @-@ object animation illustrates the use of the generalization on a set of several different objects in different planes – in this case , a triangle and a circle on one plane , and a flat cat on a parallel plane ( shown in blue ) . Projections of the set are shown in green on the coordinate plane subspaces . Objects shown initially upright in the yz @-@ plane are subsequently tilted in parallel . Again , regardless of set orientation , the result remains the same . On each coordinate plane subspace , the areas of object projections are calculated individually ( to avoid miscalculations due to projection overlap ) , then added together to produce the total projection area of the set on that plane . The projection set area is then squared for each coordinate plane . The sum of all projection set areas squared is always equal to the original set area squared .
= = = = Applied in any number of dimensions = = = =
This generalization holds regardless of the number of dimensions involved . The volume squared for a three @-@ dimensional object or set can be calculated by summing the squares of the volumes of the associated three @-@ dimensional projections onto three @-@ dimensional subspaces . Any number of dimensions is valid for the set as long as one uses the same number of dimensions for the coordinate subspaces and projections .
It is the built @-@ in symmetry of the Cartesian coordinate system where coordinates are orthogonal vectors of unit length in flat Euclidean space that allows this generalization to apply so broadly .
= = = Non @-@ Euclidean geometry = = =
The Pythagorean theorem is derived from the axioms of Euclidean geometry , and in fact , the Pythagorean theorem given above does not hold in a non @-@ Euclidean geometry . ( The Pythagorean theorem has been shown , in fact , to be equivalent to Euclid 's Parallel ( Fifth ) Postulate . ) In other words , in non @-@ Euclidean geometry , the relation between the sides of a triangle must necessarily take a non @-@ Pythagorean form . For example , in spherical geometry , all three sides of the right triangle ( say a , b , and c ) bounding an octant of the unit sphere have length equal to π / 2 , and all its angles are right angles , which violates the Pythagorean theorem because a2 + b2 ≠ c2 .
Here two cases of non @-@ Euclidean geometry are considered — spherical geometry and hyperbolic plane geometry ; in each case , as in the Euclidean case for non @-@ right triangles , the result replacing the Pythagorean theorem follows from the appropriate law of cosines .
However , the Pythagorean theorem remains true in hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry if the condition that the triangle be right is replaced with the condition that two of the angles sum to the third , say A + B = C. The sides are then related as follows : the sum of the areas of the circles with diameters a and b equals the area of the circle with diameter c .
= = = = Spherical geometry = = = =
For any right triangle on a sphere of radius R ( for example , if γ in the figure is a right angle ) , with sides a , b , c , the relation between the sides takes the form :
<formula>
This equation can be derived as a special case of the spherical law of cosines that applies to all spherical triangles :
<formula>
By expressing the Maclaurin series for the cosine function as an asymptotic expansion with the remainder term in big O notation ,
<formula>
it can be shown that as the radius R approaches infinity and the arguments a / R , b / R , and c / R tend to zero , the spherical relation between the sides of a right triangle approaches the Euclidean form of the Pythagorean theorem . Substituting the asymptotic expansion for each of the cosines into the spherical relation for a right triangle yields
<formula>
The constants a4 , b4 , and c4 have been absorbed into the big O remainder terms since they are independent of the radius R. This asymptotic relationship can be further simplified by multiplying out the bracketed quantities , cancelling the ones , multiplying through by − 2 , and collecting all the error terms together :
<formula>
After multiplying through by R2 , the Euclidean Pythagorean relationship c2 = a2 + b2 is recovered in the limit as the radius R approaches infinity ( since the remainder term tends to zero ) :
<formula>
For small right triangles ( a , b < < R ) , the cosines can be eliminated to avoid loss of significance , giving
<formula>
= = = = Hyperbolic geometry = = = =
In a hyperbolic space with uniform curvature − 1 / R2 , for a right triangle with legs a , b , and hypotenuse c , the relation between the sides takes the form :
<formula>
where cosh is the hyperbolic cosine . This formula is a special form of the hyperbolic law of cosines that applies to all hyperbolic triangles :
<formula>
with γ the angle at the vertex opposite the side c .
By using the Maclaurin series for the hyperbolic cosine , cosh x ≈ 1 + x2 / 2 , it can be shown that as a hyperbolic triangle becomes very small ( that is , as a , b , and c all approach zero ) , the hyperbolic relation for a right triangle approaches the form of Pythagoras 's theorem .
For small right triangles ( a , b < < R ) , the hyperbolic cosines can be eliminated to avoid loss of significance , giving
<formula>
= = = = Very small triangles = = = =
For any uniform curvature K ( positive , zero , or negative ) , in very small right triangles ( | K | a2 , | K | b2 < < 1 ) with hypotenuse c , it can be shown that
<formula>
= = = Differential geometry = = =
On an infinitesimal level , in three dimensional space , Pythagoras 's theorem describes the distance between two infinitesimally separated points as :
<formula>
with ds the element of distance and ( dx , dy , dz ) the components of the vector separating the two points . Such a space is called a Euclidean space . However , in Riemannian geometry , a generalization of this expression useful for general coordinates ( not just Cartesian ) and general spaces ( not just Euclidean ) takes the form :
<formula>
which is called the metric tensor . ( Sometimes , by abuse of language , the same term is applied to the set of coefficients gij . ) It may be a function of position , and often describes curved space . A simple example is Euclidean ( flat ) space expressed in curvilinear coordinates . For example , in polar coordinates :
<formula>
= = History = =
There is debate whether the Pythagorean theorem was discovered once , or many times in many places , and the date of first discovery is uncertain , as is the date of the first proof . According to Joran Friberg , a historian of mathematics , evidence indicates that the Pythagorean Theorem was well @-@ known to the mathematicians of the First Babylonian Dynasty ( 20th to 16th centuries BC ) , which would have been over a thousand years before Pythagoras was born . ( Yale 's Institute for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage 's 3 @-@ D scan of a cuneiform tablet depicting the proof is one of their mostly widely used images . ) Other sources , such as a book by Leon Lederman and Dick Teresi , mention that Pythagoras discovered the theorem , although Teresi subsequently stated that the Babylonians developed the theorem " at least fifteen hundred years before Pythagoras was born . " The history of the theorem can be divided into four parts : knowledge of Pythagorean triples , knowledge of the relationship among the sides of a right triangle , knowledge of the relationships among adjacent angles , and proofs of the theorem within some deductive system .
Bartel Leendert van der Waerden ( 1903 – 1996 ) conjectured that Pythagorean triples were discovered algebraically by the Babylonians . Written between 2000 and 1786 BC , the Middle Kingdom Egyptian Berlin Papyrus 6619 includes a problem whose solution is the Pythagorean triple 6 : 8 : 10 , but the problem does not mention a triangle . The Mesopotamian tablet Plimpton 322 , written between 1790 and 1750 BC during the reign of Hammurabi the Great , contains many entries closely related to Pythagorean triples .
In India , the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra , the dates of which are given variously as between the 8th and 5th century BC , contains a list of Pythagorean triples discovered algebraically , a statement of the Pythagorean theorem , and a geometrical proof of the Pythagorean theorem for an isosceles right triangle . The Apastamba Sulba Sutra ( c . 600 BC ) contains a numerical proof of the general Pythagorean theorem , using an area computation . Van der Waerden believed that " it was certainly based on earlier traditions " . Carl Boyer states that the Pythagorean theorem in Śulba @-@ sũtram may have been influenced by ancient Mesopotamian math , but there is no conclusive evidence in favor or opposition of this possibility .
With contents known much earlier , but in surviving texts dating from roughly the 1st century BC , the Chinese text Zhou Bi Suan Jing ( 周髀算经 ) , ( The Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven ) gives a reasoning for the Pythagorean theorem for the ( 3 , 4 , 5 ) triangle — in China it is called the " Gougu Theorem " ( 勾股定理 ) . During the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC to 220 AD ) , Pythagorean triples appear in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art , together with a mention of right triangles . Some believe the theorem arose first in China , where it is alternatively known as the " Shang Gao Theorem " ( 商高定理 ) , named after the Duke of Zhou 's astronomer and mathematician , whose reasoning composed most of what was in the Zhou Bi Suan Jing .
Pythagoras , whose dates are commonly given as 569 – 475 BC , used algebraic methods to construct Pythagorean triples , according to Proclus 's commentary on Euclid . Proclus , however , wrote between 410 and 485 AD . According to Thomas L. Heath ( 1861 – 1940 ) , no specific attribution of the theorem to Pythagoras exists in the surviving Greek literature from the five centuries after Pythagoras lived . However , when authors such as Plutarch and Cicero attributed the theorem to Pythagoras , they did so in a way which suggests that the attribution was widely known and undoubted . " Whether this formula is rightly attributed to Pythagoras personally , [ ... ] one can safely assume that it belongs to the very oldest period of Pythagorean mathematics . "
Around 400 BC , according to Proclus , Plato gave a method for finding Pythagorean triples that combined algebra and geometry . Around 300 BC , in Euclid 's Elements , the oldest extant axiomatic proof of the theorem is presented .
= = In popular culture = =
The Pythagorean theorem has arisen in popular culture in a variety of ways .
John Aubrey in his Brief Lives records of Thomas Hobbes that " He was forty years old before he looked on geometry ; which happened accidentally . Being in a gentleman 's library Euclid 's Elements lay open , and ' twas the forty @-@ seventh proposition * in the first book . He read the proposition . ' By G , ' said he , ' this is impossible ! ' So he reads the demonstration of it , which referred him back to such a proof ; which referred him back to another , which he also read . Et sic deinceps , that at last he was demonstratively convinced of that truth . This made him in love with geometry . "
Hans Christian Andersen wrote in 1831 a poem about the Pythagorean theorem : Formens Evige Magie ( Et poetisk Spilfægteri ) .
A verse of the Major @-@ General 's Song in the Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera The Pirates of Penzance , " About binomial theorem I 'm teeming with a lot o ' news , With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse " , makes an oblique reference to the theorem .
The Scarecrow in the film The Wizard of Oz makes a more specific reference to the theorem . Upon receiving his diploma from the Wizard , he immediately exhibits his " knowledge " by reciting a mangled and incorrect version of the theorem : " The sum of the square roots of any two sides of an isosceles triangle is equal to the square root of the remaining side . Oh , joy ! Oh , rapture ! I 've got a brain ! "
In 2000 , Uganda released a coin with the shape of an isosceles right triangle . The coin 's tail has an image of Pythagoras and the equation α2 + β2 = γ2 , accompanied with the mention " PYTHAGORAS MILLENNIUM " .
Greece , Japan , San Marino , Sierra Leone , and Suriname have issued postage stamps depicting Pythagoras and the Pythagorean theorem .
In Neal Stephenson 's speculative fiction Anathem , the Pythagorean theorem is referred to as ' the Adrakhonic theorem ' . A geometric proof of the theorem is displayed on the side of an alien ship to demonstrate the aliens ' understanding of mathematics .
= Signs and Wonders ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Signs and Wonders " is the ninth episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on January 23 , 2000 . It was written by Jeffrey Bell , directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Signs and Wonders " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 5 , being watched by 13 @.@ 86 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate the Church of God with Signs and Wonders , a church where the Bible is read literally , and punishment is dealt deftly , after a small town church is the site of a number of ritualistic @-@ like murders . But soon the agents realize that the difference between the peaceful religious and the fanatics may not be very much at all .
Bell wished to write a " down @-@ and @-@ dirty " horror story about a snake @-@ handling church . Furthermore , Bell wanted the true antagonist of the episode to remain hidden until the very end . In order to do this , the script was written so that Mulder suspected the wrong individual . According to executive producer Frank Spotnitz , the theme of the episode was " intolerance can be good " , in some cases . The episode used live rattlesnakes ; at any one time , there were between six and fifty snakes on the set .
= = Plot = =
In Blessing , Tennessee , Jared Chirp , while attempting to flee his home , is attacked by rattlesnakes inside his car and killed . Federal agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , after conferring with the completely ordinary Reverend Mackey , go to Reverend Enoch O 'Connor 's church , Church of God with Signs and Wonders , where Biblical literalism is stressed and snakes are used during his services . As such , O 'Connor becomes the prime suspect . Later , a woman named Iris , tells Reverend Mackey that she feels guilty because Jared called her on the night he died in order to talk to his girlfriend , Gracie . Iris , however , refused because Gracie was in bed . Later that night , Iris is bitten when her staple remover turns into a snake ; she promptly goes into the bathroom to clean up but is killed when snakes appear everywhere in the bathroom .
Gracie is questioned by Mulder and Scully about O 'Connor because she is a former member of his church . The two agents discover that she is , in fact , O 'Connor 's daughter and was kicked out of his congregation and home when she became pregnant . The agents go back to O 'Connor 's church and Scully is attacked by O 'Connor , who attempts to stick her head in a box of snakes . He is promptly arrested . Later , while in his cell , he is attacked by snakes in his cell , but is not killed . O 'Connor later wakes up in the hospital and is visited by Gracie . O 'Connor then takes Gracie and leaves the hospital . Reverend Mackey tells Mulder and Scully that Enoch O 'Connor is the father of Gracie 's child .
Meanwhile , O 'Connor takes Gracie back to his church and baptizes her . Suddenly , she goes into labor and gives birth to live snakes . O 'Connor goes to Mackey 's church and attempts to kill him , but Mulder intervenes and saves Mackey . In the ambulance , Gracie tells Scully that Mackey was the real murderer , and the father of Gracie 's baby . He killed everyone to keep the fact that he was the father a secret and in order to destroy O 'Connor . Back at the church , Mulder realizes O 'Connor was innocent all along , but Mackey summons snakes who promptly attack Mulder . Luckily , Scully is able to break down the door and save Mulder . Mackey , unfortunately , disappears to Connecticut , changes his name to Reverend Wells , and starts another church . The episode ends with a snake coming out of Mackey 's mouth and eating a mouse .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Signs and Wonders " was written by The X @-@ Files staff writer Jeffrey Bell . Bell had long desired to write a " down @-@ and @-@ dirty " horror story for the series . In addition , he had informally studied the practice of snake handling , concluding that " anything involving snakes would be scary and I saw the church stuff as something that would be really fascinating . " However , unlike most stories featuring the radical religious , the theme of the episode was that in certain circumstances , " intolerance can be good " , according to executive producer Frank Spotnitz .
Bell " wanted the snake church people to end up being the good guys . " However , the trick would be to disguise the real bad guys in plain sight . According to Bell , " The way the shows usually work out , Mulder is the one to figure out who the bad guys are . So I went into the story meeting with the idea of having Mulder being wrong . Because Mulder believes so strong it 's the other guy , it helped hide the true identity of the bad guy from the audience . "
During the snake handling scene at the Church of God with Signs and Wonders , the song being sung by the congregation is called " May Glory Protect Us " . The song was written by executive producer Paul Rabwin , who was heavily involved in the episode 's music production . Rabwin later noted , " I auditioned a bunch of gospel songs [ to episode director Kim Manners ] . I told him I could write one that was better and he told me to go for it . And I did . [ … ] Kim loved it . [ … ] It was a great tribute that he was able to ask me and accept my opinion on it . "
= = = Casting and filming = = =
The casting for " Signs & Wonders " was " rather unorthodox " . In order to prevent ophidiophobia from hitting the actors on the day of filming , live rattlesnakes were brought in during the casting sessions . Strangely enough , many of the actors were " thrilled " about holding the snakes , according to Kim Manners . He later noted that " the funny thing was that the actors couldn 't wait to hold the rattlesnakes [ … ] but we were still nervous . " In addition , Michael Childers , who portrayed Reverend O 'Connor , was actually the son of a real life snake preacher . Manners later noted that " he had gone to church as a child and handled snakes . "
A series of safety meetings were scheduled in order to prevent accidents on the set . One of the items on the agenda was finding the closest hospital to the set , according to make @-@ up effects coordinator John Vulich . Furthermore , several of the cast and crew members had a fear of snakes , including Manners , David Duchovny , and John Shiban . During one of the days that the show was being prepped , a snake wrangler brought several live rattlesnakes to the set , but one escaped . It was eventually found behind Manners ' desk . In order to prevent future accidents , the mouths of the snakes were sutured shut .
= = = Special effects = = =
At any one time , there were between six and fifty snakes on the set . During the scene where Mulder is attacked , fifteen live snakes were used . However , Duchovny was " not within blocks " of the shot and a stunt double was used . Several faux @-@ body parts were used to simulate snake bites . One of the fake arms , which was used for Mulder , was recycled from the sixth season episode " Dreamland " . A false stomach was created for Tracy Middendorf , who portrayed Gracie , to give the illusion that live snakes were wriggling inside of her .
At one point in the episode , Expulsion from the Garden of Eden , a famous painting by Italian Early Renaissance artist Masaccio appears in the background . Because the painting contains nudity , Fox 's network executives took issue with the scene , forcing the show to edit out the genitalia on the painting . Paul Rabwin later noted that " the network executive censors didn 't feel it was appropriate for us to show all the details [ ... ] course , they could see people giving birth to hundreds of snakes , but that 's OK . " On the seventh season DVD special features , the painting is erroneously attributed to the famed Michelangelo .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Signs and Wonders " first aired in the United States on January 23 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 5 , with a 12 share , meaning that roughly 8 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 12 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 13 @.@ 86 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on April 30 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 61 million viewers , making it the eighth most watched episode that week .
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Kenneth Silber from Space.com wrote a very positive review of the episode , writing , " ' Signs and Wonders ' is a clever episode whose serpentine plot twists will leave many viewers genuinely surprised . Although a bit overly reliant on the alleged shock value of snakes , the episode establishes , more firmly than any before it , the demonic nature of some of the powers at work in The X @-@ Files . " Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 5 out of 5 stars and called the episode , " one of the scariest episodes of season 7 " before noting that the episode " really creeped me out . " However , other reviews were more mixed . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two noted that , despite several very " cool " images — such as Gracie birthing snakes and a man oozing reptile venom — the episode " doesn 't really seem to stand for anything . " Shearman and Pearson further criticized putting " religion in the crosshair " and concluded that the episode was " just your everyday sliver of supernatural hokum . "
Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris criticized the polarization of religion viewed in the episode , noting that " although ' Signs and Wonder 's purports to be an examination of different modes of faith , it offers a pessimistic — and distorted view of religion . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a mixed review , writing " I have always been the type of person who admires the creative attempt , even if the attempt isn 't a complete success . [ … ] This is precisely the mindset I 'm feeling after watching ' Signs and Wonders ' . I admire the attempt to spook me , to offer up conflicting views of religion and righteousness , even if I 'm not completely sure what the point of it all was . " Nevertheless , Kessenich praised the snake attack scenes and the episode 's occasional quips of humor . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C + " . Despite writing that the snake attack scenes were " surprisingly horrifying " and that the episode contained " plenty [ of elements ] to recommend " , he was critical about the lack of explanation behind Mackey . Although he had a positive opinion of the first 30 minutes , he wrote that the " last 10 minutes just sink everything good the episode has going , and in a way that hurts everything that came before . "
= Cody Hodgson =
Cody Douglas Hodgson ( born February 18 , 1990 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centreman currently an unrestricted free agent who most recently played for the Milwaukee Admirals in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) while under contract to the Nashville Predators of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) .
Hodgson played at the major junior level for four seasons with the Brampton Battalion of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) . After being selected tenth overall in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft by the Vancouver Canucks , Hodgson won the William Hanley Trophy ( OHL 's most sportsmanlike player ) , Red Tilson Trophy ( OHL player of the year ) and the CHL Player of the Year Award , as well as First Team All @-@ Star honours for the 2008 – 09 season . While training in the 2009 off @-@ season , Hodgson suffered a back injury that required a year for him to fully recover . In 2010 – 11 , he played his professional rookie season with the Canucks ' minor league affiliate , the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . The season also marked his debut at the NHL level with the Canucks and he went on to participate in the team 's run to the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals . During his rookie season the subsequent year , Hodgson was dealt to the Buffalo Sabres at the 2012 trade deadline .
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Tom Swift board game in 1966 , although it was never widely distributed , and the character has appeared in one television show . Various Tom Swift radio programs , television series , and movies were planned and even written , but were either never produced or not released .
= = = Film and television = = =
As early as 1914 , Edward Stratemeyer proposed making a Tom Swift movie , but no such movie was made . A Tom Swift radio series was proposed in 1946 . Two scripts were written , but , for unknown reasons , the series was never produced . A television pilot show for a series to be called The Adventures of Tom Swift was filmed in 1958 , featuring Gary Vinson . However , legal problems prevented the pilot 's distribution , and it was never broadcast ; no copies of the pilot are known to exist , though the pilot script is available . Twentieth Century Fox planned a Tom Swift feature movie in 1968 , to be directed by Gene Kelly . A script was written and approved , and filming was to have begun during 1969 . However , the project was canceled owing to the poor reception of the movies Doctor Dolittle and Star ! ; a $ 500 @,@ 000 airship that had been built as a prop was sold to an amusement park . Yet another movie was planned in 1974 , but , again , was cancelled . Scripts were also written for a proposed television series involving both Tom Swift Jr. and his father , the hero of the original book series . Glen A. Larson wrote an unproduced television pilot show entitled " TS , I Love You : The Further Adventures of Tom Swift " in 1977 , as well . This series was to be combined with a Nancy Drew series , a Hardy Boys series , and a Dana Girls series . Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys were eventually combined into a one @-@ hour program with alternating episodes .
A Tom Swift media project finally came to fruition in 1983 when Willie Aames appeared as Tom Swift along with Lori Loughlin as Linda Craig in a television special , The Tom Swift and Linda Craig Mystery Hour , which was broadcast on July 3 . It was a ratings failure . In 2007 , digital studio Worldwide Biggies acquired movie rights to Tom Swift. and announced plans to release a feature film and video game , followed by a television series . As of 2015 , these plans had not come to fruition .
= = Claims of racism = =
It has been suggested that the book Tom Swift and His Electric Rifle contains heavy racism , depicting Africans as brutish , uncivilized animals , and the white protagonist as their paternal savior .
In the book , as in America today , the black people are rendered as either passive , simple and childlike , or animalistic and capable of unimaginable violence . They are described in the book at various points as " hideous in their savagery , wearing only the loin cloth , and with their kinky hair stuck full of sticks " , and as " wild , savage and ferocious ... like little red apes " . "
= = Cultural Influence = =
The Tom Swift books have been credited with assisting the success of American science fiction and with establishing the edisonade ( stories focusing on brilliant scientists and inventors ) as a basic cultural myth . Tom Swift 's adventures have been popular since the character 's inception in 1910 : by 1914 , 150 @,@ 000 copies a year were being sold and a 1929 study found the series to be second in popularity only to the Bible for boys in their early teens . By 2009 , Tom Swift books had sold more than 30 million copies worldwide .
The series ' writing style , which was sometimes adverb heavy , suggested a name for a type of adverbial pun promulgated during the 1950s and 1960s , a type of wellerism known as " Tom Swifties " . Originally this kind of pun was called a " Tom Swiftly " in reference to the adverbial usage , but over time has come to be called a " Tom Swifty . " Some examples are : " ' I lost my crutches , ' said Tom lamely " ; and " ' I 'll take the prisoner downstairs ' , said Tom condescendingly . "
Tom Swift 's fictional inventions have apparently inspired several actual inventions , among them Lee Felsenstein 's " Tom Swift Terminal " , which " drove the creation of an early personal computer known as the Sol " , and the taser . The name " taser " was originally " TSER " , for " Tom Swift Electric Rifle " . The invention was named for the central device in the story Tom Swift and His Electric Rifle ( 1911 ) ; according to inventor Jack Cover , " an ' A ' was added because we got tired of answering the phone ' TSER . ' "
A number of scientists , inventors , and science fiction writers have also credited Tom Swift with inspiring them , including Ray Kurzweil , Robert A. Heinlein , and Isaac Asimov . The Tom Swift , Jr. adventures were Steve Wozniak 's favorite reading as a boy and inspired him to become a scientist . According to Wozniak , reading the Tom Swift books made him feel " that engineers can save the world from all sorts of conflict and evil " .
Gone with the Wind author Margaret Mitchell said she read the series as a child .
= Nannygate =
" Nannygate " is a popular term for the 1993 revelations that caused two of President Bill Clinton 's choices for United States Attorney General to become derailed .
In January 1993 , Clinton 's nomination of corporate lawyer Zoë Baird for the position came under attack after it became known that she and her husband had broken the law by employing two illegal aliens from Peru as a nanny and chauffeur for their young child . They had also failed to pay Social Security taxes for the workers until shortly before the disclosures . While the Clinton administration thought the matter was relatively unimportant , the news elicited a firestorm of public opinion , most of it against Baird . Within eight days , her nomination lost political support in the U.S. Congress and was withdrawn .
The following month , Clinton 's choice of federal judge Kimba Wood for the job was leaked to the press , but within a day it became known that she too had employed an undocumented immigrants to look after her child . Although Wood had done so at a time when this was legal , and had paid Social Security taxes for the worker , the disclosures were enough to cause the immediate withdrawal of Wood from consideration . The Clinton administration then said that the hiring practices for household help would be examined for all of the more than thousand presidential appointments under consideration , causing the whole process to slow down significantly . Determined to choose a woman for the Attorney General post , Clinton finally selected state prosecutor Janet Reno , who was confirmed and served through all eight years of the administration .
The Nannygate matter caused wealthy Americans to ask each other if they too had a " Zoë Baird problem " , as the hiring of undocumented workers and the paying of household help off the books were both commonplace . Two fault lines , gender and class , were exposed in the discussion over Nannygate : in the former , a double standard was seen wherein female appointees faced a greater risk of being questioned and disqualified based upon their childcare arrangements , while in the latter , affluent professional women who could afford live @-@ in childcare arrangements were seen as trying to get away with an illegal act . Nannygate @-@ type controversies have subsequently affected other political appointees both in the U.S. and in other countries .
= = The Baird nomination = =
President @-@ elect Bill Clinton had vowed to assemble an administration that " looked like America " , and it was widely assumed that one of the major cabinet posts would go to a woman . In particular , he wanted to nominate one for the position of United States Attorney General , something women 's political action groups were also requesting . No woman had previously served in this post . His choice , whose nomination was announced on December 24 , 1992 , was Zoë Baird , a 40 @-@ year @-@ old senior vice president and general counsel at Aetna Life and Casualty Company who had previously worked in the Justice Department during the Carter administration .
Little known before the nomination ( Clinton had not met her until their interview ) , Baird was a skilled networker who had been the protégé of several powerful Washington insiders , including Clinton transition team leader Warren Christopher and once @-@ and @-@ future White House Counsel Lloyd Cutler . Picking Baird gave Clinton the ability to satisfy the women 's groups ' desires while still showing independence by not choosing one of their preferred selections . Despite the lack of familiarity and getting a lukewarm response from some Clinton backers – those in the legal public interest community said " Zoë who ? " and her corporate sympathies discouraged liberals – Baird was expected to gain confirmation in the U.S. Senate . Baird and her husband , Yale Law School professor Paul Gewirtz , had a three @-@ year @-@ old son .
On January 14 , 1993 , a page @-@ one story in The New York Times broke the news that Baird had hired a married pair of illegal aliens from Peru , Lillian and Victor Cordero , between 1990 and 1992 . The Peruvian woman served as the nanny for Baird 's son and the Peruvian man as a part @-@ time driver . Furthermore , Baird had not paid Social Security taxes for the couple , until making a lump @-@ sum payment earlier in January 1993 . Baird had brought forward this information willingly to transition officials and authorities performing background checks ; she said that she had thought that the fact that they were sponsoring the couple for citizenship made the hiring acceptable , and that they could not pay the taxes for people who were not yet in the country legally . ( Baird 's immigration lawyer would dispute some aspects of exactly when the sponsorship request took place . )
This was the first time a presidential cabinet nominee had faced such an issue . While the Clinton transition team had found out about the matter during their vetting of Baird , they had underestimated the seriousness of its impact . Their attitude about Baird 's infraction was that it was a technical violation and that ' Everybody does it ' . Clinton operatives initially thought the Baird revelation was no big deal and would quickly lose the attention of the media and public .
Employment of illegal aliens was not uncommon at the time , but in Baird 's case it was especially bad public relations , since the Attorney General was in charge of the Immigration and Naturalization Service ( INS ) . Baird 's wealth – she made $ 500 @,@ 000 a year in her job and together with her husband had a combined income of $ 600 @,@ 000 – made her , in the context of the early 1990s recession , an unsympathetic figure to not be paying taxes . Moreover , Baird and Gewirtz had been wealthy enough to afford legal child care , but instead had paid the Corderos $ 250 a week plus board , well below minimum wage . The news brought about an immediate and large @-@ scale negative reaction . As Guardian U.S. correspondent Martin Walker later wrote , " [ Baird and Gewirtz ] were the overpaid yuppies and ubiquitous lawyers whom American voters had come to resent . "
On January 16 , Baird paid $ 2 @,@ 900 in fines for the infractions to the INS . This was on top of the $ 8 @,@ 000 in back Social Security taxes she had paid earlier . George Stephanopoulos , the transition communications director , said that " President @-@ elect Clinton has complete confidence in Zoë Baird . "
Some in the Clinton inner circle persisted in believing that Baird 's offense was akin to a traffic ticket in seriousness , but Democratic senators told them otherwise ; Senate Judiciary Committee chair Joe Biden of Delaware likened it more to a " freeway crash . "
Baird met with Biden twice , both times leaving his office in tears , although Biden publicly stated that he did not think the matter would prevent her nomination . Baird actually had more immediate support from ranking member Orrin Hatch , who called it " no big deal . " This reflected a considerable degree of Republican support for Baird , as they decided she was more in tune with their stance on some issues than a replacement would likely be .
Appearing before the Judiciary Committee on January 19 , Baird apologized for having knowingly broken the law : " In my hope to find appropriate child care for my son , I gave too little emphasis to what was described to me as a technical violation of law . " She added that , " People are fairly questioning if there are classes of individuals who hold themselves above the law . I do not . " Baird 's statement that her husband had handled many of the legal issues surrounding the Corderos ' employment drew little support for her . Overall , the questioning of Baird was tougher from Democrats on the committee than Republicans , again reflecting the latter 's support for Baird . At the close of the initial testimony , Baird 's confirmation still seemed quite possible .
As the inauguration of Bill Clinton took place on January 20 , the nomination crisis was reaching its final phase , with Biden telling Clinton at a luncheon following the ceremony that the next day or two would be crucial . But political and public opposition continued to mount . Calls opposing the nomination flooded the switchboards of members of Congress . Senator David Boren of Oklahoma reported getting a thousand calls to his office , with 80 percent of them against the nomination . Senator Paul Simon of Illinois also received a thousand calls . Senator Patrick Leahy of Vermont said , " In 18 years in the Senate , I had never seen so many telephone calls , spontaneously , in such a short period . "
Television crews staked out the New Haven home of Baird . As one top Senate official later stated , " There were phone calls to offices , local editorials . The people were just way ahead of us . " The issue created a firestorm on conservative talk radio , then emerging as a potent force in American politics . Talker Rush Limbaugh was especially involved in the issue , for instance weighing in to say that Baird 's " blame @-@ it @-@ on @-@ the @-@ husband " defense was a " feminazi " ploy . A USA Today / CNN / Gallup poll showed that 63 percent of the American public did not think Baird should be confirmed ; the reaction was broad , with majorities of Republicans and Democrats , men and women , and young and old all opposing it .
Clinton faced a choice of either quickly jettisoning her , and risk appearing weak , or defiantly continuing to back her , and opposing a popular groundswell ; he opted to wait and see a little more . There was also much confusion about when exactly Clinton had learned of the Baird problem , with Christopher saying he had informed Clinton of it in some manner during the transition and Clinton saying he had not . This led to a " What did the President know and when did he know it " grilling of Stephanopoulos on January 21 during his first news conference as White House Communications Director . The treatment of Stephanopoulos got rough and his evasive answers bordered on nonsense .
A second round of Judiciary Committee hearings were also taking place on January 21 , and by then , Baird was politically isolated , with no major groups coming to her defense . A growing number of senators came out in opposition to Baird during the day , including two Republican members of the Judiciary Committee and influential centrist Democrats John Breaux of Louisiana and David Boren of Oklahoma . Baird gamely continued to smile and testify well into the evening , but as Stephanopoulos later wrote , " She didn 't know it yet , but she was toast . " Biden called Clinton and told him the nomination was lost .
On January 22 , 1993 , two days after Clinton had assumed the presidency , the White House announced in the middle of the night the withdrawal of Baird 's nomination .
Clinton now publicly stated that he had been informed of Baird 's hiring of the illegal aliens after discussing the position with her but before actually nominating her . He had not halted the process to gain all information but rather had erred by going through with the nomination in order to meet a self @-@ imposed Christmas deadline for naming his cabinet . On January 23 , Anna Quindlen used the term " Nannygate " in her syndicated column and it soon gained wide @-@ scale use .
While Lillian and Victor Cordero had done their jobs well ( before hiring them , Baird had made several attempts to employ U.S. citizens , but none had worked out ) , on January 22 the INS said it sought to question them and very likely deport them . The couple had previously separated and were about to be divorced . Lillian Cordero agreed to leave the country and return to Peru , under a 30 @-@ day " voluntary departure " program . Victor Cordero first went into hiding , hoping to stay in the country ; his lawyer said he had been in the wrong place at the wrong time and that , " He doesn 't understand why he 's being singled out . " But by January 29 , he too had voluntarily left the U.S. for Peru . Neither of them ever appeared in the media . Although illegal domestics were rarely deported unless they had been involved in crimes , the INS maintained that the couple were treated no differently than any other illegal aliens who were brought to their attention .
= = The Wood near @-@ nomination = =
On February 4 , 1993 , the Clinton White House made it known via deliberate background statements to several major newspapers that 49 @-@ year @-@ old United States federal judge Kimba Wood of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York would be his new choice for Attorney General . However , no official announcement or nomination was being made , pending the completion of background checks and to gauge reaction to the pick . White House officials indicated that First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton had insisted that the position still be filled by a woman . Wood , who was prominent in New York social circles , was married to Time magazine writer Michael Kramer and the couple had a six @-@ year @-@ old son .
However , later that day , investigations by the office of the White House Counsel and the FBI background check were completed , and Clinton and the White House learned that she had employed an illegal immigrant to look after her son , even though she had done it when it was still legal to do so . The immigrant , from Trinidad , had been hired in March 1986 , several months before enactment of the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 made hiring of illegal aliens unlawful . The nanny obtained legal status in December 1987 , and overall worked for Wood for seven years .
Clinton decided the nomination could not go forward , and the next day , February 5 , Wood publicly withdrew herself from consideration .
The case was different from the Baird one in that Wood had not broken immigration law and had paid Social Security taxes for the person . Nevertheless , the White House feared reaction from Congress and the public , as well as that from radio and television talk shows , in the apparent , if not actual , repetition of the Baird controversy , and asked Wood to withdraw . A further burden was the disclosure that while she was a student in London , Wood had trained for five days as a Playboy bunny . The White House was annoyed with Wood , because they said that when they had initially asked her if she had a " Zoë Baird problem , " she had responded in the negatory . Allies of Wood gave a starkly different account and said that she had been fully forthcoming about the details of her dealings with the immigrant . According to a Gallup Poll , 65 percent of the American public did not think Wood should have been forced down .
= = Other Clinton appointees = =
One of the few men to make the short list for the Attorney General selection , Washington lawyer Charles Ruff , was ruled out of consideration by the White House on February 6 , because he had not paid Social Security taxes for years for a woman who cleaned his house .
On February 8 , Stephanopoulos broadened the scope of the affair by announcing that the past hiring of an illegal alien would " probably be disqualifying " for applicants to any of the 1 @,@ 100 presidential appointments that were subject to confirmation by the Senate . As one White House official said , " If you ever knowingly hired an illegal alien , that 's a killer . If you hired someone who was legal but didn 't pay Social Security taxes , you 're probably O.K. , but only if you come clean and pay the back taxes . "
Several Clinton appointees then came forward . Secretary of Commerce Ron Brown said he had failed to pay the taxes for a maid . The Brown case attracted a fair amount of attention , with 40 percent of Americans thinking he should step down as a result ( he did not ) . Secretary of Transportation Federico Peña said he would pay back taxes owed for a part @-@ time babysitter . Other appointees said they had examined their records and were clean . Stephanopoulos himself came under attention , but said the cleaner he had hired was from a cleaning company . The matter resulted in a slowdown of hiring for all positions , in what Secretary of Defense Les Aspin called a " chilling effect " . One @-@ third of the nominations for the U.S. State Department were held up while being examined for the question .
Some other female Clinton cabinet @-@ level appointees escaped Nannygate by virtue of their personal circumstances . Secretary of Health and Human Services Donna Shalala was unmarried with no children , while Secretary of Energy Hazel O 'Leary and Ambassador to the United Nations Madeleine Albright had children that were grown . Carol Browner , Clinton 's pick for Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency and someone who did have a young child , avoided Nannygate problems by simply never having used a nanny .
= = The Reno nomination = =
On February 11 , 1993 , Janet Reno was nominated for the post . Clinton had known of her since her days with the groundbreaking Miami Drug Court , where as state attorney she had worked with public defender and Clinton brother @-@ in @-@ law Hugh Rodham , but otherwise although qualified for the job had no federal experience and was relatively obscure . Reno was 54 years old , had never married and had no children , and , as Clinton later wrote , " Public service was her life . " Without the chance of a nanny problem , and with her mowing her own lawn reducing the chances for an immigrant problem , Reno was the perfect choice after the Baird and Wood failures . In addition , Reno 's down @-@ to @-@ earth image contrasted with the wealthy corporate lawyer Baird and the socially prominent Wood . ( Reno would instead face something often experienced by unmarried woman of her age , speculation about her sexual orientation . )
In making the announcement , Clinton said that he had considered men for the post and that " I never felt hamstrung by any commitment , even though I did want to name a woman Attorney General . " When asked how he would have handled the selection were he to do it all over again , Clinton responded , " I would have called Janet Reno on November 5th . "
Reno was unanimously confirmed by the Senate on March 11 , 1993 , and thus became the first female Attorney General .
Reno remained Attorney General through both of Clinton 's terms as president . Wood remained a federal judge . While the ramifications of Nannygate persisted , Baird herself quickly returned to public obscurity . Clinton subsequently appointed Baird to the Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board , and in his 2004 memoir reiterated that the fault for the failed nomination had been his , not hers . Baird hired an American citizen to be her next nanny .
= = Political and cultural impact = =
The Nannygate matter did some damage to the Clinton administration politically . A cover of Time magazine , featuring a half @-@ portrait of Baird , was titled " Clinton 's First Blunder " and subtitled " How a popular outcry caught the Washington elite by surprise " . The Baird nomination was emblematic of other difficulties Clinton had during the transition period and his early days in office , including most prominently the dropping of a promised middle @-@ class tax cut and resistance to his proposal to allow gays in the military . Stephanopoulos later wrote that " We should have never let the Baird nomination get as far as it did , but our systems failed us at every crucial step . " And the timing of the announcement of the Wood withdrawal detracted attention from the signing of the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 , the first legislative achievement of the Clinton administration . While a Gallup Poll showed that only 22 percent of the public said that Clinton 's difficulties in naming someone for Attorney General decreased their confidence in his ability to lead the country , overall , Clinton experienced the highest disapproval ratings at the start of any presidency since such polling began . His " presidential honeymoon " period was thus extremely brief .
Clinton 's desire to appoint a woman to the post engendered some criticism for devaluing the position to an affirmative action post , and Stephanopoulos later conceded that " we put ourselves in a box " . The failure of the Baird and Wood picks , along with Lani Guinier 's failed nomination ( for unrelated reasons ) to Assistant Attorney General for Department of Justice Civil Rights Division a few months later , made Congressional Democrats cautious in endorsing future Clinton personnel choices . When federal judge Stephen Breyer was first considered for a U.S. Supreme Court vacancy in mid @-@ 1993 , he was not selected , in part because he too had a ' Zoë Baird problem ' ( he would be nominated and confirmed the following year , following another vacancy ) .
The Baird case became the first national scandal over child @-@ care arrangements , but the situation that these nominees faced was in part at least a common one to Americans . Two @-@ thirds of American women with school @-@ age children were in the workforce and three @-@ fifths of married men with children had working wives . They all needed some form of day care , and with there being no organized or subsidized day care system in the U.S. , many families turned to arrangements within the underground economy . That this administration ran into this problem was considered ironic , given that Bill and Hillary Clinton were the first dual @-@ career couple to occupy the White House .
Once the Nannygate matter broke into the news , the question " Do you have a Zoë Baird problem ? " became frequently asked by Americans of each other in casual conversation , with many answers being in the affirmative . U.S. Census Bureau and Internal Revenue Service data indicated that only one @-@ quarter of people who employed household help paid Social Security taxes to the workers , and that even figure may have been higher than the real one due to people not responding to surveys honestly . Most of those doing the hiring did not think about breaking the law or getting caught .
Meanwhile , Baird had graduated within a matter of hours from anonymity to dubious icon . One employment agency head who only hired legal household workers said , " You have no idea , the frustration , sitting here , knocking your head against the wall , trying to do what 's right . And then you have a Zoë Baird who exposes the fact that everybody else is breaking the law . " The phrase " to have a Zoë Baird problem " became rooted in the vocabulary of the American professional and political classes .
The matter exposed the practices of the barely underground economy of wealthy households and largely illegal immigrant suppliers . The owner of one Manhattan nanny agency stated , " It 's just a reality of life that without the illegal girls , there wouldn 't be any nannies , and the mommies would have to stay home and mind their own kids . " The practice had grown as both married women with children and single working mothers entered the workforce in large numbers during the 1980s , with the extended hours and long commutes of many professional positions further exacerbating it . The Irish and Central and South American immigrant population of domestic workers was augmented by those from the Philippines , China , Ireland , or Poland . People hiring nannies often preferred illegal aliens , who were thought to be easier to find , considerably less expensive , and more loyal if they worked out and easier to fire if they did not . As one Floral Park , Queens , woman said , " I want someone who cannot leave the country , who doesn 't know anyone in New York , who basically does not have a life . I want someone who is completely dependent on me and loyal to my family . " Americans themselves were largely unwilling to do the jobs .
While some men were affected by Nannygate , most of the public commentary revolved around its effect on women . The February 10 , 1993 , op @-@ ed page of The New York Times , which carried considerable Nannygate coverage in general , was exclusively devoted towards discussing it as a women 's issue . The press themselves came in for some criticism in this respect , with the group Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting complaining that the Times and other media outlets focused on the effect of Nannygate on white , upper @-@ middle @-@ class women , and excluded the perspective of the actual immigrant childcare workers . Stuart Taylor , Jr . , in his March 1993 piece " Inside the Whirlwind : How Zoë Baird Was Monstrously Caricatured for the Smallest of Sins , Pounded by Press and Popular Righteousness , and Crucified by Prejudice and Hypocrisy " for The American Lawyer , concluded that Baird was done in by a political @-@ media culture bent on populism and symbolic blood sport and that she was penalized for being honest . He also said Baird had fallen victim to " the cold , capricious cruelty of fate " .
Two fault lines , gender and class , were exposed in the debate over Nannygate : in the former , a double standard was seen wherein female appointees faced a greater risk of being questioned and disqualified based upon their childcare arrangements , while in the latter , wealthy or upper middle @-@ class professional women who could afford live @-@ in childcare arrangements were seen as trying to get away a white @-@ collar criminal act . In particular , the competing gendered narratives revolved around whether the affluent Baird was considered " one of us " by women . Baird failed to gain support from some feminists , who believed that as a protégé of powerful Washington insiders , she had not paid her feminist dues . University of Michigan scholar Diane Sampson , publishing in a collection entitled " Bad " Mothers : The politics of blame in twentieth @-@ century America , saw Baird as trying to establish motherhood as a ' site ' in elaborating her qualifications for Attorney General during her confirmation hearings , an effort that was subverted by her affluence and her earning far more than her husband did . Sampson concluded that " The dissonance between Baird 's rhetorical stance and her lived life was jarring " and that her case presented " culturally accepted signifiers of a bad mother " .
A modified and fictionalized account of the Baird nomination formed the core of Wendy Wasserstein 's 1996 play An American Daughter , which was later made into a 2000 television film . Wasserstein saw the episode , as well as what happened to Wood , as an example of double standards and sexism , and used it as a vehicle to explore the nature and status of American feminism as of the 1990s . She said of its role in illustrating feminist issues , " I mean , if Nannygate hadn 't existed , what a great thing to make up as a way of talking about it . " An American Daughter became one of Wasserstein 's most ambitious works , and also her most political .
Mary Romero , Professor of Justice Studies at Arizona State University , discussed the class aspect in a new 2002 edition of her classic work Maid in the U.S.A .. She saw Nannygate as a follow @-@ on to the long @-@ running " servant problem " , and illustrated how labor and immigration laws were still structured so as to benefit employers rather than employees . Taunya Lovell Banks , Professor of Equality Jurisprudence at University of Maryland School of Law , saw Nannygate as also having a racial dimension , in that it illustrated how the professional class exploited domestic workers of color .
In the wake of Nannygate , effective 1995 Congress changed the way taxes for household help are filed , creating a Form 1040 Schedule H that shifting the federal reporting burden from separate documents onto the main return for income taxes . ( The new regulations still were more focused on employers than domestic employees . ) The full procedure for handling payments of Social Security and Medicare taxes , as well as state and federal unemployment insurance premiums , for household and child @-@ care help remained quite complex , however , and over the following two decades , self @-@ help articles were published with titles such as " How to Avoid Your Very Own Nannygate " and " Time to Come Clean " and with admonitions like " we all know what happened to Kimba Wood and Zoë Baird . "
= = Later instances = =
Later instances of political problems caused by the hiring of nannies that were in some way illegal have also been dubbed " Nannygate " , both in the U.S. and outside it .
In 2001 , President George W. Bush nominated Linda Chavez for Secretary of Labor . She was the first Hispanic woman nominated to a United States cabinet position . However , she withdrew from consideration after it was revealed that she had given money to a one @-@ time illegal immigrant from Guatemala who lived in her home more than a decade earlier . Chavez 's claims that she had been engaged in an act of charity and compassion rather than employment , and that she was now the victim of the " politics of personal destruction " , were not enough to save her nomination . The Chavez case did further illustrate the question of the status of female illegal aliens in households across the nation .
In December 2004 , Bernard Kerik was nominated by President Bush to succeed Tom Ridge as United States Secretary of Homeland Security . After a week of press scrutiny , Kerik withdrew his nomination , saying that he had unknowingly hired an undocumented worker and had not paid her taxes . The Times wrote that " the curse of Nannygate " had returned to claim a fourth high @-@ level victim . As Jim Gibbons was campaigning for Governor of Nevada in 2006 , it was brought to light that more than ten years earlier , he and his wife Dawn Gibbons had employed an illegal immigrant as a housekeeper and babysitter . Gibbons went on to win the election anyway . By 2009 and the stepping down of Nancy Killefer as nominee for Chief Performance Officer of the United States at the beginning of the Obama administration , at least ten top @-@ level cabinet or other federal appointees had run into trouble over failure to pay the " Nanny Tax " . Despite the possible peril it brought , most Americans were still paying their nannies off the books . The problem recurred in the 2010 California gubernatorial election , where candidate Meg Whitman lost despite spending over $ 140 million of her own money . Her campaign was seriously damaged during its final two months by the revelation that she had employed an illegal immigrant as a nanny and housekeeper , and by the alleged manner in which she treated ( and fired ) the housekeeper .
David Blunkett , a British politician , ran into political trouble for fast tracking a visa application for his family 's nanny in 2004 . In 2006 , the Minister affair at the announcement of the Reinfeldt cabinet in Sweden included the quick resignations of Maria Borelius , a Swedish trade minister who had hired a live @-@ in nanny without paying taxes , and Cecilia Stegö Chilò , the Swedish culture minister , who also hired a live @-@ in nanny without paying taxes . The matter was widely reported by the international press , with the Financial Times dubbing it " Nannygate " . In 2009 , Canadian member of parliament Ruby Dhalla was accused of having employed nannies without proper work permits as required of anyone hiring foreign nationals under the federal caregiver program , and some newspaper headline writers dubbed the resulting controversy as " Nannygate " . The 2013 arrest of Devyani Khobragade , Deputy Consul General of the Consulate General of India in New York City , charged with committing visa fraud and providing false statements in order to gain entry to the United States for her nanny , was referred by some in the American press as " Nannygate " .
= Royal Gold Cup =
The Royal Gold Cup or Saint Agnes Cup is a solid gold covered cup lavishly decorated with enamel and pearls . It was made for the French royal family at the end of the 14th century , and later belonged to several English monarchs before spending nearly 300 years in Spain . It has been in the British Museum since 1892 , where it is normally on display in Room 40 , and is generally agreed to be the outstanding surviving example of late medieval French plate . It has been described as " the one surviving royal magnificence of the International Gothic age " ; and according to Thomas Hoving , former director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York , " of all the princely jewels and gold that have come down to us , this is the most spectacular — and that includes the great royal treasures . "
The cup is made of solid gold , stands 23 @.@ 6 cm ( 9 @.@ 25 inches ) high with a diameter of 17 @.@ 8 cm ( 6 @.@ 94 inches ) at its widest point , and weighs 1 @.@ 935 kg ( 4 @.@ 26 lb ) . It has a cover that lifts off , but the triangular stand on which it once stood is now lost . The stem of the cup has twice been extended by the addition of cylindrical bands , so that it was originally much shorter , giving the overall shape " a typically robust and stocky elegance . " The original decorated knop or finial on the cover has been lost , and a moulding decorated with 36 pearls has been removed from the outer edge of the cover ; a strip of gold with jagged edges can be seen where it was attached . Presumably it matched the one still in place round the foot of the cup .
The gold surfaces are decorated with scenes in basse @-@ taille enamel with translucent colours that reflect light from the gold beneath ; many areas of gold both underneath the enamel and in the background have engraved and pointillé decoration worked in the gold . In particular the decoration features large areas of translucent red , which have survived in excellent condition . This colour , known as rouge clair , was the most difficult to achieve technically , and highly prized for this and the brilliance of the colour when it was done successfully . Scenes from the life of Saint Agnes run round the top of the cover and the sloping underside of the main body . The symbols of the Four Evangelists run round the foot of the cup , and there are enamel medallions at the centre of the inside of both the cup and the cover . The lower of the two added bands contains enamel Tudor roses on a diapered pointillé background ; this was apparently added under Henry VIII . The upper band has an engraved inscription filled in with black enamel , with a barrier of laurel branches in green to mark off the end of the inscription from its beginning .
The cup came to the British Museum with a custom @-@ made hexagonal case of leather on a wood frame , with iron lock , handles and mounts . This was either made at the same time or soon after the cup , and has incised and stamped foliate decoration and a blackletter inscription : YHE.SUS.O.MARYA.O.MARYA YHE SUS .
= = Provenance = =
There is no firm evidence as to the date and circumstances of the creation of the cup . It is first clearly documented in an inventory from 1391 of the valuables belonging to Charles VI of France ( reigned 1380 – 1422 ) , surviving in two copies in the Bibliothèque nationale de France . This lists :
A hanap of gold , all its cover well and richly enamelled on the outside with the life of Madame St Agnes ; and the cresting of the foot is garnished with 26 pearls , and the crown around the cover with 36 pearls ; and the finial of the said cover ( is ) garnished with four sapphires , three balas rubies and fifteen pearls . And it weighs 9 marcs 3 ounces of gold. and the said hanap rests on a stand of gold in the form of a tripod , and in the middle of the tripod is represented Our Lady in a sun on a ground of clear red , and the three feet of the tripod are formed by three winged dragons . The said hanap and cover were given to the king by monseigneur the duc de Berry on his journey into Touraine in the year 91 .
John , Duke of Berry ( 1340 – 1416 ) was Charles VI 's uncle and a powerful figure in the kingdom , as well as the most famous and extravagant collector and commissioner of art of his day . He is still best known for commissioning the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry , the famous International Gothic illuminated manuscript , and also commissioned the Holy Thorn Reliquary , now in the British Museum . The young king Charles had been forced to remove his uncle from governorships after the latter 's rapacious conduct had led to unrest , and the meeting in 1391 marked their reconciliation after a period of bad relations . Lavish gifts among the Valois court circle were routine , and on this occasion Berry had special reason to be generous .
The cup appears in another inventory of Charles V in 1400 , and then is not recorded until it appears as the property of another royal uncle , and collector , John of Lancaster , 1st Duke of Bedford ( 1389 – 1435 ) , son of Henry IV , who was briefly Regent of both France and England for his infant nephew Henry VI . How he acquired the cup is not known , but he would have received many gifts from Charles VI , and had both lent the king money and bought from him things such as the library of the Palais du Louvre , in the uneasy period when Charles had made peace with the English and made Henry V his heir . After the death of his brother Henry V , Bedford struggled to stem the resurgent French resistance , which was energised by Joan of Arc . He died in Normandy in 1435 , leaving Henry VI as his heir . The cup is more briefly described as the first item in a list of valuables received from Bedford 's estate prepared for Henry VI 's minister Cardinal Henry Beaufort , but the tripod is not mentioned , some of the jewels are missing , and the subject is misidentified as the life of Saint Suzanna not Saint Agnes . For some reason it does not appear in a royal inventory of 1441 ; Jenny Stratford suggests that this was because Beaufort still had it at this point . Another possibility is that it had been pawned , as it was in 1449 and again in 1451 , on both occasions to finance England 's increasingly unsuccessful efforts to hold on to French territory ;
The cup first appears in the records of the new Tudor dynasty under Henry VIII in 1521 . By now the cover had lost the finial " garnished with four sapphires , three balas rubies and fifteen pearls " described in Charles VI 's inventory and had a new one of gold in the form of a closed , or " imperial " crown . This matches a propaganda drive at this time by Henry to assert England as an " empire " , a contemporary sense meaning a state recognising no superior , though the Great Seal of England had already used a closed crown since 1471 . Other uses had probably been found for the jewels of the old finial ; it is assumed that the lower band with the Tudor roses was added in Henry 's reign , as part of a programme of adding Tudor badges to possessions inherited from earlier dynasties , which covered tapestries , illuminated manuscripts and buildings such as King 's College Chapel in Cambridge . The cup is described in inventories in 1532 and after Henry 's death in 1547 , and then under Elizabeth I it was inventoried in 1574 and 1596 .
When James I succeeded to the English throne in 1603 , one of his first priorities was to end the Anglo @-@ Spanish War , which had been dragging on since 1585 . A Spanish delegation arrived for the Somerset House Conference , which concluded with a treaty signed in 1604 . The leader of the Habsburg diplomats was Juan Fernández de Velasco , 5th Duke of Frías and Constable of Castile . The upper extension to the stem of the cup has a Latin inscription that translates as :
This cup of solid gold , a relic of the sacred treasure of England and a memorial to the peace made between the kings , the Constable Juan de Velasco , returning thence after successfully accomplishing his mission , presented as an offering to Christ the Peacemaker .
The gift of " some 70 items of silver and gold plate " by James to the Constable , of which the cup was the most notable item , is documented on both the English and Spanish sides ; the Constable wrote an account of his mission on his return , which mentions the gift from James . The Constable had previously presented both James and the queen with elaborate cups , among other valuable gifts . According to Pauline Croft , " With his usual over @-@ generosity the king gave the departing envoys around half the large gold vessels from the royal possessions he had inherited from Elizabeth . The Constable himself received a stupendous gift of plate , including possibly the most venerable item in the collection , known as " the Royal Gold Cup of the Kings of France and England . " In 1610 the Constable gave the cup to a convent in Medina de Pomar , near Burgos , as the inscription describes . His deed of gift survives , and records that the gift was on condition that the cup was never alienated by the convent . A marginal note on the deed , in the Constable 's own handwriting , records that he had obtained the permission of the Archbishop of Toledo , Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas , for the cup to be used as a ciborium , or container for consecrated hosts . By this period a rule of the church normally forbade the use of vessels decorated on their inner surface as ciboria .
The cup stayed in the convent until 1882 when the nuns were short of funds and wanted to sell it . It was at some point during this period that the pearl border to the cover and the Tudor finial were removed . The nuns decided they would get a better price in Paris than in Spain , and the cup was entrusted to Simon Campo , a priest , who took it to Paris and approached several leading dealers and collectors . There had been a spate of forgeries of medieval objects , and the Parisians were suspicious , until one , Baron Jerome Pichon , researched the second added cylinder and was sufficiently convinced that this was the cup documented in 1604 to make a rather low offer , which was accepted . In the course of his researches the baron had contacted the current Duke of Frías , who had supplied useful information , and then initially congratulated the buyer on his purchase . However , on looking further into the matter the duke realized that the sale was contrary to the 1610 deed of gift he had discovered in the family archives , and sued in the French courts to recover the cup .
The duke eventually lost his case in 1891 , enabling a further sale that had been set up by Baron Pichon to proceed . This was to the leading firm of Messrs. Wertheimer of Bond Street in London , where the cup was seen by Augustus Wollaston Franks , who had been Keeper of British and Mediaeval Antiquities and Ethnography at the British Museum since 1866 , and was president of the Society of Antiquaries . Samson Wertheimer agreed " with much public spirit " to sell the cup to the British Museum for the £ 8 @,@ 000 ( £ 790 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) it had cost the firm . Franks was worried by the new American collectors such as J. P. Morgan , and in 1891 wrote to Sir Henry Tate , of Tate Gallery fame : " A very wonderful gold cup has appeared returned to this country after an absence of 287 years , and I am anxious to see it placed in the National Museum and not removed to America . " He tried to get wealthy individuals to subscribe £ 500 ( £ 49 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) each , but even with a grant of £ 2 @,@ 000 from HM Treasury could not raise the price . He was forced to put up £ 5 @,@ 000 of his own money temporarily while he continued to try to get smaller amounts from others , and succeeded in 1892 when the Treasury agreed to contribute the final £ 830 ; " to Franks this was his greatest acquisition , and the one of which he was most proud . " Apart from the Treasury , the £ 500 contributors were Franks and Wertheimer , the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths , Charles Drury Edward Fortnum , the Duke of Northumberland , Lord Savile , Lord Iveagh and the Earl of Crawford . In 1901 Morgan succeeded in buying the Lindau Gospels in London , which the museum had also wanted .
= = Creation , context and survival = =
Much the most prominent decoration on the cup is the cycle of scenes from the life of Saint Agnes , which is rarely depicted in such detail in art . However , there was one outstanding devotee of the saint in the period : King Charles V of France , Berry 's older brother and Charles VI 's father . Charles V was born in 1338 on Saint Agnes ' feast day , January 21 , and is recorded as owning at least 13 works of art featuring her , including a different gold cup enamelled with scenes from her life ( both are recorded in the 1391 inventory ) . Until recent decades the generally accepted hypothesis was that Berry ordered the cup as a present for his brother in 1380 , to be ready for his birthday in January 1381 . When the king died in September 1380 , Berry had retained it for a decade before presenting it to Charles VI .
However , in 1978 Ronald Lightbown , Keeper of Metalwork at the V & A Museum , rejected this theory on stylistic grounds , considering that the cup must have been created only shortly before it appeared in Charles VI 's inventory in 1391 . He says that " in 1380 figure @-@ style was a softly undulating , flowing style , with slender elongated figures and much use of serpentine or curving folds in the drapery , and with trailing dresses ending in sinuous Gothic hem @-@ lines " — a style that can be seen in the miniature of the coronation of Charles VI in 1380 illustrated above . In contrast , Lightbown says " the figures on the cup are broad , some might even be called stocky , with soft drapery of cylindrical form , or of smooth , tight outlines . The folds are tubular and the hems of the robes are straight with no waving , trailing outlines . The style in fact is the ' Italianate ' manner which developed in France as a result of contact with ' trecento ' art , and not the purely Northern Gothic International manner . " This view was rejected in 1981 by Neil Stratford , former Keeper of Medieval and Later Antiquities at the British Museum , who pointed to a number of manuscript illuminations in a similar style that date from earlier than 1390 . John Cherry , another former Keeper of the medieval collections at the British Museum , still presents the older dating in a work of 2010 , and the British Museum website dates the cup to " about 1370 – 1380 " .
Another traditional assumption , based on the language of the inventories and shared by almost all writers , was that the cup was a piece of secular plate , for use at table , or display on a buffet beside it . The buffet of the period was more like a modern Welsh dresser or shop display unit , with receding shelves for displaying on important occasions all the plate of the household that was not in use . Neil Stratford suggests that the cup was only used to drink from on special occasions , including St Agnes ' feast day , while Lightbown remarks that at over four pounds in weight the cup is much too heavy to drink from conveniently . However John Cherry , noting the exclusively religious subjects depicted ( including that on the lost tripod stand ) considers that the cup may have been intended as a ciborium from the start . It might have been used either to accompany in its carrying case the duke on his tours of his many castles and palaces , or perhaps for his foundation of the Saint Chapelle at his capital of Bourges , intended to rival the king 's Sainte @-@ Chapelle in Paris and his brother 's foundation at Champmol in Dijon .
The four sons of King John II of France — Charles V , Louis I , Duke of Anjou ( 1339 – 1384 ) , Berry and Philip the Bold , Duke of Burgundy ( 1342 – 1404 ) — all spent huge sums on works in gold and silver , as well as on other works of art . Although it is Berry who is especially remembered as a patron , partly because he specialized in illuminated manuscripts which have little value in their materials , it was his brother Louis of Anjou who was the " most passionately interested in the goldsmith 's art " ; he had over 3 @,@ 000 pieces of plate at one point . These included wholly secular pieces with sculptures in enamel that can only be imagined by comparison : in terms of technique to the handful of reliquaries , like the British Museum 's Holy Thorn Reliquary , that have survived from the period , and in terms of subject matter to tapestries and illuminations . However , in 1381 Anjou melted down almost all his plate to finance a war to pursue his claim to the Kingdom of Naples . According to the sculptor and goldsmith Lorenzo Ghiberti , writing seventy years later , one of Anjou 's goldsmiths , called Gusmin and " a most skillful sculptor , of great talent " , was so affected by the destruction of his life 's work that he joined an eremetic monastic order and lived out his days in silence . The Royal Gold Cup was " probably not exceptional as to size or decoration " in this milieu ; once " but one member of a class , it now stands alone " . An inventory of Charles V records 25 gold cups weighing between five and fifteen marcs ; this is slightly over nine without its stand . Smaller gold cups are recorded in sets of a dozen , of which Charles V had three . The largest items were the great table ornaments , in the shape of ships , called nefs , of which Charles V had five , the heaviest weighing over 53 marcs .
Berry died in 1416 with no male heir , and deeply in debt . Those of his works in precious metal and jewels that had not already gone to his creditors were mostly seized by the English when they took Paris in July 1417 . This was the first of a number of periods that saw the large @-@ scale destruction of goldsmiths ' work that the cup escaped , but thousands of other pieces did not , a survival that Brigitte Buettner finds " almost miraculous " . In particular , the move to Spain in 1604 enabled it to avoid the dispersal and destruction of the English Crown Jewels and royal collection of plate under the English Commonwealth .
As a secular piece the cup would be an almost unique survival at this level of quality , " the one representative left to us of medieval secular plate in its most sumptuous development " . Although French plate in silver and gold was made in great quantities , and at a high level of quality , " French silver made prior to the early 19th century is probably scarcer than that of any other European country . " The cost of even very skilled labour was low compared to that of the materials , and in the absence of any reliable way of either depositing or investing money , it was turned into lavish objects , in the knowledge that it might well need to be sold or melted down to finance some future project . If it survived long enough to become old @-@ fashioned it was likely to be melted down and remodelled in a new style .
There are only four other known survivals , secular or religious , of basse taille enamel on gold , one the small Salting Reliquary , also in the British Museum , and none as fine as the cup . The " King John Cup " in King 's Lynn , of ca . 1340 , silver @-@ gilt with transparent enamel , is the best example of basse @-@ taille work probably made in England ; the metalwork expert Herbert Maryon describes this and the Royal Gold Cup as the " two examples of outstanding merit , unsurpassed in any collection . " However it is unclear if most of the enamel at King 's Lynn is original . The closest comparison to the Royal Gold Cup is perhaps the silver @-@ gilt Mérode Cup of about 1400 , which is the only surviving medieval example of plique á jour enamel , a difficult technique which creates a see @-@ through effect like stained glass . A silver @-@ gilt cup in the Rijksmuseum , Amsterdam of before 1376 has no enamels or gems , and a different shape , but offers an interesting comparison as it has a tripod stand with winged grotesques as legs , a short stem , and the cover has both an elaborate finial and a raised decorated strip around the rim , so that all the altered aspects of the Royal Gold Cup are present .
= = Iconography = =
The cycle of scenes from the life of Saint Agnes , and that of her foster @-@ sister Saint Emerentiana , follows the traditional story of Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine ; the most popular compilation of hagiographies of the age , whose wording corresponds to some of the inscriptions in banderoles or scrolls that explain the scenes . Other texts are quotations from the Latin Vulgate Bible , mostly derived from the liturgy for St Agnes ' feast day , and it has been suggested that the two rings of pearls also reflect the language of the chants for these services . It seems likely that clerical advice was taken , at least over the texts used in the inscriptions . It is tempting to relate the depiction of the story , with its " distinct and vivid tableaux , well suited to adaptation for performance " to medieval drama , often a source for iconography , but the fragmentary records mention no dramas on the life of St Agnes that are close in time or place to the origin of the cup .
Agnes and her sister were virgins of Rome in the time of the Emperor Constantine , though all figures are shown in contemporary 14th @-@ century dress . The story begins on the inside of the bowl , which has a round medallion showing St Agnes kneeling before a bearded figure , representing her teacher , wearing a chaperon . She holds a book inscribed Miserere mei Deus sancte ( " Have pity on me , Holy God " ) , while a banderole says In corde meo abscondi eloquia tua ut non peccem tibi ( " Thy words have I hid in my heart that I might not sin against thee " . Psalms 119 : 11 ) . The top of the cover continues the story up to Agnes ' martyrdom in five scenes , shown with a continuous groundline from which small rocks rise up to demarcate the scenes ; on the base trees perform this function . Sunrays radiate from the centre of the cover above all the scenes ; the red enamel which once filled these is nearly all lost .
In the first scene the two girls are returning from school , Agnes accompanied by her punning attribute , a lamb with a cruciform halo , and carrying a martyr 's palm . They are accosted by Procopius , the young son of the Prefect of Rome , who has fallen in love with Agnes and shows her an open casket of jewels to persuade her to marry him . The inside of the casket is white , the only colour of opaque enamel in the original work , used only for a few highlights like the tiny area of the host held by Christ on the inside of the cover . Agnes rejects him , with the words Illi sum desponsata cui angeli serviunt ( " I am betrothed to him who the angels serve " ) in a banderole above . In the Caxton her rejection is unequivocal and not polite , and she points out that her heavenly fiancé has promised her much better jewels . The Prefect stands behind his son , and in the next scene has sentenced her to serve in a brothel for being a Christian who refuses to sacrifice to the goddess Vesta . Caxton 's Legend fills in the intervening action :
Then made she of the bordel her oratory , ... All they that entered made honour and reverence to the great clearness that they saw about St. Agnes , and came out more devout and more clean than they entered . At last came the son of the provost with a great company for to accomplish his foul desires and lusts . And when he saw his fellows come out and issue all abashed , he mocked them and called them cowards . And then he , all araged , entered for to accomplish his evil will . And when he came to the clearness , he advanced him for to take the virgin , and anon the devil took him by the throat and strangled him that he fell down dead .
In the next scene on the cup , Agnes stands outside the sentry box @-@ like brothel , looking down at the Prefect 's son who has been strangled to death by the devil crouched over him ; a banderole reads Quo modo cecidisti qui mane oriebaris ( " How has thou fallen that risest in the morning " , Isaiah 14 : 12 ) , and the Prefect looks on sadly .
In the following scene Agnes has been moved by the Prefect 's grief , and prayed for the son to be restored to life , which an angel has done . The repentant Procopius kneels before her , while she leans down to tell him Vade amplius noli peccare ( " Go forth and sin no more " ; from John 8 : 11 ) . However the result of the miracle was that ( in William Caxton 's translation ) " the bishops of the idols made a great discord among the people , so that all they cried : Take away this sorceress and witch that turned men 's minds and alieneth their wits " . The Prefect is now sympathetic to Agnes but fears he will lose his position if he does nothing , so leaves the matter in the hands of another official ; the two are seen talking together , with words from Luke 23 : 4 Nihil invenio cause in eam ( " I find no cause against her " ) above . The last scene shows her martyrdom ; she was sentenced to be burned but the flames part away from her so that finally the magistrate orders her killed by a spear . Her last words , from Luke 23 : 46 , are In manus tuas domine commendo animam meam ( " Into your hands , O Lord , I commend my spirit " ) .
The scenes continue on the underside of the bowl , starting with Agnes ' burial . A pall is being laid over her sarcophagus , whose red enamel has significant losses , which reveal clearly the engraved lines beneath . A tonsured priest with an aspergil for sprinkling holy water and an acolyte with a cross attend , with Emerentiana with halo to the left , and Agnes ' mother to the right . The banderole above says Ecce quod concupivi iam teneo ( " Behold what I have desired I now possess " ) . In the next scene pagans have arrived to disrupt the burial , and only Emerentiana has stayed , kneeling in prayer as she is pelted with rocks . The inscription reads Veni soror mea mecum in gloria ( " Come with me my sister into glory " ) . She dies , and the following scene shows the two martyrs , accompanied by two other unnamed female martyrs ( in the source " a great multitude of virgins clad in vestments of gold and silver " ) , as they appear in a vision to Agnes ' friends eight days after her death , as they gather round her sarcophagus , into which Emerentiana 's body has also been placed .
The next scene shows the sarcophagus with Constantina , the daughter of the Emperor Constantine , asleep on top of it , wearing a crown . She has been afflicted with leprosy , and heard of the vision at Agnes ' tomb , and come to pray there . The presence at left of a young man on crutches , not in the source , suggests that others are doing the same . The sleeping woman beside the tomb is either another such , or an attendant on the princess . As Constantina sleeps , Agnes , holding her lamb , appears to her , saying Si in xpm ( Christum ) credideris sanaberis ( " If you believe in Christ you will be healed " , an adaptation of the text in the source ) . In the final scene , the cured , and baptized , Constantina tells her crowned father the story , with the inscription Hec est virgo sapiens una de numero prudencium ( " This is a wise virgin , one of the number of the prudent " ) .
The inside of the cover has a circular enamel medallion with worked gold borders , showing a half @-@ length Christ making a blessing gesture and holding a chalice with a host inside . Around him is a sun @-@ like aureole in red . Below the two added cylinders on the stem , the four traditional symbols of the Evangelists run round the sloping foot of the cup , in pairs facing each other , above a green ground area . Lightbown notes this as " another sign of care for naturalistic effect " .
= = Construction and techniques = =
Each of the cover , main body , and foot of the cup is made of an inner and outer plate , and the enamelled medallions inside the cover and bowl were made separately before attachment . The enamel areas may have been designed by the goldsmith , or an artist more used to painting on panels or in manuscripts may have produced drawings . A number of names of goldsmiths appear in records of the period , but in contrast to many contemporary manuscripts , the few surviving goldsmith 's pieces are not signed or marked and cannot be matched to any names . Not a single maker 's name is recorded for the more than 3 @,@ 000 items in precious metal in the inventory mentioned above of the possessions of Berry 's brother Anjou . High quality courtly work like the cup is conventionally assigned to Paris in the absence of other stylistic evidence ; this is where other documentary sources locate the main concentration of goldsmiths .
The process for creating the basse @-@ taille enamel areas began by marking the outline of the design and the main internal outlines on the gold with a tool called a " tracer " . Then the interior area was worked with chasing tools , hammering and punching rather than cutting , to form a shallow recess to hold the enamel . The more important
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iful Joe won " Most Innovative Game Design " in Nintendo Power magazine 's 2003 Player 's Choice Awards . It won " GameCube Game of the Year " awards for 2003 from both USA Today and GMR . The game was nominated by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences for " Platform Action / Adventure Game of the Year " in 2003 and was nominated for three British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) Awards including " Best Design " , " Best Intro / Animation " , and " Best GameCube Game " . The game won " Unsung Hero Game of the Year " at the 2003 Golden Joystick Awards and " Best New Franchise " at the 2004 G @-@ Phoria awards . Finally , it was recognized at the 4th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards as one of three " Game Innovation Spotlights " .
Viewtiful Joe has been included in a number of " best games " lists in the years following its release . It was rated the 27th best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Games " list in February 2006 and the 10th best game on the GameCube in its August 2008 issue reflecting on the top 20 games for each system . Both GameSpy and the G4 television program X @-@ Play named Viewtiful Joe the ninth best game of all time for the GameCube . In 2007 , Viewtiful Joe was named the 17th best GameCube game of all time in IGN 's feature reflecting on the system 's long lifespan . Later in 2007 , ScrewAttack listed the game at seventh on their Top 10 GameCube Games of All Time .
Viewtiful Joe was successful enough to establish a franchise , and a few other related media titles were released . Viewtiful Joe was followed by a direct sequel titled Viewtiful Joe 2 — released for both the GameCube and PlayStation 2 — and two spinoffs : Viewtiful Joe : Red Hot Rumble for the PSP and GameCube and Viewtiful Joe : Double Trouble ! for the Nintendo DS . An anime adaption of the game was produced by Group TAC , airing on the Japanese television station TV Tokyo beginning in 2004 and being licensed for US distribution by Geneon Entertainment in 2005 . A set of Viewtiful Joe trading figures was released by Agatsuma Entertainment in October 2005 , while a series of action figures made by Jazwares was released in July 2006 .
In 2004 , Capcom registered the domain name ViewtifulJoe3.com , suggesting another sequel . Shortly thereafter , the website was devoid of content . In January 2006 , Atsushi Inaba expressed interest in developing a title in the series for the Wii . However , as none of Clover Studio 's games proved to be an outstanding financial success , Capcom officially dissolved the subsidiary in March 2007 after the release of its final two games , Ōkami and God Hand . Its key members left to form a new company called Platinum Games . Capcom producer Jun Takeuchi commented at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International that there have been currently no plans to continue with the series , although Viewtiful Joe has appeared as a playable character in Capcom 's 2008 Wii fighting game Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All Stars and is a playable character in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 .
However , in 2012 , Platinum Games announced the development of The Wonderful 101 , then known as Project P @-@ 100 . This was the first project that reunited Kamiya and Inaba as director and producer on a title since the development of the Viewtiful Joe series . Furthermore , The Wonderful 101 uses the same tokusatsu thematics of the Viewtiful Joe series , and the two share a similar art style albeit different gameplay . This has led fans to hail The Wonderful 101 as a spiritual successor of sorts . The franchise would also later be featured in Archie Comics ' Worlds Unite crossover with several other Capcom and Sega series , taking place in the Sonic the Hedgehog and Mega Man comics .
= Constitutional history of Zimbabwe =
The constitutional history of Zimbabwe starts with the arrival of white people to what was dubbed Southern Rhodesia in the 1890s . The country was initially run by an administrator appointed by the British South Africa Company . The prime ministerial role was first created in October 1923 , when the country achieved responsible government , with Sir Charles Coghlan as its first Premier . The third Premier , George Mitchell , renamed the post Prime Minister in 1933 .
The Rhodesian Prime Minister acted as Head of His or Her Majesty 's Rhodesian Government , under the largely symbolic supervision of a British colonial Governor , until Rhodesia issued its unrecognised Unilateral Declaration of Independence on 11 November 1965 . British @-@ appointed figures such as the Governor were thereafter ignored by Salisbury . The unrecognised state 's system of government , however , remained otherwise unchanged , right down to its declared loyalty to Elizabeth II , which Britain did not acknowledge . This situation remained until March 1970 , when Rhodesia adopted a republican system of government . In republican Rhodesia , the Prime Minister instead nominally reported to the President .
The Prime Minister was responsible for nominating the other members of the government , chairing meetings of the Rhodesian Cabinet , and deciding when to call a new general election for the House of Assembly . He retained this role following the reconstitution of Rhodesia under black majority rule , first into Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 , then into Zimbabwe the following year . The Zimbabwean government was headed by a Prime Minister from 1980 to 1987 , when that post was superseded by an executive presidency . The former Prime Minister , Robert Mugabe , became President ; as of 2015 he retains this post .
= = 1890 – 1923 : British South Africa Company rule = =
= = = Context = = =
Having secured the Rudd Concession on mining rights from King Lobengula of Matabeleland on 30 October 1888 , Cecil Rhodes and his British South Africa Company were granted a Royal Charter by Queen Victoria in October 1889 . Under this charter , the Company was empowered to trade with indigenous rulers , form banks , own and manage land , and raise and run a police force . In return for these rights , the British South Africa Company would administer and develop any territory it acquired , while respecting laws enacted by extant African rulers , and upholding free trade within its borders . Though the Company made good on most of these pledges , the assent of Lobengula and other native leaders , particularly regarding mining rights , was often evaded , misrepresented or simply ignored . Lobengula reacted by making war on the new arrivals , their Tswana allies and the local Mashona people in 1893 . The resulting conflict ended with Lobengula 's torching of his own capital at Bulawayo , his death from smallpox in early 1894 , and the subsequent submission of his izinDuna ( advisors ) to the Company . Violent rebellion to the north @-@ east , in neighbouring Mashonaland , was forcibly put down by the Company during 1897 .
Following these victories , the British South Africa Company controlled a country equivalent to modern Zambia and Zimbabwe . This domain was initially referred to as " Zambesia " ( or Zambezia ) after the Zambezi , which bisected it ; however , the first immigrants almost immediately began instead calling their new home " Rhodesia " in honour of their Company benefactor , and this name was officially adopted in 1895 . Matabeleland and Mashonaland , both of which lay south of the Zambezi , were first formally referred to by Britain as " Southern Rhodesia " in 1898 , and were united under that name in 1901 . The areas to the river 's north , Barotziland @-@ North @-@ Western Rhodesia and North @-@ Eastern Rhodesia , were governed separately , and amalgamated in 1911 to form Northern Rhodesia .
= = = Company administrators = = =
The head of the southern territories ' government during this time was in effect the Company 's regional administrator . The first of these was appointed in 1890 , soon after the Pioneer Column 's establishment of Fort Salisbury , the capital , on 12 September that year . From 1899 , the administrator governed as part of a ten @-@ man Legislative Council , originally made up of himself , five other members nominated by the Company , and four elected by registered voters . The number of elected members rose gradually under Company rule until they numbered 13 in 1920 , sitting alongside the administrator and six other Company officials in the 20 @-@ member Legislative Council . The Company 's Royal Charter , which originally ran out in October 1914 , was renewed for a further ten years in 1915 .
The post of national administrator was held by three people , with three others holding the post while it only covered Mashonaland ; between 1898 and 1901 , a separate office existed in Matabeleland .
= = = Frontier politics : towards responsible government = = =
Southern Rhodesians of all races fought for Britain in the First World War , during which the Responsible Government Association ( RGA ) was formed in 1917 . By 1919 , Sir Charles Coghlan , a South African @-@ born Bulawayo lawyer , had become the RGA 's leader . The RGA sought self @-@ government for Southern Rhodesia within the British Empire — the same " responsible government " previously granted to Britain 's colonies in Australia , Canada , New Zealand and South Africa as a precursor to full dominion status — and opposed Southern Rhodesia 's proposed integration into the recently formed Union of South Africa . The accession of territories governed by the British South Africa Company was explicitly provisioned for by Section 150 of the South Africa Act 1909 , the British Act of Parliament which created the union in 1910 by consolidating the Empire 's Cape , Natal , Orange River and Transvaal Colonies into a unitary dominion . The Company originally stood against Southern Rhodesia 's addition , fearing the territory 's potential domination by Afrikaners , but changed its tune dramatically when , in 1918 , the Privy Council in London ruled that unalienated land in the Rhodesias was owned not by the Company but by the Crown .
The loss of the ability to raise funds through the sale of land hampered the Company 's ability to pay dividends to its shareholders , and caused its development of Southern Rhodesia to slow . Believing that membership in the union could help solve both problems , the Company now backed Southern Rhodesia 's incorporation as South Africa 's fifth province . However , this prospect proved largely unpopular among Southern Rhodesian settlers , most of whom wanted self @-@ government , and came to vote for the RGA in large numbers . In the 1920 Legislative Council election , the RGA won ten of the 13 seats contested . A referendum on the colony 's future was held on 27 October 1922 — at the suggestion of Winston Churchill , then Britain 's Colonial Secretary , continuing the initiative of his preprocessor Viscount Milner — and responsible government won the day by 59 % . Southern Rhodesia was duly annexed by the Empire on 12 September 1923 , and granted full self @-@ government on 1 October the same year . The new Southern Rhodesian government immediately purchased the land from the British Treasury for £ 2 million , and ten years later paid the same sum to the British South Africa Company for the country 's mineral rights .
= = 1923 – 1965 : colonial Prime Ministers = =
= = = Responsible government ; early years ( 1923 – 53 ) = = =
The RGA reorganised itself to become the governing Rhodesia Party , with Coghlan as Southern Rhodesia 's first Premier . The title was changed to Prime Minister in 1933 by George Mitchell , the third man to hold the office . In 1932 , the Southern Rhodesian leader was first invited to an Imperial Conference . Although Southern Rhodesia was not a dominion , it was seen elsewhere in the Empire as a sui generis case among Britain 's colonies , and worthy of inclusion , particularly as it was the only one which governed itself . Southern Rhodesian Prime Ministers thereafter became a regular fixture at such meetings and , from 1944 , at Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conferences .
The Rhodesia Party remained in power until September 1933 , when , despite narrowly topping the popular vote , it lost the month 's election , winning only nine of the 30 seats compared to the Reform Party 's 16 . Although the Reform Party was left @-@ wing in name , many of its leading members , including the new Prime Minister Dr Godfrey Huggins , were politically conservative ; the more rightist members of the party merged with the Rhodesia Party in 1934 to form the United Party , and , with Huggins at the helm , roundly defeated the rump left wing of the Reform Party to begin 28 years of uninterrupted stewardship .
Though uninvolved in foreign affairs , and therefore obliged to follow Britain 's lead , the colony enthusiastically supported the mother country during the Second World War , symbolically affirming the British declaration of war before any other part of the Empire . During the ensuing conflict over 26 @,@ 100 Southern Rhodesians of all races served in the armed forces , pro rata to white population a higher contribution of manpower than any other British colony or dominion , and more than the UK itself . George VI knighted Huggins in 1941 , and , with the war still ongoing , Britain made overtures towards dominion status . Huggins dismissed this , saying it was imperative to win the war first . The idea of dominionship was raised again in 1952 , but Salisbury once more did not pursue it , instead following the results of a referendum held early the next April to enter an initially semi @-@ independent Federation with the directly administered British colonies of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland .
= = = As a territory in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland ( 1953 – 63 ) = = =
A month after Southern Rhodesia , Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland formed the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in August 1953 , Huggins became the amalgamated body 's first Prime Minister . Salisbury was designated the Federal capital , and the United Party renamed itself the United Rhodesia Party . Garfield Todd took over as Southern Rhodesia 's Prime Minister . Huggins headed the Federal government for three years , then retired in November 1956 after a combined 23 years as a national leader . The United Rhodesia Party merged with the Federal Party to become the United Federal Party ( UFP ) in November 1957 , and the liberal Todd was voted out of office by the more right @-@ wing members of his party four months later , in February 1958 . He was replaced by Sir Edgar Whitehead . Todd led his own version of the United Rhodesia Party against the UFP and the Dominion Party in June the same year , but failed to win a single seat — the UFP won 17 of the 30 seats , with the Dominion Party taking the remainder .
Whitehead served as Prime Minister for the next four years , under Federal leader Roy Welensky , as black nationalist ambitions and changing international attitudes propelled the Federation towards collapse . In Southern Rhodesia , constitutional changes adopted in 1961 as the result of a referendum split the heretofore non @-@ racial ( though qualified ) electoral roll into graduated " A " and " B " rolls ; the latter had lower qualifications , and was intended to cater for prospective black voters who had previously not qualified .
This plan was given assent by the Southern Rhodesian and British governments , and initially enjoyed support from black nationalists in the country , though the latter soon reversed their stance , saying the changes did not go far enough . Some government members opposed this partitioning of the electorate , which essentially divided it along ethnic lines ; the UFP 's chief whip in the Federal assembly , Ian Smith , resigned in protest , saying the new system was " racialist " . Former Dominion Party leader Winston Field formed the pro @-@ independence Rhodesian Front ( RF ) in 1962 to contest that November 's Southern Rhodesian election , with Smith running as his deputy , and in a shock result won 35 of the 50 territorial " A " -roll seats . Field and Smith became Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister respectively , and remained in office after the Federation 's dissolution on the last day of 1963 .
= = = From Federation to UDI ( 1964 – 65 ) = = =
After the Federation broke up on 31 December 1963 , Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland became independent during 1964 , respectively renamed Zambia and Malawi , and under black majority governments . Southern Rhodesia was denied the same under the ideal of " no independence before majority rule " that was newly ascendant in Britain and elsewhere . The RF was enraged by what it saw as British duplicity ; according to Field and Smith , Britain 's Deputy Prime Minister and First Secretary of State R. A. Butler had verbally promised " independence no later than , if not before , the other two territories " at a meeting in 1963 , in return for Salisbury 's help in winding up the Federation . Butler denied having said this .
Under severe pressure from his ministers to resolve this issue , Field travelled to England in March 1964 to pursue sovereign statehood , but returned empty @-@ handed a month later . He resigned his position on 13 April ; this came as no surprise to many government insiders , but appeared sudden to most sections of the general public . Smith promptly accepted the cabinet 's invitation to take over , though he expressed surprise at the nomination . A farmer and erstwhile British Royal Air Force pilot from the rural town of Selukwe , Smith was Southern Rhodesia 's first native @-@ born head of government . He immediately promised to take a harder line on independence than his predecessor .
Only two months into his premiership , Smith was deeply offended when Whitehall informed him that , for the first time since 1930 , Southern Rhodesia would not be represented at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conference . Huggins described this in 1969 as tantamount to " kicking [ Southern Rhodesia ] out of the Commonwealth " . When Northern Rhodesia became Zambia on 24 October 1964 , Southern Rhodesia dropped " Southern " from its name , and initiated legislation to this effect . Britain refused assent two months later , saying that although the colony was self @-@ governing , it did not have the power to rename itself . Salisbury continued using the shortened name anyway .
The Rhodesian government , which remained predominantly white , contended that it had almost complete support from all races in its drive for full statehood ; in October 1964 , a national indaba ( tribal conference ) comprising 622 black representatives unanimously backed independence under the 1961 constitution , and a month later a general independence referendum yielded an 89 % " yes " vote for the same . Harold Wilson 's British Labour Cabinet did not give credence to either of these tests of opinion , and continued to insist on an immediate shift to majority rule before the granting of sovereign independence . Campaigning on an election promise of independence , the RF called a new general election for May 1965 , and won all 50 " A " -roll seats .
Negotiations between Smith and Wilson took place throughout the rest of the year , but repeatedly broke down ; between July and September , a parallel development concerned Rhodesia 's opening of a representative mission in Lisbon , which Britain opposed , but proved unable to stop . Soon after Smith visited London in October 1965 , Wilson resolved to curb his rival 's ambitions . During his own visit to Salisbury later that month , he proposed to safeguard future black representation in the Rhodesian parliament by withdrawing control over the Rhodesian parliamentary structure to London . Salisbury had held these powers since 1923 . This proved the last straw for Smith 's Rhodesian government , which issued the Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI ) on 11 November .
= = 1965 – 80 : UDI era = =
= = = Unrecognised state ( 1965 – 79 ) = = =
The Rhodesians modelled their independence document on that of the American Thirteen Colonies in 1776 , which remains the only other such proclamation in the history of the British Empire . According to UDI — which went unrecognised by Britain , the Commonwealth and the United Nations , all of which declared it illegal and imposed economic sanctions — the Rhodesian government still professed loyalty to Elizabeth II , whom it called the " Queen of Rhodesia " . The British @-@ appointed Governor , Sir Humphrey Gibbs , remained at his post in Salisbury , but was now ignored by the local government , which appointed its own " Officer Administrating the Government " to fill his ceremonial role . Smith represented Rhodesia in two abortive rounds of talks with Wilson , first aboard HMS Tiger in 1966 , then on HMS Fearless two years later . Under Rhodesia 's 1965 constitution , the Prime Minister remained at the head of Her Majesty 's Rhodesian Government until 2 March 1970 , when a republican constitution was adopted in line with the results of a referendum held the previous June . In the Republic of Rhodesia , the Prime Minister formally reported to the President .
Smith and the RF decisively won three more general elections during the 1970s . The Anglo @-@ Rhodesian Agreement of 1971 – 72 , which would have legitimised the country 's independence in Britain 's eyes , fell apart after a British test of Rhodesian national opinion reported most blacks to be against it . The Rhodesian Bush War , fought against the government by the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) and the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) , the respective guerrilla armies of the Maoist Zimbabwe African National Union ( ZANU ) and its Warsaw Pact @-@ aligned Marxist rival , the Zimbabwe African People 's Union ( ZAPU ) , intensified soon after , starting with ZANLA 's attack on Altena and Whistlefield Farms in the country 's north @-@ east in December 1972 . After a strong security force counter @-@ campaign , the South African détente initiative of December 1974 introduced a ceasefire , which the security forces respected , and the guerrillas ignored . This shifted the course of the war significantly in the nationalists ' favour .
Mozambican independence under a communist government in 1975 further assisted the cadres , and exacerbated the Rhodesian government 's economic dependency on South Africa . Unproductive talks between Smith and the guerrilla leaders took place at Victoria Falls in 1975 , then in Geneva the following year . In March 1978 , the Internal Settlement was agreed between the government and moderate nationalist parties , the most prominent of which was Bishop Abel Muzorewa 's United African National Council ( UANC ) . The militant nationalist campaigns continued , however , and indeed extended to attacks on civilian aircraft : ZAPU shot down Air Rhodesia Flight 825 in September 1978 , then Air Rhodesia Flight 827 in February 1979 . ZANU and ZAPU boycotted the elections held per the Internal Settlement in April 1979 , which UN Security Council Resolution 448 called " sham elections ... [ held ] in utter defiance of the United Nations " . In these elections , the UANC won a majority in the new House of Assembly , with 51 of the 72 common roll seats ( for which universal suffrage applied ) and 67 % of the popular vote . The RF took all 20 of the seats elected by white voters and also provided eight non @-@ constituency members . All of this settled , Rhodesia became black majority @-@ ruled Zimbabwe Rhodesia on 1 June 1979 , with Muzorewa replacing Smith as Prime Minister .
= = = Internal Settlement ; interim British control ( 1979 – 80 ) = = =
With Muzorewa and the UANC in government , Zimbabwe Rhodesia failed to gain international acceptance . ZANU leader Robert Mugabe publicly damned Muzorewa 's new order , dismissing the bishop as a " neocolonial puppet " ; he pledged to continue ZANLA 's campaign " to the last man " . Muzorewa took office at the head of a UANC – RF coalition cabinet made up of 12 blacks and five whites . " Instead of the enemy wearing a white skin , he will soon wear a black skin , " said Mugabe , just before the bishop took over . The Bush War went on until December 1979 , when Salisbury , Whitehall and the revolutionary nationalists signed the Lancaster House Agreement in London . Zimbabwe Rhodesia came under the temporary control of Britain , and a Commonwealth monitoring force was convened to supervise fresh elections , in which ZANU and ZAPU would take part for the first time . ZANU won , and , with Mugabe as Prime Minister , formed the first government of Zimbabwe following its recognised independence on 18 April 1980 .
= = Since 1980 : Zimbabwe = =
= = = Prime Minister and ceremonial President ( 1980 – 87 ) = = =
Seven years into Mugabe 's premiership , Zimbabwe scrapped the white seats amid sweeping constitutional reforms in September 1987 . The office of Prime Minister was abolished in October ; Mugabe became the country 's first executive President two months later . Mugabe and the ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo signed a unity accord at the same time merging ZAPU into ZANU – PF with the stated goal of a Marxist – Leninist one @-@ party state .
= = = Executive President ( since 1987 ) = = =
= National Intercollegiate Band =
The National Intercollegiate Band ( NIB ) is a concert band , sponsored by honorary band fraternity and sorority Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma , that performs every two years at the national convention of the two organizations . Organized in 1947 , the NIB is the oldest national intercollegiate band in the United States , and is open to all collegiate band members regardless of membership in Kappa Kappa Psi or Tau Beta Sigma .
Since 1953 , the National Intercollegiate Band has been the resident ensemble of Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma 's Commissioning Program , which has added thirty new works to the band repertoire since its inception and is the longest @-@ running commissioning program for wind band music in the United States .
The National Intercollegiate Band has performed under the baton of some of the most renowned wind band conductors in the history of the ensemble , including William Revelli , Frederick Fennell , James Croft , and others , several of whom have been honored as inductees into the National Band Association Hall of Fame of Distinguished Band Conductors .
= = History = =
= = = Early steps , 1922 – 1947 = = =
In 1922 , Kappa Kappa Psi announced its plan to hold the first national intercollegiate band contest in American history . A brief dispatch in the 1922 Baton explained , " Sometime within the next two years the Kappa Kappa Psi Fraternity will hold a National Intercollegiate Band Contest . This enterprise will be the first of its kind ever attempted . As Music ( sic ) is becoming the foremost Art in America , our Fraternity aims to assist in so spreading the good work . " This early announcement did not culminate in a contest , and the idea of a national intercollegiate band was not revisited again by Kappa Kappa Psi until the 1940s .
In the meantime , the first Kappa Kappa Psi @-@ sponsored intercollegiate band was established by F. Lee Bowling in 1933 , with musicians from the University of Colorado ( home of the Alpha Iota chapter of Kappa Kappa Psi ) , the University of Denver ( Alpha Lambda ) , Colorado State College of Agricultural and Mechanical Arts ( Kappa ) , Colorado State College of Education ( Alpha Theta ) , the Colorado School of Mines ( Xi ) , and the University of Utah participating . In 1934 , the University of Utah left the intercollegiate band and the University of Wyoming ( Alpha Nu ) took its place . The concerts held by this Rocky Mountain Intercollegiate Band were sponsored by the local chapters of Kappa Kappa Psi and many members of the fraternity participated in the ensemble . The first concert of the Rocky Mountain Intercollegiate Band was held in February 1933 , and the band gave annual concerts during Denver Music Week . Bowling left the band 's managership in 1937 .
= = = National Intercollegiate Band established , 1947 = = =
Bowling was elected Grand President of Kappa Kappa Psi in 1941 and presented a plan to hold a national intercollegiate band concert , modeled after the Rocky Mountain intercollegiate bands . The delegation endorsed the plan , which was to be executed at the next biennial national convention in Stillwater in 1943 , the silver jubilee of the fraternity . However , due to World War II , the 1943 and 1945 national conventions were not held , and so the next biennial convention was held in 1947 . The first National Intercollegiate Band gave a concert on the evening of Friday , March 7 , 1947 . All delegates , officers , and visitors to the convention performed in the ensemble , which was augmented by Kappa Kappa Psi members from the Oklahoma A & M Symphonic Band so the band had a balanced instrumentation .
Grand First Vice @-@ President William A. Scroggs , founder of the fraternity , conducted the band in their first piece , Semper Fidelis . Max A. Mitchell , Grand Second Vice @-@ President , conducted Leonard Smith 's Spanish Caprice , a piece for band and solo cornet . Bohumil Makovsky , Past Grand President and Chairman of the Board of Trustees , conducted his march , Kappa Kappa Psi , and F. Lee Bowling conducted J. DeForest Cline 's Kappa Kappa Psi march . The 1947 NIB was recognized as the first @-@ ever intercollegiate band assembled with a national scope in the United States . Since 1947 , the fraternity has presented the F. Lee Bowling Participation Award to the college or university who has had the most students participate in the National Intercollegiate Band , regardless of membership in Kappa Kappa Psi or Tau Beta Sigma . In the case of a tie , multiple awards are presented .
The 1957 National Intercollegiate Band performed in the Salt Lake Tabernacle in Salt Lake City on August 24 , 1957 , under the direction of Lieutenant Colonel William F. Santelmann , retired director of the United States Marine Band . The band comprised 112 musicians from Utah , Florida , Maryland , Colorado , Ohio , Texas , Indiana , and New Mexico , and premiered Robert Russell Bennett 's new work Symphonic Songs for Band .
In 1969 , the fiftieth anniversary of Kappa Kappa Psi , there were enough performers to create two bands . The National Intercollegiate Symphonic Band , the top ensemble , was conducted by Norman Dello Joio and premiered his new work , Songs of Abelard . The Symphonic Band also performed several other Dello Joio works , including Scenes from the Louvre , Variants on a Mediaeval Tune , and Fantasies on a Theme by Haydn . The National Intercollegiate Concert Band was conducted by Past Grand President Jay L. Slaughter , and performed Makovksy 's Kappa Kappa Psi march and several other works .
= = = National Intercollegiate Marching Band , 2002 = = =
In June and July 2002 , Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma sponsored the first National Intercollegiate Marching Band , which traveled to the French Riviera , including the cities of Nice , Grasse , Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , Cannes , Antibes , and the Principality of Monaco . The thirty @-@ five member band , directed by Past National President Dr. Michael Golemo , performed at Le Suquet in Cannes , in Nice , and in front of the Prince 's Palace of Monaco . Despite being billed as the " first biennial " intercollegiate marching band , the program was dissolved by the joint national councils after the inaugural trip due to its high cost and low attendance , which was believed to be caused by a fear of traveling abroad after the September 11 attacks .
= = Guest artists = =
= = = Featured composer = = =
In 1953 , Kappa Kappa Psi Grand President Hugh McMillen began the Commissioning Program to add new music to the band repertoire , beginning with a $ 500 commission of Don Gillis , who provided Ballet for Band for the NIB . The Commissioning Program is now the longest @-@ running commissioning program for wind band music in American history , and has produced works that have secured a place in the emerging band canon and have garnered critical acclaim , such as Robert Russell Bennett 's Symphonic Songs for Band and Karel Husa 's Concerto for Trumpet and Wind Orchestra .
= = = Guest conductors = = =
= = = Guest performers = = =
In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the National Intercollegiate Band featured professional guest artists as soloists with the band . Two of these , T. N. Retif and Raymond Crisara , were featured soloists in that year 's commissioned piece : Retif on Dello Joio 's Songs of Abelard and Crisara on Karel Husa 's Concerto for Trumpet and Wind Orchestra .
Sigurd Raschèr , saxophone ( 1967 )
Leonard B. Smith , cornet ( 1969 )
T. N. Retif , baritone voice ( 1969 )
John D. Mohler , clarinet ( 1971 )
Raymond Crisara , trumpet ( 1973 )
= Hurricane Lily ( 1971 ) =
Hurricane Lily was a short @-@ lived Category 1 hurricane of August 1971 that devastated the city of Puerto Vallarta in Mexico . Forming from an area of cloudiness associated with former Atlantic Tropical Storm Chloe , the storm slowly intensified , building to peak intensity just before landfall northwest of Manzanillo , Colima on August 31 . The hurricane quickly weakened and became extratropical . After leaving land , the extratropical remnants of Lily dissipated on September 1 . The storm 's movement close to land affected shipping due to the limited warning , which was partially set back due to difficulties in clarifying the hurricane 's position on radar from reconnaissance aircraft .
The hurricane was Puerto Vallarta 's worst in two decades and the second hurricane of the season to heavily impact Mexico after Hurricane Bridget . The storm caused the Cuale River to overflow its banks , inundating the downtown section of Puerto Vallarta with water that was up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) deep in some sections . The Mexican army flew in aid after trucks were blocked by flooded roads . The hurricane claimed three lives on the mainland and nine lives when a boat capsized .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 25 , Tropical Storm Chloe made landfall on British Honduras ( present day Belize ) as a tropical depression . After dissipating , the remnants of the storm crossed into the Pacific Ocean , where they contributed to an area of shower activity that persisted over the Gulf of Tehuantepec . On August 28 , the tropical activity organized around a circulation which quickly developed into a tropical depression the same day . The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm on August 29 based on satellite presentation that depicted significant cirrus outflow and a comma – shaped cloud mass spanning 2 ° of latitude in diameter and was subsequently named Lily .
Following its upgrade to tropical storm intensity , Lily began developing a spiral cloud structure and heavy anticyclonic outflow on August 30 and was upgraded to a hurricane the same day . During its intensification , United States Air Force reconnaissance tried to fly into the hurricane , but penetration was rendered impossible due to the cumulonimbus clouds in the spiral bands , causing the aircraft to rely on radar readings , which showed an eye 40 miles ( 65 km ) in diameter . Following the flight , the hurricane turned to the north @-@ northwestward towards the Mexican coast . On August 31 , a ship called the Turrialba reported a 980 @-@ millibar ( 29 inHg ) sea – level pressure while in the eye of the hurricane . Shortly after the report , the hurricane peaked in intensity with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) just prior to landfall 30 miles ( 50 km ) northwest of Manzanillo . The cyclone quickly weakened overland , and after only six hours over land , its winds weakened to only 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) , a decline of 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) and the cyclone became extratropical . The now – extratropical Lily continued to cross the Mexican coast , and shortly after emerging over water on September 1 , the cyclone dissipated .
= = Impact = =
The north @-@ northwestward track Lily took off the Mexican coast was not well @-@ forecast due in part to difficulties in interpreting the radar data from the reconnaissance flight . As a result , many ships got caught in hurricane @-@ force winds and high seas while trying to cross between it and the coastline . The Turrialba also reported that many exhausted tropical birds were taken aboard the ship while in the eye . The ship had to maneuver in order to avoid hitting other ships in the area . Another boat with twelve people aboard capsized off a beach near Puerto Vallarta while weathering wind gusts of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) from the hurricane . Nine aboard the ship were reported dead as a result , but four others were able to swim back to shore .
The hurricane was the worst to strike Puerto Vallarta in 20 years . 5 @,@ 000 people were evacuated due to the hurricane with an addition 500 people on vacation becoming stranded inside their hotels . At least 600 evacuees sought refuge in a customs house , with an additional 1000 more evacuating to an airport terminal . More evacuees sought shelter in schools and the city hall . Four major rivers , including the Cuale River , which flows into the city , overflowed their banks , inundating the city along with several neighboring communities . Some areas of downtown Puerto Vallarta were submerged in depths of up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) due to the flooding . Telephone lines in the city were suspended and highways were rendered impassable by the floods . One person died during a house collapse in the city and two others drowned . Another source reported five deaths from house collapses , although the post @-@ season report regards only three deaths in association with Lily in Mexico . The hurricane also passed over the nearby town of Barra de Navidad , where the residents took refuge inside the church of San Antonio . A local legend states that during the hurricane , the arms of Jesus Christ on the church 's crucifix broke and hung down . The moment the arms broke , the hurricane 's effects in the town stopped . The figure has since been known as the Christ of the Cyclone .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Relief efforts following the hurricane were mostly affected by the associated flooding . Trucks transporting food and medicine from the Jalisco state government were forced to turn back because of flooded roads . The army then decided on an aerial transport . This effort was hampered because , after three federal helicopters and Air Force planes touched down at the local airport , the road into the city was still flooded , meaning the aid could not be distributed .
Lily 's effects in Puerto Vallarta made it the second hurricane of the season to be declared the worst hurricane to strike a specific city in twenty or more years . The first was Hurricane Bridget , which struck Acapulco . Despite the damage , the name was not retired and was reused in 1975 , but due to a change in names lists in 1978 , the name Lily has not been used since .
= Fidel Castro =
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz ( American Spanish : [ fiˈðel aleˈxandɾo ˈkastɾo ˈrus ] audio ; born August 13 , 1926 ) , commonly known as Fidel Castro , is a Cuban politician and revolutionary who governed the Republic of Cuba as Prime Minister from 1959 to 1976 and then as President from 1976 to 2008 . Politically a Marxist – Leninist and Cuban nationalist , he also served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1961 until 2011 . Under his administration Cuba became a one @-@ party communist state ; industry and business were nationalized , and state socialist reforms implemented throughout society .
Born in Birán as the son of a wealthy farmer , Castro adopted leftist anti @-@ imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana . After participating in rebellions against right @-@ wing governments in the Dominican Republic and Colombia , he planned the overthrow of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista , launching a failed attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953 . After a year 's imprisonment , he traveled to Mexico where he formed a revolutionary group , the 26th of July Movement , with his brother Raúl Castro and Che Guevara . Returning to Cuba , Castro took a key role in the Cuban Revolution by leading the Movement in a guerrilla war against Batista 's forces from the Sierra Maestra . After Batista 's overthrow in 1959 , Castro assumed military and political power as Cuba 's Prime Minister . The United States was alarmed by Castro 's friendly relations with the Soviet Union , and unsuccessfully attempted to remove him by assassination , economic blockade , and counter @-@ revolution , including the Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961 . Countering these threats , Castro formed an alliance with the Soviets and allowed them to place nuclear weapons on the island , sparking the Cuban Missile Crisis – a defining incident of the Cold War – in 1962 .
Adopting a Marxist @-@ Leninist model of development , Castro converted Cuba into a one @-@ party socialist state under Communist Party rule , the first in the Western hemisphere . Reforms introducing central economic planning and expanding healthcare and education were accompanied by state control of the press and the suppression of internal dissent . Abroad , Castro supported anti @-@ imperialist revolutionary groups , backing the establishment of Marxist governments in Chile , Nicaragua , and Grenada , and sending troops to aid allies in the Yom Kippur War , Ethio @-@ Somali War , and Angolan Civil War . These actions , coupled with Castro 's leadership of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement from 1979 – 83 and Cuba 's medical internationalism , increased Cuba 's profile on the world stage and earned its leader great respect in the developing world . Following the Soviet Union 's dissolution in 1991 , Castro led Cuba into its " Special Period " and embraced environmentalist and anti @-@ globalization ideas . In the 2000s he forged alliances in the Latin American Pink Tide – namely with Hugo Chávez 's Venezuela – and signed Cuba to the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas . In 2006 he transferred his responsibilities to Vice @-@ President Raúl Castro , who formally assumed the presidency in 2008 .
Castro is a controversial and divisive world figure . He is decorated with various international awards , and his supporters laud him as a champion of socialism , anti @-@ imperialism , and humanitarianism , whose revolutionary regime secured Cuba 's independence from American imperialism . Conversely , critics view him as a totalitarian dictator whose administration oversaw multiple human @-@ rights abuses , an exodus of more than one million Cubans , and the impoverishment of the country 's economy . Through his actions and his writings he has significantly influenced the politics of various individuals and groups across the world .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth : 1926 – 47 = = =
Castro was born out of wedlock at his father 's farm on August 13 , 1926 . His father , Ángel Castro y Argiz , was a migrant to Cuba from Galicia , Northwest Spain . He had become financially successful by growing sugar cane at Las Manacas farm in Birán , Oriente Province , and after the collapse of his first marriage , he took his household servant , Lina Ruz González - also of Spanish origin , as his mistress and later on second wife ; together they had seven children , among them Fidel . Aged six , Castro was sent to live with his teacher in Santiago de Cuba , before being baptized into the Roman Catholic Church aged eight . Being baptized enabled Castro to attend the La Salle boarding school in Santiago , where he regularly misbehaved , and so was sent to the privately funded , Jesuit @-@ run Dolores School in Santiago . In 1945 he transferred to the more prestigious Jesuit @-@ run El Colegio de Belén in Havana . Although Castro took an interest in history , geography and debating at Belén , he did not excel academically , instead devoting much of his time to playing sport .
In 1945 , Castro began studying law at the University of Havana . Admitting he was " politically illiterate " , he became embroiled in student activism , and the violent gangsterismo culture within the university . Passionate about anti @-@ imperialism and opposing U.S. intervention in the Caribbean , he unsuccessfully campaigned for the presidency of the Federation of University Students on a platform of " honesty , decency and justice " . Castro became critical of the corruption and violence of President Ramón Grau 's government , delivering a public speech on the subject in November 1946 that received coverage on the front page of several newspapers .
In 1947 , Castro joined the Party of the Cuban People ( Partido Ortodoxo ) , founded by veteran politician Eduardo Chibás . A charismatic figure , Chibás advocated social justice , honest government , and political freedom , while his party exposed corruption and demanded reform . Though Chibás lost the election , Castro remained committed to working on his behalf . Student violence escalated after Grau employed gang leaders as police officers , and Castro soon received a death threat urging him to leave the university ; refusing , he began carrying a gun and surrounding himself with armed friends . In later years anti @-@ Castro dissidents accused him of committing gang @-@ related assassinations at the time , but these remain unproven .
= = = Rebellion and Marxism : 1947 – 50 = = =
In June 1947 , Castro learned of a planned expedition to invade the Dominican Republic and overthrow the right @-@ wing military junta of Rafael Trujillo , a U.S. ally . Being President of the University Committee for Democracy in the Dominican Republic , Castro joined the expedition . The invasion force consisted of around 1 @,@ 200 troops , mostly Cubans and exiled Dominicans , and they intended to sail from Cuba in July 1947 . However , under U.S. pressure , Grau 's government stopped the invasion , although Castro and many of his comrades evaded arrest . Returning to Havana , Castro took a leading role in student protests against the killing of a high school pupil by government bodyguards . The protests , accompanied by a crackdown on those considered communists , led to violent clashes between activists and police in February 1948 , in which Castro was badly beaten . At this point his public speeches took on a distinctly leftist slant by condemning social and economic inequality in Cuba . In contrast , his former public criticisms had centered on condemning corruption and U.S. imperialism .
In April 1948 , Castro traveled to Bogotá , Colombia , with a Cuban student group sponsored by President Juan Perón 's Argentine government . There , the assassination of popular leftist leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán Ayala led to widespread rioting and clashes between the governing Conservatives – backed by the army – and leftist Liberals . Castro joined the Liberal cause by stealing guns from a police station , but subsequent police investigations concluded that he had not been involved in any killings . Returning to Cuba , Castro became a prominent figure in protests against government attempts to raise bus fares . That year , he married Mirta Díaz Balart , a student from a wealthy family through whom he was exposed to the lifestyle of the Cuban elite . The relationship was a love match , disapproved of by both families , but Mirta 's father gave them tens of thousands of dollars to spend on a three @-@ month New York City honeymoon .
That same year , Grau decided not to stand for re @-@ election , which was instead won by his Partido Auténtico 's new candidate , Carlos Prío Socarrás . Prío faced widespread protests when members of the MSR , now allied to the police force , assassinated Justo Fuentes , a socialist friend of Castro 's . In response , Prío agreed to quell the gangs , but found them too powerful to control . Castro had moved further to the left , influenced by the Marxist writings of Karl Marx , Friedrich Engels , and Vladimir Lenin . He came to interpret Cuba 's problems as an integral part of capitalist society , or the " dictatorship of the bourgeoisie " , rather than the failings of corrupt politicians , and adopted the Marxist view that meaningful political change could only be brought about by proletariat revolution . Visiting Havana 's poorest neighborhoods , he became active in the student anti @-@ racist campaign .
In September 1949 , Mirta gave birth to a son , Fidelito , so the couple moved to a larger Havana flat . Castro continued to put himself at risk , staying active in the city ’ s politics and joining the September 30 Movement , which contained within it both communists and members of the Partido Ortodoxo . The group ’ s purpose was to oppose the influence of the violent gangs within the university ; despite his promises , Prío had failed to control the situation , instead offering many of their senior members jobs in government ministries . Castro volunteered to deliver a speech for the Movement on November 13 , exposing the government ’ s secret deals with the gangs and identifying key members . Attracting the attention of the national press , the speech angered the gangs , and Castro fled into hiding , first in the countryside and then in the U.S. Returning to Havana several weeks later , Castro lay low and focused on his university studies , graduating as a Doctor of Law in September 1950 .
= = = Career in law and politics : 1950 – 52 = = =
Castro co @-@ founded a legal partnership that primarily catered for poor Cubans , although it proved a financial failure . Caring little for money or material goods , Castro failed to pay his bills ; his furniture was repossessed and electricity cut off , distressing his wife . He took part in a high @-@ school protest in Cienfuegos in November 1950 , fighting with police in protest at the Education Ministry 's ban on student associations ; arrested and charged for violent conduct , the magistrate dismissed the charges . His hopes for Cuba still centered on Chibás and the Partido Ortodoxo , and he was present at Chibás ' politically motivated suicide in 1951 . Seeing himself as Chibás ' heir , Castro wanted to run for Congress in the June 1952 elections , though senior Ortodoxo members feared his radical reputation and refused to nominate him . Instead he was nominated as a candidate for the House of Representatives by party members in Havana 's poorest districts , and began campaigning . The Ortodoxo had considerable support and was predicted to do well in the election .
During his campaign , Castro met with General Fulgencio Batista , the former president who had returned to politics with the Unitary Action Party ; although both opposing Prío 's administration , their meeting never got beyond polite generalities . In March 1952 , Batista seized power in a military coup , with Prío fleeing to Mexico . Declaring himself president , Batista cancelled the planned presidential elections , describing his new system as " disciplined democracy " : Castro , like many others , considered it a one @-@ man dictatorship . Batista moved to the right , solidifying ties with both the wealthy elite and the United States , severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union , suppressing trade unions and persecuting Cuban socialist groups . Intent on opposing Batista , Castro brought several legal cases against the government , but these came to nothing , and Castro began thinking of alternate ways to oust the regime .
= = Cuban Revolution = =
= = = The Movement and the Moncada Barracks attack : 1952 – 53 = = =
Castro formed a group called " The Movement " which operated along a clandestine cell system , publishing underground newspaper El Acusador ( The Accuser ) , while arming and training anti @-@ Batista recruits . From July 1952 they went on a recruitment drive , gaining around 1 @,@ 200 members in a year , the majority from Havana 's poorer districts . Although a revolutionary socialist , Castro avoided an alliance with the communist PSP , fearing it would frighten away political moderates , but kept in contact with PSP members like his brother Raúl . Castro stockpiled weapons for a planned attack on the Moncada Barracks , a military garrison outside Santiago de Cuba , Oriente . Castro 's militants intended to dress in army uniforms and arrive at the base on July 25 , seizing control and raiding the armory before reinforcements arrived . Supplied with new weaponry , Castro intended to spark a revolution among Oriente 's impoverished cane cutters and promote further uprisings . Castro 's plan emulated those of the 19th century Cuban independence fighters who had raided Spanish barracks ; Castro saw himself as the heir to independence leader José Martí .
Castro gathered 165 revolutionaries for the mission , ordering his troops not to cause bloodshed unless they met armed resistance . The attack took place on July 26 , 1953 , but ran into trouble ; 3 of the 16 cars that had set out from Santiago failed to get there . Reaching the barracks , the alarm was raised , with most of the rebels pinned down by machine gun fire . 4 were killed before Castro ordered a retreat . The rebels suffered 6 fatalities and 15 other casualties , whilst the army suffered 19 dead and 27 wounded . Meanwhile , some rebels took over a civilian hospital ; subsequently stormed by government soldiers , the rebels were rounded up , tortured and 22 were executed without trial . Accompanied by 19 comrades , Castro set out for Gran Piedra in the rugged Sierra Maestra mountains several miles to the north , where they could establish a guerrilla base . Responding to the attack , Batista 's government proclaimed martial law , ordering a violent crackdown on dissent , and imposing strict media censorship . The government broadcast misinformation about the event , claiming that the rebels were communists who had killed hospital patients , although news and photographs of the army 's use of torture and summary executions in Oriente soon spread , causing widespread public and some governmental disapproval .
Over the following days , the rebels were rounded up ; some were executed and others – including Castro – transported to a prison north of Santiago . Believing Castro incapable of planning the attack alone , the government accused Ortodoxo and PSP politicians of involvement , putting 122 defendants on trial on September 21 at the Palace of Justice , Santiago . Acting as his own defense counsel , Castro cited Martí as the intellectual author of the attack and convinced the 3 judges to overrule the army 's decision to keep all defendants handcuffed in court , proceeding to argue that the charge with which they were accused – of " organizing an uprising of armed persons against the Constitutional Powers of the State " – was incorrect , for they had risen up against Batista , who had seized power in an unconstitutional manner . The trial embarrassed the army by revealing that they had tortured suspects , after which they tried unsuccessfully to prevent Castro from testifying any further , claiming he was too ill . The trial ended on October 5 , with the acquittal of most defendants ; 55 were sentenced to prison terms of between 7 months and 13 years . Castro was sentenced on October 16 , during which he delivered a speech that would be printed under the title of History Will Absolve Me . Castro was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment in the hospital wing of the Model Prison ( Presidio Modelo ) , a relatively comfortable and modern institution on the Isla de Pinos .
= = = Imprisonment and the 26th of July Movement : 1953 – 55 = = =
Imprisoned with 25 comrades , Castro renamed his group the " 26th of July Movement " ( MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 ) in memory of the Moncada attack 's date , and formed a school for prisoners . He read widely , enjoying the works of Marx , Lenin , and Martí but also reading books by Freud , Kant , Shakespeare , Munthe , Maugham and Dostoyevsky , analyzing them within a Marxist framework . Corresponding with supporters , he maintained control over the Movement and organized the publication of History Will Absolve Me . Initially permitted a relative amount of freedom within the prison , he was locked up in solitary confinement after inmates sang anti @-@ Batista songs on a visit by the President in February 1954 . Meanwhile , Castro 's wife Mirta gained employment in the Ministry of the Interior , something he discovered through a radio announcement . Appalled , he raged that he would rather die " a thousand times " than " suffer impotently from such an insult " . Both Fidel and Mirta initiated divorce proceedings , with Mirta taking custody of their son Fidelito ; this angered Castro , who did not want his son growing up in a bourgeois environment .
In 1954 , Batista 's government held presidential elections , but no politician stood against him ; the election was widely considered fraudulent . It had allowed some political opposition to be voiced , and Castro 's supporters had agitated for an amnesty for the Moncada incident 's perpetrators . Some politicians suggested an amnesty would be good publicity , and the Congress and Batista agreed . Backed by the U.S. and major corporations , Batista believed Castro to be no threat , and on May 15 , 1955 , the prisoners were released . Returning to Havana , Castro gave radio interviews and press conferences ; the government closely monitored him , curtailing his activities . Now divorced , Castro had sexual affairs with two female supporters , Naty Revuelta and Maria Laborde , each conceiving him a child . Setting about strengthening the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , he established an 11 @-@ person National Directorate but retained autocratic control , with some dissenters labeling him a caudillo ( dictator ) ; he argued that a successful revolution could not be run by committee and required a strong leader .
In 1955 , bombings and violent demonstrations led to a crackdown on dissent , with Castro and Raúl fleeing the country to evade arrest . Castro sent a letter to the press , declaring that he was " leaving Cuba because all doors of peaceful struggle have been closed to me ... As a follower of Martí , I believe the hour has come to take our rights and not beg for them , to fight instead of pleading for them . " The Castros and several comrades traveled to Mexico , where Raúl befriended an Argentine doctor and Marxist @-@ Leninist named Ernesto " Che " Guevara . Fidel liked him , later describing him as " a more advanced revolutionary than I was . " Castro also associated with the Spaniard Alberto Bayo , who agreed to teach Castro 's rebels the necessary skills in guerrilla warfare . Requiring funding , Castro toured the U.S. in search of wealthy sympathizers , there being monitored by Batista 's agents , who allegedly orchestrated a failed assassination attempt against him . Castro kept in contact with the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 in Cuba , where they had gained a large support base in Oriente . Other militant anti @-@ Batista groups had sprung up , primarily from the student movement ; most notable was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil ( DRE ) , founded by José Antonio Echevarría . Antonio met with Castro in Mexico City , but Castro opposed the student 's support for indiscriminate assassination .
After purchasing the decrepit yacht Granma , on November 25 , 1956 Castro set sail from Tuxpan , Veracruz , with 81 armed revolutionaries . The 1 @,@ 200 mile crossing to Cuba was harsh , with food running low and many suffering seasickness . At some points , they had to bail water caused by a leak , and at another , a man fell overboard , delaying their journey . The plan had been for the crossing to take 5 days , and on the Granma ’ s scheduled day of arrival , November 30 , MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members under Frank Pais led an armed uprising in Santiago and Manzanillo . However , the Granma 's journey ultimately lasted 7 days , and with Castro and his men unable to provide reinforcements , Pais and his militants dispersed after two days of intermittent attacks .
= = = Guerrilla war : 1956 – 59 = = =
The Granma ran aground in a mangrove swamp at Playa Las Coloradas , close to Los Cayuelos , on December 2 , 1956 . Fleeing inland , its crew headed for the forested mountain range of Oriente 's Sierra Maestra , being repeatedly attacked by Batista 's troops . Upon arrival , Castro discovered that only 19 rebels had made it to their destination , the rest having been killed or captured . Setting up an encampment , the survivors included the Castros , Che Guevara , and Camilo Cienfuegos . They began launching raids on small army posts to obtain weaponry , and in January 1957 they overran the outpost at La Plata , treating any soldiers that they wounded but executing Chicho Osorio , the local mayoral ( land company overseer ) , who was despised by the local peasants and who boasted of killing one of Castro 's rebels . Osorio 's execution aided the rebels in gaining the trust of locals , although they largely remained unenthusiastic and suspicious of the revolutionaries . As trust grew , some locals joined the rebels , although most new recruits came from urban areas . With volunteers boosting the rebel forces to over 200 , in July 1957 Castro divided his army into three columns , commanded by himself , his brother , and Guevara . The MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members operating in urban areas continued agitation , sending supplies to Castro , and on February 16 , 1957 he met with other senior members to discuss tactics ; here he met Celia Sánchez , who would become a close friend .
Across Cuba , anti @-@ Batista groups carried out bombings and sabotage ; police responded with mass arrests , torture , and extrajudicial executions . In March 1957 , the DR launched a failed attack on the presidential palace , during which Antonio was shot dead . Frank País was also killed , leaving Castro the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 's unchallenged leader . Although Guevara and Raúl were well known for their Marxist @-@ Leninist views , Castro hid his , hoping to gain the support of less radical revolutionaries . In 1957 he met with leading members of the Partido Ortodoxo , Raúl Chibás and Felipe Pazos , authoring the Sierra Maestra Manifesto , in which they demanded that a provisional civilian government be set up to implement moderate agrarian reform , industrialization , and a literacy campaign before holding multiparty elections . As Cuba 's press was censored , Castro contacted foreign media to spread his message ; he became a celebrity after being interviewed by Herbert Matthews , a journalist from the New York Times . Reporters from CBS and Paris Match soon followed .
Castro 's guerrillas increased their attacks on military outposts , forcing the government to withdraw from the Sierra Maestra region , and by spring 1958 , the rebels controlled a hospital , schools , a printing press , slaughterhouse , land @-@ mine factory and a cigar @-@ making factory . By 1958 , Batista was under increasing pressure , a result of his military failures coupled with increasing domestic and foreign criticism surrounding his administration 's press censorship , torture , and extrajudicial executions . Influenced by anti @-@ Batista sentiment among their citizens , the U.S. government ceased supplying him with weaponry . The opposition called a general strike , accompanied by armed attacks from the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 . Beginning on April 9 , it received strong support in central and eastern Cuba , but little elsewhere .
Batista responded with an all @-@ out @-@ attack , Operation Verano , in which the army aerially bombarded forested areas and villages suspected of aiding the militants , while 10 @,@ 000 soldiers commanded by General Eulogio Cantillo surrounded the Sierra Maestra , driving north to the rebel encampments . Despite their numerical and technological superiority , the army had no experience with guerrilla warfare , and Castro halted their offensive using land mines and ambushes . Many of Batista 's soldiers defected to Castro 's rebels , who also benefited from local popular support . In the summer , the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 went on the offensive , pushing the army out of the mountains , with Castro using his columns in a pincer movement to surround the main army concentration in Santiago . By November , Castro 's forces controlled most of Oriente and Las Villas , and divided Cuba in two by closing major roads and rail lines , severely disadvantaging Batista .
Fearing Castro was a socialist , the U.S. instructed Cantillo to oust Batista . Cantillo secretly agreed to a ceasefire with Castro , promising that Batista would be tried as a war criminal , however Batista was warned , and fled into exile with over US $ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on December 31 , 1958 . Cantillo entered Havana 's Presidential Palace , proclaimed the Supreme Court judge Carlos Piedra to be President , and began appointing the new government . Furious , Castro ended the ceasefire , and ordered Cantillo 's arrest by sympathetic figures in the army . Accompanying celebrations at news of Batista 's downfall on January 1 , 1959 , Castro ordered the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 to prevent widespread looting and vandalism . Cienfuegos and Guevara led their columns into Havana on January 2 , while Castro entered Santiago and gave a speech invoking the wars of independence . Heading toward Havana , he greeted cheering crowds at every town , giving press conferences and interviews .
= = = Provisional government : 1959 = = =
At Castro 's command , the politically moderate lawyer Manuel Urrutia Lleó was proclaimed provisional president , with Castro erroneously announcing he had been selected by " popular election " ; most of Urrutia 's cabinet were MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members . Entering Havana , Castro proclaimed himself Representative of the Rebel Armed Forces of the Presidency , setting up home and office in the penthouse of the Havana Hilton Hotel . Castro exercised a great deal of influence over Urrutia 's regime , which was now ruling by decree . He ensured that the government implemented policies to cut corruption and fight illiteracy and that it attempted to remove Batistanos from positions of power by dismissing Congress and barring all those elected in the rigged elections of 1954 and 1958 from future office . He then pushed Urrutia to issue a temporary ban on political parties ; he repeatedly said that they would eventually hold multiparty elections . Although repeatedly denying that he was a communist to the press , he began clandestinely meeting members of the Popular Socialist Party to discuss the creation of a socialist state .
In suppressing the revolution , Batista 's government had killed thousands of Cubans ; at the time , Castro and influential sectors of the press put the death toll at 20 @,@ 000 , although more recent estimates place it between 1000 and 4000 . In response to popular uproar , which demanded that those responsible be brought to justice , Castro helped set up many trials , resulting in hundreds of executions . Although widely popular domestically , critics – in particular the U.S. press – argued that many were not fair trials . Castro responded that " revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts , but on
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383 private @-@ run businesses on October 14 , and on October 25 a further 166 U.S. companies operating in Cuba had their premises seized and nationalized . On December 16 , the U.S. ended its import quota of Cuban sugar , the country 's primary export .
In September 1960 , Castro flew to New York City for the General Assembly of the United Nations . Staying at the Hotel Theresa in Harlem , he met with journalists and anti @-@ establishment figures like Malcolm X. He also met Soviet Premier Nikita Khruschev , with the two publicly condemning the poverty and racism faced by Americans in areas like Harlem . Relations between Castro and Khrushchev were warm ; they led the applause to one another 's speeches at the General Assembly . Subsequently visited by Polish First Secretary Władysław Gomułka , Bulgarian Chairman Todor Zhivkov , Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and Indian Premier Jawaharlal Nehru , Castro also received an evening 's reception from the Fair Play for Cuba Committee .
Back in Cuba , Castro feared a U.S.-backed coup ; in 1959 his regime spent $ 120 million on Soviet , French , and Belgian weaponry and by early 1960 had doubled the size of Cuba 's armed forces . Fearing counter @-@ revolutionary elements in the army , the government created a People 's Militia to arm citizens favorable to the revolution , training at least 50 @,@ 000 civilians in combat techniques . In September 1960 , they created the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution ( CDR ) , a nationwide civilian organization which implemented neighborhood spying to detect counter @-@ revolutionary activities as well as organizing health and education campaigns , becoming a conduit for public complaints . By 1970 , a third of the population would be involved in the CDR , and this would come to rise to 80 % . Castro proclaimed the new administration a direct democracy , in which Cubans could assemble at demonstrations to express their democratic will . As a result , he rejected the need for elections , claiming that representative democratic systems served the interests of socio @-@ economic elites . U.S. Secretary of State Christian Herter announced that Cuba was adopting the Soviet model of rule , with a one @-@ party state , government control of trade unions , suppression of civil liberties , and the absence of freedom of speech and press .
= = = Bay of Pigs Invasion and " Socialist Cuba " : 1961 – 62 = = =
In January 1961 , Castro ordered Havana 's U.S. Embassy to reduce its 300 staff , suspecting many to be spies . The U.S. responded by ending diplomatic relations , and increasing CIA funding for exiled dissidents ; these militants began attacking ships trading with Cuba , and bombed factories , shops , and sugar mills . Both Eisenhower and his successor John F. Kennedy supported a CIA plan to aid a dissident militia , the Democratic Revolutionary Front , to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro ; the plan resulted in the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961 . On April 15 , CIA @-@ supplied B @-@ 26 's bombed 3 Cuban military airfields ; the U.S. announced that the perpetrators were defecting Cuban air force pilots , but Castro exposed these claims as false flag misinformation . Fearing invasion , he ordered the arrest of between 20 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 suspected counter @-@ revolutionaries , publicly proclaiming that " What the imperialists cannot forgive us , is that we have made a Socialist revolution under their noses " , his first announcement that the government was socialist .
The CIA and Democratic Revolutionary Front had based a 1 @,@ 400 @-@ strong army , Brigade 2506 , in Nicaragua . In the night from April 16 to 17 , Brigade 2506 landed along Cuba 's Bay of Pigs , and engaged in a firefight with a local revolutionary militia . Castro ordered Captain José Ramón Fernández to launch the counter @-@ offensive , before taking personal control himself . After bombing the invaders ' ships and bringing in reinforcements , Castro forced the Brigade 's surrender on April 20 . He ordered the 1189 captured rebels to be interrogated by a panel of journalists on live television , personally taking over questioning on April 25 . 14 were put on trial for crimes allegedly committed before the revolution , while the others were returned to the U.S. in exchange for medicine and food valued at U.S. $ 25 million . Castro 's victory was a powerful symbol across Latin America , but it also increased internal opposition primarily among the middle @-@ class Cubans who had been detained in the run @-@ up to the invasion . Although most were freed within a few days , many fled to the U.S. , establishing themselves in Florida .
Consolidating " Socialist Cuba " , Castro united the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , Popular Socialist Party and Revolutionary Directorate into a governing party based on the Leninist principle of democratic centralism : the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations ( Organizaciones Revolucionarias Integradas - ORI ) , renamed the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution ( PURSC ) in 1962 . Although the USSR was hesitant regarding Castro 's embrace of socialism , relations with the Soviets deepened . Castro sent Fidelito for a Moscow schooling , Soviet technicians arrived on the island , and Castro was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize . In December 1961 , Castro admitted that he had been a Marxist @-@ Leninist for years , and in his Second Declaration of Havana he called on Latin America to rise up in revolution . In response , the U.S. successfully pushed the Organization of American States to expel Cuba ; the Soviets privately reprimanded Castro for recklessness , although he received praise from China . Despite their ideological affinity with China , in the Sino @-@ Soviet Split , Cuba allied with the wealthier Soviets , who offered economic and military aid .
The ORI began shaping Cuba using the Soviet model , persecuting political opponents and perceived social deviants such as prostitutes and homosexuals ; Castro considered same @-@ sex sexual activity a bourgeois trait . Gay men were forced into the Military Units to Aid Production ( Unidades Militares de Ayuda a la Producción - UMAP ) ; after many revolutionary intellectuals decried this move , the UMAP camps were closed in 1967 , although gay men continued to be imprisoned . In 2010 , Castro took responsibility for this persecution , regretting it as a " great injustice " . By 1962 , Cuba 's economy was in steep decline , a result of poor economic management and low productivity coupled with the U.S. trade embargo . Food shortages led to rationing , resulting in protests in Cárdenas . Security reports indicated that many Cubans associated austerity with the " Old Communists " of the PSP , while Castro considered a number of them – namely Aníbal Escalante and Blas Roca – unduly loyal to Moscow . In March 1962 Castro removed the most prominent " Old Communists " from office , labelling them " sectarian " . On a personal level , Castro was increasingly lonely , and his relations with Guevara became strained as the latter became increasingly anti @-@ Soviet and pro @-@ Chinese .
= = = Cuban Missile Crisis and furthering socialism : 1962 – 68 = = =
Militarily weaker than NATO , Khrushchev wanted to install Soviet R @-@ 12 MRBM nuclear missiles on Cuba to even the power balance . Although conflicted , Castro agreed , believing it would guarantee Cuba 's safety and enhance the cause of socialism . Undertaken in secrecy , only the Castro brothers , Guevara , Dorticós and security chief Ramiro Valdés knew the full plan . Upon discovering it through aerial reconnaissance , in October the U.S. implemented an island @-@ wide quarantine to search vessels headed to Cuba , sparking the Cuban Missile Crisis . The U.S. saw the missiles as offensive ; Castro insisted they were for defense only . Castro urged Khrushchev to threaten a nuclear strike on the U.S. should Cuba be attacked , but Khrushchev was desperate to avoid nuclear war . Castro was left out of the negotiations , in which Khruschev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a U.S. commitment not to invade Cuba and an understanding that the U.S. would remove their MRBMs from Turkey and Italy . Feeling betrayed by Khruschev , Castro was furious and soon fell ill . Proposing a five @-@ point plan , Castro demanded that the U.S. end its embargo , withdraw from Guantanamo Bay Naval Base , cease supporting dissidents , and stop violating Cuban air space and territorial waters . Presenting these demands to U Thant , visiting Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations , the U.S. ignored them , and in turn Castro refused to allow the U.N. ' s inspection team into Cuba .
In May 1963 , Castro visited the USSR at Khrushchev 's personal invitation , touring 14 cities , addressing a Red Square rally , and being awarded both the Order of Lenin and an honorary doctorate from Moscow State University . While there Castro was permitted to sign a Soviet R @-@ 16 intercontinental ballistic missile . Castro returned to Cuba with new ideas ; inspired by Soviet newspaper Pravda , he amalgamated Hoy and Revolución into a new daily , Granma , and oversaw large investment into Cuban sport that resulted in an increased international sporting reputation . Seeking to further consolidate control , in 1963 the government cracked down on Protestant sects in Cuba , with Castro labeling them counter @-@ revolutionary " instruments of imperialism " ; many preachers were found guilty of illegal U.S.-links and imprisoned . Measures were implemented to force perceived idle and delinquent youths to work , primarily through the introduction of mandatory military service , while in September the government temporarily permitted emigration for anyone other than males aged between 15 and 26 , thereby ridding the government of thousands of critics , most of whom were from upper and middle @-@ class backgrounds . In 1963 Castro 's mother died . This was the last time his private life was reported in Cuba 's press . In January 1964 , Castro returned to Moscow , officially to sign a new five @-@ year sugar trade agreement , but also to discuss the ramifications of the assassination of John F. Kennedy ; Castro had been deeply concerned by the assassination , believing that a far right conspiracy was behind it but that the Cubans would be blamed . In October 1965 , the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations was officially renamed the " Cuban Communist Party " and published the membership of its Central Committee .
Despite Soviet misgivings , Castro continued calling for global revolution , funding militant leftists and those engaged in national liberation struggles . Cuba 's foreign policy was staunchly anti @-@ imperialist , believing that every nation should control its own natural resources . He supported Che Guevara 's " Andean project " , an unsuccessful plan to set up a guerrilla movement in the highlands of Bolivia , Peru and Argentina , and allowed revolutionary groups from across the world , from the Viet Cong to the Black Panthers , to train in Cuba . He considered Western @-@ dominated Africa ripe for revolution , and sent troops and medics to aid Ahmed Ben Bella 's socialist regime in Algeria during the Sand war . He also allied with Alphonse Massemba @-@ Débat 's socialist government in Congo @-@ Brazzaville , and in 1965 Castro authorized Guevara to travel to Congo @-@ Kinshasa to train revolutionaries against the Western @-@ backed government . Castro was personally devastated when Guevara was subsequently killed by CIA @-@ backed troops in Bolivia in October 1967 and publicly attributed it to Che 's disregard for his own safety . In 1966 Castro staged a Tri @-@ Continental Conference of Africa , Asia and Latin America in Havana , further establishing himself as a significant player on the world stage . From this conference , Castro created the Latin American Solidarity Organization ( OLAS ) , which adopted the slogan of " The duty of a revolution is to make revolution " , signifying Havana 's leadership of Latin America 's revolutionary movement .
Castro 's increasing role on the world stage strained his relationship with the USSR , now under the leadership of Leonid Brezhnev . Asserting Cuba 's independence , Castro refused to sign the Treaty on the Non @-@ Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons , declaring it a Soviet @-@ U.S. attempt to dominate the Third World . Diverting from Soviet Marxist doctrine , he suggested that Cuban society could evolve straight to pure communism rather than progressing through various stages of socialism . In turn , Soviet @-@ loyalist Aníbal Escalante began organizing a government network of opposition to Castro , though in January 1968 , he and his supporters were arrested for allegedly passing state secrets to Moscow . However , recognising Cuba 's economic dependence on the Soviets , Castro relented to Brezhnev 's pressure to be obedient , and in August 1968 denounced the leaders of the Prague Spring and praised the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia . Influenced by China 's Great Leap Forward , in 1968 Castro proclaimed a Great Revolutionary Offensive , closing all remaining privately owned shops and businesses and denouncing their owners as capitalist counter @-@ revolutionaries . The severe lack of consumer goods for purchase led productivity to decline , as large sectors of the population felt little incentive to work hard . This was exacerbated by the perception that a revolutionary elite had emerged consisting of those connected to the administration ; they had access to better housing , private transportation , servants , and the ability to purchase luxury goods abroad .
= = = Economic stagnation and Third World politics : 1969 – 74 = = =
Castro publicly celebrated his administration 's 10th anniversary in January 1969 ; in his celebratory speech he warned of sugar rations , reflecting the nation 's economic problems . The 1969 crop was heavily damaged by a hurricane , and to meet its export quota , the government drafted in the army , implemented a seven @-@ day working week , and postponed public holidays to lengthen the harvest . When that year 's production quota was not met , Castro offered to resign during a public speech , but assembled crowds insisted he remain . Despite the economic issues , many of Castro 's social reforms were popular , with the population largely supportive of the " Achievements of the Revolution " in education , medical care , housing , and road construction , as well as the policies of " direct democratic " public consultation . Seeking Soviet help , from 1970 to 1972 Soviet economists re @-@ organized Cuba 's economy , founding the Cuban @-@ Soviet Commission of Economic , Scientific and Technical Collaboration , while Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin visited in 1971 . In July 1972 , Cuba joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ( Comecon ) , an economic organization of socialist states , although this further limited Cuba 's economy to agricultural production .
In May 1970 , the crews of two Cuban fishing boats were kidnapped by Florida @-@ based dissident group Alpha 66 , who demanded that Cuba release imprisoned militants . Under U.S. pressure , the hostages were released , and Castro welcomed them back as heroes . In April 1971 , Castro was internationally condemned for ordering the arrest of dissident poet Heberto Padilla ; Padilla was freed , but the government established the National Cultural Council to ensure that intellectuals and artists supported the administration .
In 1971 , he visited Chile , where Marxist President Salvador Allende had been elected as the head of a left @-@ wing coalition . Castro supported Allende 's socialist reforms , but warned him of right @-@ wing elements in Chile 's military . In 1973 , the military led a coup d 'état and established a military junta led by Augusto Pinochet . Castro proceeded to Guinea to meet socialist President Sékou Touré , praising him as Africa 's greatest leader , and there received the Order of Fidelity to the People . He then went on a seven @-@ week tour visiting leftist allies : Algeria , Bulgaria , Hungary , Poland , East Germany , Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union , where he was given further awards . On each trip , he was eager to visit factory and farm workers , publicly praising their governments ; privately , he urged the regimes to aid revolutionary movements elsewhere , particularly those fighting the Vietnam War .
In September 1973 , he returned to Algiers to attend the Fourth Summit of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement ( NAM ) . Various NAM members were critical of Castro 's attendance , claiming that Cuba was aligned to the Warsaw Pact and therefore should not be at the conference . At the conference he publicly broke off relations with Israel , citing its government 's close relationship with the U.S. and its treatment of Palestinians during the Israel @-@ Palestine conflict . This earned Castro respect throughout the Arab world , in particular from the Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi , who became his friend and ally . As the Yom Kippur War broke out in October 1973 between Israel and an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria , Cuba sent 4 @,@ 000 troops to defend Syrian territory from Israeli incursions . Leaving Algiers , Castro visited Iraq and North Vietnam .
Cuba 's economy grew in 1974 as a result of high international sugar prices and new credits with Argentina , Canada , and parts of Western Europe . A number of Latin American states called for Cuba 's re @-@ admittance into the Organization of American States ( OAS ) , with the U.S. finally conceding in 1975 on Henry Kissinger 's advice . Cuba 's government underwent a restructuring along Soviet lines , claiming that this would further democratization and decentralize power away from Castro . Officially announcing Cuba 's identity as a socialist state , the first National Congress of the Cuban Communist Party was held , and a new constitution adopted that abolished the position of President and Prime Minister . Castro remained the dominant figure in governance , taking the presidency of the newly created Council of State and Council of Ministers , making him both head of state and head of government .
= = Presidency = =
= = = Foreign wars and NAM Presidency : 1975 – 79 = = =
Castro considered Africa to be " the weakest link in the imperialist chain " , and at the request of Angolan President Agostinho Neto he ordered 230 military advisers into Southern Africa in November 1975 to aid Neto 's Marxist MPLA in the Angolan Civil War . When the U.S. and South Africa stepped up their support of the opposition FLNA and UNITA , Castro ordered a further 18 @,@ 000 troops to Angola , which played a major role in forcing a South African retreat . Traveling to Angola , Castro celebrated with Neto , Sékou Touré and Guinea @-@ Bissaun President Luís Cabral , where they agreed to support Mozambique 's Marxist @-@ Leninist government against RENAMO in the Mozambique Civil War . In February , Castro visited Algeria and then Libya , where he spent ten days with Gaddafi and oversaw the establishment of the Jamahariya system of governance , before attending talks with the Marxist government of South Yemen . From there he proceeded to Somalia , Tanzania , Mozambique and Angola where he was greeted by crowds as a hero for Cuba 's role in opposing apartheid South Africa . Throughout much of Africa he was hailed as a friend to national liberation from foreign dominance . This was followed with visits to Berlin and Moscow .
In 1977 the Ethio @-@ Somali War broke out over the disputed Ogaden region as Somalia invaded Ethiopia ; although a former ally of Somali President Siad Barre , Castro had warned him against such action , and Cuba sided with Mengistu Haile Mariam 's Marxist government of Ethiopia . He sent troops under the command of General Arnaldo Ochoa to aid the overwhelmed Ethiopian army . After forcing back the Somalis , Mengistu then ordered the Ethiopians to suppress the Eritrean People 's Liberation Front , a measure Castro refused to support . Castro extended support to Latin American revolutionary movements , namely the Sandinista National Liberation Front in its overthrow of the Nicaraguan rightist government of Anastasio Somoza Debayle in July 1979 . Castro 's critics accused the government of wasting Cuban lives in these military endeavors ; the anti @-@ Castro Center for a Free Cuba has claimed that an estimated 14 @,@ 000 Cubans were killed in foreign Cuban military actions . When U.S. state critics claimed that Castro had no right to interfere in these nations , he highlighted that Cuba had been invited into them , pointing out the U.S. ' own involvement in various foreign nations .
In 1979 , the Conference of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement ( NAM ) was held in Havana , where Castro was selected as NAM president , a position he held till 1982 . In his capacity as both President of the NAM and of Cuba he appeared at the United Nations General Assembly in October 1979 and gave a speech on the disparity between the world 's rich and poor . His speech was greeted with much applause from other world leaders , though his standing in NAM was damaged by Cuba 's abstinence from the U.N. ' s General Assembly condemnation of the Soviet war in Afghanistan . Cuba 's relations across North America improved under Mexican President Luis Echeverría , Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau , and U.S. President Jimmy Carter . Carter continued criticizing Cuba 's human rights abuses , but adopted a respectful approach which gained Castro 's attention . Considering Carter well @-@ meaning and sincere , Castro freed certain political prisoners and allowed some Cuban exiles to visit relatives on the island , hoping that in turn Carter would abolish the economic embargo and stop CIA support for militant dissidents . Conversely , his relationship with China declined , as he accused Deng Xiaoping 's Chinese government of betraying their revolutionary principles by initiating trade links with the U.S. and attacking Vietnam .
= = = Reagan and Gorbachev : 1980 – 89 = = =
By the 1980s , Cuba 's economy was again in trouble , following a decline in the market price of sugar and 1979 's decimated harvest . For the first time , unemployment became a serious problem in Castro 's Cuba , with the government sending unemployed youth to other countries , primarily East Germany , to work there . Desperate for money , Cuba 's government secretly sold off paintings from national collections and illicitly traded for U.S. electronic goods through Panama . Increasing numbers of Cubans fled to Florida , but were labelled " scum " and " lumpen " by Castro and his CDR supporters . In one incident , 10 @,@ 000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian Embassy requesting asylum , and so the U.S. agreed that it would accept 3 @,@ 500 refugees . Castro conceded that those who wanted to leave could do so from Mariel port . Hundreds of boats arrived from the U.S. , leading to a mass exodus of 120 @,@ 000 ; Castro 's government took advantage of the situation by loading criminals , the mentally ill , and suspected homosexuals onto the boats destined for Florida . The event destabilized Carter 's administration and in 1981 the right @-@ wing Ronald Reagan was elected U.S. President . Reagan 's administration adopted a hard @-@ line approach against Castro , making its desire to overthrow his regime clear . In late 1981 , Castro publicly accused the U.S. of biological warfare against Cuba by orchestrating a dengue fever epidemic .
Although despising Argentina 's right wing military junta , Castro supported them in the 1982 Falklands War against Britain and offered military aid to the Argentinians . Castro supported the leftist New Jewel Movement that seized power in Grenada in 1979 , befriending Grenadine President Maurice Bishop and sending doctors , teachers , and technicians to aid the country 's development . When Bishop was executed in a Soviet @-@ backed coup by hard @-@ line Marxist Bernard Coard in October 1983 , Castro condemned the killing but cautiously retained support for Grenada 's government . However , the U.S. used the coup as a basis for invading the island . Cuban soldiers died in the conflict , with Castro denouncing the invasion and comparing the U.S. to Nazi Germany . In a July 1983 speech marking the 30th anniversary of the Cuban Revolution , Castro condemned Reagan 's administration as a " reactionary , extremist clique " who were waging an " openly warmongering and fascist foreign policy " . Castro feared a U.S. invasion of Nicaragua and sent Ochoa to train the governing Sandinistas in guerrilla warfare , but received little support from the USSR .
In 1985 , Mikhail Gorbachev became Secretary @-@ General of the Soviet Communist Party . A reformer , he implemented measures to increase freedom of the press ( glasnost ) and economic decentralization ( perestroika ) in an attempt to strengthen socialism . Like many orthodox Marxist critics , Castro feared that the reforms would weaken the socialist state and allow capitalist elements to regain control . Gorbachev conceded to U.S. demands to reduce support for Cuba , with Soviet @-@ Cuban relations deteriorating . When Gorbachev visited Cuba in April 1989 , he informed Castro that perestroika meant an end to subsidies for Cuba . Ignoring calls for liberalization in accordance with the Soviet example , Castro continued to clamp down on internal dissidents and in particular kept tabs on the military , the primary threat to the government . A number of senior military officers , including Ochoa and Tony de la Guardia , were investigated for corruption and complicity in cocaine smuggling , tried , and executed in 1989 , despite calls for leniency . On medical advice given him in October 1985 , Castro gave up regularly smoking Cuban cigars , helping to set an example for the rest of the populace . Castro became passionate in his denunciation of the Third World debt problem , arguing that the Third World would never escape the debt that First World banks and governments imposed upon it . In 1985 , Havana hosted five international conferences on the world debt problem .
By November 1987 , Castro began spending more time on the Angolan Civil War , in which the Marxists had fallen into retreat . Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos successfully appealed for more Cuban troops , with Castro later admitting that he devoted more time to Angola than to the domestic situation , believing that a victory would lead to the collapse of apartheid . Gorbachev called for a negotiated end to the conflict and in 1988 organized a quadripartite talks between the USSR , U.S. , Cuba and South Africa ; they agreed that all foreign troops would pull out of Angola . Castro was angered by Gorbachev 's approach , believing that he was abandoning the plight of the world 's poor in favor of détente .
In Eastern Europe , socialist governments fell to capitalist reformers between 1989 and 1991 and many Western observers expected the same in Cuba . Increasingly isolated , Cuba improved relations with Manuel Noriega 's right @-@ wing government in Panama – despite Castro 's personal hatred of Noriega – but it was overthrown in a U.S. invasion in December 1989 . In February 1990 , Castro 's allies in Nicaragua , President Daniel Ortega and the Sandinistas , were defeated by the U.S.-funded National Opposition Union in an election . With the collapse of the Soviet bloc , the U.S. secured a majority vote for a resolution condemning Cuba 's human rights violations at the United Nations Human Rights Commission in Geneva , Switzerland . Cuba asserted that this was a manifestation of U.S. hegemony , and refused to allow an investigative delegation to enter the country .
= = = Special Period : 1990 – 2000 = = =
With favourable trade from the Soviet bloc ended , Castro publicly declared that Cuba was entering a " Special Period in Time of Peace . " Petrol rations were dramatically reduced , Chinese bicycles were imported to replace cars , and factories performing non @-@ essential tasks were shut down . Oxen began to replace tractors , firewood began being used for cooking and electricity cuts were introduced that lasted 16 hours a day . Castro admitted that Cuba faced the worst situation short of open war , and that the country might have to resort to subsistence farming . By 1992 , Cuba 's economy had declined by over 40 % in under two years , with major food shortages , widespread malnutrition and a lack of basic goods . Castro hoped for a restoration of Marxism @-@ Leninism in the USSR , but refrained from backing the 1991 coup in that country . When Gorbachev regained control , Cuba @-@ Soviet relations deteriorated further and Soviet troops were withdrawn in September 1991 . In December , the Soviet Union was officially dismantled as Boris Yeltsin abolished the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and introducing a capitalist multiparty democracy . Yeltsin despised Castro and developed links with the Miami @-@ based Cuban American National Foundation . Castro tried improving relations with the capitalist nations . He welcomed Western politicians and investors to Cuba , befriended Manuel Fraga and took a particular interest in Margaret Thatcher 's policies in the UK , believing that Cuban socialism could learn from her emphasis on low taxation and personal initiative . He ceased support for foreign militants , refrained from praising FARC on a 1994 visit to Colombia and called for a negotiated settlement between the Zapatistas and Mexican government in 1995 . Publicly , he presented himself as a moderate on the world stage .
In 1991 , Havana hosted the Pan @-@ American Games , which involved construction of a stadium and accommodation for the athletes ; Castro admitted that it was an expensive error , but it was a success for Cuba 's government . Crowds regularly shouted " Fidel ! Fidel ! " in front of foreign journalists , while Cuba became the first Latin American nation to beat the U.S. to the top of the gold @-@ medal table . Support for Castro remained strong , and although there were small anti @-@ government demonstrations , the Cuban opposition rejected the exile community 's calls for an armed uprising . In August 1994 , Havana witnessed the largest anti @-@ Castro demonstration in Cuban history , as 200 to 300 young men threw stones at police , demanding that they be allowed to emigrate to Miami . A larger pro @-@ Castro crowd confronted them , who were joined by Castro ; he informed media that the men were anti @-@ socials misled by the U.S. The protests dispersed with no recorded injuries . Fearing that dissident groups would invade , the government organised the " War of All the People " defense strategy , planning a widespread guerrilla warfare campaign , and the unemployed were given jobs building a network of bunkers and tunnels across the country .
Castro believed in the need for reform if Cuban socialism was to survive in a world now dominated by capitalist free markets . In October 1991 , the Fourth Congress of the Cuban Communist Party was held in Santiago , at which a number of important changes to the government were announced . Castro would step down as head of government , to be replaced by the much younger Carlos Lage , although Castro would remain the head of the Communist Party and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the armed forces . Many older members of government were to be retired and replaced by their younger counterparts . A number of economic changes were proposed , and subsequently put to a national referendum . Free farmers ' markets and small @-@ scale private enterprises would be legalized in an attempt to stimulate economic growth , while U.S. dollars were also made legal tender . Certain restrictions on emigration were eased , allowing more discontented Cuban citizens to move to the United States . Further democratization was to be brought in by having the National Assembly 's members elected directly by the people , rather than through municipal and provincial assemblies . Castro welcomed debate between proponents and opponents of the reforms , although over time he began to increasingly sympathise with the opponent 's positions , arguing that such reforms must be delayed .
Castro 's government diversified its economy into biotechnology and tourism , the latter outstripping Cuba 's sugar industry as its primary source of revenue in 1995 . The arrival of thousands of Mexican and Spanish tourists led to increasing numbers of Cubans turning to prostitution ; officially illegal , Castro refrained from cracking down on prostitution , fearing a political backlash . Economic hardship led many Cubans toward religion , both in the form of Roman Catholicism and Santeria . Although long thinking religious belief to be backward , Castro softened his approach to religious institutions and religious people were permitted for the first time to join the Communist Party . Although he viewed the Roman Catholic Church as a reactionary , pro @-@ capitalist institution , Castro organized a visit to Cuba by Pope John Paul II for January 1998 ; it strengthened the position of both the Cuban Church and Castro 's government .
In the early 1990s Castro embraced environmentalism , campaigning against global warming and the waste of natural resources , and accusing the U.S. of being the world 's primary polluter . In 1994 a ministry dedicated to the environment was established , and new laws established in 1997 that promoted awareness of environmental issues throughout Cuba and stressed the sustainable use of natural resources . By 2006 , Cuba was the world 's only nation which met the United Nations Development Programme 's definition of sustainable development , with an ecological footprint of less than 1 @.@ 8 hectares per capita and a Human Development Index of over 0 @.@ 8 . Castro also became a proponent of the anti @-@ globalization movement , criticizing U.S. global hegemony and the control exerted by multinationals . Castro maintained his devout anti @-@ apartheid beliefs , and at the July 26 celebrations in 1991 , he was joined onstage by the South African political activist Nelson Mandela , recently released from prison . Mandela praised Cuba 's involvement in battling South Africa in Angola and thanked Castro personally . He later attended Mandela 's inauguration as President of South Africa in 1994 . In 2001 he attended the Conference Against Racism in South Africa at which he lectured on the global spread of racial stereotypes through U.S. film .
= = = Pink tide : 2000 – 06 = = =
Mired in economic problems , Cuba would be aided by the election of socialist and anti @-@ imperialist Hugo Chávez to the Venezuelan Presidency in 1999 . Castro and Chávez developed a close friendship , with the former acting as a mentor and father @-@ figure to the latter , and together they built an alliance that had repercussions throughout Latin America . In 2000 , they signed an agreement through which Cuba would send 20 @,@ 000 medics to Venezuela , in return receiving 53 @,@ 000 barrels of oil per day at preferential rates ; in 2004 , this trade was stepped up , with Cuba sending 40 @,@ 000 medics and Venezuela providing 90 @,@ 000 barrels a day . That same year , Castro initiated Misión Milagro , a joint medical project which aimed to provide free eye operations on 300 @,@ 000 individuals from each nation . The alliance boosted the Cuban economy , and in May 2005 Castro doubled the minimum wage for 1 @.@ 6 million workers , raised pensions , and delivered new kitchen appliances to Cuba 's poorest residents . Some economic problems remained ; in 2004 , Castro shut down 118 factories , including steel plants , sugar mills and paper processors to compensate for the crisis of fuel shortages .
Cuba and Venezuela were the founding members of the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas ( ALBA ) . ALBA sought to redistribute wealth evenly throughout member countries , to protect the region 's agriculture , and to oppose economic liberalization and privatization . ALBA 's origins lay in a December 2004 agreement signed between the two countries , and was formalized through a People 's Trade Agreement also signed by Evo Morales ' Bolivia in April 2006 . Castro had also been calling for greater Caribbean integration since the late 1990s , saying that only strengthened cooperation between Caribbean countries would prevent their domination by rich nations in a global economy . Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including : Antigua and Barbuda , Dominica , Suriname , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . This development makes Cuba the only country to have embassies in all independent countries of the Caribbean Community .
In contrast to the improved relations between Cuba and a number of leftist Latin American states , in 2004 it broke off diplomatic ties with Panama after centrist President Mireya Moscoso pardoned four Cuban exiles accused of attempting to assassinate Castro in 2000 . Diplomatic ties were reinstalled in 2005 following the election of leftist President Martín Torrijos . Castro 's improving relations across Latin America were accompanied by continuing animosity towards the U.S. However , after massive damage caused by Hurricane Michelle in 2001 , Castro successfully proposed a one @-@ time cash purchase of food from the U.S. while declining its government 's offer of humanitarian aid . Castro expressed solidarity with the U.S. following the 2001 September 11 attacks , condemning Al Qaeda and offering Cuban airports for the emergency diversion of any U.S. planes . He recognized that the attacks would make U.S. foreign policy more aggressive , which he believed was counter @-@ productive .
In 1998 , Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien arrived in Cuba to meet Castro and highlight their close ties . He is the first Canadian government leader to visit the island since Pierre Trudeau was in Havana in 1976 . In 2002 , former U.S. President Jimmy Carter visited Cuba , where he highlighted the lack of civil liberties in the country and urged the government to pay attention to the Varela Project of Oswaldo Payá .
= = = Stepping down : 2006 – 08 = = =
Castro underwent surgery for intestinal bleeding , and on July 31 , 2006 delegated his presidential duties to Raúl Castro . In February 2007 , Raúl announced that Fidel 's health was improving and that he was taking part in important issues of government . Later that month , Fidel called into Hugo Chávez 's radio show Aló Presidente . On April 21 , Castro met Wu Guanzheng of the Chinese Communist Party 's Politburo , with Chávez visiting in August , and Morales in September . That month , the Non @-@ Aligned Movement held its 14th Summit in Havana , there agreeing to appoint Castro as the organisation 's president for a year 's term .
Commenting on Castro 's recovery , U.S. President George W. Bush said : " One day the good Lord will take Fidel Castro away " . Hearing about this , the atheist Castro ironically replied : " Now I understand why I survived Bush 's plans and the plans of other presidents who ordered my assassination : the good Lord protected me . " The quote would subsequently be picked up on by the world 's media . In a February 2008 letter , Castro announced that he would not accept the positions of President of the Council of State and Commander in Chief at that month 's National Assembly meetings , remarking that " It would betray my conscience to take up a responsibility that requires mobility and total devotion , that I am not in a physical condition to offer " . On February 24 , 2008 , the National Assembly of People 's Power unanimously voted Raúl as president . Describing his brother as " not substitutable " , Raúl proposed that Fidel continue to be consulted on matters of great importance , a motion unanimously approved by the 597 National Assembly members .
= = Later years = =
= = = Retirement : 2008 – present = = =
Following his retirement , Castro 's health deteriorated ; international press speculated that he had diverticulitis , but Cuba 's government refused to corroborate this . He continued to interact with the Cuban people , published an opinion column titled " Reflections " in Granma , used a Twitter account , and gave occasional public lectures . In January 2009 Castro asked Cubans not to worry about his lack of recent news columns and failing health , and not to be disturbed by his future death . He continued meeting foreign leaders and dignitaries , and that month photographs were released of Castro 's meeting with Argentine President Cristina Fernández .
In July 2010 , he made his first public appearance since falling ill , greeting science center workers and giving a television interview to Mesa Redonda in which he discussed U.S. tensions with Iran and North Korea . On August 7 , 2010 , Castro gave his first speech to the National Assembly in four years , urging the U.S. not to take military actions against those nations and warning of a nuclear holocaust . When asked whether Castro may be re @-@ entering government , culture minister Abel Prieto told the BBC , " I think that he has always been in Cuba 's political life but he is not in the government ... He has been very careful about that . His big battle is international affairs . "
On April 19 , 2011 , Castro resigned from the Communist Party central committee , thus stepping down as party leader . Raúl was selected as his successor . Now without any official role in the country 's government , he took on the role of an elder statesman . In March 2012 , Pope Benedict XVI visited Cuba for three days , during which time he briefly met with Castro despite the Pope 's vocal opposition to Cuba 's government . Later that year it was revealed that along with Hugo Chávez , Castro had played a significant behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role in orchestrating peace talks between the Colombian government and the far left FARC guerrilla movement to end the conflict which had raged since 1964 . During the North Korea crisis of 2013 , he urged both the North Korean and U.S. governments to show restraint . Calling the situation " incredible and absurd , " he maintained that war would not benefit either side , and that it represented " one of the gravest risks of nuclear war " since the Cuban missile crisis .
In December 2014 , Castro was awarded the Chinese Confucius Peace Prize for seeking peaceful solutions to his nation 's conflict with the U.S. and for his post @-@ retirement efforts to prevent nuclear war . In January 2015 , he publicly commented on the " Cuban Thaw " , an increased normalization between Cuba @-@ U.S. relations , by stating that while it was a positive move for establishing peace in the region , he mistrusted the U.S. government .
= = Political ideology = =
Castro proclaimed himself to be " a Socialist , a Marxist , and a Leninist " , and has publicly identified as a Marxist @-@ Leninist since December 1961 . As a Marxist , Castro sought to move Cuba from a capitalist state in which it was dominated by foreign imperialism to a socialist society and ultimately a communist society . Influenced by Guevara , he suggested that Cuba could evade most stages of socialism and progress straight to communism . Castro 's government was also nationalistic , with Castro declaring that " We are not only Marxist @-@ Leninists , but also nationalists and patriots " . Historian Richard Gott remarked that one of the keys to Castro 's success was in his ability to utilize the " twin themes of socialism and nationalism " and keep them " endlessly in play . " Castro describes Karl Marx and Cuban nationalist José Martí as his main political influences , although Gott believed that ultimately Martí remained more important than Marx in Castro 's politics . Castro described Martí 's political ideas as " a philosophy of independence and an exceptional humanistic philosophy " , and his supporters and apologists have repeatedly claimed great similarity between the two figures .
Biographer Volka Skierka described Castro 's government as a " highly individual , socialist @-@ nationalist " fidelista " system " , with Theodore Draper terming his approach " Castroism " , viewing it as a blend of European socialism with the Latin American revolutionary tradition . Political scientist Paul C. Sondrol has described Castro 's approach to politics as " totalitarian utopianism " , with a style of leadership that drew upon the wider Latin American phenomenon of the caudillo . Castro took a relatively socially conservative stance on many issues , opposing drug use , gambling , and prostitution , which he viewed as moral evils . Instead he advocated hard work , family values , integrity , and self @-@ discipline .
= = Personal and public life = =
Biographer Leycester Coltman described Castro as " fiercely hard @-@ working , dedicated [ , ] loyal ... generous and magnanimous " but noted that he could be " vindictive and unforgiving " . He asserted that Castro " always had a keen sense of humor and could laugh at himself " but could equally be " a bad loser " who would act with " ferocious rage if he thought that he was being humiliated . " Castro was well known for throwing tantrums , and could make " snap judgements " which he refused to back down from . Biographer Peter Bourne noted that Castro " suffers fools poorly " and that in his younger years he was intolerant of those who did not share his views . He claimed that Castro liked to meet with ordinary citizens , both in Cuba and abroad , but took a particularly paternal attitude toward Cubans , treating them as if " they were a part of his own giant family . " British historian Alex Von Tunzelmann commented that " though ruthless , [ Castro ] was a patriot , a man with a profound sense that it was his mission to save the Cuban people " .
Castro was known for his busy working hours , often only going to bed at 3 or 4 a.m. He preferred to meet foreign diplomats in these early hours , believing that they would be tired and he could gain the upper hand in negotiations . He described Ernest Hemingway as his favorite writer , and enjoyed reading but was uninterested in music . A sports fan , he also spent much of his time trying to keep fit , undertaking regular exercise . He took a great interest in gastronomy , as well as wine and whisky , and as Cuban leader was known to wander into his kitchen to discuss cookery with his chefs . Castro had a lifelong love of guns , and a preference for life in the countryside over the city . While various sources state that Castro has not enriched himself , instead living a life more modest than most Latin American presidents , his former bodyguard Juan Reinaldo Sánchez alleged that Castro lived in great luxury , with several houses and yachts which he has hidden from the Cuban populace .
Fidel Castro 's religious beliefs have been a matter of some debate ; he was baptized and raised a Roman Catholic but has commented that he is an atheist . He criticized use of the Bible to justify the oppression of women and Africans , but commented that Christianity exhibited " a group of very humane precepts " which gave the world " ethical values " and a " sense of social justice " , relating that " If people call me Christian , not from the standpoint of religion but from the standpoint of social vision , I declare that I am a Christian . " He has espoused the idea that Jesus Christ was a communist , citing the feeding of the 5000 and the story of Jesus and the rich young man as evidence .
= = = Public image = = =
Political scientist Paul C. Sondrol characterized Castro as " quintessentially totalitarian in his charismatic appeal , utopian functional role and public , transformative utilisation of power . " Unlike a number of other Soviet @-@ era communist leaders , Castro 's government did not intentionally construct a cult of personality around him , although his popularity among segments of the Cuban populace nevertheless led to one developing in the early years of his administration . By 2006 , the BBC reported that Castro 's image could frequently be found in Cuban stores , classrooms , taxicabs , and on national television . Throughout his administration , large throngs of supporters gathered to cheer at Castro 's fiery speeches , which typically lasted for hours and which were delivered without the use of written notes . During speeches Castro regularly cited reports and books he had read on a wide variety of subjects , including military matters , plant cultivation , filmmaking , and chess strategies .
For 37 years , Castro publicly wore nothing but olive @-@ green military fatigues , emphasizing his role as the perpetual revolutionary , but in the mid @-@ 1990s began wearing dark civilian suits and guayabera publicly as well . Within Cuba , Castro is often nicknamed " El Caballo " ( " The Horse " ) , a label attributed to Cuban entertainer Benny Moré which alludes to Castro 's well known womanizing during the 1950s and early 1960s , and during this period Castro himself was widely recognized as a sex symbol in Cuba .
= = = Family and friends = = =
Many details of Castro 's private life , particularly involving his family members , are scarce as such information is censored by state media . Castro 's biographer Robert E. Quirk noted that throughout his life , the Cuban leader had been " unable to form a lasting sexual relationship with any female . " Castro 's first wife was Mirta Díaz @-@ Balart , whom he married in October 1948 , and together they have a son , Fidel Ángel " Fidelito " Castro Díaz @-@ Balart , born in September 1949 . Díaz @-@ Balart and Castro divorced in 1955 , and she moved to Spain , although allegedly returned to Cuba in 2002 to live with Fidelito . Fidelito grew up in Cuba ; for a time , he ran Cuba 's atomic @-@ energy commission before being removed from the post by his father .
Fidel has five other sons by his second wife , Dalia Soto del Valle : Antonio , Alejandro , Alexis , Alexander " Alex " , and Ángel Castro Soto del Valle . While Fidel was married to Mirta , he had an affair with Natalia " Naty " Revuelta Clews , who gave birth to his daughter , Alina Fernández Revuelta . Alina left Cuba in 1993 , disguised as a Spanish tourist , and sought asylum in the U.S. , from where she has criticized her father 's policies . By an unnamed woman he had another son , Jorge Ángel Castro . Fidel has another daughter , Francisca Pupo ( born 1953 ) the result of a one night affair . Pupo and her husband now live in Miami . Castro often engaged in one night stands with women , some of whom were specially selected for him while visiting foreign allies . His sister Juanita Castro has been living in the United States since the early 1960s , and is an opponent of her brother 's regime .
While in power , Castro 's two closest male friends were the former Mayor of Havana Pepin Naranjo and his own personal physician , René Vallejo . From 1980 until his death in 1995 , Naranjo headed Castro 's team of advisers . Castro also had a deep friendship with fellow revolutionary Celia Sanchez , who accompanied him almost everywhere during the 1960s , and controlled almost all access to the leader . Castro was also a good friend of the Colombian novelist Gabriel García Márquez .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Historian and journalist Richard Gott considered Castro to be " one of the most extraordinary political figures of the twentieth century " , noting that he had become a " world hero in the mould of Garibaldi " to people throughout the developing world for his anti @-@ imperialist efforts . Bourne described Castro as " an influential world leader " who commanded " great respect " from individuals of all political ideologies across the developing world . Wayne S. Smith , former Chief of the US Interests Section in Havana , noted that in the early 21st century , Castro was met with " warm applause " throughout the Western Hemisphere due to his opposition to U.S. socio @-@ political dominance and for transforming Cuba from a " banana republic " into a nation with significant international influence . He has been awarded a wide variety of awards and honors from foreign governments , and has been cited as an inspiration for foreign leaders like Ahmed Ben Bella , and Nelson Mandela , who subsequently awarded him South Africa 's highest civilian award for foreigners , the Order of Good Hope . Bolivian President Evo Morales described him as " the grandfather of all Latin American revolutionaries " , while biographer Volka Skierka stated that " he will go down in history as one of the few revolutionaries who remained true to his principles . "
Castro has been heavily criticized by governments and human rights organizations in the Western world , and was widely despised throughout the U.S. He has been widely described as a " dictator " , although Castro has publicly refuted this label , stating that he constitutionally held less power than most heads of state and insisting that his regime allowed for greater democratic involvement in policy making than Western liberal democracies . Nevertheless , critics claim that Castro wielded significant unofficial influence aside from his official duties . Quirk stated that Castro wielded " absolute power " in Cuba , albeit not in a legal or constitutional manner , while Bourne claimed that power in Cuba was " completely invested " in Castro , adding that it was very rare for " a country and a people " to have been so completely dominated by " the personality of one man " . Sondrol suggested that in leading " a political system largely [ of ] his own creation and bearing his indelible stamp " Castro 's leadership style warranted comparisons with other totalitarian leaders like Mao Zedong , Joseph Stalin , Adolf Hitler , and Benito Mussolini .
Human rights advocacy groups have criticized Castro 's administration for committing human rights abuses . Human Rights Watch stated that his government constructed a " repressive machinery " which deprived Cubans of their " basic rights " . Castro has defended his government 's record on human rights , stating that the state must limit the freedoms of individuals and imprison those involved in counter @-@ revolutionary activity in order to protect the rights of the collective populace , such as the right to employment , education , and health care .
= 1896 Michigan Wolverines football team =
The 1896 Michigan Wolverines football team represented the University of Michigan in the 1896 college football season . They played their home games at Regents Field in Ann Arbor , Michigan and competed in the newly established Western Conference , later to be known as the Big Ten Conference . The team , with William Ward as head coach , started the season with nine consecutive wins in which the Wolverines outscored their opponents by a combined score of 256 to 4 . In the final game of the season , played on Thanksgiving Day at the Chicago Coliseum , the team lost a close game to Amos Alonzo Stagg 's University of Chicago team by a score of 7 – 6 . The 1896 Michigan – Chicago game was the first college football game played indoors , and the last portion of the game was also played under electric lights . Henry M. Senter was the team captain .
= = Preseason developments = =
Before the 1896 football season took the field , two developments occurred . First , Michigan joined the Western Inter @-@ collegiate Athletic Conference ( later renamed the Big Ten Conference ) . The 1896 season was the first for Michigan in conference play . Michigan 's three conference games in 1896 were against Purdue , Minnesota and Chicago . Second , William McCauley , who had led Michigan to a 17 – 2 – 1 record in two seasons as coach , resigned as Michigan 's football coach . Princeton graduate , William Ward , was hired to replace McCauley . Before leaving Ann Arbor in November 1896 , McCauley assisted Ward in coaching the 1896 team .
Michigan conducted tryouts for the 1896 football team at Sand Beach . The Michiganensian for 1897 reported on the group appearing for try @-@ outs as follows : " Never before had the Athletic field been so teeming with aspirants for foot @-@ ball honors . "
= = Schedule = =
= = Season summary = =
= = = Michigan 18 , Michigan State Normal 0 = = =
Michigan opened its 1896 season with a home game against Michigan State Normal , later known as Eastern Michigan University . The Wolverines won , 18 – 0 , scoring two touchdowns in the first half and a goal and a safety in the second half . The World of New York reported on the game as follows : " The University of Michigan opened its football season here this afternoon by a loosely played game with the Michigan State Normal eleven . Only four members of last year 's ' Varsity eleven were in the game , although four of them were on the ground ready to play . "
= = = Michigan 44 , Grand Rapids High School 0 = = =
Michigan played its second game of the season at home against the team from Grand Rapids High School , ( Now Grand Rapids Central High School [ Mich . ] ) . The game was played in halves of 20 and 10 minutes , and Michigan won easily by a score of 44 to 0 . A newspaper account of the game described Michigan 's performance as follows :
" Michigan is now rapidly rounding into form and the team played a much stronger game today than a week ago . Several of the new men did some creditable work , and the interference at all times was excellent . Hazen Pingree , at half , made several brilliant runs , and Hannan , at full , punted very well . Bennett , Wombacher , Palmer and Farnham also showed up well in the line . Grand Rapids was never able to gain and the ' varsity scored as she pleased . "
Michigan 's lineup in the game was Palmer ( left end ) , Giovanni " Count " Villa ( left tackle ) , Fred Baker ( left guard ) , John David Wombacher ( center ) , John W.F. Bennett ( right guard ) , Frederick Henninger ( right tackle ) , Thaddeus Farnham ( right end ) , Richards ( quarterback ) , Hazen Pingree ( right halfback ) , Thomas Jesse Drumheller and Steel ( left halfback ) , and William Caley and Hannan ( fullback ) .
= = = Michigan 28 , College of Physicians and Surgeons 0 = = =
Michigan 's third game of the season was a mid @-@ week match against the team from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in Chicago . The game was played in 15 minute halves at Ann Arbor 's Regents Field . Halfback Gustave Ferbert scored a touchdown " on a brilliant twenty @-@ yard run " in the first half , and Villa and Pingree scored two touchdowns each for Michigan . Steel and Hogg each added two goals after touchdown for Michigan . A newspaper account of the game described Michigan 's performance as follows :
" The game put up by Michigan was the best of the season . This was the first game in which the ' varsity work has been tried against a heavy team , but , as a rule , the interference was fast and sure and their team work good . Farnham , Pingree , Ferbert , and Villa carried off the honors for Michigan . "
Michigan 's line up against the Physicians and Surgeons was Palmer and Ayers ( left end ) , Giovanni Villa ( left tackle ) , Bert Carr ( left guard ) , John David Wombacher ( center ) , John W.F. Bennett ( right guard ) , Frederick Henninger ( right tackle ) , Thaddeus Farnham ( right end ) , J. DeForest Richards ( quarterback ) , Gustave Ferbert and Gordon ( left halfback ) , Hazen Pingree ( right halfback ) , Steel and James R. Hogg ( fullback ) .
= = = Michigan 66 , Rush Lake Forest 0 = = =
Michigan 's fourth game was played against Rush Lake Forest two days after the game against the Physicians and Surgeons team . Michigan compiled its highest point total of the season , winning the game 66 – 0 . Through the first four games of the season , Michigan had outscored its opponents by a combined tally of 156 to 0 .
= = = Michigan 16 , Purdue 0 = = =
The team traveled to Lafayette , Indiana to open its conference schedule against the Purdue Boilermakers and came away with a fifth straight shutout and a score of 16 – 0 . The game was played in front of a crowd of 2 @,@ 000 at Purdue 's Stuart Field . One newspaper described the game as " the most desperate game that has ever been played on Stuart Field " and concluded that " Michigan won by superior weight . " The same account noted that " the prettiest play of the game " was a 40 – yard run by Ferbert and has tackle by Marshall . Michigan 's scoring came on two touchdowns by Caley and one by Hogg . Michigan 's lineup was Loomis Hutchinson ( left end ) , Giovanni Villa ( left tackle ) , Carey ( left guard ) , Wombacher ( center ) , Bennett ( right guard ) , Henninger ( right tackle ) , Farnham ( right end ) , Greenleaf ( quarterback ) , Ferbert ( left halfback ) , Caley ( right halfback ) , and Hogg ( fullback ) .
= = = Michigan 44 , Lehigh 0 = = =
Michigan 's sixth opponent was the Lehigh Mountain Hawks . The game was played at the Detroit Athletic Club field in Detroit and ended in a sixth straight shutout by a one @-@ sided score of 44 – 0 . Michigan 's scoring came on seven touchdowns and five goals after touchown ( all five kicked by halfback Ferbert ) . During the 60 minutes of play , the ball was in Lehigh 's possession " not more than ten minutes , " and most of that was in the first half . One newspaper account stated that " the Eastern boys were outclassed from start to finish . " The same report gave the following account of the game :
" The team play of the University of Michigan was excellent and the interference as good as has ever been seen in this city . The star of the game was probably Ferbert , though the plays of Villa , Farnham , Henninger , and Caley were at times brilliant . ... The University of Michigan is celebrating the victory here tonight , and pointing proudly to the fact that the best Pennsylvania [ 1896 national champions ] could do against Lehigh was 32 to 0 . "
Michigan 's lineup in the Lehigh
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complaints with optimism , assuring the fans that the character would win them over , just the way he has been , by the time the series end . True to his words , After The Fall ’ s Connor was received positively . Brian Lynch confirmed this in an interview , stating that Connor has not only been the most pleasantly surprising character for him to write , he has been the most surprising for the fans as well , " Connor was a great character on the TV show but , I don ’ t think he was ever a favorite . But he ’ s slowly but surely become one of the most popular characters in After The Fall , which is wonderful . " He further said that he himself like the character so much now , he wants to do a book called ' Son of Angel ' based on him .
= = = Analysis = = =
Connor has been analyzed and compared with other male characters of the series in terms of the presentation and evolution of masculinity in fiction . His sexual relation with his surrogate mother , coupled with his struggles to kill his father , led to numerous speculations that mythical Greek figure Oedipus was the inspiration for the character. and references to Arthurian Legend were also made . In Erin B. Waggoner 's book Sexual rhetoric in the works of Joss Whedon , he found it interesting that the ancient Oedipus complex continues to be used as a way to underscore one 's masculinity , but he added that " Connor is not the only one [ .. ] Angel , Wes , Spike and even Fred ( through Gunn ) kill father or father figures in order to come into their own as individuals . " Further citing Gwen 's role among Connor and Gunn in the comic series triangle , he observed the unrelenting use of women as a device for men to shore up .
Stacey Abbott of PopMatters cited David Greenwalt 's statement that " Angel is about how hard it is to be a man . " Greenwalt observed that the show raises questions about what it means to be a man and does this not only through the characterization of Angel but also the men around him . He said that like other male characters , taken alone Connor may seem a stereotypical teen boy , but considered with rest of the cast offers a complex image of modern masculinity . Greenwalt also compared Connor 's journey with others in terms of identity , which he considers a poignant theme within the series . He found it ironic that Connor who was " initially the most damaged of all the characters " , was the only one able to " reconcile his actions and new man existence together " and be at peace with himself in the end .
= Profumo affair =
The Profumo affair was a British political scandal that originated with a brief sexual relationship in 1961 between John Profumo , the Secretary of State for War in Harold Macmillan 's government , and Christine Keeler , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old would @-@ be model . In March 1963 , Profumo denied any impropriety in a personal statement to the House of Commons , but was forced to admit the truth a few weeks later . He resigned from the government and from Parliament . The repercussions of the affair severely damaged Macmillan 's self @-@ confidence , and he resigned as prime minister on health grounds in October 1963 . His Conservative Party was marked by the scandal , which may have contributed to its defeat by Labour in the 1964 general election .
When the Profumo – Keeler affair was first revealed , public interest was heightened by reports that Keeler may have been simultaneously involved with Captain Yevgeny Ivanov , a Soviet naval attaché , thereby creating a possible security risk . Keeler knew both Profumo and Ivanov through her friendship with Stephen Ward , an osteopath and socialite who had taken her under his wing . The exposure of the affair generated rumours of other scandals , and drew official attention to the activities of Ward , who was charged with a series of immorality offences . Perceiving himself as a scapegoat for the misdeeds of others , Ward took a fatal overdose during the final stages of his trial , which found him guilty of living off the immoral earnings of Keeler and her friend Mandy Rice @-@ Davies .
An inquiry into the affair by a senior judge , Lord Denning , indicated that there had been no breaches of security arising from the Ivanov connection , although Denning 's report was later condemned as superficial and unsatisfactory . Profumo subsequently sought private atonement as a volunteer worker at Toynbee Hall , an East London charitable trust . By 1975 he had been officially rehabilitated , although he did not return to public life . He died in 2006 .
Keeler found it difficult to escape the negative image attached to her by press , law and parliament throughout the Profumo affair . In various , sometimes contradictory accounts , she has challenged Denning 's conclusions relating to security issues . Ward 's conviction has been described by analysts as an act of Establishment revenge , rather than serving justice . In January 2014 his case was under review by the Criminal Cases Review Commission , with the possibility of a later reference to the Court of Appeal . Dramatisations of the Profumo affair have been shown on stage and screen .
= = Background = =
= = = Government and press = = =
In the early 1960s British news media were dominated by several high @-@ profile spying stories : the breaking of the Portland spy ring in 1961 , the capture and sentencing of George Blake in the same year and , in 1962 , the case of the Admiralty clerk , John Vassall , blackmailed into spying by the Soviets who threatened to expose his homosexuality . In October 1962 Vassall was jailed for 18 years . After suggestions in the press that Vassall had been shielded by his political masters , the responsible minister , Thomas Galbraith , resigned from the government pending inquiries . Galbraith was later exonerated by the Radcliffe inquiry , which sent two newspaper journalists to prison for refusing to reveal their sources for sensational and uncorroborated stories about Vassall 's private life . The imprisonment severely damaged relations between the press and the Macmillan government ; the New Statesman 's columnist Paul Johnson warned : " [ A ] ny Tory minister or MP ... who gets involved in a scandal during the next year or so must expect — I regret to say — the full treatment " .
= = = Profumo = = =
John Profumo was born in 1915 , of Italian descent . He first entered Parliament in 1940 as the Conservative member for Kettering , while serving with the Northamptonshire Yeomanry , and combined his political and military duties through the Second World War . He lost his seat in the 1945 general election , but was elected in 1950 for Stratford @-@ on @-@ Avon . From 1951 he held junior ministerial office in successive Conservative administrations . In 1960 , Macmillan promoted him to Secretary of State for War , a senior post outside the cabinet . After his marriage in 1954 to Valerie Hobson , one of Britain 's leading film actresses , he may have conducted casual affairs , using late @-@ night parliamentary sittings as his cover . Profumo 's tenure as war minister coincided with a period of transition in the armed forces , involving the end of conscription and the development of a wholly professional army . His performance was watched with a critical eye by his opposition counterpart George Wigg , a former regular soldier .
= = = Keeler , Rice @-@ Davies , and Astor = = =
Christine Keeler , born in 1942 , left school at 15 with no qualifications and took a series of short @-@ lived jobs in shops , offices and cafés . She aspired to be a model , and at 16 had a photograph published in Tit @-@ Bits magazine . In August 1959 , she found work as a topless showgirl at Murray 's Cabaret Club in Beak Street , Soho . This long @-@ established club attracted a distinguished clientele who , Keeler wrote , " could look but could not touch " . Shortly after starting at Murray 's , Keeler was introduced to a client , the society osteopath Stephen Ward . Captivated by his charm , she agreed to move into his flat , in a relationship she has described as " like brother and sister " — affectionate but not sexual . She left Ward after a few months to become the mistress of the property dealer Peter Rachman , and later shared lodgings with Mandy Rice @-@ Davies , a fellow Murray 's Club dancer three years her junior . The two girls left Murray 's , and attempted without success to pursue careers as freelance models . Keeler also lived for short periods with various boyfriends , but regularly returned to Ward , who had acquired a house in Wimpole Mews . There she met many of Ward 's friends , among them Lord Astor , a long @-@ time patient who was also a political ally of Profumo . She often spent weekends at a riverside cottage that Ward rented on Astor 's country estate , Cliveden , in Buckinghamshire .
= = = Ward and Ivanov = = =
Stephen Ward , born in Hertfordshire in 1912 , qualified as an osteopath in the United States . After the Second World War he began practising in Cavendish Square , London , where he rapidly established a reputation and attracted many distinguished patients . These connections , together with his personal charm , brought him considerable social success . In his spare time Ward attended art classes at the Slade school , and developed a profitable sideline in portrait sketches . In 1960 he was commissioned by The Illustrated London News to provide a series of portraits of national and international figures . These included members of the Royal family , among them Prince Philip and Princess Margaret .
Ward hoped to visit the Soviet Union to draw portraits of Russian leaders . To help him , one of his patients , the Daily Telegraph editor Sir Colin Coote , arranged an introduction to Yevgeny Ivanov ( anglicised as " Eugene " ) , listed as a naval attaché at the Soviet Embassy . British Intelligence ( MI5 ) knew from the double @-@ agent Oleg Penkovsky that Ivanov was an intelligence officer in the Soviet GRU . Ward and Ivanov became firm friends . Ivanov frequently visited Ward at Wimpole Mews , where he met Keeler and Rice @-@ Davis , and sometimes joined Ward 's weekend parties at the Cliveden cottage . MI5 considered Ivanov a potential defector , and sought Ward 's help to this end , providing him with a case officer known as " Woods " . Ward was later used by the British Foreign Office as a backchannel , through Ivanov , to the Soviet Union , and was involved in unofficial diplomacy at the time of the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis . His closeness to Ivanov raised concerns about his loyalty ; according to Lord Denning 's September 1963 report , Ivanov often asked Ward questions about British foreign policy , and Ward did his best to provide answers .
= = Origins = =
= = = Cliveden , July 1961 = = =
During the weekend of 8 – 9 July 1961 Keeler was among several guests of Ward at the Cliveden cottage . That same weekend , at the main house , John and Valerie Profumo were among the large gathering from the worlds of politics and the arts which Astor was hosting in honour of Ayub Khan , the president of Pakistan . On the Saturday evening , Ward 's and Astor 's parties mingled at the Cliveden swimming pool , which Ward and his guests had permission to use . Keeler , who had been swimming naked , was introduced to Profumo while trying to cover herself with a skimpy towel . She was , Profumo informed his son many years later , " a very pretty girl and very sweet " . Keeler did not know , initially , who Profumo was , but was impressed that he was the husband of a famous film star and was prepared to have " a bit of fun " with him .
The next afternoon the two parties reconvened at the pool , joined by Ivanov , who had arrived that morning . There followed what Lord Denning described as " a light @-@ hearted and frolicsome bathing party , where everyone was in bathing costumes and nothing indecent took place at all " . Profumo was greatly attracted to Keeler , and promised to be in touch with her . Ward asked Ivanov to accompany Keeler back to London where , according to Keeler , they had sex . Most commentators doubt this — Keeler was generally outspoken about her conquests , yet said nothing about sex with Ivanov until she informed a newspaper 18 months later .
On 12 July Ward reported on the weekend 's events to MI5 . He told Woods that Ivanov and Profumo had met and that the latter had shown considerable interest in Keeler . Ward also stated that he had been asked by Ivanov for information about the future arming of West Germany with atomic weapons . This request for military information did not greatly disturb MI5 , who expected a GRU officer to ask such questions . Profumo 's interest in Keeler was an unwelcome complication in their plans to use her in a honey trap operation against Ivanov , to help secure his defection . Woods therefore referred the issue to MI5 's director @-@ general , Sir Roger Hollis .
= = = Affair = = =
A few days after the Cliveden weekend , Profumo contacted Keeler . The affair that ensued was brief ; some commentators have suggested that it ended after a few weeks , while others believe that it continued , with decreasing fervour , until December 1961 . The relationship has been characterised by Keeler as an unromantic relationship without expectations , a " screw of convenience " , although she also states that Profumo hoped for a longer @-@ term commitment and that he offered to set her up in a flat . More than 20 years later , Profumo described Keeler in conversation with his son as someone who " seem [ ed ] to like sexual intercourse " , but who was " completely uneducated " , with no conversation beyond make @-@ up , hair and gramophone records .
The couple usually met at Wimpole Mews , when Ward was absent , although once , when Hobson was away , Profumo took Keeler to his home at Chester Terrace in Regent 's Park . On one occasion he borrowed a Bentley from his ministerial colleague John Hare and took Keeler for a drive around London , and another time the couple had a drink with Viscount Ward , the former Secretary of State for Air . During their time together , Profumo gave Keeler a few small presents , and once , a sum of £ 20 as a gift for her mother . Keeler maintains that although Stephen Ward asked her to obtain information from Profumo about the deployment of nuclear weapons , she did not do so . Profumo was equally adamant that no such discussions took place .
On 9 August Profumo was interviewed informally by Sir Norman Brook , the Cabinet Secretary , who had been advised by Hollis of Profumo 's involvement with the Ward circle . Brook warned the minister of the dangers of mixing with Ward 's group , since MI5 were at this stage unsure of Ward 's dependability . It is possible that Brook asked Profumo to help MI5 in its efforts to secure Ivanov 's defection — a request which Profumo declined . Although Brook did not indicate knowledge of Profumo 's relationship with Keeler , Profumo may have suspected that he knew . That same day , Profumo wrote Keeler a letter , beginning " Darling ... " , cancelling an assignation they had made for the following day . Some commentators have assumed that this letter ended the association ; Keeler insists that the affair ended later , after her persistent refusals to stop living with Ward .
= = Developing scandal = =
= = = Gordon and Edgecombe = = =
In October 1961 Keeler accompanied Ward to Notting Hill , then a run @-@ down district of London replete with West Indian music clubs and cannabis dealers . At the Rio Café they encountered Aloysius " Lucky " Gordon , a Jamaican jazz singer with a history of violence and petty crime . He and Keeler embarked on an affair which , in her own accounts , was marked by equal measures of violence and tenderness on his part . Gordon became very possessive towards Keeler , jealous of her other social contacts . He began confronting her friends , and often telephoned her at unsocial hours . In November Keeler left Wimpole Mews and moved to a flat in Dolphin Square , overlooking the Thames at Pimlico , where she entertained friends and perhaps clients . When Gordon continued to harass her he was arrested by the police and charged with assault . Keeler later agreed to drop the charge .
In July 1962 the first inklings of a possible Profumo @-@ Keeler @-@ Ivanov triangle had been hinted , in coded terms , in the gossip column of the society magazine Queen . Under the heading " Sentences I 'd like to hear the end of " appeared the wording : " ... called in MI5 because every time the chauffeur @-@ driven Zils drew up at her front door , out of her back door into a chauffeur @-@ driven Humber slipped ... " Keeler was then in New York with Rice @-@ Davies , in an abortive attempt to launch their modelling careers there . On her return , to counter Gordon 's threats , Keeler formed a relationship with Johnny Edgecombe , an ex @-@ merchant seaman from Antigua , with whom she lived for a while in Brentford , just west of London . Edgecombe was similarly possessive ; he and Gordon clashed violently on 27 October 1962 , when Edgecombe slashed his rival with a knife . Keeler broke with Edgecombe shortly afterwards because of his domineering behaviour .
On 14 December 1962 Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies were together at 17 Wimpole Mews when Edgecombe arrived , demanding to see Keeler . When he was not allowed in , he fired several shots at the front door . Shortly afterwards Edgecombe was arrested and charged with attempted murder and other offences . In brief press accounts , Keeler was described as " a free @-@ lance model " and " Miss Marilyn Davies " as " an actress " . In the wake of the incident , Keeler began to talk indiscreetly about Ward , Profumo , Ivanov and the Edgecombe shooting . Among those to whom she told her story was John Lewis , a former Labour MP whom she had met by chance in a night club . Lewis , a long @-@ standing enemy of Ward , passed the information to his one @-@ time parliamentary colleague George Wigg , who began his own investigation .
= = = Mounting pressures = = =
On 22 January 1963 the Soviet government , sensing a possible scandal , recalled Ivanov . Aware of increasing public interest , Keeler attempted to sell her story to the national newspapers . The Radcliffe tribunal 's ongoing inquiry into press behaviour during the Vassall case was making newspapers nervous , and only two showed interest in Keeler 's story : the Sunday Pictorial and the News of the World . As the latter would not join an auction , Keeler accepted the Pictorial 's offer of a £ 200 down payment and a further £ 800 when the story was published . The paper retained a copy of the " Darling " letter . The News of the World then alerted Ward and Astor — whose names had been mentioned by Keeler — and they in turn informed Profumo . When Profumo 's lawyers tried to persuade Keeler not to publish , the compensation she demanded was so large that Profumo 's lawyers considered charges of extortion . Ward informed the Pictorial that Keeler 's story was largely false , and that he and others would sue if it was printed , whereupon the paper withdrew its offer , although Keeler kept the £ 200 .
Keeler then gave details of her affair with Profumo to a police officer , who did not pass on this information to MI5 or the legal authorities . By this time , many of Profumo 's political colleagues had heard rumours of his entanglement , and of the existence of a potentially incriminating letter . Nevertheless , his denials were accepted by the government 's principal law officers and the Conservative Chief Whip , although with some private scepticism . Macmillan , mindful of the injustice done to Galbraith on the basis of rumours , was determined to support his minister , and took no action .
Edgecombe 's trial began on 14 March but Keeler , one of the Crown 's key witnesses , was missing . She had , without informing the court , gone to Spain , although at this stage her whereabouts were unknown . Her unexplained absence caused a press sensation . Every newspaper knew the rumours linking Keeler with Profumo , but refrained from reporting any direct connection ; in the wake of the Radcliffe inquiry they were , in Wigg 's later words , " willing to wound but afraid to strike " . They could only hint , by front @-@ page juxtapositions of stories and photographs , that Profumo might be connected to Keeler 's disappearance . Despite her absence the judge proceeded with the case ; Edgecombe was found guilty on a lesser charge of possessing a firearm with intent to endanger life , and sentenced to seven years ' imprisonment . A few days after the trial , on 21 March , the satirical magazine Private Eye printed the most detailed summary so far of the rumours , with the main characters lightly disguised : " Mr James Montesi " , " Miss Gaye Funloving " , " Dr Spook " and " Vladimir Bolokhov " .
= = = Personal statement = = =
The newly elected leader of the opposition Labour Party , Harold Wilson , was initially advised by his colleagues to have nothing to do with Wigg 's private dossier on the Profumo rumours . On 21 March , with the press furore over the " missing witness " at its height , the party changed its stance . During a House of Commons debate , Wigg used parliamentary privilege to ask the Home Secretary to categorically deny the truth of rumours connecting " a minister " to Keeler , Rice @-@ Davies and the Edgecombe shooting . He did not name Profumo , who was not in the House . Later in the debate Barbara Castle , the Labour MP for Blackburn , referred to the " missing witness " and hinted at a possible perversion of justice . The Home Secretary , Henry Brooke , refused to comment , adding that Wigg and Castle should " seek other means of making these insinuations if they are prepared to substantiate them " .
At the conclusion of the debate the government 's law officers and Chief Whip met , and decided that Profumo should assert his innocence in a personal statement to the House . Such statements are , by long @-@ standing tradition , made on the particular honour of the member and are accepted by the House without question . In the early hours of 22 March Profumo and his lawyers met with ministers and together agreed an appropriate wording . Later that morning Profumo made his statement to a crowded House . He acknowledged friendships with Keeler and Ward , the former of whom , he said , he had last seen in December 1961 . He had met " a Mr Ivanov " twice , also in 1961 . He stated : " There was no impropriety whatsoever in my acquaintanceship with Miss Keeler " , and added : " I shall not hesitate to issue writs for libel and slander if scandalous allegations are made or repeated outside the House . " That afternoon , Profumo was photographed at Sandown Park Racecourse in the company of the Queen Mother .
While officially the matter was considered closed , many individual MPs had doubts , although none openly expressed disbelief at this stage . Wigg later said that he left the House that morning " with black rage in my heart because I knew what the facts were . I knew the truth . " Most newspapers were editorially non @-@ committal ; only The Guardian , under the headline " Mr Profumo clears the air " , stated openly that the statement should be taken at its face value . Within a few days press attention was distracted by the re @-@ emergence of Keeler , in Madrid . She expressed astonishment at the fuss her absence had caused , adding that her friendship with Profumo and his wife was entirely innocent and that she had many friends in important positions . She claimed that she had not deliberately missed the Edgecombe trial but had been confused about the date . She was required to forfeit her recognizance of £ 40 , but no other action was taken against her .
= = Exposure = =
= = = Investigation and resignation = = =
Shortly after Profumo 's Commons statement , Ward appeared on Independent Television News , where he endorsed Profumo 's version and dismissed all rumours and insinuations as " baseless " . Ward 's own activities had become a matter of official concern , and on 1 April the Metropolitan Police began to investigate his affairs . They interviewed 140 of his friends , associates and patients , maintained a 24 @-@ hour watch on his home , and tapped his telephone — this last action requiring direct authorisation from Brooke . Among those who gave statements was Keeler , who contradicted her earlier assurances and confirmed her sexual relationship with Profumo , providing corroborative details of the interior of the Chester Terrace house . The police put pressure on reluctant witnesses ; Rice @-@ Davies was remanded to Holloway Prison for a driving licence offence and held there for eight days until she agreed to testify against Ward . Meanwhile , Profumo was awarded costs and £ 50 damages against the British distributors of an Italian magazine that had printed a story hinting at his guilt . He donated the proceeds to an army charity . This did not deter Private Eye from including " Sextus Profano " in their parody of Gibbon 's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire .
On 18 April Keeler was attacked at the home of a friend . She accused Gordon , who was arrested and held . According to Knightley and Kennedy 's account , the police offered to drop the charges if Gordon would testify against Ward , but he refused . The effects of the police inquiry were proving ruinous to Ward , whose practice was collapsing rapidly . On 7 May he met Macmillan 's private secretary , Timothy Bligh , to ask that the police inquiry into his affairs be halted . He added that he had been covering for Profumo , whose Commons statement was substantially false . Bligh took notes but failed to take action . On 19 May Ward wrote to Brooke , with essentially the same request as that to Bligh , to be told that the Home Secretary had no power to interfere with the police inquiry . Ward then gave details to the press , but no paper would print the story . He also wrote to Wilson , who showed the letter to Macmillan . Although privately disdainful of Wilson 's motives , after discussions with Hollis the prime minister was sufficiently concerned about Ward 's general activities to ask the Lord Chancellor , Lord Dilhorne , to inquire into possible security breaches .
On 31 May , at the start of the parliamentary Whitsun recess , the Profumos flew to Venice for a short holiday . At their hotel they received a message asking him to return as soon as possible . Believing that his bluff had been called , Profumo then told his wife the truth , and they decided to return immediately . They found that Macmillan was on holiday in Scotland . On Tuesday 4 June Profumo confessed the truth to Bligh , confirming that he had lied , and resigned from the government and from Parliament . Bligh informed Macmillan of these events by telephone . The resignation was announced on 5 June , when the formal exchange of letters between Profumo and Macmillan was published . The Times called Profumo 's lies " a great tragedy for the probity of public life in Britain " ; the Daily Mail recorded Profumo 's fall and disgrace as the price required when public figures fell short of the expected standards of integrity . The Daily Mirror hinted that not all the truth had been told , and referred to " skeletons in many cupboards " .
= = = Retribution = = =
Gordon 's trial for the attack on Keeler began on the day Profumo 's resignation was made public . He maintained that his innocence would be established by two witnesses who , the police told the court , could not be found . On 7 June , principally on the evidence of Keeler , Gordon was found guilty and sentenced to three years ' imprisonment . The following day , Ward was arrested and charged with immorality offences . On 9 June , freed from Profumo 's libel threats , The News of the World published " The Confessions of Christine " , an account which helped to fashion the public image of Ward as a sexual predator and probable tool of the Soviets . The Sunday Mirror ( formerly the Sunday Pictorial ) printed Profumo 's " Darling " letter .
In advance of the House of Commons debate on Profumo 's resignation , due 17 June , David Watt in The Spectator defined Macmillan 's position as " an intolerable dilemma from which he can only escape by being proved either ludicrously naïve or incompetent or deceitful — or all three " . Meanwhile , the press speculated about possible Cabinet resignations , and several ministers felt it necessary to demonstrate their loyalty to the prime minister . In a BBC interview on 13 June Lord Hailsham , holder of several ministerial offices , denounced Profumo in a manner which , according to The Observer 's reporter , " had to be seen to be believed " . Hailsham insisted that " a great party is not to be brought down because of a squalid affair between a woman of easy virtue and a proven liar " .
In the debate , Wilson concentrated almost exclusively on the extent to which the prime minister and his colleagues had been dilatory in not identifying a clear security risk arising from Profumo 's association with Ward and his circle . Macmillan responded that he should not be held culpable for believing a colleague who had repeatedly asserted his innocence . He mentioned the false allegations against Galbraith , and the failure of the security services to share their detailed information with him . In the general debate the sexual aspects of the scandal were fully discussed ; Nigel Birch , the Conservative MP for West Flintshire , referred to Keeler as a " professional prostitute " and asked rhetorically : " What are whores about ? " Keeler was otherwise branded a " tart " and a " poor little slut " . Ward was vilified throughout as a likely Soviet agent ; one Conservative referred to " the treason of Dr Ward " . Most Conservatives , whatever their reservations , were supportive of Macmillan , with only Birch suggesting that he should consider retirement . In the subsequent vote on the government 's handling of the affair , 27 Conservatives abstained , reducing the government 's majority to 69 . Most newspapers considered the extent of the defection significant , and several forecast that Macmillan would soon resign .
After the parliamentary debate , newspapers published further sensational stories , hinting at widespread immorality within Britain 's governing class . A story emanating from Rice @-@ Davies concerned a naked masked man , who acted as a waiter at sex parties ; rumours suggested that he was a cabinet minister , or possibly a member of the Royal Family . Malcolm Muggeridge in the Sunday Mirror wrote of " The Slow , Sure Death of the Upper Classes " . On 21 June Macmillan instructed Lord Denning , the Master of the Rolls , to investigate and report on the growing range of rumours . Ward 's committal proceedings began a week later , at Marylebone magistrates ' court , where the Crown 's evidence was fully reported in the press . Ward was committed for trial on charges of " living off the earnings of prostitution " and " procuration of girl under twenty @-@ one " , and released on bail .
With the Ward case now sub judice , the press pursued related stories . The People reported that Scotland Yard had begun an inquiry , in parallel with Denning 's , into " homosexual practices as well as sexual laxity " among civil servants , military officers and MPs . On 24 June the Daily Mirror , under a banner heading " Prince Philip and the Profumo Scandal " , dismissed what it termed the " foul rumour " that the prince had been involved in the affair , without disclosing the nature of the rumour .
Ward 's trial began at the Old Bailey on 28 July . He was charged with living off the earnings of Keeler , Rice @-@ Davies and two other prostitutes , and with procuring women under 21 to have sex with other persons . The thrust of the prosecution 's case related to Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies , and turned on whether the small contributions to household expenses or loan repayments they had given to Ward while living with him amounted to his living off their prostitution . Ward 's approximate income at the time , from his practice and from his portraiture , had been around £ 5 @,@ 500 a year , a substantial sum at that time . In his speeches and examination of witnesses , the prosecuting counsel Mervyn Griffith @-@ Jones portrayed Ward as representing " the very depths of lechery and depravity " . The judge , Sir Archie Marshall , was equally hostile , drawing particular attention to the fact that none of Ward 's supposed society friends had been prepared to speak up for him . Towards the end of the trial , news came that Gordon 's conviction for assault had been overturned ; Marshall did not disclose to the jury that Gordon 's witnesses had turned up and testified that Keeler , a key prosecution witness against Ward , had given false evidence at Gordon 's trial .
After listening to Marshall 's damning summing @-@ up , on the evening of 30 July Ward took an overdose of sleeping tablets and was taken to hospital . On the next day he was found guilty in absentia on the charges relating to Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies , and acquitted on the other counts . Sentence was postponed until Ward was fit to appear , but on 3 August he died without regaining consciousness .
= = Aftermath = =
Lord Denning 's report was awaited with great anticipation by the public . Published on 26 September , it concluded that there had been no security leaks in the Profumo affair and that the security services and government ministers had acted appropriately . Profumo had been guilty of an " indiscretion " , but no one could doubt his loyalty . Denning also found no evidence to link members of the government with associated scandals such as the " man in the mask " . He laid most of the blame for the affair on Ward , an " utterly immoral " man whose diplomatic activities were " misconceived and misdirected " . Although The Spectator considered that the report marked the end of the affair , many commentators were disappointed with its content . Young found many questions unanswered and some of the reasoning defective , while Davenport @-@ Hines , writing long after the event , condemns the report as disgraceful , slipshod and prurient .
After the Denning Report , in defiance of general expectations that he would resign shortly , Macmillan announced his intention to stay on . On the eve of the Conservative Party 's annual conference in October 1963 he fell ill ; his condition was less serious than he imagined , and his life was not in danger but , convinced he had cancer , he resigned abruptly . His successor as prime minister was Lord Home , who renounced his peerage and served as Sir Alec Douglas @-@ Home . In the October 1964 general election the Conservative Party was narrowly defeated , and Wilson became prime minister . A later commentator opined that the Profumo affair had destroyed the old , aristocratic Conservative party : " It wouldn 't be too much to say that the Profumo scandal was the necessary prelude to the new Toryism , based on meritocracy , which would eventually emerge under Margaret Thatcher " . The Economist suggested that the Profumo affair had effected a fundamental and permanent change in relations between politicians and press . Davenport @-@ Hines posits a longer @-@ term consequence of the affair — the gradual ending of traditional notions of deference : " Authority , however disinterested , well @-@ qualified and experienced , was [ after June 1963 ] increasingly greeted with suspicion rather than trust " .
After expressing his " deep remorse " to the prime minister , to his constituents and to the Conservative Party , Profumo disappeared from public view . In April 1964 he began working as a volunteer at the Toynbee Hall settlement , a charitable organisation based in Spitalfields which supports the most deprived residents in the East End of London . Profumo continued his association with the settlement for the remainder of his life , at first in a menial capacity , then as administrator , fund @-@ raiser , council member , chairman and finally president . His charitable work was recognised when he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 1975 . He was later described by Margaret Thatcher as a national hero , and was a guest at her 80th birthday celebrations in 2005 . His marriage to Valerie Hobson endured until her death in 1998 ; Profumo died , aged 90 , on 9 March 2006 .
In December 1963 Keeler admitted her perjury at Gordon 's June trial , and subsequently served six months in prison . Since then , after two brief failed marriages which produced two children , she has largely lived alone . Most of the considerable amount she made from newspaper stories was dissipated by lawyers ; during the 1970s , she said , " I was not living , I was surviving . " She has published several inconsistent accounts of her life , in which Ward has been variously represented as a " gentleman " , her truest love , a Soviet spy , and a traitor ranking alongside Philby , Burgess and Maclean . She has also claimed that Profumo impregnated her and that she subsequently underwent a painful abortion . Her portrait , by Ward , was acquired by the National Portrait Gallery in 1984 . Rice @-@ Davies enjoyed a more successful post @-@ scandal career , as nightclub owner , businesswoman , minor actress and novelist . She was married three times , in what she described as her " slow descent into respectability " . Of adverse press publicity she observed : " Like royalty , I simply do not complain " . Mandy Rice @-@ Davies died in December 2014 , aged 70 .
Ward 's role on behalf of MI5 was confirmed in 1982 , when the Sunday Times located his former contact " Woods " . Although Denning always asserted that Ward 's trial and conviction were fair and proper , most commentators believe that it was deeply flawed — an " historical injustice " according to Davenport @-@ Hines , who argues that the trial was an act of political revenge . One High Court judge said privately that he would have stopped the trial before it reached the jury . The human rights lawyer Geoffrey Robertson has campaigned for the case to be reopened on several grounds , including the premature scheduling of the trial , lack of evidence to support the main charges , and various misdirections by the trial judge in his summing up . Above all , the judge failed to advise the jury of the evidence revealed in the Gordon appeal that Keeler , the prosecution 's chief witness against Ward , had committed perjury at the Gordon trial . In January 2014 Ward 's case was being considered by the Criminal Cases Review Commission , which has the power to investigate suspected miscarriages of justice and refer cases to the Court of Appeal .
After his recall in January 1963 , Ivanov disappeared for several decades . In 1992 his memoirs , The Naked Spy , were serialised in The Sunday Times . When this account was challenged by Profumo 's lawyers , the publishers removed offending material . In August 2015 the i on Saturday newspaper published a preview of a forthcoming history of Soviet intelligence activities , by Jonathan Haslam . This book suggests that the relationship between Ivanov and Profumo was closer than the latter has admitted . It is alleged that Ivanov visited Profumo 's home , and that such was the slackness of security arrangements that the Russian was able to photograph sensitive documents left lying about in the minister 's study .
Keeler describes meeting Ivanov in Moscow , in 1993 ; she also records that he died the following year . Astor was deeply upset at finding himself under police investigation , and by the social ostracism that followed the Ward trial . After his death in 1966 Cliveden was sold . It became first the property of Stanford University , and later a luxury hotel . Rachman , who had first come to public notice as a sometime boyfriend of Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies , was revealed as an unscrupulous slum landlord ; the word " Rachmanism " entered English dictionaries as the standard term for landlords who exploit or intimidate their tenants .
= = Dramatisations = =
There have been several dramatised versions of the Profumo affair . The 1989 film Scandal featured Ian McKellen as Profumo and John Hurt as Ward . It was favourably reviewed , but the revival of interest in the affair upset the Profumo family . The focus of Hugh Whitemore 's play A Letter of Resignation , first staged at the Comedy Theatre in October 1997 , was Macmillan 's reactions to Profumo 's resignation letter , which he received while on holiday in Scotland . Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical Stephen Ward opened at London 's Aldwych Theatre on 3 December 2013 . Among generally favourable reviews , the Daily Telegraph 's critic recommended the production as " sharp , funny – and , at times , genuinely touching " . Robertson records that the script is " remarkably faithful to the facts " .
= Peter Lumsden =
General Sir Peter Stark Lumsden GCB CSI DL ( 9 November 1829 – 9 November 1918 ) was a British military officer who served in India . Born in Belhelvie , Aberdeenshire , he was the fourth son of Colonel Thomas Lumsden CB . He studied at Addiscombe Military Seminary , before officially joining military service as an ensign in the 60th Bengal Native Infantry in 1847 . From 1852 to 1857 he served on the North @-@ West Frontier , where , among other activities , he participated in the suppression of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the capture of Tantya Tope in 1859 .
Following his time on the North @-@ West Frontier , Lumsden served as quartermaster general in 1860 during the Second Opium War , where he participated in the capture of both Tang @-@ ku and the Taku Forts . He was promoted to brevet @-@ lieutenant @-@ colonel , before giving his final act of military service in the Bhutan War of 1865 . He was promoted again to Adjutant @-@ General of the Indian Army in 1874 , and also acted as aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Victoria for eleven years .
In 1883 , Lumsden was awarded a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath and was appointed as a commissioner on the Council of India for 10 years . He represented Britain a year later at the Anglo @-@ Russian Commission for the demarcation of the north @-@ west boundary of Afghanistan , then acted as British representative on the Afghan Frontier Commission . After retiring from military service in 1893 , Lumsden served as a justice of the peace in his home county of Aberdeenshire , before dying on his 89th birthday , 9 November 1918 , in Dufftown , Banffshire .
= = Life and military career = =
= = = Early life and North @-@ West Frontier = = =
Peter Stark Lumsden was born at Belhelvie Lodge , Belhelvie , Aberdeenshire , on 9 November 1829 . He was trained at Addiscombe Military Seminary from the age of 20 , and entered the East India Company 's Bengal Army in 1847 as an ensign in the 60th Bengal Native Infantry . Between 1852 and 1857 he served on the North @-@ West Frontier in five expeditions against native tribes : the Mohmunds , the Ootman Khel , the Bori Afridis and the Miranzais . He was mentioned in despatches five times and awarded the special thanks of the Local and supreme Governments . From 1857 to 1858 he accompanied a special peace @-@ finding mission to Kandahar with his brother Harry Lumsden . He received thanks from the Government for his work , but returned to India to take part in the suppression of the Indian Mutiny . Lumsden next joined the Central India Field Force at Gwalior under General Sir Robert Napier , and , as assistant quartermaster general under Major @-@ General Hugh Rose , shared in the pursuit and capture of Tantya Tope in 1859 , when he was again mentioned in despatches .
= = = Second Opium War and Bhutan War = = =
Lumsden 's next period of active service was as quartermaster general on the staff of General Napier , who commanded the 2nd division of the expeditionary force to China during the Second Opium War , in 1860 . Lumsden took part in the operations of the Anglo @-@ French forces , including the action of Sin @-@ ho , the capture of Tang @-@ ku and the capture of the Taku Forts that led up to the advance on and occupation of Beijing . He was again mentioned in despatches and promoted to brevet @-@ Major and then brevet @-@ lieutenant @-@ colonel .
The final spell of active service in Lumsden 's military career was in the Bhutan War of 1865 : his later employment was on the staff and in political posts . He was deputy quartermaster general from 1864 to 1868 , and quartermaster general of the Indian Army from 1868 to 1873 . He was Acting Resident in Hyderabad , 1873 , and Adjutant @-@ General , India from 1874 to 1879 , when he was appointed Chief of the Staff in India . He also served for eleven years as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Victoria .
= = = Second Anglo @-@ Afghan War = = =
Lumsden served as Chief of Staff to the commander @-@ in @-@ chief , General Sir F. P. Haines , during the Second Anglo @-@ Afghan War , for which he received the Order of the Bath . In 1884 , Lumsden returned to the North @-@ West frontier , when he was selected as British representative on the Anglo @-@ Russian Commission for the emarcation of the north @-@ west boundary of Afghanistan , but resigned and returned to England in 1885 after the Panjdeh Incident . He left London to represent the British at negotiations with Russia in selecting the Afghan Frontier Commission to determine the Afghan boundary .
Lumsden was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath and given a commissioner 's seat on the Council of India , which he occupied for a 10 @-@ year tenure from 1883 . In 1885 he wrote " Countries and Tribes Bordering on the Koh @-@ i @-@ Baba Range " , an article for the seventh volume of the journal Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography .
= = = Later life = = =
Following completion of his tenure on the Council of India , Lumsden retired from military service in 1893 . He was placed on the Unemployed Supernumerary List three years later and settled down on Buchromb , an estate that he had purchased near Dufftown . During this time he co @-@ wrote Lumsden of the Guides with G. R. Elsmie . The book detailed the role that his brother , Harry Burnett Lumsden , had played in founding The Corps of the Guides , a regiment of the British Indian Army . He identified himself with local affairs and served as a justice of the peace and as Deputy Lieutenant for Banffshire and Aberdeenshire . Lumsden died on 9 November 1918 in his estate at Dufftown , Banffshire .
= = Family = =
Lumsden was married to Mary Marriott in 1862 . His father was Colonel Thomas Lumsden CB , with one of his three older brothers being Harry Burnett Lumsden . Thomas Lumsden was a distinguished officer of the Bengal Horse Artillery who had served in the Nepal Campaign of 1814 and at the Siege of Hatrass and the capture of Kalunga in 1817 . Thomas was himself the son of Harry Lumsden , an advocate in Aberdeen who had bought an estate at Belhelvie . He returned home on leave from the Bengal Army in 1819 to marry Hay Burnett of Elrick , and went on to serve another 23 years in India before retiring to Belhelvie in 1842 . They had a total of six sons , of whom three emigrated to Canada and two ( Harry and Peter ) followed in their father 's footsteps by pursuing military careers in India .
= Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion =
Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion is a 1944 triptych painted by the Irish @-@ born British artist Francis Bacon . The canvasses are based on the Eumenides — or Furies — of Aeschylus 's Oresteia , and depict three writhing anthropomorphic creatures set against a flat burnt orange background . It was executed in oil paint and pastel on Sundeala fibre board and completed within two weeks .
The triptych summarises themes explored in Bacon 's previous work , including his examination of Picasso 's biomorphs and his interpretations of the Crucifixion and the Greek Furies . Bacon did not realise his original intention to paint a large crucifixion scene and place the figures at the foot of the cross .
The Three Studies are generally considered Bacon 's first mature piece ; he regarded his works before the triptych as irrelevant , and throughout his life tried to suppress their appearance on the art market . When the painting was first exhibited in 1945 it caused a sensation and established him as one of the foremost post @-@ war painters . Remarking on the cultural significance of Three Studies , the critic John Russell observed in 1971 that " there was painting in England before the Three Studies , and painting after them , and no one ... can confuse the two " .
= = Background = =
As an artist , Francis Bacon was a late starter . He painted sporadically and without commitment during the late 1920s and early 1930s , when he worked as an interior decorator and designer of furniture and rugs . He later admitted that his career was delayed because he had spent so long looking for a subject that would sustain his interest . He began to paint images based on the Crucifixion in 1933 , when his then @-@ patron Eric Hall commissioned a series of three paintings based on the subject . These abstract figurations contain formal elements typical of their time , including diaphanous forms , flat backgrounds , and surrealist props such as flowers and umbrellas . The art critic Wieland Schmied noted that while the early works are " aesthetically pleasing " , they lack " a sense of urgency or inner necessity ; they are beautiful , but lifeless " . The sentiment is echoed by Hugh Davies , who wrote that Bacon 's 1933 paintings " suggest an artist concentrating more on formal than on expressive concerns " . Bacon admitted that his early works were not successful ; they were merely decorative and lacking in substance . He was often harshly self @-@ critical during this period , and would abandon or destroy canvasses before they were completed . He abandoned the Crucifixion theme , then largely withdrew from painting in frustration , instead immersing himself in love affairs , drinking and gambling .
When he returned to the topic of the Crucifixion eleven years later , he retained some of the stylistic elements he had developed earlier , such as the elongated and dislocated organic forms that he now based on Oresteia . He continued to incorporate the spatial device he was to use many times throughout his career — three lines radiating from this central figure , which was first seen in Crucifixion , 1933 . Three Studies was painted over the course of two weeks in 1944 , when , Bacon recalled , " I was in a bad mood of drinking , and I did it under tremendous hangovers and drink ; I sometimes hardly knew what I was doing . I think perhaps the drink helped me to be a bit freer . " The painting was executed in a ground @-@ floor flat at 7 Cromwell Place , South Kensington in London . A large back room in the building had been converted into a billiard room by its previous occupant , artist John Everett Millais . It was Bacon 's studio by day ; at night , abetted by Eric Hall and Bacon 's childhood nanny Jessie Lightfoot , it functioned as an illicit casino .
Although he had been painting for almost twenty years , Bacon steadfastly insisted that Three Studies was the fons et origo of his career . He destroyed many of his earlier canvasses , and tried to suppress those that had left his studio . Bacon was emphatic that no pre @-@ 1944 images be admitted into his canon , and most of the early art critics agreed with this position . The early publications of John Russell and David Sylvester open with the 1944 triptych , and Bacon insisted to his death that no retrospective should feature paintings pre @-@ dating 1944 .
= = The triptych = =
The panels of Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion are painted on light Sundeala boards , a material Bacon was using at the time as an inexpensive alternative to canvas . Each bears a single taut sculptural form pitched against a harsh orange background . The orange hue displays inconsistently across the canvasses , due in part to the low level of oil in the paint , which resulted in varying rates of absorption into the board . The pallid flesh tones of the figures were achieved by overlaying grey and white brushstrokes , while the figures ' props were coloured using a variety of yellow , green , white , and purple tones .
The art critic Hugh Davies has suggested that of the three figures , that on the left most closely resembles a human form , and that it might represent a mourner at the cross . Seated on a table @-@ like structure , this limbless creature has an elongated neck , heavily rounded shoulders , and a thick mop of dark hair . Like its sister objects , the left @-@ hand figure is portrayed with layers of white and grey paint . The central figure 's mouth is positioned directly on its neck , rather than on a distinct face . It bares its teeth as if in a snarl , and is blindfolded by a drooping cloth bandage — a device likely drawn from Matthias Grünewald 's Mocking of Christ . This creature faces the viewer directly and is centralised by a series of converging lines radiating from the base of the pedestal .
Situated on an isolated patch of grass , the right @-@ hand figure 's toothed mouth is stretched open as if screaming , although David Sylvester has suggested that it may be yawning . Its mouth is open to a degree impossible for a human skull . The orange background of this panel is brighter than the hues rendered in the other frames , and the figure 's neck opens up into a row of teeth , while a protruding ear juts out from behind its lower jaw . This panel closely resembles an earlier painting by Bacon , Untitled , c . 1943 , which was thought destroyed until it re @-@ emerged in 1997 .
Inspection under infrared has revealed that the panels were heavily reworked during a number of revisions . The legs of the central figure are surrounded by small magenta horseshoe shapes , which infrared shows to have been first drafted as flowers . The area below the head is thickly coated with white and orange paint , while the inspection exposes a series of underlying curved brushstrokes used to compose a landscape , and a small distant reclining figure . When the canvas is unframed , a number of measuring marks are visible on the outer margin of board , indicating that the composition was carefully conceived .
Bacon said in a 1959 letter that the figures in Three Studies were " intended to [ be ] use [ d ] at the base of a large Crucifixion which I may still do . " By this , Bacon implied that the figures were conceived as a predella to a larger altarpiece . The biographer Michael Peppiatt has suggested that the panels may have emerged as single works , and that the idea of combining them as a triptych came later . There is little in the themes or styles of the three panels to suggest that they were originally conceived as a whole . Though they share the same orange background , Bacon had already used this colour in two prior pieces ; moreover , his oeuvre can be characterized
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by periods that are dominated by a single background colour . From the beginning of his career , Bacon preferred to work in series and found that his imagination was stimulated by sequences ; as he put it , " images breed other images in me . "
The Crucifixion itself is conspicuously absent , and there is no trace or shadow of its presence in the panels . Writing in 1996 , Wieland Schmied noted that the three Furies have replaced Christ and the two thieves crucified on either side of him . The form of the Furies is borrowed directly from Picasso 's late 1920s and mid @-@ 1930s pictures of biomorphs on beaches , in particular from the Spanish artist 's The Bathers ( 1937 ) . However , the eroticism and comedy of Picasso 's figures have been replaced by a sense of menace and terror derived in part from Matthias Grünewald 's Mocking of Christ .
= = Themes and style = =
Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion is a key precursor to Bacon 's later work , and he sustained its formal and thematic preoccupations throughout his career . The triptych format , the placement of figures behind glass in heavily gilded frames , the open mouth , the use of painterly distortion , the Furies , and the theme of the Crucifixion were all to reappear in later works . Bacon 's principal mode of expression is introduced : the subjects are anatomically and physically distorted , and the mood is violent , foreboding , and relentlessly physical . In other respects the triptych stands apart from other paintings in his oeuvre . It refers directly to its inspirations , and interprets the source material in an uncharacteristically literal manner . The triptych is further distinct in that its creatures are located in an outside space ; by 1948 , Bacon 's studies of heads and figures specifically emphasised their confinement in rooms or other closed spaces .
Although Bacon stated that he modelled the creatures on the Furies , the visual link to the sources is barely perceptible in his finished work . The mood and tone of the painting , however , is consistent with the agonized spirit of the Furies ' legend . They are traditionally depicted as ancient chthonic deities preoccupied with avenging patricide and matricide by hunting down and killing violent criminals . In Aeschylus ' The Oresteia , the title character is pursued by the Furies in revenge for the murder of his mother Clytemnestra . The saga tells the story of the decimation of the line of Atreus ; Clytemnestra had hacked to death her husband Agamemnon , and later slew Cassandra , who had foreseen the murders and declared : " Drunken , drunken with blood / To make them dare the more , a reveling rout / Is in the rooms which no man shall cast out , of sister Furies . "
Bacon did not seek to illustrate the narrative of the tale , however . He told the French art critic Michel Leiris , " I could not paint Agamemnon , Clytemnestra or Cassandra , as that would have been merely another kind of historical painting ... Therefore I tried to create an image of the effect it produced inside me . " Aeschylus ' phrase " the reek of human blood smiles out at me " in particular haunted Bacon , and his treatments of the mouth in the triptych and many subsequent paintings were attempts to visualise the sentiment . In 1985 , he observed that Aeschylus ' phrase brought up in him " the most exciting images , and I often read it ... the violence of it brings up the images in me , ' the reek of human blood smiles out at me ' , well what could be more amazing than that . "
Bacon was introduced to Aeschylus through T. S. Eliot 's 1939 play The Family Reunion , in which the protagonist Harry is haunted by " the sleepless hunters / that will not let me sleep " . In Eliot 's play , the Furies serve as embodiments of the remorse and guilt felt by Harry , who harbours a dark family secret , shared only with his sister . Bacon was captivated by Aeschylus ' play , and keen to learn more about Greek tragedy , although he said many times that he regretted being unable to read the original in Greek . In 1942 , he read the Irish scholar William Bedell Stanford 's Aeschylus in his Style , and found the theme of obsessive guilt in The Oresteia to be highly resonant . In 1984 , Bacon told Sylvester that although his painting 's subject matter did not have a direct relationship with the poet 's work , for him Eliot 's work " opened the valves of sensation " .
The mouth of the triptych 's central figure was also inspired by the nurse 's scream in film director Sergei Eisenstein 's Odessa Steps massacre sequence in The Battleship Potemkin ( 1925 ) . In 1984 , the broadcaster Melvyn Bragg confronted Bacon with a reproduction of the centre panel during the filming of a South Bank Show documentary , and observed that in his earlier career the artist seemed preoccupied with the physicality of the human mouth . Bacon replied , " I had always thought that I would be able to make the mouth with all the beauty of a Monet landscape though I never succeeded in doing so . " When Bragg asked why he thought he had failed , Bacon admitted , " It should be all much more colour , should have got more of the interior of the mouth , with all the colours of the interior of the mouth , but I didn 't happen to get it . "
Other than in Picasso 's exploration of the theme , the Crucifixion did not figure prominently in twentieth @-@ century painting . The Surrealists exploited its shock value , and it was used as a vehicle for blasphemy in isolated instances . Bacon often expressed his admiration for the manner in which old masters such as Cimabue treated the Crucifixion ; however , as with Picasso , he was more interested in tackling the subject from a secular , humanist point of view . For Three Studies , Bacon did not approach the Crucifixion as a Christian image per se , but rather found that the scene reflected a particular view of humanity he held . As he told David Sylvester : " it was just an act of man 's behaviour , a way of behaviour to another . "
The Passion of Christ became a central concern during the early development of Bacon 's work , and he returned to the subject throughout his career . When asked by critic Jean Clair why his Crucifixion scenes tended to comprise mainly " slaughter , butchery , mutilated meat and flesh " , Bacon replied , " that 's all the Crucifixion was , isn 't it ? ... Actually , you can 't think of anything more barbaric than the Crucifixion , and that particular way of killing somebody . " While Three Studies may have begun as an attempt to directly represent the Crucifixion scene , his explorations led him towards " something completely different " . Bacon came to regard the scene as an armature for exploring new ways of representing human behaviours and emotions . For him it amounted to a kind of self @-@ portraiture ; a vehicle for working on " all sorts of very private feelings about behaviour and about the way life is " .
Coming in 1944 , the triptych was often thought to be informed by the Second World War . Art critic Ziva Amishai @-@ Maisseles observes that the canvas reflects Bacon 's own confusion and ambivalence " towards manifestations of violence and power , both of which attracted and repulsed him simultaneously . "
= = Critical reaction = =
Three Studies was first shown at a joint exhibition at the Lefevre Gallery , London , in April 1945 , alongside work by Henry Moore and Graham Sutherland . Bacon was then unknown and it is likely that his painting was included at the request of Sutherland , his close friend at the time . The show opened just two months after the end of the Second World War , and John Russell has observed that the immediate post @-@ war period in British history was marked by an atmosphere of nostalgia and optimism — a sense that " everything was going to be alright , and visitors went into the Lefevre in a spirit of thanksgiving for perils honourably surmounted . "
Both the public and critics were unnerved by the sight of the work . Russell describes being shocked by " images so unrelievedly awful that the mind shut with a snap at the sight of them . Their anatomy was half @-@ human , half @-@ animal , and they were confined in a low @-@ ceilinged , windowless and oddly proportioned space . They could bite , probe , and suck , and they had very long eel @-@ like necks , but their functioning in other respects was mysterious . Ears and mouths they had , but two at least of them were sightless . " Writing for Apollo magazine , Herbert Furst recalled , " I , I must confess , was so shocked and disturbed by the Surrealism of Francis Bacon that I was glad to escape from this exhibition . Perhaps it was the red [ sic ] background that made me think of entrails , of an anatomy or a vivisection and feel squeamish . The triptych caused a sensation , and overnight turned Bacon into the most controversial painter in the country .
Reviewing for the New Statesman and Nation , Raymond Mortimer wrote that the panels " seems served from Picasso 's Crucifixion [ 1930 ] , but further distorted , with ostrich necks and button heads protruding from bags — the whole effect gloomily phallic , like Bosch without the humour . These objects are perched on stools , and depicted as if they were sculpture , as in the Picassos of 1930 . I have no doubt of Mr. Bacon 's uncommon gifts , but these pictures expressing his sense of the atrocious world into which we have survived seems [ to me ] symbols of outrage rather than works of art . If peace redresses him , he may delight as he now dismays . " Reflecting on the reaction of critics and the public , Bacon offered , " I 've never known why my paintings are known as horrible . I 'm always labelled with horror , but I never think about horror . Pleasure is such a diverse thing . And horror is too . Can you call the famous Isenheim altar a horror piece ? Its one of the greatest paintings of the Crucifixion , with the body studded with thorns like nails , but oddly enough the form is so grand it takes away from the horror . But that is the horror in the sense that it is so vitalising ; isn 't that how people came out of the great tragedies ? People came out as though purged into happiness , into a fuller reality of existence . "
More recently , the Irish author Colm Tóibín noted in 2006 that the triptych has retained its " genuinely startling " impact . Matthew Kieran wrote , in his 2005 essay on the painting , that " these frightened , blind , raging figures are visceral in their impact , jolting one into sensations of fright , horror , isolation and angst . We react to them as self @-@ conscious creatures , their postures and expressions revealing feelings of petrified isolation , searing horror , pain and blind confusion . " As of 2007 , Three Studies is part of the Tate Gallery 's permanent collection , having been donated by Bacon 's lover Eric Hall in 1953 .
= = Second Version of Triptych 1944 ( 1988 ) = =
See Second Version of Triptych 1944
Bacon often created second versions of his major paintings . In 1988 , he completed a near @-@ copy of the original Three Studies . At 78 × 58 inches ( 198 × 147 cm ) , this second version is more than twice the size of the original , and the orange background has been replaced by a blood @-@ red hue . The figures occupy a smaller proportion of the canvas than those of the 1944 version , a device which , according to the Tate Gallery 's catalogue , " plung [ es ] them into a deep void " .
Critical opinion was mixed ; the 1988 triptych drew criticism from those who felt that its more refined painting technique robbed the image of much of its power . Denis Farr suggested that while the second version 's larger scale gave it " a majestic quality which is highly effective " , its svelte presentation lessened its shock value . Critic Jonathan Meades felt that while the 1988 triptych was a more polished and painterly work , it lacked the rawness of the original .
Reflecting on Bacon 's tendency to revisit subject matter , Meades observed that " Bacon 's auto @-@ plagiarism in areas other than portraiture had less deleterious consequences . Nonetheless the 1988 version ( or near copy ) of the great 1944 Crucifixion Triptych is the lesser work : it is slicker , more polished and it evinces a greater ease with paint . The backgrounds are now elaborated , defined and bereft of the garish , grating poison orange of 1944 . " The art critic James Demetrion found that despite these differences , the second version still achieves the power and impact of the first .
= King @-@ Size Homer =
" King @-@ Size Homer " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 5 , 1995 . In the episode , Homer despises the nuclear plant 's new exercise program , and decides to gain 61 pounds ( 28 kg ) in order to claim a disability and work at home . Homer soon begins to experience the negative aspects of being obese , and his life starts falling apart .
The episode was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Jim Reardon . Joan Kenley makes her second of three guest appearances on The Simpsons in the episode as the voice of the telephone lady . It features cultural references to world 's heaviest twins , the 1993 film What 's Eating Gilbert Grape , and the soft drink Tab . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics , and Empire named it the best episode of the show . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 0 , and was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Burns organizes a morning calisthenics program at the nuclear power plant , much to everyone 's delight but to the dismay of Homer ( the only worker who hates doing five minutes of light aerobic exercise ) . After learning that someone who is disabled can work from home , and thus be excluded from the exercise program , Homer tries to find a way to achieve this goal . Homer soon discovers that any employee that weighs 300 pounds ( 136 kg ) or more qualifies as disabled , and so he decides to gain the 61 pounds he needs to reach 300 . He begins eating excessively , despite Marge and Lisa 's repeated warnings that he could seriously endanger his health . With Bart 's help , Homer soon reaches his goal , and Mr. Burns installs a stay @-@ at @-@ home work terminal in the Simpson house .
Homer is given simple responsibilities but he still neglects his responsibilities as a safety inspector by simply typing " yes " every time the system prompts him . He also discovers he can no longer fit in his clothes , and he takes up wearing a muumuu as a result . Looking for shortcuts , he leaves his terminal , with a drinking bird to press the Y key to indicate " yes " on the keyboard and goes out to see a film . Refused admission because of his size , Homer is angered after the cinema manager and other members of the public tease him about his appearances . He immediately leaves , claiming that he is not food crazy and that overweight people are as hardworking as anyone else . Returning home , he discovers in his absence that the nodding drinking bird fell over and that a nuclear meltdown is about to take place at the plant unless the system is manually shut down . As he is unable to prevent it via the computer and unable to phone the plant and warn them because his fingers have become too fat to dial properly , Homer tries to run , skateboard , and drive to the plant , all of which fail as a result of his obesity . He eventually gets to the plant by stealing an ice cream truck . Homer arrives at the power plant and climbs up to reach the manual shutdown button , but ends up accidentally falling onto the gas store , blocking the release tube with the oversized lower half of his body and thus preventing the explosion . As a reward for turning the " potential Chernobyl " into a " mere Three Mile Island " , Mr. Burns gives Homer a medal and guarantees that he will make Homer thin once more after he gets decontaminated from the tank . But when Homer could not even do one sit @-@ up in their first work @-@ out session , Mr. Burns reluctantly decides to simply pay for liposuction instead , much to Homer 's delight .
= = Production = =
" King @-@ Size Homer " was written by Dan Greaney , and directed by Jim Reardon . It was the first episode Greaney wrote for The Simpsons . Prior to this episode he was working as a lawyer and was contemplating moving to Kiev , Ukraine , to work for a start @-@ up company . He said that this episode " saved " him from doing so . Greaney pitched some ideas to the writing staff , but none of them were any good , so then @-@ show runner Bill Oakley gave him the idea for this episode . Oakley had Greaney come to Hollywood to write it , and when Greaney showed the first draft to the staff , they liked it , so Oakley hired him .
The writers wanted the title of the episode to make Homer sound proud about his weight , so they decided to name it " King @-@ Size Homer " . Greaney really enjoyed working on the episode because Homer is constantly happy and goal oriented in it , instead of being a slob and " eating all the time " . The Simpsons animator David Silverman designed the fat Homer for the episode . There was a discussion about what Homer would wear when he became fat , and they decided to go with a muumuu dress . The writers were also discussing about how they were going to treat Homer 's fatness . They did not want Homer to come off as a " hog " , so they decided that the viewer should barely see him eating after he reaches his 300 pounds goal . As the writers were trying to figure out a way to get Homer back to his old weight by the end of the episode , someone suggested that Homer should feel bad about his obesity , and therefore become thin for Marge , but that idea was scrapped in early production . Action figurines based on fat Homer were made for the World of Springfield series shortly after the episode had aired .
Homer has a dream in which he is standing at the foot of a mountain with 300 pounds as the goal at the top . A pig wearing a tuxedo appears next to him in the dream , and motivates Homer to reach the top of the mountain . Homer takes a bite of the pig 's arm , and runs up the mountain . This scene was inspired by the cover of the " Sweetness and Light " issue of the National Lampoon magazine . The staff thought that Cary Grant would have been the ideal for the pig in Homer 's dream sequence , but he died nine years before the episode was made , so they used cast member Hank Azaria for that voice . Joan Kenley guest starred in the episode as the telephone lady who tells Homer : " The fingers you have used to dial are too fat . To obtain a special dialing wand , please mash the keypad with your palm now . " The staff flew her down from Northern California to record her part for the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
While Homer is in the clothes store , as the camera pans with him , two mannequins wearing similar outfits and riding on bikes are shown . These are based on Billy and Benny McCrary , the world 's heaviest twins who weighed over 700 pounds ( 318 kg ) each . They received fame after appearing in the The Guinness Book of World Records in a picture that depicts the twins riding their Honda motorcycles . Also Homer operates an Apple Lisa as his stay @-@ at @-@ home work terminal when the Apple Lisa was discontinued in 1986 . They would appear again in the same season in the episode " The Day the Violence Died " . The scene in which Bart and his friends observe the obese Homer through a window is based on a scene from the 1993 film What 's Eating Gilbert Grape .
Homer thinks that he can order the soft drink Tab by pressing the tab key on the keyboard . When Homer vents gas from a nuclear reactor , the gas destroys crops of corn . A farmer looks and says , " Oh no , the corn ! Paul Newman 's gonna have ma ' legs broke ! " This is in reference to the legend of Newman 's Own popcorn products , in which Newman threatened anyone who might attempt to steal his popcorn . At the cinema , Homer tries to watch the film Honk If You 're Horny , starring actor Pauly Shore and actress Faye Dunaway .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " King @-@ Size Homer " finished 45th ( tied with Grace Under Fire ) in the ratings for the week of October 30 to November 3 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 0 . The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . In 2008 , Empire placed The Simpsons at the top of their list of " The 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time " , and noted " King @-@ Size Homer " as the show 's best episode , calling it " An unimprovable mix of sharp dialogue , hilarious sight gags and heart . " Kimberly Potts of AOL Television named the episode the seventh best episode of the show , while Michael Moran of The Times ranked it as the tenth best . " King @-@ Size Homer " appeared on The Star @-@ Ledger 's list of the ten best episodes on The Simpsons that represent the comic and emotional scope of the show . The Herald Sun put the episode at ninth place on their list of the top twenty episodes of The Simpsons , and highlighted the scene in which Homer is seen " commandeering an ice cream truck in a frantic dash to the nuclear plant to avoid an impending meltdown " . Todd VanDerWerff of Slant Magazine named the episode the show 's fifth best , stating " while there are a lot of funny jokes in this episode ( including Homer 's fingers that are too fat to dial ) , the best thing about it is the sight of Homer , weighing well over 300 pounds , dressed in a muumuu and a ' fat guy hat . ' The climax is a little forced and cartoon @-@ y ... but Homer 's weight gain works so well visually that the episode gets away with a lot more than it might . "
Dave Foster of DVD Times said : " The glee to which [ Homer ] takes to the challenge and the enthusiasm which Bart brings to the project show these two really do connect when the situation is oh so wrong , and the method in which the writers tackle the not @-@ always @-@ so @-@ obvious downsides to such a disability are both adult and astutely amusing . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be during Homer 's shopping trip to The Vast Waistband . The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of A. DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode and called it " one of the series ' more cynical episodes " , and said that it " pours on the laughs " . He continued by saying , " It 's amusing to see Homer 's pursuit of obesity , and it exploits his idiocy well . It lacks the expected mushiness about the plight of fat folks , though it does make a point about sensitivity in an understated way . " Despite the numerous laughs at Homer 's appearance from the staff of The Simpsons on the DVD audio commentary for the episode , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " this isn 't one of the best episodes . Homer 's at his most irritating and childish here — you really want Marge to beat him up . " They added that Homer 's antics with the computer , such as the scene in which he tries to find the any key , and Mr. Burns running exercise classes are the highlights of the episode .
Nick Offerman has cited this as his favorite Simpsons episode .
= Spring Creek Dam =
Spring Creek Debris Dam is an earthfill dam on Spring Creek , a tributary of the Sacramento River , in Shasta County in the U.S. state of California . Completed in 1963 , the dam , maintained by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation , serves primarily to collect severe acid mine drainage stemming from the Iron Mountain Mine . The dam forms the Spring Creek Reservoir , less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long . Spring Creek and South Fork Spring Creek flow into the reservoir from a 16 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 41 km2 ) watershed . The dam is directly upstream from the city of Keswick , California and the Keswick Reservoir . The operation is part of the Trinity River Division of the Central Valley Project .
The primary purpose of the Spring Creek Dam was to collect acid mine drainage from the old Iron Mountain Mine , which was heavily polluting Spring Creek and its tributaries . The dam was built in response to these pollutants that were contaminating the Sacramento River , the primary water supply for millions of Californians . Although the watershed is small in comparison to that of the Sacramento River , the stream is among the most polluted and acidic in the world .
The dam and reservoir , along with other treatment structures built at and below the mine , have successfully reduced the dry weather pollution of Spring Creek by up to ninety @-@ five percent . Problems , though , still occur mainly in the form of large uncontrolled spills from the reservoir . Several concerns about the structural integrity and safety of the dam , both physically and biologically , arose in the 1990s . Emergency releases from Shasta Lake , often in the value of thousands of acre feet of water , have occurred from time to time to dilute massive acid spills from the Spring Creek drainage .
= = History = =
= = = Mining = = =
The Iron Mountain Mine , the most productive copper mine in California in at least one point along its history , operated along the banks of two Spring Creek tributaries , upstream from the current dam site , from 1879 to the 1960s . The mine extracted iron ore , silver , gold , copper sulfide ore , and pyrite from a rock formation dating to approximately 780 @,@ 000 years ago . The potential of a mine at the site was discovered in 1860 , when two men , surveyor William Magee and settler Charles Camden , discovered an extensive iron ore deposit along one of the tributaries of Spring Creek . In 1879 , silver was also discovered at the site , and the mine was begun . The ownership was transferred to Mountain Mines Ltd . , a London company , in 1894 . At the very end of the 19th century , Iron Mountain Mine took blames for several fish kills in the Sacramento River . Nevertheless , mining activity continued , and by 1928 , 600 tons of ore were being extracted from the site per day .
The still continuing problem of Iron Mountain Mine runoff has once been described as :
... [ acid mine drainage is ] most vividly illustrated by the problems at the Iron Mountain Mine in California .
... release of this waste resulted in virtual elimination of aquatic life in many of the creeks surrounding the Iron Mountain Mine site .
... work is continuing on what is possibly the largest and most difficult acid mine drainage problem in the United States .
-P . Aarne Vesilind . Controlling Environmental Pollution , 2005
= = = Events prompting construction = = =
The construction of Shasta Dam and its afterbay ( regulating downstream dam ) , Keswick Dam , in 1943 and 1950 , respectively , severely impaired the capability of the Sacramento River to flush away pollutants from the mine . Acid mine drainage flowed , unfettered , down Spring Creek directly into the Keswick Reservoir , depositing contaminated sediment and turning a portion of the water a rusty red shade . Previously , the water would have continued down the creek into the river , and flushed to the Pacific Ocean . The pooling of the water , however , made it extremely difficult for the pollutants to be removed . From 1955 to 1962 , open pit mining began on the site . At its peak , the mine discharged 5 tons of iron , 650 pounds ( 290 kg ) of copper , and 1 @,@ 800 pounds ( 820 kg ) of zinc into the stream per day . By then , the water flowing down the drainage was so contaminated that it necessitated the construction of a holding dam , the Spring Creek Dam .
Spring Creek Dam was begun in 1961 , when a company named Gibbons and Reed was awarded the contract . The clearing operations began in July of that same year , and the dam was officially dedicated by the Bureau of Reclamation on September 12 , 1961 . Construction of the dam began on October 20 , 1961 , with the placing of the dam embankment , which at least partially consists of acidic sediment dredged from Spring Creek . Riprap was laid on the upstream face of the dam beginning November 9 of that year . In 1962 , a series of labor strikes impacted communities in the Central Valley , also affecting construction of the dam , which was temporarily halted on May 3 of that year . After work restarted on June 26 , pervious core material for the dam was soon out of supply , so impervious material was used to complete the dam core .
Eventually , the Iron Mountain Mine closed , but pollution continued and still continues , and in 1983 , the Iron Mountain Mine was listed on the National Priorities List . The Iron Mountain Mine is known for having the most acidic naturally found water content on Earth , with samples having up to a − 3 @.@ 6 pH value when tested in the early 1990s , which is roughly 100 times the acidity of battery acid . However , this pH value is only found inside and near the mine , as the average pH of water entering the Spring Creek Reservoir is 4 @.@ 12 .
= = = Storage expansion = = =
The Spring Creek Dam was later deemed " undersized " for the Spring Creek watershed , as the large flows of both natural drainage and acid mine drainage caused frequent uncontrollable spills at the dam . The spills contain many volatile components in acid mine drainage , which include the most acidic naturally occurring ( i.e. not in a laboratory ) water on Earth . Several alternatives were considered for remediating this problem :
Enlarge the Spring Creek Dam to create a reservoir three times its original size : This plan was considered , but never built , as the cost of it was estimated at US $ 75 million .
Partial capping ( covering ) of the site : The ore body in Iron Mountain was determined to be shallow , so this alternative was considered . However , the recurring high occurrence of fractures in the mountain made this inefficient , so it was also never implemented .
Construction of dams upstream : This proposal called for several dams upstream that would " reduce the watershed by 40 percent " , including a dam on Slickrock Creek , a branch of Spring Creek . This plan was implemented , removing the need for the dam enlargement .
Waste rock removal : Rock extracted from the mine was removed from tailings piles and disposed of in a compacted cell . In Boulder Creek , another tributary of Spring Creek , the acidity level has lowered slightly .
= = = Recent history = = =
In 1985 , it was found that water seepage into the foundations of the Spring Creek Dam could possibly cause its collapse . Shortly after the discovery , a controversy over the irregular spills of mine toxins from the dam began in the 1990s . Two years later , in March 1992 , an uncontrolled , unexpected spill of acidic water rushed from the dam down Spring Creek . This spill heavily contaminated the Keswick Reservoir and threatened the water supply of Redding , California . Despite the fact that the region was suffering from a drought , 77 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 95 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water were released from Shasta Lake , which was only half full , to dilute the pollution . The loss of the water , which was badly needed by Central Valley agricultural users , was estimated at US $ 18 million .
A water treatment plant was built on a site named Minnesota Flats near the Iron Mountain Mine , using lime to balance the pH of the acid mine drainage . Water is also diverted from Slickrock Creek to the treatment site . Altogether , over 95 percent of toxins in the water are removed by the treatment process . Roughly 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) of specialized acid @-@ resistant pipeline , with a cost of over US $ 1 million per mile , are included in the treatment process . Most water flowing directly from the mine has a pH level close to 1 ; the − 3 @.@ 2 pH mentioned earlier is only found in small amounts . Water is further diluted by natural flow in the tributaries and water diverted from nearby Clear Creek , however , the acidic water still requires treatment .
= = Hydrography = =
Spring Creek is a southeast @-@ flowing , 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) long tributary of the Sacramento River , receiving water from approximately 16 square miles ( 41 km2 ) of land . The creek begins in the Klamath Mountains above the Sacramento River drainage , and flows in a generally south @-@ east direction before turning south and sharply west into the Spring Creek Reservoir . From the reservoir , it continues due west until it empties directly into an arm of the Keswick Reservoir . The creek never actually runs by the mine . The acid mine drainage found in the creek is actually carried in by two smaller tributaries , which are Boulder Creek and Slickrock Creek . The former stream runs southeast from the north side of Iron Mountain Mine to Spring Creek , while the latter stream drains the south side of the mine and also flows southeast into Spring Creek . South Fork Spring Creek is a small tributary that flows west and north the Spring Creek Reservoir , but since its basin lies far from the mine , it receives no acid mine drainage . The inflow and outflow from the reservoir are highly erratic , ranging from 0 cubic feet ( 0 m3 ) per second to roughly 225 cubic feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m3 ) per second in a particular 10 @-@ day period from March to April .
Flat Creek , a small southeast @-@ flowing stream , rises in two forks and empties into the Sacramento River upstream of Spring Creek . The stream receives contaminated runoff from the Minnesota Flats Tailing Pile , but is not nearly as polluted or acidic as Spring Creek . Another stream , Rock Creek , rises in three forks and flows east to meet the Sacramento River downstream of Spring Creek and the Keswick Reservoir .
= = Dimensions and operations = =
The Spring Creek Dam is 196 feet ( 60 m ) high , 1 @,@ 110 feet ( 340 m ) long along its crest , and 1 @,@ 040 feet ( 320 m ) thick at its base . Its crest stands 816 feet ( 249 m ) above sea level . The reservoir is 795 feet ( 242 m ) above sea level at full pool and spillway crest level . When at full pool , the reservoir holds 5 @,@ 870 acre feet ( 7 @,@ 240 dam3 ) of water with a depth of roughly 184 feet ( 56 m ) . One spillway runs over the crest of the dam on the left bank of the canyon . The spillway is 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide , able to accommodate a water flow of 5 @,@ 260 cubic feet ( 149 m3 ) per second . The outlet works of the dam are located at the base , and can accommodate a water flow of 660 cubic feet ( 19 m3 ) per second . The Spring Creek Powerplant downstream of the dam generates up to 180 @,@ 000 kilowatts .
= = = Spring Creek Powerplant = = =
The Spring Creek Powerplant is located at the base of the Spring Creek Dam , and is actually supplied by flow from Whiskeytown Lake . The lake , formed by Whiskeytown Dam , is on Clear Creek , a drainage downstream along the Sacramento River from Spring Creek . Both streams run east into the river . The power plant was completed and began operations in 1964 , with a capacity of 150 @,@ 000 kW . The capacity was later upgraded to 180 @,@ 000 kW . The plant is a peaking power plant with two separate generators , generating power for operations and distributing excess power to the local power grid . Water from Whiskeytown Lake is diverted through the Spring Creek Tunnel , a conduit roughly 2 @.@ 4 miles ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) long and 18 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) in diameter .
The Bureau of Reclamation gives a detailed report on the specifications of the generating plant :
The powerplant houses two 13.8kV generators each rated at 100 @,@ 000 kVA , .90 power factor , along with Francis turbines . Spring Creek Power Conduit conveys water from Whiskeytown Reservoir , located on Clear Creek , to the Spring Creek Powerplant . The Spring Creek power conduit varies in diameter between 5 @.@ 64 metres ( 18 @.@ 5 ft ) and 5 @.@ 18 metres ( 17 @.@ 0 ft ) and is about 4 @.@ 8 km ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) in length . The power conduit consists of Tunnels No. 1 and No. 2 , and Rock Creek Siphon . Twin penstocks take off from Tunnel No. 2 leading to the powerplant .
– U.S. Bureau of Reclamation , Trinity River Division of the Central Valley Project
= = = Spring Creek Reservoir = = =
Spring Creek Reservoir is the artificial lake formed behind the dam . The reservoir is used mostly for flood control storage , and is rarely filled to its 5 @,@ 870 acre feet ( 7 @,@ 240 dam3 ) capacity . During the dry season , water from Spring Creek pools in a small , stagnant pond retained behind the dam , depositing contaminated sediment and acidic mine waste in the reservoir space . When flows from the Shasta Dam , upstream on the Sacramento River , are sufficient to flush contaminated water away , water held in the reservoir is released through the outlet works into the Keswick Reservoir and the Sacramento River . Despite this operation strategy , the reservoir was eventually deemed inadequate for the watershed , and can be filled to capacity by a single heavy storm event . Uncontrollable spills frequently poured into the Sacramento River during floods , through the crest spillway of the dam , which lacks gates . As a result , numerous fish kills have occurred during these sudden releases of contaminants , a major one of which was in 1969 . Due to this consistent acid pollution from the reservoir , most large fish spawn downstream of Red Bluff Diversion Dam , a dam also on the Sacramento River near Red Bluff , California .
= = = Spillway and outlet works = = =
The Spring Creek Dam is able to release up to 5 @,@ 920 cubic feet ( 168 m3 ) of water per second from the Spring Creek Reservoir , through a crest spillway and outlet works . The spillway begins on the left bank of the dam at elevation 795 feet ( 242 m ) , and drops roughly 184 feet ( 56 m ) in vertical distance down the face of the dam into a stilling basin , before flowing into Spring Creek and into the Sacramento River . It is roughly 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide and can carry 5 @,@ 260 cubic feet ( 149 m3 ) per second . The outlet works tunnel through the dam from an elevation much lower than that of the spillway ; the conduit terminates at a culvert exit , a design commonly seen on storm drains but rarely seen on dams , at the base of the dam . The maximum capacity of the outlet works is 660 cubic feet ( 19 m3 ) per second .
= New Jersey Route 42 =
Route 42 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey within the Camden area . It runs 14 @.@ 28 mi ( 22 @.@ 98 km ) from an intersection with U.S. Route 322 and County Route 536 Spur in Monroe Township , Gloucester County to an intersection with Interstate 76 and Interstate 295 in Bellmawr , Camden County . The route is a mix of freeway and divided four @-@ lane arterial road . The southern portion of Route 42 is a local arterial route and one of several highways comprising the Black Horse Pike , a road that runs from Camden to Atlantic City . The northern portion is a six- to eight @-@ lane freeway referred to locally as the North – South Freeway ( or simply the 42 Freeway ) that is directly connected to the Atlantic City Expressway . Major intersections along the route include the Atlantic City Expressway and the southern terminus of Route 168 in Turnersville , another intersection with Route 168 in Blackwood , and Route 41 and Route 55 in Deptford Township .
Route 42 was originally designated in 1927 to run along the Black Horse Pike between Ferry Avenue in Camden and the present U.S. Route 40 / U.S. Route 322 split in the McKee City section of Hamilton Township , Atlantic County . In 1953 , the southern terminus was cut back to its current terminus in the Williamstown section of Monroe Township to avoid the concurrency it shared with U.S. Route 322 . After the completion of the North – South Freeway between Bellmawr and Turnersville in 1959 , Route 42 was moved to this freeway , and the Black Horse Pike north of Turnersville became Route 168 .
The freeway portion of Route 42 has been improved many times . Construction work has commenced on a project known as the " I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 Direct Connection " , which is reconstructing the dangerous and congested Route 42 / Interstate 295 / Interstate 76 interchange in Bellmawr .
= = Route description = =
= = = Black Horse Pike = = =
Route 42 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 322 and County Route 536 Spur in Monroe Township , Gloucester County where it heads to the north on the Black Horse Pike . For the first portion of the route , Route 42 is a divided four – lane arterial highway that intersects various local roads . Some intersections along this section feature jughandles . There are also many businesses lining the highway . The route crosses County Route 689 ( Berlin @-@ Cross Keys Road ) and enters Washington Township . It then intersects the northern terminus of County Route 555 ( Tuckahoe Road ) . After the intersection with County Route 555 , Route 42 intersects three more county routes : County Route 655 ( Fries Mill Road ) , County Route 639 ( Ganttown Road ) , and County Route 651 ( Greentree Road ) . The Atlantic City Expressway then starts to the right at an unnumbered intersection , Route 168 continues to the north on the Black Horse Pike , and Route 42 becomes the six – lane North – South Freeway .
= = = North – South Freeway = = =
Upon becoming the North – South Freeway , Route 42 crosses into Gloucester Township , Camden County and comes to the first numbered exit for County Route 705 , which provides access to Route 168 . Following that , the freeway reaches the County Route 673 ( College Drive ) interchange , serving Camden County College and the Gloucester Premium Outlets . County Route 534 interchanges with a southbound exit and northbound entrance and then Coles Road interchanges with a northbound exit and southbound entrance . Next , Route 42 encounters Exits 9B and 10A for Route 168 . Exit 9B serves northbound Route 168 and provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike , and Exit 10A serves southbound Route 168 . County Route 681 interchanges after Route 168 , with a southbound exit and northbound entrance , and Route 42 enters Gloucester County again in Deptford Township after crossing the South Branch of Big Timber Creek .
In Deptford Township , Route 41 interchanges with a northbound exit and an entrance in both directions . Past this interchange , County Route 544 interchanges with a southbound exit and an entrance in both directions . Both of these interchanges provide access to the Deptford Mall and , in the case of the Route 41 interchange , to Route 55 from northbound Route 42 since the northbound lanes have no direct access to Route 55 . Route 42 meets the northern terminus of the Route 55 freeway at Exit 13 with a southbound exit and northbound entrance then widens to eight lanes . Route 42 crosses the Big Timber Creek into Runnemede , Camden County , where it passes over the New Jersey Turnpike without an interchange . The freeway then enters Bellmawr , where it features right @-@ in / right @-@ out ramps with Leaf Avenue , that provide access to County Route 753 ( Creek Road ) . Route 42 then continues north to its terminus at Interstate 295 where the North – South Freeway becomes Interstate 76 , which heads to Camden and Philadelphia .
The North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 is a major route for daily commuters from southern New Jersey to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania via the Walt Whitman Bridge and Ben Franklin Bridge and weekend commuters from southeastern Pennsylvania to the southern Jersey Shore via Route 55 and the Atlantic City Expressway . Even though Route 42 ends at I @-@ 295 , the north – south Freeway is sometimes called " Route 42 " all the way to the Interstate 76 / Interstate 676 split .
Snow removal , litter control , and landscaping of Route 42 between the end of the Atlantic City Expressway and Interstate 295 is performed by the South Jersey Transportation Authority .
= = History = =
In 1927 , Route 42 was legislated to run along the Black Horse Pike , a road that traces its origins back to 1855 . In that year , the Camden and Blackwoodstown Turnpike Company was established by entrepreneurs who had helped create the White Horse Pike to build a gravel road that would run from Camden south to Blackwoodtown and eventually to Atlantic City , from Ferry Avenue in Camden to Route 48 ( now U.S. Route 40 ) in McKee City . By 1941 , U.S. Route 322 was assigned to follow the routing of Route 42 between Williamstown and McKee City . With the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , which eliminated long concurrencies between U.S. Routes and State Routes , the southern terminus of Route 42 was cut back to Williamstown to avoid the concurrency with U.S. Route 322 .
The North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 was originally planned as a parkway in 1932 that would run from the Ben Franklin Bridge in Camden to Atlantic City ; however , this proposal never materialized . In the late 1940s , the North – South Freeway was proposed by the New Jersey State Highway Department to run from the Ben Franklin Bridge to Turnersville . In the early 1950s , right @-@ of @-@ way for the freeway was acquired and actual construction of the freeway followed . The Route 42 freeway opened between Interstate 295 in Bellmawr and the Black Horse Pike in Blackwood in 1958 . It opened between the Black Horse Pike in Blackwood and Turnersville in 1959 . With the completion of the North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 , the Black Horse Pike north of Turnersville became Route 168 .
Following its completion , the North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 has seen many improvements . In 1965 , the freeway was widened to six lanes for most of its length with the northernmost part being widened to eight lanes due to the completion of the Atlantic City Expressway and development occurring along the route . The route had its interchange with Route 55 open in 1985 , when the Route 55 Freeway was opened from Route 42 to Route 41 to the south . Between 1996 and August 1999 , the route was widened to eight lanes between Interstate 295 and Route 55 in Deptford Township . In the early 2000s , the interchanges with Route 41 and County Route 544 in Deptford were rebuilt at a cost of $ 13 million to improve movements within the area . In October 2003 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) installed exit tabs along the stretch of the freeway portion of Route 42 . On August 27 , 2010 , an interchange opened at County Route 673 ( College Drive ) , providing better access to Camden County College .
= = Future = =
NJDOT has broken ground on the missing express connection between Interstate 295 and Route 42 to provide an easier connection between the Baltimore @-@ Washington Metropolitan Area and points south to Atlantic City and vice versa . The project , dubbed the I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 Direct Connection , will reconstruct the dangerous and congested Route 42 / Interstate 295 / Interstate 76 interchange , which currently requires traffic on I @-@ 295 to use 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) ramps that merge onto the North – South Freeway for a short distance , among a series of other indirect connections . In 2007 , " Alternative D " for the reconstructed interchange was selected , calling for I @-@ 295 to cross over the North – South Freeway . This interchange is projected to cost $ 900 million . Construction began in 2013 and is scheduled to be complete in 2021 . NJDOT has long term plans for 2011 – 2020 to reconstruct the entire Route 42 freeway from the Atlantic City Expressway to I @-@ 295 .
On May 12 , 2009 , New Jersey Governor Jon S. Corzine and the Delaware River Port Authority , the agency which manages the PATCO Speedline , announced plans for a Camden @-@ Philadelphia BRT ( bus rapid transit system ) along the Route 42 freeway and the adjacent Route 55 freeway as part of a comprehensive transportation plan for South Jersey that would include a diesel light rail line between Camden and Glassboro , improvements to the Atlantic City Line , and enhanced connections to the Atlantic City International Airport .
= = Major intersections = =
= 47 Ursae Majoris c =
47 Ursae Majoris c ( abbreviated 47 UMa c ) , also named Taphao Kaew ( Thai : ตะเภาแก ้ ว , rtgs : Taphaokaeo , pronounced [ tā.pʰāw.kɛ ̂ ːw ] ) , is an extrasolar planet approximately 46 light @-@ years from Earth in the constellation of Ursa Major . The planet was discovered located in a long @-@ period around the star 47 Ursae Majoris . Its orbit lasts 6 @.@ 55 years and the planet has a mass at least 0 @.@ 540 times that of Jupiter .
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning name was Taphao Kaew for this planet . The winning name was submitted by the Thai Astronomical Society of Thailand . Taphaokaeo was one of two sisters associated with a Thai folk tale .
= = Discovery = =
Like the majority of known extrasolar planets , 47 Ursae Majoris c was discovered by detecting changes in its star 's radial velocity caused by the planet 's gravity . This was done by measuring the Doppler shift of the star 's spectrum .
At the time of discovery in 2001 , 47 Ursae Majoris was already known to host one extrasolar planet , designated 47 Ursae Majoris b . Further measurements of the radial velocity revealed another periodicity in the data unaccounted for by the first planet . This periodicity could be explained by assuming that a second planet , designated 47 Ursae Majoris c , existed in the system with an orbital period close to 7 years . Observations of the photosphere of 47 Ursae Majoris suggested that the periodicity could not be explained by stellar activity , making the planet interpretation more likely . The planet was announced in 2002 .
Further measurements of 47 Ursae Majoris failed to detect the planet , calling its existence into question . Furthermore , it was noted that the data used to determine its existence left the planet 's parameters " almost unconstrained " . A more recent study with datasets spanning over 6 @,@ 900 days came to the conclusion that while the existence of a second planet in the system is likely , periods around 2 @,@ 500 days have high false @-@ alarm probabilities , and gave a best @-@ fit period of 7 @,@ 586 days ( almost 21 years ) .
In 2010 , a study was published that determined that there are three giant planets orbiting 47 Ursae Majoris , including one at 2 @,@ 391 days that corresponds well with the original claims for 47 Ursae Majoris c .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Since 47 Ursae Majoris c was detected indirectly , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown . Based on its high mass , the planet is likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface .
= Pentemont Abbey =
Pentemont Abbey ( French : Abbaye de Penthemont , or Pentemont , or Panthemont , or Pantemont ) is a set of 18th and 19th century buildings at the corner of Rue de Grenelle and Rue de Bellechasse in the 7th arrondissement of Paris . The abbey was a Cistercian convent founded near Beauvais in 1217 and moved to its current site in Paris in 1672 at the behest of Louis XIV . A reconstruction of the abbey was initiated in 1745 by the Abbess Marie @-@ Catherine Béthisy de Mézières and work was completed in 1783 . In the late 18th century the abbey was one of the most prestigious educational institutions in Paris for daughters of the elite , including two of Thomas Jefferson 's . The abbey also provided rooms for ladies of good standing who were in search of rest , including Joséphine de Beauharnais when the case of her separation from her first husband was heard .
The abbey was disestablished during the French Revolution and the buildings were turned over to military use , first as the home of the National Guard , then the Imperial Guard , and later the Cent @-@ gardes . It continues to be occupied by the Ministère de la Défense with the exception of the former chapel , which since 1844 has been a Protestant church , the Temple Penthemont . In August 2014 the Ministry of Defence , facing budget cuts due to austerity policies , sold the buildings to a real estate investment trust , Foncière des 6ème et 7ème Arrondissements de Paris , with plans to move all ministry offices out of the abbey by the end of October , 2016 .
= = History = =
= = = Beauvais ( 1217 – 1672 ) = = =
Philip of Dreux , the famed crusader bishop of Beauvais , wished to found a convent of the Cistercian order . In 1217 he set aside an orchard southwest of Beauvais , on which were traced out the plans for construction , as well as seven arpents ( 6 @-@ 7 acres ) of vines . Philip died before the project was completed and his successor , Bishop Milo of Nanteuil , raised the rest of the funds , and it was completed in 1218 . Pope Gregory IX issued a bull from the Lateran Palace on the 8 June 1230 which sanctioned the new abbey and declared the funds raised for its endowment protected . The abbey took its name , meaning mountain slope , from its location at the foot of the Montagne de St @-@ Symphorien .
In 1554 the abbey provided refuge to Charlotte I de Monceaux , the abbess of the neighboring Abbey of Saint @-@ Paul , whose election as abbess was opposed by Henry II . She fled to Pentemont after the arrival of the king 's soldiers at her own abbey . However , they followed her to Pentemont and demanded by force that she renounce her position , a request to which she was compelled to accede .
In 1671 , after the abbey was damaged in a flood , and for economic and geographical reasons , the abbess Hélène de Tourville moved the abbey to Paris . At the time , the convent had twelve sisters . The previous building was demolished and returned to agricultural work as part of the Pentemont farm .
= = = Paris ( 1672 – 1790 ) = = =
In Paris the abbey took up residence in a former convent , recently suppressed , of the Sisters of the Incarnate Word , located on Rue de Grenelle at the current site of the abbey . The sisters dedicated themselves to the education of young women and later added rooms in which women of good standing could find rest . The abbey quickly acquired a distinguished reputation and by the time of its dissolution in 1790 had revenues of 58 @,@ 000 livres , a great sum for the era .
The final abbess , Marie III Catherine de Béthisy de Mézières , spent 45 years and a great deal of money rebuilding and expanding the abbey . A competition for plans for a reconstruction attracted multiple proposals including one from the royal architect , François II Franque , which drew praise from Denis Diderot in the Encyclopédie for its combination of grandeur and simplicity . The winning proposal , however , was from Pierre Contant d 'Ivry .
The many famous students educated at the abbey included the noted abbess and princess Louise Adélaïde de Bourbon , and Louise d 'Esparbès de Lussan , the mistress of the Count of Artois , the future Charles X of France . Thomas Jefferson 's daughters Martha and Mary were both educated at the Pentemont Abbey while he was Minister to France . Their entry into the school was sponsored by the wife of the Marquis de Lafayette . The future first lady Abigail Adams was shocked that Jefferson would send his girls to a Catholic school but he assured her that there were many Protestants at the abbey . Conditions were austere for the students , despite the presence of three princesses , with no fires until the water froze and a prohibition on speaking outside of class and recreation . Her time at the school led Martha , nicknamed Patsy , to write a letter to her father expressing her desire to become a nun . Jefferson quickly removed his daughters from the care of the convent .
The abbey also provided elegant apartments to highborn women seeking independence from families or difficult marriages . The ladies were free to come and go as they liked , with constraints on the hours allowed outside the convent , often had their children and servants with them , and spent their evenings socializing and commiserating in the abbey 's salons . One such resident was Joséphine de Beauharnais , the future Empress of France , during her separation from her first husband , Alexandre de Beauharnais . The court granted her temporary independence from her husband and required her to stay at Pentemont with her children at the expense of Alexandre . It is also speculated that James Smithson , the founder of the Smithsonian Institution , who was born in Paris the illegitimate son of the Duke of Northumberland , was born in the Pentemont Abbey , as it had strong connections to the Duke , whose illegitimate daughters it educated .
= = = State Property ( 1790 – 2015 ) = = =
= = = = Military = = = =
During the French Revolution , the Abbey was suppressed and its properties confiscated . The abbey 's affairs were wound down in 1791 @-@ 2 , with its properties in Beauvais sold to pay off state debt . With the abbey now state property it came to serve first as home to the National Guard , then the Imperial Guard . In 1835 , the building was expanded to Rue de Bellechasse which required the demolition of some parts of the original structure . Under the Second Empire the abbey served as the barracks of the Cent @-@ gardes Squadron , an elite cavalry unit that provided personal protection for Napoleon III and the Tuileries Palace .
In the twentieth century , Pentemont Abbey housed the Ministry of War Pensions , Bonuses and Benefits . In 1937 , a bunker was constructed underneath the Court of Honor including two stationary bicycles intended to provide electricity in case of power loss due to enemy bombardment . The courtyard has a war memorial that reads " From veterans to their comrades who gave their lives for their country . In memoriam . " It is also home to a number of commemorative plaques , including ones for André Maginot and Henri Frenay .
= = = = Protestant Church = = = =
The chapel was used to store grain during the Revolution and later hay when the army took over the abbey . After the Concordat of 1801 provided formal recognition of the Reformed Church in France , it was decided that three former Catholic churches in Paris be turned over to Reformed congregations , Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louvre , Sainte @-@ Marie @-@ des @-@ Anges , and the chapel of the Pentemont Abbey .
In 1598 , Protestant worship had been forbidden in Paris by the Edict of Nantes . In 1685 , the Edict of Fontainebleau made non @-@ Catholic services illegal in all of France . This inaugurated a long period of persecution for French Protestants though some in Paris were able to worship in the chapels of the Dutch and Swedish embassies . The handover of the chapel of the abbey as well as the other churches ushered in a new era of open Protestant worship in Paris .
The actual opening of the former abbey as a Reformed congregation was delayed by decades of bureaucratic obstacles as well as opposition during the Bourbon Restoration to turning over a former Catholic building to Protestant use . It was not until 1844 that architect Victor Baltard began work to convert the chapel into a Protestant church . He isolated the chapel from the rest of the building , added new doors in place of two of the previous windows , and converted the former choir to a nave . He also closed off the original entrance by adding a massive organ , built by Aristide Cavaillé @-@ Coll and installed in 1846 for the opening of the church . The organ has undergone various modifications over the years including a restoration from 2011 @-@ 14 to restore the remaining original elements . The church itself underwent restoration from 2005 @-@ 2007 commissioned by the City of Paris and accomplished by Benjamin Mouton , the chief architect of historic monuments , and the firm Aubert @-@ Labansat .
= = List of Abbesses of Pentemont = =
= = Gallery = =
= Dyspanopeus sayi =
Dyspanopeus sayi is a species of mud crab that is native to the Atlantic coast of North America . It has also become established outside its native range , living in Swansea Docks since 1960 , the Mediterranean Sea since the 1970s , the North Sea since 2007 and the Black Sea since 2010 . It can reach a carapace width of 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) , and has black tips to its unequal claws . It feeds on bivalves and barnacles , and is in turn eaten by predators including the Atlantic blue crab , Callinectes sapidus . Eggs are produced from spring to autumn , the offspring reach sexual maturity the following summer , and individuals can live for up to two years . The closest relative of D. sayi is D. texanus , which lives in the Gulf of Mexico ; the two species differ in subtle features of the genitalia and the last pair of walking legs .
= = Description = =
Dyspanopeus sayi is a small crab , similar in appearance to Eurypanopeus depressus . It reaches a maximum carapace width of 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) , with sexually mature females having a carapace 6 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) or more across . The carapace is roughly hexagonal , about 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 times as wide as long and strongly convex . It has a finely granular surface , and has a light covering of hair , especially towards the front and sides . The chelae ( claws ) are unequal : the right claw is stouter , and the left claw is narrower . The carapace is olive @-@ green to brown , but the tips of the claws are black .
= = Distribution = =
The natural range of D. sayi extends from the Baie des Chaleurs ( eastern Canada ) to the Florida Keys ( south @-@ eastern United States ) , where it lives from the intertidal zone down to depths of 46 metres ( 151 ft ) . It tolerates a wide range of temperatures and salinities .
D. sayi has also been recorded from a number of locations in Europe . The first sighting was in Swansea Docks , South Wales ( United Kingdom ) in 1960 , and the scientist who reported it , E. Naylor , believed there was " no doubt " that the species had arrived through trans @-@ Atlantic shipping . The first record from the Mediterranean Sea was made in 1993 , when the species was discovered in the Venetian Lagoon ( north @-@ eastern Italy ) , although it is thought to have been living there since the late 1970s . In 2007 , D. sayi was recorded from the North Sea coast of the Netherlands . It was discovered in the Black Sea in 2010 , living in Constanța harbour ( Romania ) , and in the Ebro delta of the Balearic Sea ( western Mediterranean Sea ) in 2012 .
= = Ecology = =
Dyspanopeus sayi lives predominantly on muddy bottoms , where it is a predator of bivalve molluscs . In its native environment , it hides among colonies of polychaetes to avoid being preyed on by the Atlantic blue crab , Callinectes sapidus . It is an important predator of the quahog , Mercenaria mercenaria , in Narragansett Bay , and of the barnacle Balanus improvisus in Delaware Bay . In the Adriatic Sea , it has been observed to feed on the striped venus clam , Chamelea gallina , and the introduced Asian date mussel , Musculista senhousia .
= = Life cycle =
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" Hamlet . " Nowadays , whenever the hotel has a male cat , he 's named Hamlet ; but if the hotel has a female cat , she 's named " Matilda . " The current Algonquin cat , a Matilda , is a Ragdoll that was named 2006 cat of the year at the Westchester ( New York ) Cat Show . Visitors can spot Matilda on her personal chaise longue in the lobby ; she can also be found in her favorite places : behind the computer on the front desk , or lounging on a baggage cart . The doormen feed her and the general manager 's executive assistant answers Matilda 's e @-@ mail . During 2011 , Matilda was temporarily confined to an upper floor or to the limits of a leash tethered to the check @-@ in desk , due to a directive from the city Department of Health . As of late 2011 , Matilda has been confined to the non @-@ food areas of the lobby by an electronic pet fence .
Although the Algonquin was " dry " even before Prohibition ( Case closed the hotel bar in 1917 and had harsh words for those who ran speakeasies ) , the hotel does have an eponymous cocktail , composed of rye whiskey , Noilly Prat and pineapple juice . More recently , a newer drink has hit the Algonquin 's menu , the $ 10 @,@ 000 Martini or " Martini on the Rock , " consisting of a martini of the buyer 's choice with a single piece of " ice , " a diamond , at the bottom of the glass . The martini was developed to mark completion of a major 29 @-@ day renovation that closed the hotel for the first time since its opening . Hoy Wong was a notable bartender at the hotel and was the oldest person to hold such a position in the state , serving at the Algonquin for 30 years until retiring in 2009 , well past the age of 90 .
In keeping with Frank Case 's long @-@ standing tradition of sending popovers and celery to the more impoverished members of the Round Table , the Algonquin offers lunch discounts to struggling writers . Formerly , writers on tour could stay one night at the hotel free in exchange for an autographed copy of their book , although the practice has been amended to include a discount on standard room rates .
= = Landmark status = =
The Algonquin Round Table , as well as the number of other literary and theatrical greats who lodged there , helped earn the hotel its status as a New York City Historic Landmark . The hotel was so designated in 1987 . In 1996 the hotel was designated a National Literary Landmark by the Friends of Libraries USA . The organization 's bronze plaque is attached to the front of the hotel .
= Pilot ( Devious Maids ) =
" Pilot " is the series premiere to the Lifetime series Devious Maids . The pilot had been ordered by ABC on January 31 , 2012 and cast during the following two months . Filming began in March . ABC declined to pick up the pilot on May 14 , but Lifetime did so on June 22 , ordering 13 episodes . Although most of the cast had been selected by this time three additional regular supporting characters were added in November 2012 for inclusion in the pilot and the continuing series . The series was once proposed to be a spinoff of Desperate Housewives , but is not one .
The episode revolves around the murder of a Latina maid in Beverly Hills and the introduction of her cadre of associates who are also Latina maids . The maids are shown in their employment surroundings with their upper class employers who play supporting roles . The main character is not actually a maid but rather the mother of the primary murder subject who poses as a maid to gain entrance into the world where she might find clues to prove her son 's innocence .
The pilot episode was released online in both Spanish and English on June 9 , 2013 , before its television debut on June 23 . The episode , which was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Paul McGuigan , debuted with a 1 @.@ 99 rating . The episode was the first episode of any television series with an all Latina leading cast , but the roles as maids was controversial due to its presentation of Latinas in stereotypical roles . Nonetheless , critical feedback was generally positive .
= = Plot = =
In the opening scene , Evelyn Powell ( Rebecca Wisocky ) gives her maid Flora ( Paula Garces ) the following warning " I think what you people do is heroic ... You wash clothes you can 't afford . You polish silver you will never dine with . ... I am in awe of your determination to succeed in this great country of ours . That said , if you don 't stop screwing my husband , I 'm going to have you deported . " Subsequently a season @-@ long story arc around which the show revolves begins with Flora 's murder .
Flora was stabbed by a mysterious figure while scrawling a rape claim that accuses Evelyn 's husband Adrian Powell ( Tom Irwin ) . She manages to drag herself to the pool during a lavish party and falls in . At her funeral , her four maid friends Zoila ( Judy Reyes ) , Valentina ( Edy Ganem ) , Rosie ( Dania Ramirez ) and Carmen ( Roselyn Sanchez ) agree not to divulge their knowledge of the infidelity and its circumstances .
The employer of Zoila and her daughter Valentina , Genevieve Delatour ( Susan Lucci ) , is enduring emotional distress . For both personal reasons and out of concern for Genevieve , Valentina comes up with the idea that Genevieve 's son Remi ( Drew Van Acker ) should return to live at home rather than University of Southern California campus housing in order to help stabilize his mother . Zoila eventually recognizes and tries to temper Valentina 's romantic interest in Remi .
Meanwhile , Rosie is fighting for her young son to join her from Mexico while working for the self @-@ absorbed Spence ( Grant Show ) and Peri ( Mariana Klaveno ) . Along with Sam Alexander ( Wolé Parks ) and Odessa Burakov ( Melinda Page Hamilton ) Carmen is a staff member for Latino music star Alejandro Rubio ( Matt Cedeño ) who she is trying to convince to help her start her music career . Marisol ( Ana Ortiz ) , who is not really a maid , successfully interviews to be the fifth maid for the show as an employee of second wife Taylor ( Brianna Brown ) and Michael ( Brett Cullen ) , who hires her despite objections from Taylor .
= = Background and production = =
The teleplay and story were written by series creator Marc Cherry , and the episode was directed by Paul McGuigan . Most filming occurred in and around Los Angeles . Cherry created the show with a multiple female lead dynamic that was similar to his previous success , Desperate Housewives . His first job in Hollywood was as a personal assistant , allowing him to relate to the maid characters to some degree . He felt that Devious Maids provided a vehicle to deal with themes that Desperate Housewives did not , while being very different than the similarly themed Downton Abbey , due to Downton 's historic nature . The format of the show that was pitched to ABC was as a spinoff of Desperate Housewives . While Roselyn Sanchez 's character Carmen appeared as a gardener in the final episode of Desperate Housewives , " Finishing the Hat " , the final version that was produced is not strictly a spinoff .
ABC ordered the pilot based on the Mexican telenovela Ellas son la Alegría del Hogar ( translation : " They Are the Home 's Joy " , which is sometimes referred to as The Disorderly Maids Of The Neighborhood ) , on January 31 , 2012 . Dania Ramirez was the first lead cast member to be cast , being announced on February 15 . Ana Ortiz joined the cast as the central character on February 17 . On February 23 , both Sanchez and Judy Reyes were added to the cast . When Edy Ganem was announced in the cast on March 2 the show was still described as centering on the other four maids ( Ortiz , Reyes , Sanchez and Ramirez ) .
Rebecca Wisocky , who joined the cast on February 23 , had previously guest starred on Desperate Housewives as Bree Van de Kamp 's mother . She had shot the final season episode , " Women and Death " less than a month before testing for Devious Maids . Most of the other supporting roles were filled in in March : Brianna Brown ( March 6 ) ; Susan Lucci , Drew Van Acker and Brett Cullen ( all March 9 ) ; Mariana Klaveno and Grant Show ( both March 12 ) ; and Tom Irwin ( March 16 ) ; By March 21 , filming had begun in Beverly Hills . Brown was considered for the show after she impressed executive producer Sabrina Wind with her 2011 season 1 guest appearance on Homeland .
Eva Longoria was announced as an executive producer on March 26 . She had worked previously with Cherry on Desperate Housewives , and was hired to add perspective to the Latina roles . ABC Studios gave Cherry permission to start making senior staffing offers for the show on May 1 , which was perceived as an indication that the show would be picked up .
On May 14 , 2012 , the pilot was not picked up by ABC for the 2012 – 13 United States network schedule . On June 22 , Lifetime picked up the pilot with a thirteen @-@ episode order . The network stated that they were " thrilled to be getting into business with one of entertainment ’ s true visionaries . This show and Marc Cherry ’ s unique story telling voice perfectly articulate Lifetime ’ s strategy of attracting top @-@ tier creatives with their most original and exciting projects . " Wolé Parks was added to the cast in a regular role on November 21 . Melinda Page Hamilton and Matt Cedeño were added to the cast in recurring roles with the promise of promotion if the show got picked up for a second season on November 26 . Both were expected to appear in the pilot episode .
The episode was marketed as an important milestone in television history because it was the debut of the first television show with an all Latina leading cast . However , in the days leading up to the debut , there was controversy surrounding the concept of having Latina actresses glorify the stereotypical roles of maids , nannies and gardeners . On May 3 , Tanisha Ramirez criticized the show in The Huffington Post as a wasted opportunity , but executive producer Longoria countered that the show presents " modern day woman 's view on universal themes . " Cosmopolitan for Latinas editor Michelle Herrera Mulligan responded to Longoria by calling the show an " insulting disgrace " . Cherry defended the show for its substantive themes : " Devious Maids deals with themes of racism , classism and immigration . These women all work in the homes of rich people , but they have goals and dreams that are much greater than the people they work for realize . "
The pilot episode was released online in both Spanish and English on June 9 , 2013 , before its television debut on a variety of platforms , including myLifetime.com and the Lifetime video watch app . The first two episodes were available on Lifetime . In the weeks before its June 23 premiere , the cast members were scheduled to host screenings around the country : Ramirez and Sanchez on June 4 in Miami , Reyes and Ganem on June 6 in Dallas , and Ortiz and Lucci on June 11 in Chicago . The show 's premier party was held in Los Angeles on June 17 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode first aired on June 23 , 2013 in the United States , debuting with a 1 @.@ 99 rating in the 10PM ( Eastern Time Zone ) time slot . In the adults 18 @-@ 49 viewer demographic , Devious Maids posted a 0 @.@ 65 rating , which lagged the 0 @.@ 74 rating for The Client List 's season finale the week before in the same time slot for Lifetime . Cable television shows in the same time slot included the Mad Men season 6 finale , " In Care Of " , on AMC ( which drew a 2 @.@ 69 rating ) , Falling Skies on TNT ( 3 @.@ 59 rating ) . The shows ratings were modest compared to other Lifetime drama series debuts such as Drop Dead Diva , The Client List and Army Wives , which all had ratings close to 3 million . Approximately one third of the Devious Maids viewership for the pilot ( 662 @,@ 000 ) were from the Lifetime network 's target demographic of women ages 25 – 54 . The pilot attracted higher ratings in subsequent weeks .
= = = Reviews = = =
The show resembles Desperate Housewives in many ways , including having a " pilot " that revolves around a death , according to Daily News critic David Hinckley . Hinckley states that the pilot presents each of the five main characters in a way that makes them intriguing , while tackling contemporary issues with a mix of comedy and drama . Hinckley lauded the show by saying " ... a Cherry drama rises or falls on the pretty simple test of whether it ’ s fun , and ' Devious Maids ' has the right stuff to get to there . " Alessandra Stanley , the chief television critic for The New York Times , at first described the show as a " landmark " where the rich " Beverly Hills employers are mere foils for the real heroines , who are poor , Hispanic and striving : desperate housekeepers . " Stanley felt that servant heroines are a bit of an overused perspective in 2013 as is the use of tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor . After describing the evolution of maid , butler and nanny roles on television , Stanley notes that this was not a show that depicts " how the other half really lives " , but rather " an over @-@ the @-@ top dramedy " .
Robert Bianco of USA Today felt the show benefited from not being picked up by ABC , where it would have been in the shadow of Desperate Housewives , and from being scheduled as summer television , where its competition was weak . Bianco believed that the various storylines were gracefully woven together in the scenes of the episode . Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette described the show as a guilty pleasure . Owen stated that although the show was not original for following Desperate Housewives ' path , it was good summer entertainment that managed to slip in a bit of " social satire " . Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times panned the show 's pilot , describing it as " a silly , hyperactive version of Downton Abbey " , although she acknowledged that the episode had elements of The Great Gatsby ( the opening murder ) and West Side Story ( the schoolgirl crush ) . San Francisco Chronicle critic David Wiegand said " the pilot episode may not break any new ground , but it 's energetic and funny " . He also noted that " it 's a hoot the first time we see the maids get the better of their shallow , self @-@ absorbed bosses ... " , but he felt that this theme might lack the depth to retain audience interest .
= Dassault Rafale =
The Dassault Rafale ( French pronunciation : [ ʁafal ] , literally meaning " gust of wind " , and " burst of fire " in a more military sense ) is a French twin @-@ engine , canard delta wing , multirole fighter aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation . Equipped with a wide range of weapons , the Rafale is intended to perform air supremacy , interdiction , aerial reconnaissance , ground support , in @-@ depth strike , anti @-@ ship strike and nuclear deterrence missions . The Rafale is referred to as an " omnirole " aircraft by Dassault .
In the late 1970s , the French Air Force and Navy were seeking to replace and consolidate their current fleets of aircraft . In order to reduce development costs and boost prospective sales , France entered into an arrangement with four other European nations to produce an agile multi @-@ purpose fighter . Subsequent disagreements over workshare and differing requirements led to France 's pursuit of its own development program . Dassault built a technology demonstrator which first flew in July 1986 as part of an eight @-@ year flight @-@ test programme , paving the way for the go @-@ ahead of the project . The Rafale is distinct from other European fighters of its era in that it is almost entirely built by one country , involving most of France 's major defence contractors , such as Dassault , Thales and Safran .
Many of the aircraft 's avionics and features , such as direct voice input , the RBE2 AA active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) radar and the optronique secteur frontal infra @-@ red search and track ( IRST ) sensor , were domestically developed and produced for the Rafale programme . Originally scheduled to enter service in 1996 , the Rafale suffered significant delays due to post @-@ Cold War budget cuts and changes in priorities . The aircraft is available in three main variants : Rafale C single @-@ seat land @-@ based version , Rafale B twin @-@ seat land @-@ based version , and Rafale M single @-@ seat carrier @-@ based version .
Introduced in 2001 , the Rafale is being produced for both the French Air Force and for carrier @-@ based operations in the French Navy . The Rafale has been marketed for export to several countries , and it has been selected for purchase by the Indian Air Force , the Egyptian Air Force , and the Qatar Air Force . The Rafale has been used in combat over Afghanistan , Libya , Mali , Iraq and Syria . Several upgrades to the weapons and avionics of the Rafale are planned to be introduced by 2018 .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
In the mid @-@ 1970s , both the French Air Force ( Armée de l 'Air ) and Navy ( Marine nationale ) had requirements for a new generation of fighters to replace those in or about to enter service . Because their requirements were similar , and to reduce cost , both departments issued a common request for proposal . In 1975 , the French Ministry of Aviation initiated studies for a new aircraft to complement the upcoming and smaller Dassault Mirage 2000 , with each aircraft optimised for differing roles .
In 1979 , the French company Dassault joined the MBB / BAe " European Collaborative Fighter " ( ECA ) project which was renamed the " European Combat Aircraft " . The French company contributed the aerodynamic layout of a prospective twin @-@ engine , single @-@ seat fighter ; however , the project collapsed in 1981 due to differing operational requirements of each partner country . In 1983 , the " Future European Fighter Aircraft " ( FEFA ) programme was initiated , bringing together Italy , Spain , West Germany , France and the United Kingdom to jointly develop a new fighter , although the latter three had their own aircraft developments .
A number of factors led to the eventual split between France and the other four countries . Around 1984 France reiterated its requirement for a carrier @-@ capable version and demanded a leading role . It also insisted on a swing @-@ role fighter that was lighter than the design favoured by the other four nations . West Germany , the UK and Italy opted out and established a new EFA programme . In Turin on 2 August 1985 , West Germany , the UK and Italy agreed to go ahead with the Eurofighter , and confirmed that France , along with Spain , had chosen not to proceed as a member of the project . Despite pressure from France , Spain rejoined the Eurofighter project in early September 1985 . The four @-@ nation project eventually resulted in the development of the Eurofighter Typhoon .
= = = Design phase and prototype = = =
In France , the government proceeded with its own programme . The French Ministry of Defence required an aircraft capable of air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ ground , all @-@ day and adverse weather operations . Unlike other contemporary European fighter projects that required some level of international collaboration and cost @-@ sharing , France was the sole developer of the Rafale 's airframe , avionics , propulsion system and armament , and as such the aircraft was to replace a multitude of aircraft in the French Armed Forces . The Rafale would perform roles previously filled by an assortment of specialised platforms , including the Jaguar , Mirage F1C / CR / CT , Mirage 2000C / -5 / N in the Armée de l 'air , and the F @-@ 8P Crusader , Étendard IVP / M and Super Étendard in the Aéronavale .
During October – December 1978 , prior to France 's joining of the ECA , Dassault received contracts for the development of project ACT 92 ( Avion de Combat Tactique , meaning " Tactical Combat Airplane " ) . The following year , the National Office for Aviation Studies and Research began studying the possible configurations of the new fighter under the codename Rapace ( meaning " Bird of Prey " ) . By March 1980 , the number of configurations had been narrowed down to four , two of which had a combination of canards , delta wings and a single vertical tail @-@ fin . In October 1982 , the French Ministry of Defence announced that Dassault would build a technology demonstrator named Avion de Combat expérimental ( Experimental Combat Airplane ) , in short ACX . France wanted to collaborate with West Germany and the UK on the project , but was prepared to build the ACX by itself . In 1984 , the government decided to proceed with a combat variant of the ACX due to the conflicting technical criteria of the respective FEFA participant nations .
The resultant Rafale A technology demonstrator was a large @-@ delta winged fighter , with all @-@ moving canards , embodying fly @-@ by @-@ wire ( FBW ) flight control system . Construction of the demonstrator commenced in March 1984 , even before a contract was signed with the DGA , France 's defence procurement agency . The technology demonstrator was rolled out in December 1985 in Saint @-@ Cloud , and took its maiden flight on 4 July 1986 from Istres @-@ Le Tubé Air Base in southern France . During the one @-@ hour flight , the project 's chief test pilot Guy Mitaux @-@ Maurouard took the aircraft to an altitude of 11 @,@ 000 metres ( 36 @,@ 000 ft ) and a speed of Mach 1 @.@ 3 . The 9 @.@ 5 @-@ tonne ( 21 @,@ 000 lb ) demonstrator stopped in 300 metres ( 980 ft ) upon landing .
Throughout the flight test programme , the Rafale A performed numerous day and night take @-@ offs and landings aboard the carriers Clemenceau and Foch to investigate the pilot 's field of view during carrier operations . It reached a speed of Mach 2 ( 2 @,@ 450 km / h ; 1 @,@ 522 mph ; 1 @,@ 322 @.@ 9 kn ) and a height of 13 @,@ 000 metres ( 42 @,@ 000 ft ) . The demonstrator was initially powered by General Electric F404 @-@ GE @-@ 400 afterburning turbofans from the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet , instead of the Snecma M88 , to reduce the risk that often comes with a first flight , and since the M88 was not considered sufficiently mature for the initial trials programme . It was not until May 1990 when the M88 replaced the port F404 in the demonstrator to enable the aircraft to reach Mach 1 @.@ 4 and demonstrate supercruise , or sustained supersonic flight without use of afterburners . After 865 flights with four pilots , Rafale A was retired in January 1994 .
At the time of the Rafale A 's maiden flight , France entered unsuccessful talks with Belgium , Denmark , the Netherlands and Norway about a possible collaboration on the Rafale as a multinational project ; at the time , Belgium was reportedly interested in the Rafale B. In June 1987 , Prime Minister Jacques Chirac declared that the country would proceed with the US $ 30 billion project . Subsequently , on 21 April 1988 , the French government awarded Dassault a contract for four Rafale prototypes : one Rafale C , two Rafale Ms and one Rafale B. The first out of an expected 330 Rafales was scheduled to enter service in 1996 . However , the fall of the Berlin Wall , which signalled the end of the Cold War , as well as the need to reduce the national deficit , compelled the French government to drastically reduce its defence budget ; the 1994 budget for the Rafale programme was cut by some US $ 340 million . This reduced the size of the Rafale orders , which Dassault and other companies involved claimed impeded production management and led to higher costs , and delayed the entry of the aircraft into service . The French Air Force was reorganised , the Mirage 5F was completely phased out and a total of 55 Mirage F1Cs were upgraded to a tactical fighter configuration , redesignated as Mirage F1CT . The budget cuts prolonged the Rafale 's development considerably .
During the Rafale A flight test programme , the French government in 1989 looked at the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet as a potential replacement for the rapidly aging F @-@ 8 Crusader , which had been serving since the 1950s . The French Navy entered talks regarding the purchase of second @-@ hand F / A @-@ 18s with Australia , Canada and the US , after the decision was made not to upgrade the Crusaders . The US Navy agreed to supply two F / A @-@ 18s to the French Navy for " interoperability testing " aboard the French aircraft carrier Foch . The French government did not proceed with a purchase of the twin @-@ engine fighter .
= = = Testing = = =
To meet the various roles expected of the new aircraft , the Air Force required two variants : the single @-@ seat " Rafale C " ( chasseur , meaning " fighter " or literally " hunter " ) and the " Rafale B " ( biplace , or two @-@ seater ) . The prototype of the C model ( designated C01 ) completed its first flight on 19 May 1991 , signalling the start of a test programme which primarily aimed to test the M88 @-@ 2 engines , man @-@ machine interface and weapons , and expand the flight envelope . Due to budget constraints , the second single @-@ seat prototype was never built .
The C01 differed significantly from the Rafale A. Although superficially identical to the technology demonstrator , it was smaller and more stealthy due to the gold @-@ coated canopy , a re @-@ design of the fuselage @-@ fin joint , and the addition of radar @-@ absorbent materials ( RAM ) . This aircraft also saw extensive application of composite and other materials , which both reduced the radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) and weight . Moreover , Dassault opted to reject variable engine inlets and a dedicated air brake , which lessens maintenance loads and saves weight . The B01 , the only prototype of the two @-@ seat B variant , made its maiden flight on 30 April 1993 . It was 350 kilograms ( 770 lb ) heavier than the single @-@ seater , but carried 400 litres ( 110 US gal ) less fuel . The aircraft was used for weapon @-@ systems testing . Later it was tasked with validating weapon separation and , specifically , the carriage of heavy loads . The aircraft 's typical loadout consisted of two 2 @,@ 000 @-@ litre ( 530 US gal ) external tanks , two Apache / Scalp cruise missiles , in addition to four air @-@ to @-@ air missiles .
The Navy , meanwhile , sought a carrier @-@ based aircraft to supersede its fleet of ageing Étendard IPVMs , F @-@ 8P Crusaders and Super Étendard Modernisés . While the Navy initially modernised the Crusaders , in the long term , the requirement was met with the navalised Rafale M. The M01 , the naval prototype , first flew on 12 December 1991 , followed by the second on 8 November 1993 . Since France had no land @-@ based catapult test facility , catapult trials were initially carried out between during July – August 1992 and early the following year , at NAS Lakehurst in New Jersey . The aircraft then carried out trials aboard the carrier Foch in April 1993 . Flown by Dassault 's chief test pilot , Yves Kerhervé , M02 made its maiden flight in November that year , while the first prototype completed the third round of testing at Lakehurst in November and December 1993 .
The Rafale M features a greatly reinforced undercarriage to cope with the additional stresses of naval landings , an arrestor hook , and " jump strut " nosewheel , which only extends during short takeoffs , including catapult launches . It also features a built @-@ in ladder , carrier @-@ based microwave landing system , and the new fin @-@ tip Telemir system for syncing the inertial navigation system to external equipment . Altogether , the naval modifications of the Rafale M increase its weight by 500 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) compared to other variants . The Rafale M retains about 95 percent commonality with Air Force variants including , although unusual for land @-@ based aircraft , being unable to fold its multi @-@ spar wings to reduce storage space . The size constraints were offset by the introduction of Charles de Gaulle , France 's first nuclear @-@ powered carrier , which was considerably larger than previous carriers , Foch and Clemenceau .
= = = Production and upgrades = = =
Initially , the Rafale B was to be just a trainer , but the Gulf War showed that a second crew member was invaluable on strike and reconnaissance missions . Therefore , in 1991 the Air Force switched its preferences towards the two @-@ seater , announcing that the variant would constitute 60 percent of the Rafale fleet . The service originally envisaged taking delivery of 250 Rafales , but this was initially revised downwards to 234 aircraft , made up of 95 " A " and 139 " B " models " , and later to 212 aircraft . The Navy , meanwhile , had 60 Rafales on order , down from 86 due to budget cuts . Of the 60 , 25 would be M single @-@ seaters and 35 two @-@ seat Ns , though the two @-@ seater was later cancelled .
Production of the first aircraft series formally started in December 1992 , but was suspended in November 1995 due to political and economic uncertainty . Production only resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry of Defence and Dassault agreed on a 48 @-@ aircraft ( 28 firm and 20 options ) production run with delivery between 2002 and 2007 . A further order of 59 F3 Rafales was announced in December 2004 . In November 2009 the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180 .
During the Rafale 's design phase , Dassault took advantage of Dassault Systèmes ' CATIA ( Computer Aided Three @-@ dimensional Interactive Application ) , a three @-@ dimensional computer @-@ aided design , manufacture and engineering software suite that would become standard across the industry . CATIA enabled digitisation and efficiency improvements throughout the Rafale programme , as it implemented recently developed processes such as digital mockup and product data management . It consisted of 15 GB databases of each of the Rafale 's components , assisting with various aspects of the design , manufacture and through @-@ life support .
According to the French magazine L 'Usine nouvelle , apart from several non @-@ sensitive components sourced from the United States , the Rafale is manufactured almost entirely in France . Different elements are produced in numerous factories across the country , and final assembly takes place near Bordeaux – Mérignac Airport . For example , the flight control surfaces are fabricated in Haute @-@ Savoie , the wings and avionics in Gironde , the centre fuselage in Val @-@ d 'Oise , and the engines in Essonne . Roughly 50 percent of the Rafale is produced by Dassault and the other half divided between two major partners , Thales and Safran , who rely on a network of 500 subcontractors . Altogether , the programme employs 7 @,@ 000 workers . As of 2012 , the fabrication process of each fighter took 24 months , with an annual production rate of eleven aircraft .
Deliveries of the Rafale 's naval version were a high priority to replace the Navy 's considerably aged F @-@ 8 Crusaders , and so the first production model for the French Navy undertook its first flight on 7 July 1999 . Their first naval deployment was in 2002 on board Charles de Gaulle ; by March 2002 , the aircraft carrier was stationed in the Gulf of Oman , where its complement of Rafales undertook training operations . In December 2004 , the Air Force received its first three F2 standard Rafale Bs at the Centre d 'Expériences Aériennes Militaires ( CEAM , i.e. the Military Air Experiment Centre ) at Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan , where they were tasked to undertake operational evaluation and pilot conversion training .
The total programme cost , as of FY2013 , was around € 45 @.@ 9 billion , which translated to a unit programme cost of approximately € 160 @.@ 5 million . This figure takes in account improved hardware of the F3 standard , and which includes development costs over a period of 40 years , including inflation . The unit flyaway price as of 2010 was € 101 @.@ 1 million for the F3 + version .
In 2008 , French officials were reportedly considering equipping the Rafale to launch miniaturised satellites . In 2011 , upgrades under consideration included a software radio and satellite link , a new laser @-@ targeting pod , smaller bombs and enhancements to the aircraft 's data @-@ fusion capacity . In July 2012 , fleetwide upgrades of the Rafale 's battlefield communications and interoperability capabilities commenced .
In January 2014 , Defence Minister Jean @-@ Yves Le Drian announced that € 1 billion is allocated towards the development of the F3R standard . The standard will see the integration of the Meteor BVR missile , among other weapons and software updates . The standard is to be validated by 2018 . The Rafale is planned to be the French Air Force 's primary combat aircraft until 2040 or later .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Rafale was developed as a modern jet fighter with a very high level of agility ; Dassault chose to combine a delta wing with active close @-@ coupled canard to maximize manoeuvrability . The aircraft is capable of withstanding from − 3.6g to 9g ( 10.5g on Rafale solo display and a maximum of 11g can be reached in case of emergency ) . The Rafale is an aerodynamically unstable aircraft and uses digital fly @-@ by @-@ wire flight controls to artificially enforce and maintain stability . The aircraft 's canards also act to reduce the minimum landing speed to 115 knots ( 213 km / h ; 132 mph ) ; while in flight , airspeeds as low as 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) have been observed during training missions . According to simulations by Dassault , the Rafale has sufficient low speed performance to operate from STOBAR @-@ configured aircraft carriers , and can take off using a ski @-@ jump with no modifications .
Although not a full @-@ aspect stealth aircraft , the cost of which was viewed as unacceptably excessive , the Rafale was designed for a reduced radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) and infrared signature . In order to reduce the RCS , changes from the initial technology demonstrator include a reduction in the size of the tail @-@ fin , fuselage reshaping , repositioning of the engine air inlets underneath the aircraft 's wing , and the extensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns for the construction of the trailing edges of the wings and canards . 70 % of the Rafale 's surface area is composite . Many of the features designed to reduce the Rafale 's visibility to threats remain classified .
= = = Cockpit = = =
The Rafale 's glass cockpit was designed around the principle of data fusion – a central computer intelligently selects and prioritises information to display to pilots for simpler command and control . The primary flight controls are arranged in a hands @-@ on @-@ throttle @-@ and @-@ stick ( HOTAS ) -compatible configuration , with a right @-@ handed side @-@ stick controller and a left @-@ handed throttle . The seat is inclined rearwards at an angle of 29 ° to improve g @-@ force tolerance during manoeuvring and to provide a less restricted external pilot view . An intelligent flight suit worn by the pilot is automatically controlled by the aircraft to counteract in response to calculated g @-@ forces .
Great emphasis has been placed on pilot workload minimisation across all operations . Among the features of the highly digitised cockpit is an integrated direct voice input ( DVI ) system , allowing a range of aircraft functions to be controlled by spoken voice commands , simplifying the pilot 's access to many of the controls . Developed by Crouzet , the DVI is capable of managing radio communications and countermeasures systems , the selection of armaments and radar modes , and controlling navigational functions . For safety reasons , DVI is deliberately not employed for safety @-@ critical elements of the aircraft 's operation , such as the final release of armaments .
For displaying information gathered from a range of sensors across the aircraft , the cockpit features a wide @-@ angle holographic head @-@ up display ( HUD ) system , two head @-@ down flat @-@ panel colour multi @-@ function displays ( MFDs ) as well as a central collimated display . These displays have been strategically placed to minimise pilot distraction from the external environment . Some displays feature a touch interface for ease of Human – computer interaction ( HCI ) . A head @-@ mounted display ( HMD ) for target controlling , while optional according to customer preferences , can also be integrated . The cockpit is fully compatible with night vision goggles ( NVG ) .
In the area of life @-@ support , the Rafale is fitted with a Martin @-@ Baker Mark 16F " zero @-@ zero ” ejection seat , capable of operation at zero speed and zero altitude . An on @-@ board oxygen generating system , developed by Air Liquide , eliminates the need to carry bulky oxygen canisters . The Rafale 's flight computer has been programmed to counteract pilot disorientation and to employ automatic recovery of the aircraft during negative flight conditions . The auto @-@ pilot and autothrottle controls are also integrated , and are activated by switches located on the primary flight controls .
= = = Avionics and equipment = = =
The Rafale core avionics systems employ an integrated modular avionics ( IMA ) , called MDPU ( modular data processing unit ) . This architecture hosts all the main aircraft functions such as the flight management system , data fusion , fire control , and the man @-@ machine interface . The total value of the radar , electronic communications and self @-@ protection equipment is about 30 percent of the cost of the entire aircraft . The IMA has since been installed upon several upgraded Mirage 2000 fighters , and incorporated into the civilian airliner , the Airbus A380 . According to Dassault , the IMA greatly assists combat operations via data fusion , the continuous integration and analysis of the various sensor systems throughout the aircraft , and has been designed for the incorporation of new systems and avionics throughout the Rafale 's service life .
The Rafale features an integrated defensive @-@ aids system named SPECTRA , which protects the aircraft against airborne and ground threats , developed as a joint venture between Thales and MBDA . Various methods of detection , jamming , and decoying have been incorporated , and the system has been designed to be highly re @-@ programmable for addressing new threats and incorporating additional sub @-@ systems in the future . Operations over Libya were greatly assisted by SPECTRA , allowing Rafales to perform missions independently from the support of dedicated Suppression of Enemy Air Defences ( SEAD ) platforms .
The Rafale 's ground attack capability is heavily reliant upon sensory targeting pods , such as Thales Optronics 's Reco New Generation / Areos reconnaissance pod and Damocles electro @-@ optical / laser designation pod . Together , these systems provide targeting information , enable tactical reconnaissance missions , and are integrated with the Rafale 's IMA architecture to provide analysed data feeds to friendly units and ground stations , as well as to the pilot . Damocles provides targeting information to the various armaments carried by the Rafale and is directly integrated with the Rafale 's VHF / UHF secure radio to communicate target information with other aircraft . It also performs other key functions such as aerial optical surveillance and is integrated with the navigation system as a FLIR .
The Damocles designation pod were described as " lacking competitiveness " when compared to rivals such as the Sniper and LITENING pods ; so work began on an upgraded pod , designated Damocles XF , with additional sensors and added ability to transmit live video feeds . A new Thales targeting pod , the Talios , was officially unveiled at the 2014 Farnborough Air Show and is expected to be integrated on the Rafale by 2018 . Thales ' Areos reconnaissance pod is an all @-@ weather , night @-@ and @-@ day @-@ capable reconnaissance system employed on the Rafale , and provides a significantly improved reconnaissance capability over preceding platforms . Areos has been designed to perform reconnaissance under various mission profiles and condition , using multiple day / night sensors and its own independent communications datalinks .
= = = Radar and sensors = = =
The Rafale was first outfitted with the Thales RBE2 passive electronically scanned multi @-@ mode radar . Thales claims to have achieved increased levels of situational awareness as compared to earlier aircraft through the earlier detection and tracking of multiple air targets for close combat and long @-@ range interception , as well as real @-@ time generation of three @-@ dimensional maps for terrain @-@ following and the real @-@ time generation of high resolution ground maps for navigation and targeting . In early 1994 , it was reported that technical difficulties with the radar had delayed the Rafale 's development by six months . In September 2006 , Flight International reported the Rafale 's unit cost had significantly increased due to additional development work to improve the RBE2 's detection range .
The RBE2 AA active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) radar now replaces the previous passively scanned RBE2 . The RBE2 AA is reported to deliver a greater detection range of 200 km , improved reliability and reduced maintenance demands over the preceding radar . A Rafale demonstrator began test flights in 2002 and has totaled 100 flight hours as of December 2011 . By December 2009 , production of the pre @-@ series RBE2 AA radars was underway . In early October 2012 , the first Rafale equipped with an RBE2 AA radar arrived at Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan Air Base for operational service ( the development was described by Thales and Dassault as " on time and on budget " ) . By early 2014 , the first Air Force front @-@ line squadron were supposed to receive Rafales equipped with the AESA radar , following the French Navy which was slated to receive AESA @-@ equipped Rafales starting in 2013 .
To enable the Rafale to perform in the air supremacy role , it includes several passive sensor systems . The front @-@ sector electro @-@ optical system or Optronique Secteur Frontal ( OSF ) , developed by Thales , is completely integrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible and infrared wavelengths . The OSF enables the deployment of infrared missiles such as the MICA at beyond visual range distances ; it can also be used for detecting and identifying airborne targets , as well as those on the ground and at sea . Dassault describes the OSF as being immune to jamming and capable of providing covert long @-@ range surveillance . In 2012 , an improved version of the OSF was deployed operationally .
= = = Armaments and standards = = =
Initial deliveries of the Rafale M were to the F1 ( " France 1 " ) standard , these had been equipped for the air @-@ to @-@ air interceptor combat duties , but lacked any armaments for air @-@ to @-@ ground operations . Later deliveries were to the " F2 " standard , which added the capability for conducting both air @-@ to @-@ ground and reconnaissance operations ; the first F2 standard Rafale M was delivered to the French Navy in May 2006 . Starting in 2008 onwards , Rafale deliveries have been to the nuclear @-@ capable F3 standard , and it has been reported that all aircraft built to the earlier F1 and F2 standards are to be upgraded to become F3s .
F3 standard Rafales are capable of undertaking many different mission roles with a range of equipment , namely air defence / superiority missions with Mica IR and EM air @-@ to @-@ air missiles , and precision ground attacks typically using SCALP EG cruise missiles and AASM Hammer air @-@ to @-@ surface armaments . In addition , anti @-@ shipping missions could be carried out using the AM39 Exocet sea skimming missile , while reconnaissance flights would use a combination of onboard and external pod @-@ based sensor equipment . Furthermore , the aircraft could conduct nuclear strikes when armed with ASMP @-@ A missiles . In 2010 , France ordered 200 MBDA Meteor beyond @-@ visual @-@ range missiles which will greatly increase the distance at which the Rafale can engage aerial targets when the missile enters service .
For compatibility with armaments of varying types and origins , the Rafale 's onboard store management system is compliant with MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1760 , an electrical interface between an aircraft and its carriage stores , thereby simplifying the incorporation of many of their existing weapons and equipment . The Rafale is typically outfitted with 14 hardpoints ( only 13 on Rafale M version ) , five of which are suitable for heavy armaments or equipment such as auxiliary fuel tanks , and has a maximum external load capacity of nine tons . In addition to the above equipment , the Rafale carries the 30 mm GIAT 30 DEFA cannon and can be outfitted with a range of laser @-@ guided bombs and ground @-@ attack munitions . According to Dassault , the Rafale 's onboard mission systems enable ground attack and air @-@ to @-@ air combat operations to be carried out within a single sortie , with many functions capable of simultaneous execution in conjunction with another , increasing survivability and versatility .
= = = Engines = = =
The Rafale is fitted with two Snecma M88 engines , each capable of providing up to 50 kN ( 11 @,@ 250 lbf ) of dry thrust and 75 kN ( 16 @,@ 900 lbf ) with afterburners . The engines feature several advances , including a non @-@ polluting combustion chamber , single @-@ crystal turbine blades , powder metallurgy disks , and technology to reduce radar and infrared signatures . The M88 enables the Rafale to supercruise while carrying four missiles and one drop tank .
Qualification of the M88 @-@ 2 engine ended in 1996 and the first production engine was delivered by the end of the year . Due to delays in engine production , some of the early Rafales were temporarily powered by the General Electric F404 engine . In May 2010 , a Rafale flew for the first time with the M88 @-@ 4E engine , an upgraded variant with greater thrust and lower maintenance requirements than the preceding M88 @-@ 2 . The engine is of a modular design for ease of construction and maintenance and to enable older engines to be retrofitted with improved subsections upon availability , such as existing M88 @-@ 2s being upgraded to M88 @-@ 4E standard . There has been interest in more powerful M88 engines by potential export customers , such as the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) . As of 2007 , a thrust vectoring variant of the engine designated as M88 @-@ 3D was also under development .
= = Operational history = =
= = = France = = =
= = = = Aéronavale = = = =
In December 2000 , the French Naval Aviation ( Aéronavale ) ,
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the air arm of the French Navy , received its first two Rafale M fighters . On 18 May the following year , the squadron Flottille 12F , which had previously operated the F @-@ 8 Crusader , became the first squadron to operate the Rafale after it was officially re @-@ activated prior to the delivery of the sixth Rafale . Flottille 12F immediately participated in Trident d ’ Or aboard the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle with warships from ten other nations . During the maritime exercise , the Navy tested the Rafale 's avionics during simulated interceptions with various foreign aircraft , in addition to carrier take @-@ offs and landings . After almost four years of training , the Rafale M was declared operational with the French Navy in June 2004 .
The Rafale M is fully compatible with US Navy aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks . On 4 June 2010 , during an exercise on USS Harry S. Truman ( CVN @-@ 75 ) , a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its engine replaced on board an American aircraft carrier .
In 2002 , the Rafales were first deployed to a combat zone ; seven Rafale Ms embarked aboard Charles de Gaulle of the French Navy during " Mission Héraclès " , the French participation in " Operation Enduring Freedom " . They flew from the aircraft carrier over Afghanistan , but the F1 standard precluded air @-@ to @-@ ground missions and the Rafale did not see any action . In June 2002 , while Charles de Gaulle was in the Arabian Sea , Rafales conducted several patrols near the India @-@ Pakistan border .
= = = = French Air Force = = = =
Rafales were delivered to the French Air Force several years after the naval variant , initially with the Centre d ’ Expériences Aériennes Militaires ( French Air Force Evaluation Centre ) at Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan Air Base in the trials and training role . By this time , it was expected that Escadron de Chasse ( Fighter Squadron ) 1 / 7 at Saint @-@ Dizier would receive a nucleus of 8 – 10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006 , in preparation for full operational service ( with robust air @-@ to @-@ air and stand off air @-@ to @-@ ground precision attack capabilities ) starting from mid @-@ 2007 ( when EC 1 / 7 would have about 20 aircraft , 15 two @-@ seaters and five single @-@ seaters ) .
In 2007 , after a " crash program " enhancement six Rafales were given the ability to drop laser @-@ guided bombs , in view of engaging them in Afghanistan . Three of these aircraft belonging to the Air Force were deployed to Dushanbe in Tajikistan , while the three others were Rafale Marine of the Navy on board Charles De Gaulle . The first mission occurred on 12 March 2007 , and the first GBU @-@ 12 was launched on 28 March in support of embattled Dutch troops in Southern Afghanistan , marking the operational début of the Rafale . Between January 2009 and December 2011 , a minimum of three Rafales were stationed at Kandahar International Airport to conduct combat operations in support of NATO ground forces .
On 19 March 2011 , French Rafales began conducting reconnaissance and strike missions over Libya in Opération Harmattan , in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 ; initial targets were artillery pieces laying siege around the rebel city of Benghazi . The Rafale could operate in Libya without the support of SEAD aircraft , using the onboard SPECTRA self @-@ defence system instead . On 24 March 2011 , it was reported that a Rafale had destroyed a Libyan Air Force G @-@ 2 / Galeb light attack / trainer aircraft on the runway .
During the conflict , Rafales typically conducted six @-@ hour sorties over Libyan airspace , carrying an armament of four MICA air @-@ to @-@ air missiles , four or six AASM " Hammer " bombs , a Thales Damoclès targeting pod and two drop tanks ; these patrols required multiple aerial refuelling operations per sortie from coalition tanker aircraft . The AASM precision @-@ guidance weapon system , using bombs weighing between 125 kilograms ( 280 lb ) and 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) , allowed the Rafale to conduct high @-@ altitude bombing missions . Reportedly , Rafale crews preferred to use GPS @-@ guided munitions due to greater reliability and range . Storm Shadow SCALP weapons were deployed on only one or two sorties , including one against a Libyan airbase at Al @-@ Jufra . In 2011 , aviation journalist Craig Hoyle speculated that the Rafale 's performance in Libya is likely to be pivotal to its export future , reporting that the Rafale had maintained a high operational rate throughout the deployment . Hoyle also noted that the Libyan combat experience had caused several urgent operational requirements to present themselves , such as the need for a lighter ground @-@ attack munition and to modify the AASM weapon to be more effective in the close air support role .
In January 2013 , the Rafale took part in " Opération Serval " , the French military intervention in support to the government of Mali against the Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa . The first mission was carried out on 13 January , when four Rafales took off from an airbase in France to strike rebel training camps , depots and facilities in the city of Gao , eastern Mali . Subsequent airstrikes in the following days by Rafale and Mirage fighters were reportedly instrumental in the withdrawal of Islamist militant forces from Timbuktu and Douentza . Both Rafale and Mirage 2000D aircraft used in the conflict have been based outside of North Africa , making use of aerial refuelling tanker aircraft to fly long range sorties across Algerian airspace and into Mali .
In August 2013 , it was proposed that France may halve the number of Rafales to be delivered over the next six years for a total of 26 aircraft to be delivered during this period ; foreign export procurements have been viewed as critical to maintain production under this proposal . While production would be slowed , France would still receive the same number of Rafales overall .
In September 2014 , Rafales began flying reconnaissance missions over Iraq as part of Opération Chammal , France 's contribution to the international effort to combat Islamic State ( IS ) militants . Six ( later nine ) Rafales were initially tasked with identifying IS positions in support of US airstrikes , flying from Al Dhafra Air Base , UAE . On 18 September , Rafales joined American operations in conducting attacks , launching four strikes near the Northern Iraqi town of Zumar that destroyed a logistics depot and killed dozens of IS fighters .
In December 2015 , American and French military officials reportedly discussed the possibility of French naval Rafale Ms flying combat missions from a US Navy Nimitz @-@ class aircraft carrier as soon as January 2017 . This would enable continued French Navy operations against ISIL while Charles de Gaulle undergoes its year and a half @-@ long major refit , scheduled to begin in early 2017 . Although Rafales have launched and landed on U.S. carriers to demonstrate interoperability , it would be the first time they would fly combat missions from one . As many as 18 Rafale Ms could be deployed on a carrier , although some room would have to be made for French Navy support crews familiar with maintaining the Rafale , as well as for spare parts and munitions .
= = = Egypt = = =
In November 2014 , it was reported by several sources , including the French newspaper La Tribune that Egypt was in negotiations with France to purchase 24 to 36 Rafales , subject to the financing agreement . By February 2015 , the two countries were negotiating a loan from France 's export credit agency to reach an export agreement for up to 24 Rafale fighters . Egypt hoped to complete deal quickly to have aircraft on display at the inauguration of the Suez Canal expansion in August 2015 .
On 16 February 2015 , Egypt became the Rafale 's first international customer when it officially ordered 24 Rafales , as part of a larger deal ( including a FREMM multipurpose frigate and a supply of missiles ) worth US $ 5 @.@ 9 billion ( € 5 @.@ 2 billion ) . In July 2015 , the official ceremony , marking the acceptance by Egypt of its first 3 Rafales , was held at the Dassault Aviation flight test center in Istres . In January 2016 , Egypt received three more Rafales for a total of six fighters . All six aircraft are two @-@ seat models and were diverted from delivery to the French Air Force ; Egypt 's order has 8 single @-@ seat models and 16 two @-@ seaters . In June 2016 , it was reported that Egypt is in negotiations with Dassault to acquire 12 additional Rafales for a total of 36 .
= = = Qatar = = =
From January 2011 the Qatar Emiri Air Force evaluated the Rafale alongside the Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , the Boeing F @-@ 15E , the Eurofighter Typhoon , and the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II to replace its then inventory of Dassault Mirage 2000 @-@ 5s . By June 2014 , Dassault had claimed it was close to signing a contract with Qatar for 72 Rafales . On 30 April 2015 , Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani announced to French President François Hollande that Qatar will order 24 Rafale with an option to buy additional 12 more aircraft . The € 6 @.@ 3 billion ( $ 7 @.@ 02 billion ) deal for 24 Rafales was signed on 4 May .
= = = India = = =
The Rafale was one of the six aircraft competing in the Indian MRCA competition for 126 multirole fighters . Originally , the Mirage 2000 had been considered for the competition , but Dassault withdrew it in favour of the Rafale . In February 2011 , French Rafales flew demonstrations in India , including air @-@ to @-@ air combat against Su @-@ 30MKIs . In April 2011 , the Indian Air Force ( IAF ) shortlisted the Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon for the US $ 10 @.@ 4 billion contract . On 31 January 2012 , the IAF announced the Rafale as the preferred bidder . It was proposed that 18 Rafales would be supplied to the IAF by 2015 in fly @-@ away condition , while the remaining 108 would be manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited ( HAL ) in India under transfer of technology agreements . The contract for 126 Rafales , services , and parts may have been worth up to US $ 20 billion .
The deal stalled due to disagreements over production in India . Dassault refused to take responsibility for the 108 HAL @-@ manufactured Rafales , as it had reservations about the ability of HAL to accommodate the complex manufacturing and technology transfers of the aircraft . Instead , Dassault said it would have to negotiate two separate production contracts by both companies . The Indian Defence Ministry instead wanted Dassault to be solely responsible for the sale and delivery of all 126 aircraft . In May 2013 , The Times of India reported that negotiations were " back on track " , with plans for the first 18 Rafales to be delivered in 2017 . Another point of contention was a provision where Dassault was to reinvest 50 percent of the deal 's earnings into India 's defence sectors , either through purchases or technological expertise . In March 2014 , the two sides were reported to have agreed that the first 18 aircraft would be delivered to India in flying condition and that the remaining 108 would be 70 percent built by HAL . In December 2014 , it was reported that India and France expect to sign a contract by March 2015 .
In April 2015 , during Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's visit to Paris , India requested the rapid delivery of 36 Rafales in fly @-@ away condition . Indian Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar stated that these will be inducted into the IAF within two years . India officially withdrew the 126 @-@ aircraft MMRCA tender on 30 July 2015 . Shortly after , India and France missed the July target of finalizing the 36 @-@ aircraft agreement . The previously @-@ agreed @-@ upon terms in April totaled US $ 8 billion for 36 aircraft costing $ 200 million each , with an offset requirement of 30 percent of the deal 's value for France to reinvest in India 's defense sector and create infrastructure in India for the Rafale to operate . India is insisting on a 50 percent offset and two bases , which France says will increase price and require separate infrastructure and two sets of maintenance , training , and armament storage facilities .
In January 2016 , the Indian government directed the Indian Navy to undertake detailed briefings with Dassault regarding the Rafale , in a potential start to procurement of the naval version for its aircraft carriers . The government wants commonalities between logistics and spares for fighters with the Navy and Air Force , which could lead to a buy of 54 naval fighters . As of June 2016 , negotiations were ongoing .
= = = Potential operators = = =
Analysts view the relatively quick series of 84 orders from Egypt , India and Qatar as being influenced by the Arab Spring and uncertainty of US involvement in the Middle East .
= = = = Canada = = = =
The Rafale has been amongst various aircraft proposed to meet Canada 's need for a modern jet fighter to replace the aging McDonnell Douglas CF @-@ 18 Hornet of the Royal Canadian Air Force . In 2005 , according to Canada.com , a report compiled by Canada 's Defence Department reviewing several competing aircraft had noted concerns over the Rafale 's interoperability with US forces ; Dassault had also then been unable to confirm engine performance during cold weather conditions . In July 2010 , the Canadian government announced the replacement for the CF @-@ 18 was to be the F @-@ 35 Lightning II , as the country has been a partner in the Joint Strike Fighter program since 1997 and a Tier 3 partner for the F @-@ 35 since 2002 .
Then in December 2012 , the Canadian government announced that the purchase of the F @-@ 35 had been abandoned due to greatly escalating costs , and that a fresh procurement process would begin . In January 2013 , Dassault responded to a request for information from the Canadian government and announced its readiness to enter a future competition for a future fighter procurement . Various aircraft are to be considered to meet the requirement , including the F @-@ 35 . In January 2014 , it was reported that Dassault offered a contract with full transfer of technology to allow Canada to perform its own support and upgrades , thereby lowering long @-@ term service costs .
= = = = Finland = = = =
In June 2015 , a working group set up by the Finnish MoD proposed starting the so @-@ called HX program to replace the Finnish Air Force 's current fleet of F / A @-@ 18 Hornets . The group recognises five potential types : Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , Dassault Rafale , Eurofighter Typhoon , Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II and Saab JAS 39 Gripen .
In December 2015 Finnish MoD sent a letter to Great Britain , France , Sweden and the United States where it informed that the fighter project was launched in the Defence Forces . The goal of the project is to replace the Hornet fleet , which will be decommissioned as of 2025 , with multi @-@ role fighters . The project has been named as HX Fighter Program . Dassault Rafale is mentioned in the letter as a potential fighter for the program . The request for information concerning the HX Fighter Program will be sent at the latest in March 2016 . A call for tender will be sent in spring 2018 and the buying decision is scheduled to take place in 2021 .
= = = = Malaysia = = = =
The Rafale is one of contenders for the replacement of the Royal Malaysian Air Force 's ( RMAF ) Mikoyan MiG @-@ 29 . The RMAF is looking to equip three squadrons with 36 to 40 new fighter aircraft with an estimated budget of RM6 billion to RM8 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 84 billion to US $ 2 @.@ 46 billion ) . The other competitors for the program are the Eurofighter Typhoon , Boeing F / A @-@ 18 / F Super Hornet and Saab JAS 39 Gripen .
= = = = United Arab Emirates = = = =
In 2009 , the United Arab Emirates Air Force was interested in an upgraded version of the Rafale with more powerful engines and radar , and advanced air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . In October 2011 , Dassault was confident that a US $ 10 @-@ billion deal for up to 60 Rafale aircraft would be signed . However , Deputy Supreme Commander of the Union Defence Force , Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan , in November 2011 called the French offer " uncompetitive and unworkable " ; France had in 2010 asked the UAE to pay US $ 2 @.@ 6 billion of the total cost to upgrade the Rafale . Consequently , the UAE started to explore a purchase of the Eurofighter Typhoon or the F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet .
The newspaper La Tribune reported in February 2012 , that the UAE was still considering the US $ 10 @-@ billion deal for 60 Rafales . Interoperatibility among the Gulf air forces has led to renewed interest in the Rafale from Qatar and Kuwait . In January 2013 , President Hollande stated that he would be discussing the potential sale of Rafale to the UAE during an official visit . In December 2013 , it was announced that UAE had decided not to proceed with a deal for the supply of defence and security services , including the supply of Typhoon aircraft . In September 2014 it was announced that the UAE could acquire 40 Rafales in addition to upgrades to its existing Mirage 2000s . In November 2015 , Reuters reported that Major General Ibrahim Nasser Al Alawi , commander of the UAE Air Force and Air Defence , had confirmed that the UAE was in final negotiations to purchase 60 Rafales .
= = = Failed bids = = =
The Rafale has been marketed for export to various countries . Various commentators and industry sources have highlighted the high cost of the aircraft as detrimental to the Rafale 's sales prospects . Its acquisition cost is roughly US $ 100 million ( 2010 ) , while its operational cost hovers around US $ 16 @,@ 500 ( 2012 ) for every flight @-@ hour . The Saab JAS Gripen , in comparison , costs only US $ 4 @,@ 700 per flight @-@ hour to operate . According to a 2009 article by the Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis , unlike the American government and its relationship with Boeing and Lockheed Martin , the lack of communication between the French government and Dassault has hampered a worldwide cooperative sales effort , as demonstrated by the case with Morocco in 2007 .
= = = = Brazil = = = =
In June 2008 , the Brazilian Air Force issued a request for information on the following aircraft : F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon , Rafale , Su @-@ 35 , Gripen NG and Eurofighter Typhoon . In October 2008 , the Brazilian Air Force selected three finalists for F @-@ X2 – Dassault Rafale , Gripen NG and Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F. On 5 January 2010 , media reports stated that the final evaluation report by the Brazilian Air Force placed the Gripen ahead of the other two contenders based on unit and operating costs . In February 2011 , the press announced that the new president of Brazil , Dilma Rousseff , had decided in favour of the American F @-@ 18 . After much delay due to budget constraints , in December 2013 the Brazilian government selected the Gripen NG in a US $ 5 billion deal to equip the country 's air force .
= = = = Singapore = = = =
In 2005 , the Republic of Singapore Air Force embarked on its Next Generation Fighter ( NGF ) programme to replace its fleet of ageing A @-@ 4SU Super Skyhawks . A number of options were considered and the Defence Science & Technology Agency ( DSTA ) conducted a detailed technical assessment , as well as simulations and other tests to determine the final selection . Following this , the original list of competitors was reduced to the final two – Dassault Rafale and the F @-@ 15SG Strike Eagle . In December 2005 , Singapore ordered 12 F @-@ 15SG aircraft . According to Defense Industry Daily , one major reason for the selection was that , while the Rafale had superior aerodynamics , it lacked the range and a capable radar , and had insufficient weapons and sensor integration .
= = = = Switzerland = = = =
In February 2007 , it was reported that Switzerland was considering the Rafale and other fighters to replace its Northrop F @-@ 5 Tiger IIs . The one @-@ month evaluation started in October 2008 at Emmen Airforce Base consisting of approximately 30 evaluation flights . The Rafale along with the JAS 39 Gripen and the Typhoon were to be evaluated . Although a leaked Swiss Air Force evaluation report revealed that the Rafale won the competition on technical grounds , on 30 November 2011 , the Swiss Federal Council announced that it was planning to buy 22 Gripen NGs due to the aircraft 's lower acquisition and maintenance costs . Due to a referendum , this purchase never happened .
= = = = Libya = = = =
In January 2007 , the French newspaper Journal du Dimanche reported that Libya sought 13 – 18 Rafales " in a deal worth as much as US $ 3 @.@ 24 billion " . In December 2007 , Saif al @-@ Islam Gaddafi declared Libya 's interest in the Rafale , but no order was placed . French Rafales later came to Libya as part of the international military intervention during the 2011 Libyan civil war .
= = = = Kuwait = = = =
In February 2009 , French President Nicolas Sarkozy announced that Kuwait was considering buying up to 28 Rafales . In October 2009 , during a visit to Paris , the Kuwaiti Defence Minister expressed his interest in the Rafale and said that he was awaiting terms from Dassault . Islamist lawmakers in the Kuwaiti national assembly threatened to block such a purchase , accusing the Defence Minister of lack of transparency and being manipulated by business interests . In January 2012 , the French Defence Minister said that both Kuwait and Qatar were waiting to see if the UAE first purchased the Rafale and that Kuwait would look to buy 18 – 22 Rafales . However , on 11 September 2015 , Eurofighter announced that an agreement had been reached with Kuwait for the supply of 28 Eurofighter Typhoons .
= = = = Others = = = =
In 2002 , the Republic of Korea Air Force chose the F @-@ 15K Slam Eagle over the Dassault Rafale , Eurofighter Typhoon and Sukhoi Su @-@ 35 for its 40 aircraft F @-@ X Phase 1 fighter competition .
During 2006 , while there was potentially trouble with Anglo @-@ American negotiations over the F @-@ 35 Lightning II , there was talk of purchasing the Rafale M for the British Royal Navy . However , in May 2012 , after having abandoned the F @-@ 35B STOVL version in favour of the F @-@ 35C CATOBAR variant in October 2010 , the UK reverted to purchasing the F @-@ 35B .
In late 2007 , La Tribune reported that a prospective US $ 2 @.@ 85 billion sale to Morocco had fallen through , the government selecting the F @-@ 16C / D instead . While French Defense Minister Herve Morin labelled the aircraft as overly sophisticated and too costly , defense analysists have said that miscalculations of the offer price by the DGA and hesitations about financing were detrimental to the negotiations .
In February 2009 , France offered Rafales to Oman to replace its ageing fleet of SEPECAT Jaguars . In December 2012 , Oman placed an order for 12 Typhoons , after reports surfaced that the country had preference for the fighter in 2010 .
= = Variants = =
Rafale A
Technology demonstrator , first flying in 1986 .
Rafale D
Dassault used this designation ( D for discrète ) in the early 1990s to emphasise the new semi @-@ stealthy design features .
Rafale B
Two @-@ seater version for the French Air Force .
Rafale C
Single @-@ seat version for the French Air Force .
Rafale M
Carrier @-@ borne version for the French Naval Aviation , which entered service in 2001 . For carrier operations , the M model has a strengthened airframe , longer nose gear leg to provide a more nose @-@ up attitude , larger tailhook between the engines , and a built @-@ in boarding ladder . Consequently , the Rafale M weighs about 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) more than the Rafale C. It is the only non @-@ US fighter type cleared to operate from the decks of US carriers , using catapults and their arresting gear , as demonstrated in 2008 when six Rafales from Flottille 12F integrated into the USS Theodore Roosevelt Carrier Air Wing interoperability exercise .
Rafale N
Originally called the Rafale BM , was a planned missile @-@ only two @-@ seater version for the Aéronavale . Budgetary and technical constraints have been cited as grounds for its cancellation .
Rafale R
Proposed reconnaissance @-@ oriented variant .
Rafale DM
Two @-@ seater version for the Egyptian Air Force .
Rafale EM
Single @-@ seat version for the Egyptian Air Force .
= = Operators = =
Egypt
Egyptian Air Force – 6 Rafale DMs are in service in January 2016 . ( 24 on order )
France
A total of 180 have been ordered out of a planned 286 , with an option for another 9 . Approximately 150 are confirmed to be delivered by 2019 . As of 2015 , 135 had been delivered .
French Air Force – 91Saint @-@ Dizier – Robinson Air Base
Escadron de Chasse 01 @-@ 007 " Provence " ( 2006 – present ) multirole fighter
Escadron de Chasse 01 @-@ 091 " Gascogne " ( 2009 – present ) nuclear strike
Escadron de Transformation Rafale 02 @-@ 092 " Aquitaine " ( October 2010 – present , French Air Force Operational Conversion Unit ( OCU ) jointly operated by French Air Force and French naval Aviation )
Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan Air Base
Escadron de Chasse 02 @-@ 030 " Normandie @-@ Niemen " ( 2012 – present ) multirole fighter
Escadron de Chasse et d 'Expérimentation 05 @-@ 330 " Côte d 'Argent " ( 2004 – present ) tactics development and evaluation
Al Dhafra Air Base , UAE
Escadron de Chasse 03 @-@ 030 " Lorraine " ( 2010 – present ) multirole fighter
French Navy – 44Naval Air Base Landivisiau
Flottille 11F ( 2011 – present ) multirole carrier fighter
Flottille 12F ( 2001 – present ) multirole carrier fighter
Flottille 17F ( to convert in mid @-@ 2016 ) multirole carrier fighter
India
Indian Air Force – 36 to be ordered . Final contract to be signed .
Qatar
Qatar Air Force – 24 on order
= = Accidents = =
On 6 December 2007 , a French Air Force twin @-@ seat Rafale crashed during a training flight . The pilot , who suffered from spatial disorientation , was killed in the accident .
On 24 September 2009 , after unarmed test flights , two French Navy Rafales returning to the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle , collided in mid @-@ air about 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from the town of Perpignan in southwest France . One test pilot , identified as François Duflot , was killed in the accident , while the other was rescued .
On 28 November 2010 , a Rafale from the carrier Charles de Gaulle crashed in the Arabian Sea . This aircraft was supporting Allied operations in Afghanistan . The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by a rescue helicopter from the carrier . Later reports said the engine stopped after being starved of fuel due to confusion by the pilot in switching fuel tanks .
On 2 July 2012 , during a joint exercise , a Rafale from the carrier Charles de Gaulle plunged into the Mediterranean Sea . The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by an American search and rescue helicopter from the carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Dassault Aviation , Superfighters , French Navy , International Directory of Military Aircraft
General characteristics
Crew : 1 – 2
Length : 15 @.@ 27 m ( 50 @.@ 1 ft )
Wingspan : 10 @.@ 80 m ( 35 @.@ 4 ft )
Height : 5 @.@ 34 m ( 17 @.@ 5 ft )
Wing area : 45 @.@ 7 m ² ( 492 ft ² )
Empty weight :
10 @,@ 300 kilograms ( 22 @,@ 700 lb ) ( B )
9 @,@ 850 kilograms ( 21 @,@ 720 lb ) ( C ) ( )
Loaded weight : 15 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 33 @,@ 000 lb ) ( )
Max. takeoff weight : 24 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 54 @,@ 000 lb ) ( B / C / D ) ( )
Powerplant : 2 × Snecma M88 @-@ 2 turbofans
Dry thrust : 50 @.@ 04 kN ( 11 @,@ 250 lbf ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 75 @.@ 62 kN ( 17 @,@ 000 lbf ) each
Fuel capacity : 4 @,@ 700 kg ( 10 @,@ 360 lb ) internal
Performance
Maximum speed : High altitude : Mach 1 @.@ 8 ( 1 @,@ 912 km / h , 1 @,@ 032 knots )
Low altitude : Mach 1 @.@ 1 ( 1 @,@ 390 km / h , 750 knots )
Supercruise : Up to Mach 1 @.@ 4
Range : 3 @,@ 700 + km ( 2 @,@ 000 + nmi ) with 3 drop tanks
Combat radius : 1 @,@ 852 + km ( 1 @,@ 000 + nmi ) on penetration mission
Service ceiling : 15 @,@ 235 m ( 50 @,@ 000 ft )
Rate of climb : 304 @.@ 8 + m / s ( 60 @,@ 000 + ft / min )
Wing loading : 328 kg / m ² ( 67 @.@ 1 lb / ft ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 988 ( 100 % fuel , 2 EM A2A missile , 2 IR A2A missile ) version B
Maximum g @-@ load : + 9 / – 3 @.@ 6 g
Armament
Guns : 1 × 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) GIAT 30 / M791 autocannon with 125 rounds
Hardpoints : 14 for Air Force versions ( Rafale B / C ) , 13 for Navy version ( Rafale M ) with a capacity of 9 @,@ 500 kg ( 20 @,@ 900 lb ) external fuel and ordnance and provisions to carry combinations of :
Missiles :
Air @-@ to @-@ air :
Magic II
MBDA MICA IR or EM
MBDA Meteor in the future
Air @-@ to @-@ ground :
MBDA Apache
MBDA Storm Shadow / SCALP @-@ EG
AASM @-@ Hammer ( SBU @-@ 38 / 54 / 64 )
GBU @-@ 12 Paveway II , GBU @-@ 22 Paveway III , GBU @-@ 24 Paveway III , GBU @-@ 49 Enhanced Paveway II
AS @-@ 30L
Air @-@ to @-@ surface :
MBDA AM 39 @-@ Exocet anti @-@ ship missile
MBDA CVS401 @-@ Perseus in the future
Nuclear Deterrence :
ASMP @-@ A nuclear missile
Other : Thales Damocles targeting pod
Thales AREOS ( Airborne Recce Observation System ) reconnaissance pod
Thales TALIOS multi @-@ function targeting pod in the future ( F3R Standard )
Up to 5 drop tanks
Buddy @-@ buddy refuelling pod
Avionics
Thales RBE2 @-@ AA AESA radar
Thales SPECTRA Electronic Warfare system .
Thales / SAGEM @-@ OSF Optronique Secteur Frontal infra @-@ red search and track ( IRST ) system .
= A Journey =
A Journey is a memoir by Tony Blair of his tenure as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . Published in the UK on 1 September 2010 , it covers events from when he became leader of the Labour Party in 1994 and transformed it into " New Labour " , holding power for a party record three successive terms , to his resignation and replacement as Prime Minister by his Chancellor of the Exchequer , Gordon Brown . Blair donated his £ 4 @.@ 6 million advance , and all subsequent royalties , to the British Armed Forces charity The Royal British Legion . It became the fastest @-@ selling autobiography of all time at the bookstore chain Waterstones . Promotional events were marked by antiwar protests .
Two of the book 's major topics are the strains in Blair 's relationship with Brown after Blair allegedly reneged on the pair 's 1994 agreement to step down as Prime Minister much earlier , and his controversial decision to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq . Blair discusses Labour 's future after the 2010 general election , his relations with the Royal Family , and how he came to respect President George W. Bush . Reviews were mixed ; some criticised Blair 's writing style , but others called it candid .
Gordon Brown was reportedly unhappy over Blair 's comments about him , while David Runciman of The London Review of Books suggested there were episodes from Blair 's troubled relationship with his Chancellor that were absent from A Journey . Labour politician Alistair Darling said the book demonstrates how the country can be changed for the better when a government has a clear purpose , while the New Zealand Listener suggested Blair and his contemporaries had helped to write New Labour 's epitaph . Some families of servicemen and women who were killed in Iraq reacted angrily , with one antiwar commentator dismissing Blair 's regrets over the loss of life . Shortly after the release of A Journey , the screenwriter of the 2006 film The Queen , which depicts Blair 's first months in office , accused Blair of plagiarising a conversation with Elizabeth II from him .
= = History = =
In March 2010 , it was reported that Blair 's memoirs , under the title The Journey , would be published in September . Gail Rebuck , chairman and chief executive of Random House , announced that the memoirs would be published by Hutchinson in the United Kingdom . She predicted that the book would " break new ground in prime ministerial memoirs just as Blair himself broke the mould of British politics . " Preliminary images of the book 's cover , showing Blair in an open @-@ neck shirt , were released . In July , the memoir was retitled as A Journey ; one publishing expert speculated that it was changed to make Blair appear " less messianic " . The publisher did not give any reason . It was announced the book would be published by Knopf in the United States and Canada under the title A Journey : My Political Life ; and in Australia , New Zealand , South Africa , and India by Random House . It was also released as an audiobook , read by Blair available for download and on 13 compact discs with a playing time of 16 hours . The book was published in the United Kingdom on 1 September .
Before the launch , Blair announced that he would give the £ 4.6m advance and all royalties from his memoirs to a sports centre for injured soldiers . In an interview with Jonathon Gatehouse , he conceded , " You wouldn 't be human if you didn 't feel both a sense of responsibility and a deep sadness for those who have lost their lives . That responsibility stays with me now , and will stay with me for the rest of my life . You know , I came to office as prime minister in 1997 , focusing on domestic policy and ended up in four conflicts – Sierra Leone , Kosovo , Afghanistan and Iraq . And it does change you , and so it should . " BBC political correspondent Norman Smith said Blair 's severest critics would see the donation as " guilt money " for taking the UK to war against Iraq in 2003 . The father of a soldier killed there decried the donation as " blood money " , while the father of another serviceman who died said Blair had a " guilty conscience . " A spokesperson for the Stop the War Coalition supported with the donation , but added , " No proportion of Tony Blair 's massive and ill @-@ gotten fortune can buy him innocence or forgiveness . He took this country to war on a series of lies against the best legal advice and in defiance of majority opinion . " A spokesman for Blair said that it had long been his intention to give the money to a charity ; he added aiding soldiers undergoing rehabilitation at the Battle Back Challenge Centre was " his way of honouring their courage and sacrifice . " The announcement was welcomed by Chris Simpkins , director general of The Royal British Legion , who said , " Mr Blair 's generosity is much appreciated and will help us to make a real and lasting difference to the lives of hundreds of injured personnel . "
= = Synopsis = =
A Journey covers Blair 's time as leader of the Labour Party and then British Prime Minister following his party 's victory at the 1997 general election . His tenure as Labour leader begins in 1994 following the death of his predecessor , John Smith , an event Blair claims to have had a premonition about a month before Smith died . Blair believes he will succeed Smith as Labour leader rather than Gordon Brown , who is a strong contender for the job . Blair and Brown subsequently reach an agreement whereby Brown will not run against Blair for the position , and will succeed him later . But it leads to a difficult working relationship , which is discussed at length . He likens them both to " a couple who loved each other , arguing over whose career should come first . " To him , Brown is a " strange guy " with " zero " emotional intelligence .
Having been elected as leader Blair moves the Labour Party to the political centre ground , repackaging it as " New Labour " , and goes on to win the 1997 general election . At his first meeting with Elizabeth II following his election as Prime Minister Blair recalls the Queen telling him , " You are my tenth prime minister . The first was Winston . That was before you were born . " Within a few months his government must deal with the aftermath of the death of Diana , Princess of Wales , and following the Princess 's funeral , Elizabeth II tells Blair that lessons must be learned from the way things have been handled . Social occasions with the Queen are also recalled , including a gathering at Balmoral Castle where Prince Philip is described manning the barbecue while Elizabeth II dons a pair of rubber gloves to wash up afterwards .
From the outset Blair 's government plays a significant role in the Northern Ireland peace process , during which Blair admits to using " a certain amount of creative ambiguity " to secure an agreement , claiming the process would not have succeeded otherwise . He says that he stretched the truth " on occasions past breaking point " in the run @-@ up to the 2007 power @-@ sharing deal which enabled the return of devolved legislative powers from Westminster to the Northern Ireland Executive . Both Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness of Sinn Féin are praised for the part they played in the peace process .
One of the themes that dominates the latter part of Blair 's time in office is his decision to join US President George W. Bush in committing troops to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , the aftermath of which he describes as a " nightmare " , but that he believes to have been necessary because Saddam Hussein " had not abandoned the strategy of WMD [ weapons of mass destruction ] , merely made a tactical decision to put it into abeyance " . He would make the same decision again with regard to Iran , warning that if that country develops nuclear weapons it will change the balance of power of the Middle East , to the region 's detriment . Blair believes
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some problems in Iraq still require a " resolution " and will fester if left unattended . Of the war dead he says , " I feel desperately sorry for them , sorry for the lives cut short , sorry for the families whose bereavement is made worse by the controversy over why their loved ones died , sorry for the utterly unfair selection that the loss should be theirs . " A year on from the invasion he hopes Bush will win a second term as US President : " I had come to like and admire George , " he writes .
In 2003 , Blair promises his Chancellor , Gordon Brown that he will resign before the next general election , but later changes his mind . Brown subsequently attempts to blackmail him , threatened to call for a Labour Party inquiry into the 2005 Cash for Honours affair during an argument over pension policy . Brown succeeds Blair as Labour Party leader and Prime Minister in 2007 . But while Blair praises Brown as a good Chancellor and a committed public servant , he believes his decision to abandon the New Labour policies of the Blair years leads to the party 's 2010 election defeat . However , Brown is right to restructure British banks and introduce an economic stimulus after the financial crisis .
The book closes with a final chapter offering a critique of Labour Party policy , and discusses its future . Blair warns Brown 's successor that if Labour is to remain electable they should continue with the policies of New Labour and not return to the left @-@ wing policies of the 1980s : " I won three elections . Up to then , Labour had never even won two successive full terms . The longest Labour government had lasted six years . This lasted 13 . It could have gone on longer , had it not abandoned New Labour . "
= = Publication = =
Within hours of its launch A Journey became the fastest @-@ selling autobiography of all time at bookseller Waterstones , where it sold more copies in one day than Peter Mandelson 's The Third Man : Life at the Heart of New Labour had done in its first three weeks earlier that year . It debuted at the top of Amazon.co.uk 's British best @-@ seller list . Within a week , Nielsen BookScan said that 92 @,@ 000 copies of A Journey had been sold in the United Kingdom , the best opening week for an autobiography since the company began keeping figures in 1998 . The New York Times reported that in the United States , an initial print run of 50 @,@ 000 copies had been extended by another 25 @,@ 000 , with the book set to debut at Number 3 on The New York Times hardcover best @-@ seller list . Andrew Lake , Waterstones ' political buyer , said , " Nothing can compare to the level of interest shown in this book . You have to look at hugely successful fiction authors such as Dan Brown or JK Rowling to find books that have sold more quickly on their first day . Mandelson may remain the prince but Blair has reclaimed his title as king , certainly in terms of book sales .
Blair recorded a series of promotional interviews for radio and television for , among others , the Arabic television network Al Jazeera , the ITV1 daytime magazine programme This Morning , and BBC Two , which aired an hour @-@ long interview with the journalist and political commentator Andrew Marr . He was in Washington , D.C. on the day of the UK launch to participate in peace talks with Middle East leaders and attend a White House dinner with Barack Obama , Hillary Clinton , and Israeli and Palestinian leaders . The British newspaper The Independent reported that Blair 's visit to the United States was a coincidence , and not an attempt to be out of the United Kingdom when the book was published . When Blair arrived for his first book signing at a leading bookshop on O 'Connell Street , Dublin on 4 September , demonstrators heckled , jeered and threw eggs and shoes at him . One activist posed as a purchaser to attempt a citizen 's arrest of Blair for war crimes . Protestors clashed with Irish police and tried to push over a security barrier outside the shop . The demonstrators — anti @-@ war protestors and Irish republicans opposed to the peace process — called queuing customers " traitors " and " West Brits " . Four people were arrested during the incident .
Several days after the launch of the book , Blair appeared on the series premiere of ITV1 's breakfast television programme Daybreak , where he criticised the Dublin protestors as a small minority given undue media attention . Since the book was selling well , and given fears that protesters would also be present at a forthcoming book signing in London on 8 September , he expressed doubts over whether that event was justifiable or worth the inevitable disruption . Later in the day it was confirmed the signing at Waterstones in Piccadilly would not go ahead . A spokesman for Blair announced that a planned launch party for the book scheduled for the Tate Modern would take place despite plans by the Stop the War Coalition to demonstrate . However , the following day this event was also cancelled as a result of threats of disruption by campaigners . In subsequent weeks , a number of media organisations reported that copies of A Journey were being moved from autobiographical sections in bookshops to sections on crime and horror . More than 10 @,@ 000 people had joined a Facebook page calling for that action .
= = Reception = =
= = = In the United Kingdom = = =
A Journey drew a mixed reception from critics . Financial Times editor Lionel Barber called it " part psychodrama , part treatise on the frustrations of leadership in a modern democracy ... written in a chummy style with touches of Mills & Boon " . He wrote that it made Blair seem " likable , if manipulative ; capable of dissembling while wonderfully fluent ; in short , a brilliant modern politician ( whatever his moans about the media ) . " Writing in The Independent on Sunday , Geoffrey Beattie said A Journey offered an understanding of Blair 's " underlying psychology . " John Rentoul , author of the Blair biography Tony Blair Prime Minister , was equally positive , giving particular praise to the chapter on the Iraq War . " The chapter on Iraq is tightly argued in some detail , which may persuade those with open minds to recognise that the decision to join the US invasion was a reasonable , if not very successful , one , rather than a conspiracy against life , the universe and everything decent , " he said . Mary Ann Sieghart , writing for The Independent said , " whatever its faults , and toe @-@ curling passages , [ A Journey ] has many good lessons on how to succeed in both opposition and government .
Other reviewers were less positive . The political journalist and author Andrew Rawnsley was critical of Blair 's writing style in The Observer . " It is Tony Blair 's boast that he wrote every word in longhand ' on hundreds of notepads ' . That I believe , " he wrote . " He was the most brilliant communicator of his era as a platform speaker or television interviewee , but he can be a ghastly writer . Anyone thinking about taking this journey needs to be given a travel advisory : much of the prose is execrable ... I could say that it is a pity that Tony Blair did not employ a ghostwriter to prettify the prose and organise his recollections more elegantly . " Rawnsley does , though , praise the book as being " a more honest political memoir than most and more open in many respects than I had anticipated . " Julian Glover , a columnist in The Guardian , said that " no political memoir has ever been like this : a book written as if in a dream — or a nightmare ; a literary out @-@ of @-@ body experience . By turns honest , confused , memorable , boastful , fitfully endearing , important , lazy , shallow , rambling and intellectually correct , it scampers through the last two decades like a trashy airport read . " The Sunday Telegraph was extremely critical of Blair 's writing style . " If Blair wants to tell you a funny story , he makes the mistake of signalling in advance that you should be laughing — what happened was ' hilarious ' , his first weekend at Balmoral was ' utterly freaky ' — thereby strangling the anecdote at birth . The book , like its author , is slightly embarrassing . " In the journal History Today , Archie Brown , Emeritus Professor of Politics at Oxford University was critical of what he believed to be Blair 's flawed sense of leadership , but had praise for the chapter on the Northern Ireland peace process : " Blair 's role in the Northern Ireland settlement was perhaps his single most noteworthy achievement . His account of it is also the best chapter in a book which , even by the standards of memoirists who fancy themselves to be remarkable leaders , is strikingly egocentric . "
= = = In the United States = = =
Reviews in the US sounded similar themes . In The New Yorker , British novelist John Lanchester called A Journey " a detailed account of scrambling , scraping , horse @-@ trading , bluffing , and fudging the way to a deal — a remarkable combination of the ramshackle and the historic . " Fareed Zakaria of the The New York Times Book Review praised Blair for his openness in the publication . " When speaking about the challenges of his first term in office , Blair writes honestly and openly , " the newspaper said . " The style is not the elegant Oxbridge prose that might have been expected of a former prime minister but one filled with Americanisms . It is breezy , informal and candid enough to keep the reader thoroughly engaged . " However , Zakaria attacked Blair 's " sweeping generalizations " about terrorism .
Writing in The Washington Post , Leonard Downie , Jr . , former editor of that paper , called the work a " notably wistful memoir " and is generally positive about its content : " Toward the end of this well @-@ written and perhaps unintentionally self @-@ revealing memoir , Tony Blair , who was Britain 's prime minister during an eventful decade from 1997 to 2007 , insists he is ' trying valiantly not to fall into self @-@ justifying mode — a bane of political memoirs . ' But he has done just that . " Tim Rutton of the Los Angeles Times also gave the memoirs a favourable review , declaring it " a political biography of unusual interest . "
= = = Internationally = = =
There are fewer reviews from newspapers outside the United Kingdom and United States , but those available are generally positive . Writing for Australia 's The Sydney Morning Herald Alexander Downer , who served as Foreign Minister in the Government of John Howard gave A Journey a favourable review : " His [ Blair 's ] commitment to humanity is sincere and convincing , and his personality infectiously amiable with a delightful sense of self @-@ deprecating humour . " Konrad Yakabuski , a senior political writer for Canada 's The Globe and Mail was also positive : " If Tony Blair has not continued to agonize over the tough decisions of his prime ministership , he does a pretty good job of persuading otherwise in A Journey . " India 's English language daily The Hindu said of the book , " It is by no means a confessional memoir but a brave attempt with only patchy success at self @-@ justification . "
= = Political reaction = =
The Queen reportedly felt a " profound sense of disappointment " in Blair for breaking with protocol by revealing in his memoirs sensitive details of private conversations he had with her during his time as Prime Minister . A spokesman for Buckingham Palace told a newspaper , " No prime minister before has ever done this and we can only hope that it will never happen again . " The Sunday Express claimed , quoting " renowned Royal biographer Hugo Vickers " and other " Royal insiders " , that because of the book 's contents , Elizabeth II would withhold granting Blair the Order of the Thistle , an honour which is bestowed at the sovereign 's personal prerogative and normally given almost automatically to leaders of Scottish descent after leaving office . Gordon Brown was said to be " seething " and " dismayed " over the criticism he received from Blair in the book , but had told aides not to criticise it . Ed Balls , a Brown ally who served in his government as Secretary of State for Children , Schools and Families said , " It would have been much better if the memoirs had been a celebration of success rather than recriminations . In that sense I thought it was all a bit sad . It was so one @-@ sided . I didn 't think it was comradely . "
Several more of Blair 's former colleagues and political opponents also commented on the book . Former Conservative minister Norman Tebbit wrote in The Daily Telegraph , " A Journey seems to be dominated by Blair 's anxiety to be seen as a great political leader who changed his country for the better . In fact it is , as I suppose all such books are to some extent , entirely about justifying himself and blaming others . " However , Tebbit admitted he had not read the book at the time of writing about it and based his opinion on media coverage . Writing in The Guardian , Alistair Darling , who was Chancellor under Gordon Brown , said that he " read with wry amusement how Tony Blair felt after much agonising that he couldn 't sack his Chancellor . History has a habit of repeating itself . " He concluded that the book was " a good read and shows us what can be done when we have confidence , clarity and a clear sense of purpose : we can win and change the country for the better . " Labour Member of Parliament Tom Harris said that the book " will be a reminder that opposition doesn 't have to be permanent , and that great things can be accomplished by a Labour government , but only if we have a leader capable of appealing to voters beyond our own party 's core . " Of Blair , he said , " There are still many , many Labour Party members who remember Blair as an election @-@ winning genius who , in office , was popular for an awful lot longer than he was unpopular . " Ed Miliband , then vying for the vacant position of Labour Party leader , said on the day of publication , " I think it is time to move on from Tony Blair and Gordon Brown and Peter Mandelson and to move on from the New Labour establishment and that is the candidate that I am at this election who can best turn the page . I think frankly most members of the public will want us to turn the page . " He was elected as Leader of the Labour Party several weeks later .
Some families of servicemen and servicewomen who were killed in Iraq reacted angrily to the book , in which Blair does not apologise for the invasion . " I can 't regret the decision to go to war . I can say never did I guess the bloody , destructive and chaotic nightmare that unfolded — and that too is part of the responsibility , " he says in the book . Reg Keys , whose son Tom Keys was killed in Iraq in 2003 , said that the book was " just crocodile tears from Blair . " Keys said , " The tears he claims to have shed are nothing like the tears I and my wife have shed for our son . They are nothing like the tears that tens of thousands of Iraqis have shed for their loved ones . They don 't even come close to it . They seem to me like crocodile tears . It is a cynical attempt to sanitise his legacy . " A spokesperson for Military Families Against the War said that Blair 's expression of regret over the loss of life was " completely meaningless . " The spokesperson added , " He has to prove his regret and giving money to charity doesn 't come close . He is giving a minuscule amount compared to the cost of war and rehabilitation of injured soldiers . It is laughable . "
Some of the dialogue Blair uses to describe his first meeting with Elizabeth II led to accusations of plagiarism from Peter Morgan , who wrote The Queen , set during the first few months of Blair 's premiership . Blair recalls his first meeting with Elizabeth II in which she tells him , " You are my 10th prime minister . The first was Winston . That was before you were born . " In the film , Helen Mirren 's fictionalised Elizabeth II says almost exactly the same thing . Morgan said it had been purely his own imagination .
= = Other accounts of the Blair years = =
Some commentators offered comparisons between A Journey and accounts of the Blair years written by other senior members of his government , particularly on Blair 's relationship with Gordon Brown . David Goodhart of Prospect Magazine wrote that in both Peter Mandelson 's memoir The Third Man and the first volume of Alastair Campbell 's Diaries ( 1994 – 97 ) , " Blair is important , but a rather weak figure buffeted by events and by Gordon Brown . In Blair 's own account , A Journey ( in which Mandelson features hardly at all , and Gordon Brown only at the end ) it is of course very different . Almost everything is driven forward by him ; the new Labour project was not imminent in Britain 's political history — it had to be shaped and moulded . " A similar theme was echoed by David Runciman in The London Review of Books , where he reflected that Mandelson 's memoirs " provide a much more complete account of the Blair / Brown relationship " , including details of Operation Teddy Bear , an aborted plot from 2003 to curb Brown 's increasing influence as Chancellor by dividing the Treasury to create a separate Office of Budget and Delivery that would be controlled directly by the Cabinet Office .
Writing for the journal British Politics , academic Mark Garnett provided a detailed analysis of the Blair and Mandelson memoirs , observing that while A Journey gives a more in @-@ depth account of what he termed " contemporary British government " , The Third Man is a more satisfying read : " The Third Man was a worthwhile effort for Peter Mandelson 's reputation , while Tony Blair has journeyed in vain . " The New Zealand Listener , on the other hand , suggested that A Journey and other memoirs written by prominent architects of New Labour had helped to seal its doom after David Miliband – the preferred candidate of all three as Brown 's successor – failed to be elected to the position : " All three backed David Miliband , and however much Miliband tried to distance himself – I 'm not New Labour , I 'm Next Labour – these three books and the publicity that surrounded them showed he had New Labour dye all over his hands . David was beaten to the leadership by his younger brother , Ed ( a man who lacked , as Blair himself might put it , the New Labour baggage ) , by a whisker – just over 1 % . And at a stroke , it 's clear these great , vocal proselytisers of New Labour have unwittingly written its epitaph . "
= Aaron Loup =
Aaron Christopher Loup ( born December 19 , 1987 ) is an American professional baseball relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays of Major League Baseball . He stands 6 feet 0 inches ( 183 cm ) and weighs 210 pounds ( 95 kg ) . Born in Raceland , Louisiana , Loup played baseball at Hahnville High School and Tulane University , where he led his teams to several state playoff appearances and recorded a five @-@ hit shutout . He was drafted by the Blue Jays out of Tulane in the ninth round of the 2009 draft .
After playing for three years with minor @-@ league affiliates for the Toronto Blue Jays and even being chosen for the 2012 Eastern League All @-@ Star Game , Loup was called up to the Blue Jays as a replacement for Luis Pérez and retired all six batters he faced . He was later voted the 2012 Toronto Blue Jays Rookie of the Year by the Toronto chapter of the Baseball Writers Association of America ( BBWAA ) . Loup pitched 11 ⁄ 3 innings on Opening Day in 2013 , and would go on to win his first major league game on April 10 against the Detroit Tigers . He recorded his first two major league saves on April 12 and June 2 , and led the Blue Jays to a win in an 18 @-@ inning game on June 8 after a pair of groundouts .
Loup is a southpaw whose pitching drastically improved after coaches told him to become a sidearm pitcher . His fastball has been noted as particularly effective against both left- and right @-@ handed batters , but he continues to struggle with a changeup . Manager John Gibbons does not view Loup as a long reliever , but rather as a " situational , one @-@ inning guy . " He is known for his " relaxed " personality , which has improved after spending time with his teammates .
= = Early life = =
Loup was born December 19 , 1987 , in Raceland , Louisiana . His father and grandfather influenced his baseball interest the most when he was young , and he says that it was " just all baseball all the time " , with " a little football " . Loup said that when he was thirteen , " My dad had me in the backyard almost every day — or at least it seemed that way . I was always doing something , whether it was pitching off the mound or hitting in the cage . I wanted to play baseball and knew that I needed to work hard to get there . As a kid , I needed to be reminded of that sometimes . " His baseball role models growing up were Greg Maddux , John Smoltz , and Tom Glavine .
Loup played baseball at Hahnville High School , where he led the Hahnville Fighting Tigers to four state playoff appearances . As a sophomore , he threw a complete @-@ game no @-@ hitter against Terrebonne High School . He then attended Tulane University , where he majored in digital design and played for the Tulane Green Wave from freshman year until his junior year , when he was drafted by the Toronto Blue Jays . As a freshman for the Green Wave , he held a 4 @.@ 37 earned run average ( ERA ) and 36 strikeouts in 35 innings . As a sophomore , he held a 5 @.@ 66 ERA in 472 ⁄ 3 innings , as well as pitching a perfect game of relief on April 26 , 2008 . Before being drafted in his junior year , he had thrown 571 ⁄ 3 innings .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Draft = = =
The Blue Jays drafted Loup in the ninth round of the 2009 Major League Baseball Draft . Loup had shown a strong performance when he was playing for the Tulane Green Wave and was the second Green Wave player to be drafted . Loup said of the event , " I had 20 people text message me before I even heard anything and then my phone rang and I got the call . It 's exciting . They told me they would call me as soon as the draft was over and we would discuss details , so hopefully everything will shake out . "
= = = Minor league career = = =
After the draft , Loup played for the Gulf Coast League Blue Jays in 2009 . In the 2009 season , he held a 3 @.@ 86 ERA and 19 strikeouts in 161 ⁄ 3 innings . In 2010 , he was moved up to the Lansing Lugnuts , one of the Class A affiliates of the Blue Jays , where he held a 4 @.@ 54 ERA and 73 strikeouts in 731 ⁄ 3 innings . On June 22 , 2010 , Loup was chosen a Mid @-@ Season All @-@ Star . He missed the last two months of the season with an unknown injury and began 2011 on the disabled list . In 2011 , he was moved to the Dunedin Blue Jays , the Class A @-@ Advanced Blue Jays affiliate , where he held a 4 @.@ 66 ERA and 56 strikeouts in 652 ⁄ 3 innings .
In 2012 , Loup joined the New Hampshire Fisher Cats , the double @-@ A affiliate of the Toronto Blue Jays . There , he boasted 36 Eastern League appearances , a 2 @.@ 84 ERA , and 43 strikeouts in 441 ⁄ 3 innings . After his teammate Sam Dyson was promoted to the Blue Jays , Loup was Dyson 's replacement for the Minor League Baseball 2012 Eastern League All @-@ Star Game .
= = = Toronto Blue Jays = = =
= = = = 2012 = = = =
Loup began 2012 with the Fisher Cats . In the 2012 season , the Toronto Blue Jays used 32 different pitchers due to frequent injuries , and Loup was among these . He was called up to replace Luis Pérez on July 14 after Pérez tore his ulnar collateral ligament . In his debut , Loup retired all six batters he faced .
On August 3 , Loup became the first pitcher in Blue Jays history to bat in an American League game , grounding out to begin the top of the 15th against the Oakland Athletics . Loup closed out the season posting a 0 @-@ 2 record with a 2 @.@ 64 ERA and 21 strikeouts in 302 ⁄ 3 innings . The Toronto chapter of the Baseball Writers Association of America ( BBWAA ) named him the Toronto Blue Jays 2012 Rookie of the Year that November .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
Though he was considered one of the front @-@ runners , there was still much competition for one of the limited 2013 bullpen spots as a relief pitcher . His main competition was seen as Brett Cecil and J. A. Happ . John Gibbons said , " How it best fits the team , how it all stacks up down there is really what it 's going to come down to . But we 're going to go with the best guy , not because guys are out of options . " Reportedly , Loup learned that he had acquired one of the bullpen spots when Gibbons walked by his locker and said , " Oh , hey Loup — you made the team . "
Loup pitched 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings of relief for the Blue Jays against the Cleveland Indians on Opening Day . On April 10 , in a game against the Detroit Tigers , Loup recorded his first career win . On April 12 , Loup recorded his first major league save in a game against the Kansas City Royals . He would later record a second major league save in a game against the San Diego Padres on June 2 . On April 20 , Loup committed a two @-@ run throwing error in the eleventh inning against the New York Yankees . During the first two months of the Blue Jays ' lackluster 2013 season , Loup and other relief pitchers helped to keep the Blue Jays from more defeats . Loup was the ninth and final pitcher in an eighteen @-@ inning game against the Texas Rangers on June 8 . The game , which was the longest in Blue Jays history , resulted in a win after Loup gained a pair of groundouts . In another game against the Rangers on June 14 , Loup pitched in the eighth inning and participated in a shutout . Loup ended the 2013 season with a 4 – 6 record , 2 @.@ 47 ERA and 53 strikeouts in 691 ⁄ 3 innings .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
Loup was one of eight pitchers in the bullpen for the Blue Jays ' 2014 opening day . On April 20 , Loup walked three consecutive batters for the first time in his career , and took the loss as the Blue Jays fell to the Cleveland Indians 6 – 4 . On May 3 , the Blue Jays announced that Loup would replace Sergio Santos as the team 's closer until Casey Janssen returned from injury . After walking as many batters in three months as he had the entire last season , Loup regained confidence after pitching the last few innings of a game on June 4 that went from a 3 – 2 lead to an 8 – 2 win against the Detroit Tigers .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
Loup took the loss in the Blue Jays ' second game of the 2015 season . Entering with a 3 – 1 lead against the New York Yankees in the eighth inning , he loaded the bases without recording an out . All three runners would come in to score and Toronto would lose , 4 – 3 . On April 12 , Loup pitched 12 ⁄ 3 perfect innings against the Orioles , taking the win by a score of 10 – 7 . Loup experienced ineffectiveness throughout the season , posting an ERA over 5 @.@ 00 into August . Following a 3 – 1 win over the Yankees on August 16 , Loup was optioned to the Triple @-@ A Buffalo Bisons . He was recalled on September 1 .
= = = = 2016 = = = =
On January 15 , 2016 , Loup and the Blue Jays avoided salary arbitration by agreeing to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 05 million contract . Loup began the 2016 season on the disabled list with a left forearm flexor strain . He began a rehab assignment with the Dunedin Blue Jays on May 14 . On May 21 , he was moved up to the Buffalo Bisons to continue rehabbing the injury .
= = = Scouting report = = =
= = = = Defense = = = =
Due to his non @-@ ideal size as a pitcher , some have seen issues in Loup 's stamina and durability . His pitches can also come across as " a bit too hittable . " He is , however , especially effective when pitching against left @-@ handed batters . In 2013 , Loup was viewed by the Blue Jays ' manager John Gibbons as " not necessarily a long guy ; he 's more a situational , one @-@ inning guy . " Despite his shortcomings , Loup has the lowest walk rate among all major league pitchers who have pitched at least seventy innings since 2012 , having walked only 2 @.@ 6 % of the batters he has faced . His consistency and endurance have made Loup the Blue Jays ' most @-@ used reliever , and he says " I 'm one of those guys that if my body would let me , I would pitch every day . "
The Baseball Cube 's player ratings , which are based solely on statistics on a scale from 0 @-@ 100 , gave Loup a 69 for control , a 62 for " K @-@ rating " , or strikeouts compared to batters faced , a 62 for efficiency , and a 52 for " vsPower " , or home runs compared to batters faced .
= = = = Pitching style = = = =
Loup is a left @-@ handed pitcher , or southpaw . He struggled at first with pitching until minor league pitching instructor Dane Johnson and Dunedin pitching coach Darold Knowles told him to lower his arm and become more of a sidearm pitcher . Now , as he pitches , he tracks a plane from his ear to his shoulder , which also helped his effectiveness against left @-@ handed batters . His slider and fastball improved drastically , but his changeup continued to struggle , and Loup says that he is still a little inconsistent with it . He can throw a low @-@ 90s " breaking " fastball that is just as effective against right @-@ handed batters as left @-@ handed batters . John Farrell , a previous Toronto Blue Jays manager , said that it was " [ Loup 's ] poise and his presence that allows him to maintain not only composure , but the ability to execute . " Blue Jays ' bullpen coach Pat Hentgen says that Loup " keeps things simple , he doesn 't over @-@ think . He stays aggressive . He 's got a lot of guts , goes right after hitters and you combine all those things and you 're going to have the success that he 's had . " One reporter compared Loup to Bran Flakes , stating that " [ y ] ou know exactly what you 're going to get from him every time he takes the mound and he 's not going to add any excitement to any situation . "
= = Personal life = =
Loup married his high school sweetheart Leigh Ann . The couple have one child , a daughter named Sophie Harper Loup , born the weekend of August 24 , 2013 . Loup went on the paternity list for the Blue Jays on August 23 , 2013 , but was called back on August 26 due to the three @-@ day paternity list limit . Loup and his wife spend the off @-@ season at Loup 's Louisiana home . An avid bowhunter , Loup prefers hunting deer with a compound bow . He has also been known to fish and hunt with a gun in the off @-@ season . He is known for having a more quiet and reserved personality , but he says that he has become " a little more comfortable " with his teammates by spending time and " connecting " with them , which he says contributes to his success .
= System Shock 2 =
System Shock 2 is a first @-@ person action role @-@ playing survival horror video game for Microsoft Windows , OS X and Linux , designed by Ken Levine and co @-@ developed by Irrational Games and Looking Glass Studios . Originally intended to be a standalone title , its story was changed during production into a sequel to the 1994 PC game System Shock ; the alterations were made when Electronic Arts — who owned the System Shock franchise rights — signed on as publisher . System Shock 2 was released on August 11 , 1999 , in North America .
The game takes place on board a starship in a cyberpunk depiction of 2114 . The player assumes the role of a soldier trying to stem the outbreak of a genetic infection that has devastated the ship . Like System Shock , gameplay consists of combat and exploration . It incorporates role @-@ playing system elements , in which the player can develop skills and traits , such as hacking and psionic abilities .
System Shock 2 received positive reviews , but failed to meet commercial sales expectations . Many critics later determined that the game was highly influential in subsequent game design , particularly on first @-@ person shooters , and considered it far ahead of its time . It has been included in several " greatest games of all time " lists . In 2007 , Irrational Games released a spiritual successor to the System Shock series , titled BioShock , to critical acclaim and strong sales . System Shock 2 had been in intellectual property limbo following closure of Looking Glass Studios . Night Dive Studios were able to secure the rights to game and System Shock franchise in 2013 to produce an updated version of System Shock 2 for modern personal computers . OtherSide Entertainment announced in December 2015 that they have been licensed the rights from Night Dive Studios to produce a sequel , System Shock 3 .
= = Gameplay = =
Like in its predecessor , System Shock , gameplay in System Shock 2 is an amalgamation of the action role @-@ playing game and survival horror genres . The developers achieved this gameplay design by rendering the experience as a standard first @-@ person shooter and adding a character customization and development system , which are considered as signature role @-@ play elements . The player uses melee and projectile weapons to defeat enemies , while a role @-@ playing system allows the development of useful abilities . Navigation is presented from a first @-@ person view and complemented with a heads @-@ up display that shows character and weapon information , a map , and a drag and drop inventory .
The backstory is explained progressively through the player 's acquisition of audio logs and encounters with ghostly apparitions . At the beginning of the game the player chooses a career in a branch of the Unified National Nominate , a fictional military organization . Each branch of service gives the player a set of starting bonuses composed of certain skills , though may thereafter freely develop as the player chooses . The Marine begins with bonuses to weaponry , the Navy officer is skilled in repairing and hacking , and the OSA agent gets a starting set of psionic powers .
The player can upgrade their skills by using " cyber @-@ modules " given as rewards for completing objectives such as searching the ship , and then spend them at devices called " cyber @-@ upgrade units " to obtain enhanced skills . Operating system ( O / S ) units allow one @-@ time character upgrades to be made ( e.g. permanent health enhancement ) . An in @-@ game currency called " nanites " may be spent on items at vending machines , including ammunition supplies and health packs . " Quantum Bio @-@ Reconstruction Machines " can be activated and reconstitute the player for 10 nanites if they die inside the area in which the machine resides . Otherwise , the game ends and progress must be resumed from a save point . The player can hack devices , such as keypads to open alternate areas and vending machines to reduce prices . When a hack is attempted , a minigame begins that features a grid of green nodes ; the player must connect three in a straight row to succeed . Optionally , electronic lock picks , called " ICE @-@ picks " , can be found that will automatically hack a machine , regardless of its difficulty .
Throughout the game , the player can procure various weapons , including melee weapons , pistols , shotguns , and alien weapons . Non @-@ melee weapons degrade with use and will break if they are not regularly repaired with maintenance tools . There are a variety of ammunition types , each of which is most damaging to a specific enemy . For example , organic enemies are vulnerable to anti @-@ personnel rounds , while mechanical foes are weak against armor @-@ piercing rounds . Similarly , energy weapons cause the most damage against robots and cyborgs , and the annelid @-@ made exotic weaponry is particularly harmful to organic targets . Because ammunition is scarce , to be effective the player must use it sparingly and carefully search rooms for supplies .
The game includes a research function . When new objects are encountered in the game , especially enemies , their organs can be collected and , when combined with chemicals found in storage rooms , the player can research the enemies and thus improve their damage against them . Similarly , some exotic weapons and items can only be used after being researched . OSA agents effectively have a separate weapons tree available to them . Psionic powers can be learned , such as invisibility , fireballs and teleportation .
= = Plot = =
= = = Backstory = = =
In 2072 , after the Citadel Station 's demise , TriOptimum 's attempts to cover up the incident were exposed to the media and the corporation was brought up on charges from multiple individuals and companies for the ensuing scandal . The virus developed there killed the station 's population ; the ruthless malevolent A.I supercomputer named SHODAN controlled , and eventually destroyed the Citadel Station in hopes of enslaving and destroying humanity . After a massive number of trials , the company went bankrupt and their operations were shut down . The United Nations Nominate ( UNN ) , a UN successor , was established to combat the malevolence and corruption of power @-@ hungry corporations , including TriOptimum .
In 2100 , 28 years later , the company 's failed stocks and assets were bought by a Russian oligarch named Anatoly Korenchkin , a former black market operator who sought to make money in legitimate ways . He re @-@ licensed and restored the company to its former status in the following decade . Along with producing healthcare and consumer products , Korenchkin signed weapons contracts with various military organizations , private and political @-@ owned . The new UNN was almost virtually powerless with Korenchkin exercising control over them .
In January 2114 , 42 years after the Citadel events and 12 years into rebuilding TriOptimum , the company created an experimental FTL starship , the Von Braun , which is now on its maiden voyage . The ship is also followed by a UNN space vessel , the Rickenbacker , which is controlled by Captain William Bedford Diego , son of Edward Diego , the Citadel Station 's infamous commander and public hero of the Battle of the Boston Harbor during the Eastern States police action . Because the Rickenbacker does not have an FTL system of its own , the two ships are attached for the trip . However , Korenchkin was egoistical enough to make himself the captain of the Von Braun despite being inexperienced
In July 2114 , 5 months into the journey , the ships respond to a distress signal from the planet Tau Ceti V , outside the Solar System . A rescue team is sent to the planet 's surface where they discover strange eggs ; these eggs , found in an old ejection pod , infect the rescue team and integrate them into an alien communion known as the Many . The infection eventually spreads to both ships and the ships are overrun with the virus . The virus overruns most of the crew .
= = = Plot = = =
Owing to a computer malfunction , the remaining soldier awakens with amnesia in a cryo @-@ tube on the medical deck of the Von Braun , being implanted with an illegal cyber neural interface . He is immediately contacted by another survivor , Dr. Janice Polito , who guides him to safety before the cabin depressurizes . She demands that he meets her on deck 4 of the Von Braun . Along the way , the soldier battles the infected crew members . The Many also telepathically communicate with him , attempting to convince him to join them . After restarting the ship 's engine core , the soldier reaches deck 4 and discovers that Polito is dead . He is then confronted by SHODAN . It is revealed she has been posing as Polito to gain the soldier 's trust .
SHODAN mentions that she is responsible for creating the Many through her bioengineering experiments on Citadel Station . The Hacker , who created her , ejected the grove that contained her experiments to prevent them contaminating Earth , an act that allowed part of SHODAN to survive in the grove . The grove crash @-@ landed on Tau Ceti V. While SHODAN went into forced hibernation , The Many evolved beyond her control . SHODAN tells the soldier that his only chance for survival lies in helping destroy her creations . Efforts to regain control of XERXES , the main computer on the Von Braun , fail . SHODAN informs the soldier that destroying the ship is their only option , but he must transmit her program to the Rickenbacker first . While en route , the soldier briefly encounters two survivors , Tommy Suarez and Rebecca Siddons , who flee the ship aboard an escape pod .
With the transfer complete , the soldier travels to the Rickenbacker and learns both ships have been enveloped by the infection 's source , a gigantic mass of bio @-@ organic tissue . The soldier enters the biomass and destroys its core , stopping the infection . SHODAN congratulates him and tells of her intentions to merge real space and cyberspace through the Von Braun 's faster @-@ than @-@ light drive . The soldier confronts SHODAN in cyberspace and defeats her . The final scene shows Tommy and Rebecca receiving a message from the Von Braun . Tommy responds , saying they will return and noting that Rebecca is acting strange . Rebecca is shown speaking in a SHODAN @-@ like voice , asking Tommy if he " likes her new look " , as the screen fades to black .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
Development of System Shock 2 began in 1997 when Looking Glass Studios approached Irrational Games with an idea to co @-@ develop a new game . The development team were fans of System Shock and sought to create a similar game . Early story ideas were similar to the novella Heart of Darkness . In an early draft , the player was tasked with assassinating an insane commander on a starship . The original title of the game , according to its pitch document , was Junction Point . The philosophy of the design was to continue to develop the concept of a dungeon crawler , like Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss , in a science fiction setting , the basis for System Shock . However , the press mistook System Shock to be closer to a Doom clone which was cited for poor financial success of System Shock . With Junction Point , the goal was to add in a significant role @-@ playing elements and a persistent storyline as to distance the game from Doom .
The title took 18 months to create with a budget of $ 1 @.@ 7 million and was pitched to several publishers , until Electronic Arts — who owned the rights to the Shock franchise — responded by suggesting the game become a sequel to System Shock . The development team agreed ; Electronic Arts became the publisher and story changes were made to incorporate the franchise . The project was allotted one year to be completed , and to compensate for the short time frame , the staff began working with Looking Glass Studio 's unfinished Dark Engine , the same engine used to create Thief : The Dark Project .
The designers included role @-@ playing elements in the game . Similar to Ultima Underworld , another Looking Glass Studios project , the environment in System Shock 2 is persistent and constantly changes without the player 's presence . Paper @-@ and @-@ pencil role @-@ playing games were influential ; the character customization system was based on Traveller 's methodology and was implemented in the fictional military branches which , by allowing multiple character paths , the player could receive a more open @-@ ended gameplay experience . Horror was a key focus and four major points were identified to successfully incorporate it . Isolation was deemed primary , which resulted in the player having little physical contact with other sentient beings . Secondly , vulnerability was created by focusing on a fragile character . Last were the inclusion of moody sound effects and " the intelligent placement of lighting and shadows " . The game 's lead designer , Ken Levine , oversaw the return of System Shock villain SHODAN . Part of Levine 's design was to ally the player with her , as he believed that game characters were too trusting , stating " good guys are good , bad guys are bad . What you see and perceive is real " . Levine sought to challenge this notion by having SHODAN betray the player : " Sometimes characters are betrayed , but
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, Heinberg , offered his insight :
" Teddy 's arrival at Seattle Grace unleashes all manner of complications for Owen , Cristina , and herself . Cristina ’ s immediately suspicious that Owen and Teddy were more than friends during their time together in Iraq . Teddy confesses to Owen that she apparently misread their mutual history , and walks away from him , mortified . And Owen ’ s left haunted by Teddy ’ s confession , now forced to re @-@ examine his own history -- and his feelings for both Teddy and Cristina .
" I Like You So Much Better When You 're Naked " saw the departure of Stevens , following the breakdown of her marriage with Karev . Series ' writer Joan Rater commented on this : " Izzie getting the clean scan back gives Alex the freedom to leave . Because he never would have left her when she was sick , he 's a good guy . And I 'm not saying that Alex ever consciously thought , I can ’ t leave her while she 's sick , but now that she 's not , now that she seems like she ’ s going to get better , it just comes to him . He deserves more . He 's a good guy and he deserves more . But loving Izzie showed him that he can be good , is good . So it was a little gift . And when he tells Izzie he 's done , he 's not bitter or angry , he 's just done . " The writing of the two @-@ part season six finale , caused struggle to Rhimes . She elaborated on this :
= = Reception = =
Grey 's Anatomy 's sixth season opened up to 17 @.@ 04 million viewers with a 6 @.@ 7 / 17 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Although the rating was a 1 % decrease from season five 's opener , it managed to rank first for its time @-@ slot and the entire night , in terms of both ratings and viewership , and served as the season 's most viewed episode . " Sympathy for the Parents " was the season 's least viewed episode , and up to that point , the series ' as well , garnering only 9 @.@ 87 million viewers . The season 's finale garnered 16 @.@ 13 million viewers , and received a 6 @.@ 2 / 18 rating , ranking first for its time @-@ slot and the entire night , in terms of both ratings and viewership . Although the finale was a success for the night , it was a 1 % decrease from season five 's finale , but served as the season 's second most viewed episode . Overall , the season ranked at # 17 for the year , and had an average of 13 @.@ 26 million viewers , a 5 % decrease from the previous season 's ranking .
The season received mixed reviews among television critics . Speaking of the premiere , Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV noted that the special foreshadowed a " very dark " season , adding : " The talk between George 's mom and one of the surgeons [ Torres ] proved to be one of the more heart @-@ breaking scenes in an episode that in itself is heartbreaking enough . " In contrast , Kelly West of TV Blend was critical of the premiere , writing : " I don ’ t think based on the first episode that we can say that Grey ’ s is headed in a new direction , nor do I think the writers are making much of an effort to bring the series back to the greatness that was its earlier seasons . That said , this is Grey ’ s Anatomy and with that comes the usual drama , sex , love and whacky medical mysteries thrown in the mix to keep things moving . If that ’ s what you ’ re looking for , I think you ’ ll enjoy the season premiere just fine . " Capshaw 's performance this season was praised , with The TV Addict calling her " immensely likeable " . Although " Sympathy for the Parents " was the least viewed episode , TV Fanatic called the episode " touching " , praising Chambers ' performance . TV Fanatic 's reaction to the season was fairly mixed , with Steve Marsi saying that Grey 's Anatomy was facing an identity crisis after viewing " Give Peace a Chance " . He said that : " Still popular but lacking its past magic , it 's trying to decide what to become . All we can say is that if it becomes what we saw 12 hours ago , we are all for it . Last week saw the doctors plunging into ER @-@ style chaos with 12 different doctors giving 12 different accounts of one case . Last night , we saw something else equally unusual . " He praised Patrick Dempsey 's performance , saying : " Again , it was a single case that took up the entire hour , but instead of 12 doctors ' version of events , the focus was largely on just one , and the best one : Dr. Derek Shepherd . Patrick Dempsey 's McDreamy character may be eye candy , but he 's got substance . Last night 's episode proved that in spades , and was one of the series ' best in some time . "
The season 's finale Death And All His Friends was highly praised . Marsi gave the episode five stars , and expressed that it may have been the best episode of the series , adding : " The writing and acting were absolutely stellar , and may lead to many Emmy nominations , but even more impressively , despite a killing spree , it remained distinctly Grey 's . Some of the back @-@ and @-@ forths between the characters were truly memorable , and some of the developments so heartbreaking that we don 't even know where to begin now . Seriously , the Season 6 finale left us laying awake afterward thinking about everything , a feeling we haven 't had from Grey 's in years and rarely achieved by any program . " John Kubicek of BuddyTV also noted that the finale was the best episode , adding : " [ It was ] two of the best hours of television all year . It was certainly the best Grey 's Anatomy has ever been , which is saying a lot since I 'd written the show off for the past few years . No show does a big traumatic event like Grey 's Anatomy , and the shooter gave the show license for heightened drama with five major characters being shot over the two hours . It was emotional , expertly paced and had me in tears for most of the finale . " Entertainment Weekly wrote , " At any rate , now you can at least see where it all began . And while you ’ re still pondering how Grey ’ s can still be so damn good sometimes , "
The season was one of the least acclaimed of the series , in terms of awards and nominations . Despite not being nominated for a Primetime Emmy , the show received two Creative Arts Emmy Awards : Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup For A Series , Miniseries , Movie Or A Special for " How Insensitive " and Outstanding Makeup For A Single @-@ Camera Series ( Non @-@ Prosthetic ) for " Suicide is Painless " . The season also received a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series at the GLAAD Media Awards . Wilson was awarded the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Directing in a Dramatic Series for her directing in " Give Peace a Chance " . The season also ranked at # 10 on Movieline 's top ten list .
= = Episodes = =
The number in the " No. in series " column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series , whereas the number in the " No. in season " column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season . " U.S. viewers in millions " refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live . The sixth season 's episodes are altogether 1032 minutes in length .
= = Ratings = =
= = = Live + SD ratings = = =
= = DVD Release = =
= 1899 Carrabelle hurricane =
The 1899 Carrabelle hurricane caused significant damage in the Dominican Republic and the Florida Panhandle . The second tropical cyclone and second hurricane of the 1899 Atlantic hurricane season , the storm was first observed south of the Dominican Republic on July 28 , 1899 . Shortly thereafter , it made landfall in Azua Province , Dominican Republic with an intensity equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Early on July 29 , the system weakened to a tropical storm , shortly before emerging into the Atlantic Ocean . It then moved west @-@ northwestward and remained at the same intensity for the next 24 hours . The storm made landfall near Islamorada , Florida on July 30 . It then brushed Southwest Florida before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico . The storm began to re @-@ intensify on July 31 and became a hurricane later that day . Early on August 1 , it peaked with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , several hours before making landfall near Apalachicola , Florida at the same intensity . The storm quickly weakened inland and dissipated over Alabama on August 2 .
In the Dominican Republic , three large schooners were wrecked at Santo Domingo ; only one crew member on the three vessels survived . " Great " damage was reported along coastal sections of the country while a loss of telegraph service impacted most of interior areas . In Florida , damage in the city of Carrabelle was extensive , where only nine houses remained . Losses in the city reached approximately $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1899 USD ) . At least 57 shipping vessels were destroyed ; damage from these ships collectively totaled about $ 375 @,@ 000 . Additionally , 13 lumber vessels were beached . Many boats at the harbor and the wharfs in Lanark were wrecked ; large portions of stores and pavilions in the city were damaged . The towns of Curtis Mill and McIntyre were completely destroyed , while the resort city of St. Teresa suffered significant damage . Overall , seven deaths were confirmed in Florida and losses in the state reached at least $ 1 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
A " violent hurricane " was first observed near the south coast of Hispaniola at 1200 UTC on July 27 . Within the next six hours , the storm made landfall in Azua Province , Dominican Republic with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) – equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Early on July 28 , it weakened to tropical storm while moving northwestward across northern Haiti . A few hours later , the storm emerged into the Atlantic near Port @-@ de @-@ Paix . The system maintained intensity for over 24 hours as it moved northwestward and parallel to the north coast of Cuba . At 1000 UTC on July 30 , the storm made landfall in Islamorada , Florida on Upper Matecumbe Key with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . It weakened slightly and then moved just offshore or struck the mainland portion of Monroe County , Florida . Early on July 31 , the storm began to re @-@ strengthen while entering the eastern Gulf of Mexico .
HURDAT – the North Atlantic hurricane database – indicated that the system re @-@ intensified into a hurricane at 1200 UTC on July 31 . Further deepening occurred , with the storm becoming a Category 2 hurricane early on August 1 . Later that day , the hurricane made landfall between Carrabelle and Eastpoint , Florida with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . Reports at landfall indicate that the storm was small , spanning a diameter of only 40 miles ( 64 km ) . At 1800 UTC on August 1 – about an hour after it moved inland – a weather station measured the storm 's minimum barometric pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Early on August 2 , it weakened to a tropical storm and then a tropical depression several hours later . Shortly thereafter , it dissipating over southern Alabama .
= = Impact = =
News reports indicate that a " violent " hurricane struck the Dominican Republic on July 28 . Three large schooners were wrecked at Santo Domingo ; only one crew member on the three vessels survived . " Great " damage was reported along coastal sections of the country , while a loss of telegraph service impacted most of interior areas .
Due to " somewhat threatening " weather conditions on July 30 and July 31 , advisories were issued to stations across Florida , warning of the potential for strong winds . As a result , 40 vessels , coasting schooners , and spongers remained at port in Cedar Key . According to the displayman at Cedar Key , " they [ the ships and sailors ] would have sailed and some would have been lost " had they not received warnings .
At the time of the storm , it was described as " the most disastrous cyclone that ever visited this section of Florida " . Losses from the storm in Florida reached at least $ 1 million . The city of Carrabelle was devastated as only nine houses in the city remained . According to the mayor , about 200 families were left homeless . The New York Times stated that , " Carrabelle is literally wiped from the map . " Losses in the city reached approximately $ 100 @,@ 000 . One fatality occurred in Carrabelle when a house collapsed on a woman ; numerous other people in the area sustained injuries . At least 57 shipping vessels were destroyed , including 14 barques , 40 small boats , and 3 pilot boats . Losses for these ships collectively totaled about $ 375 @,@ 000 . At the Chattahoochee , then known as River Junction , a mass meeting of citizens was held on August 4 to collect money for the victims of the storm in Carrabelle .
Additionally , 13 lumber vessels were beached . A 30 mile ( 48 km ) portion of the Carrabelle , Tallahassee and Georgia Railroad was washed away . A passenger train was blown over 100 yards from the track , injuring many passengers . Many boats at the harbor and the wharfs in Lanark were wrecked . The local summer resort of Lanark Inn was blown into the Gulf of Mexico . Large portions of stores and pavilions in the city were damaged . At McIntyre , virtually the entire town was destroyed , except for only two mill boilers . The city of Curtis Mill was completely destroyed . Additionally , the resort city of St. Teresa suffered significant damage . A total of fifteen ships either destroyed or beached at Dog Island , including the Benjamin C. Cromwell and James A. Garfield . At least 15 people were reported missing . Six drowning deaths were confirmed in association with this storm .
= Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) =
Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) is the debut studio album by the American hip hop group Wu @-@ Tang Clan , released November 9 , 1993 , on Loud Records and distributed through RCA Records . Recording sessions for the album took place during 1992 to 1993 at Firehouse Studio in New York City , and it was mastered at The Hit Factory . The album 's title originates from the martial arts film The 36th Chamber of Shaolin ( 1978 ) . The group 's de facto leader RZA , also known as Prince Rakeem , produced the album entirely , utilizing heavy , eerie beats and a sound largely based on martial @-@ arts movie clips and soul music samples .
The distinctive sound of Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) created a blueprint for hardcore hip hop during the 1990s and helped return New York City hip hop to national prominence . Its sound also became greatly influential in modern hip hop production , while the group members ' explicit , humorous , and free @-@ associative lyrics have served as a template for many subsequent hip hop records . Serving as a landmark record in the era of hip hop known as the East Coast Renaissance , its influence helped lead the way for several other East Coast hip hop artists , including Nas , The Notorious B.I.G. , Mobb Deep , and Jay @-@ Z.
Despite its raw , underground sound , the album had surprising chart success , peaking at number 41 on the US Billboard 200 chart . By 1995 , it was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , and has sold over two million copies in the United States . Initially receiving positive reviews from most music critics , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) is widely regarded as one of the most significant albums of the 1990s , as well as one of the greatest hip hop albums ever .
= = Background and recording = =
In the late 1980s , cousins Robert Diggs , Gary Grice , and Russell Jones formed a group named Force of the Imperial Master , also known as the All in Together Now Crew . Each member recorded under an alias : Grice as The Genius , Diggs as Prince Rakeem or The Scientist , and Jones as The Specialist . The group never signed to a major label , but caught the attention of the New York rap scene and was recognized by rapper Biz Markie . By 1991 , The Genius and Prince Rakeem were signed to separate record labels . The Genius released Words from the Genius ( 1991 ) on Cold Chillin ' Records and Prince Rakeem released Ooh I Love You Rakeem ( 1991 ) on Tommy Boy Records . Both were soon dropped by their labels . Embittered but unbowed , they took on new monikers ( The Genius became GZA while Prince Rakeem became RZA ) and refocused their efforts . RZA discussed the matter in their release The Wu @-@ Tang Manual ( 2005 ) , stating " [ Tommy Boy ] made the decision to sign House of Pain over us . When they dropped me , I was thinking , ' Damn , they chose a bunch of whiteboy shit over me . ' "
RZA began collaborating with Dennis Coles , latter known as Ghostface Killah , another rapper from the Stapleton Projects apartment complex in Staten Island . The duo decided to create a hip hop group whose ethos would be a blend of " Eastern philosophy picked up from kung fu movies , watered @-@ down Nation of Islam preaching picked up on the New York streets , and comic books . "
Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) was recorded at Firehouse Studio in New York City from 1992 to 1993 . The album was produced , mixed , arranged , and programmed by RZA , and was mastered at The Hit Factory in New York City by Chris Gehringer . Because of an extremely limited budget , the group was only able to record in a small , inexpensive studio ; with up to eight of the nine Wu @-@ Tang members in the studio at once , the quarters were frequently crowded . To decide who appeared on each song , RZA forced the Wu @-@ Tang rappers to battle with each other . This competition led to the track " Meth Vs . Chef " , a battle between Method Man and Raekwon over the rights to rap over RZA 's beat ; this track was left off the Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's debut album but surfaced on Method Man 's debut , Tical ( 1994 ) .
= = Title significance = =
The true meaning of the album 's title is not well known or understood . According to a Five Percent philosophy , known as the Supreme Mathematics , the number 9 means " to bring into existence , " and this meant everything to the group 's debut album . The group was made of 9 members , each of whom had 4 chambers of the heart , which are 2 atria , and 2 ventricles . All of this is the root for " 36 Chambers " , being that 9 x 4
= 36 .
In reference to the 1978 kung fu film The 36th Chamber of Shaolin that the group enjoyed watching , the Clan considered themselves as lyrical masters of the 36 chambers , and arrived onto the rap scene while appearing to be ahead , and more advanced over others , with " knowledge of 36 chambers of hip hop music when everyone else in hip hop was striving to attain the knowledge of 35 lessons . " Also , while the human body has 108 pressure points ( 1 + 0 + 8 =
9 ) , only the Wu @-@ Tang martial artists learned and understood that 36 of those pressure points are deadly ( 9 + 36
= 45 ) ( 4 + 5 =
9 ) The lyrics and rhymes of the 9 members are to be considered as 36 deadly lyrical techniques for pressure points . All of this is the basis for the album title , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) , being that 9 members x 4 chambers = 36 . However , this is just a theory ; the true significance of the title is not definitively known .
= = Music and lyrics = =
= = = Production = = =
Group leader RZA produced Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) by creating sonic collages from classic soul samples and clips from martial arts movies such as Shaolin and Wu Tang ( 1981 ) . He complemented the rappers ' performances with " lean , menacing beats that evoked their gritty , urban surroundings more effectively than their words , " according to Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic . The use of soul samples and various esoteric clips , and the technique by which RZA employed them in his beats , was unique and largely unprecedented in hip hop . The gritty sound of Enter the Wu @-@ Tang is due , at least in part , to the use of cheap equipment to produce the album .
Many critics argue that the minimalist means of production plays directly into the appealing " street " quality that makes the album a classic , including Ben Yew , who stated , " Because [ RZA ] didn 't have the best mixing or recording equipment , the album is wrought with a ' dirty ' quality — the drums have more bass and are more hard @-@ hitting than they are crisp and clean ; the samples have an eerie , almost haunting type of echo ; and the vocals , because each member 's voice is already aggressive and gritty , perfectly match the production . " Although Ol ' Dirty Bastard is given co @-@ production credit on " Da Mystery of Chessboxin ' " and Method Man is co @-@ credited for " Wu @-@ Tang Clan Ain 't Nuthing ta F ' Wit , " critics and admirers universally credit RZA with developing a " dusty yet digital production style [ that ] helped legitimize the use of more diverse sample sources to the hardcore New York rap massive , breaking away from James Brown based beats and embracing a style that turned the Underdog theme into the menacing coda for a group of underground terrorists . "
= = = Lyrics = = =
Enter the Wu Tang ushered in a new standard for hip hop at a time when hip hop music was dominated by the jazz @-@ influenced styles of A Tribe Called Quest , the Afrocentric viewpoints of Public Enemy , and the rising popularity of West Coast gangsta rap . The album 's explicit , humorous and free @-@ associative lyrics have been credited for serving as a template for many subsequent hip hop records . Rolling Stone described the album as possessing an aesthetic that was " low on hype and production values [ and ] high on the idea that indigence is a central part of blackness . " While the lyrical content on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang generally varies from rapper to rapper , the basic themes are the same — urban life , martial arts movies , comic book references , and marijuana — and the setting is invariably the harsh environment of New York City . The lyrics have a universally dark tone and seem at times to be simply aggressive cries . AllMusic contributor Steve Huey praises the lyricists for their originality and caustic humor , stating " Some were outsized , theatrical personalities , others were cerebral storytellers and lyrical technicians , but each had his own distinctive style ... Every track on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang is packed with fresh , inventive rhymes , which are filled with martial arts metaphors , pop culture references ( everything from Voltron to Lucky Charms cereal commercials to Barbra Streisand 's " The Way We Were " ) , bizarre threats of violence , and a truly twisted sense of humor . "
With the exception of " Method Man " and GZA 's " Clan in da Front " , every song features multiple rappers contributing verses of varying lengths . The verses are essentially battle rhymes , mixed with humor and outsized tales of urban violence and drug use . There is some debate about whether the lyrics on 36 Chambers are properly classified as gangsta rap or something else entirely . In a Stylus Magazine review , writer Gavin Mueller evokes the bleakness of the Wu @-@ Tang world view :
[ T ] he lyrics reach back to New York 's own Rakim : dense battle rhymes potent with metaphors . Each Wu MC links his rhymes to crime and violence , allowing his preoccupations to surface subtly and indirectly , rather than spouting off overt gangsta @-@ isms designed to shock ... The hood imagery of the lyrics is utterly pervasive and uncompromising , immersing the listener in a foreign land smack in the middle of New York . There is no celebration here , and little hope .
All nine original Wu @-@ Tang Clan members contribute vocals on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang . Masta Killa only appears on one track , contributing the last verse of " Da Mystery of Chessboxin , ' " but all the other rappers appear on at least two songs . Method Man and Raekwon are the most prolific of the group , featured on eight tracks . Though the performers have widely differing techniques , the chemistry between them is a key ingredient of the album 's success . Pitchfork Media asserts that " Half the charm is in the cast 's idiosyncrasies : ODB 's hovering sing @-@ song , Raekwon 's fake stutter , Ghostface 's verbal tics , Method Man 's hazy , dusted voice . "
= = Singles = =
" Protect Ya Neck " and " Tearz " were the first tracks recorded by the Wu @-@ Tang Clan . " Protect Ya Neck " is a free @-@ associative and braggadocious battle rap featuring eight of the nine Wu @-@ Tang members , and " Tearz " tells stories of a little kid getting shot ( RZA 's little brother ) , and another one who contracts HIV after having unprotected sex . They were independently released as the " Protect Ya Neck " / " After Laughter Comes Tears " single , which RZA financed by demanding $ 100 ( USD ) from each rapper who wanted a verse on the A @-@ side . The single was re @-@ released in a much larger pressing , with " Method Man " as the B @-@ side .
" Method Man " reached number 69 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 17 on the Billboard Hot Rap Tracks chart . " Method Man " gained significant airplay partly for its catchy refrain , which copies the refrain of Hall & Oates ' " Method of Modern Love " ( " The M @-@ E @-@ T @-@ H @-@ O @-@ D ... Man " ) .
" C.R.E.A.M. " , featuring Raekwon and Inspectah Deck , was the second single from the album and the first new A @-@ side to be released after the group signed with Loud / RCA . Its lyrics deal with the struggle of poverty and the desire to earn money by any means . It was the Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's most successful single , reaching number 60 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 8 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart . The single topped the Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales chart . " Can It Be All So Simple " , featuring Ghostface Killah and Raekwon , was the album 's third single . The single failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , but reached number 24 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart in 1994 . A remix of the song was included on Raekwon 's debut solo album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx ... ( 1995 ) .
The group made music videos for the three A @-@ sides and for " Method Man " , " Da Mystery of Chessboxin ' " , and " Wu @-@ Tang Clan Ain 't Nuthing ta Fuck Wit " . As the group 's profile increased , the quality of their videos improved ; though the " Protect Ya Neck " video resembled a home movie , later videos were directed by rising hip hop music video director Hype Williams . The videos received almost no airplay on MTV , but were extremely popular on video @-@ by @-@ request channels such as The Box . Touré wrote in his 1993 Rolling Stone review that " in Brooklyn , N.Y. , right now and extending back a few months , the reigning fave is the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , who are to the channel what Guns N ' Roses are to MTV . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Initial reaction = = =
Upon its release , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) received rave reviews from most music critics . In an article for The Source , The Ghetto Communicator wrote " This record is harsh , but so is the world that we live in . For B @-@ boys n 'girls who come from the core of the hard , this is the hip @-@ hop album you 've been waiting for " . Rolling Stone 's review was decidedly ambivalent , praising the album 's sound , but noting that " Wu @-@ Tang ... are more ciphers than masterful creations . In refusing to commodify themselves , they leave blank the ultimate canvas — the self . " Entertainment Weekly was more enthusiastic , giving the album an A , and writing that " With its rumble jumble of drumbeats , peppered with occasional piano plunking , Enter has a raw , pass @-@ the @-@ mike flavor we haven 't heard since rap was pop 's best @-@ kept secret . " Robert Christgau found the Wu @-@ Tang Clan " grander " and " goofier " than their West Coast contemporaries and concluded , " Expect the masterwork this album 's reputation suggests and you 'll probably be disappointed--it will speak directly only to indigenous hip hoppers . Expect a glorious human mess , as opposed to the ominous platinum product of their opposite numbers , and you 'll realize the dope game isn 't everyone 's dead @-@ end street " .
Music journalist Touré declared of the album , that " This is hip @-@ hop you won 't find creeping up the Billboard charts but you will hear booming out of Jeep stereos in all the right neighborhoods . " However , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang had surprising chart success , despite its raw , underground sound . It peaked at number 41 on the Billboard 200 chart and reached number eight on Billboard 's Top R & B / Hip Hop Albums chart . The album continued to sell steadily and was eventually certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on May 15 , 1995 .
= = = Retrospect = = =
Since its release , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang has risen in stature to become one of the most highly regarded albums in hip hop . The album was originally given a rating of 4 @.@ 5 mics out of 5 in The Source magazine in 1994 ; however , it was given a classic 5 mic rating in a later issue of the magazine . Similar to The Source , XXL magazine gave the album a classic rating of " XXL " in its retrospective 2007 issue . In the book Spin Alternative Record Guide ( 1995 ) , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) has a critical rating of 8 / 10 from Spin . In 2003 , Rolling Stone named the album among the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " , asserting that " East @-@ coast hip @-@ hop made a return in 1993 . " The magazine later listed it as one of the " Essential Albums of the 90s " and " 100 Best Debut Albums of All Time . " The Source cited Enter the Wu @-@ Tang as one of the " 100 Best Rap Albums " , while also naming " Protect Ya Neck / Method Man " and " C.R.E.A.M. " among the " 100 Best Rap Singles " . MTV declared it among " The Greatest Hip @-@ Hop Albums of All Time " , while Blender named the album among the " 500 CDs You Must Own " . Oliver Wang , author of Classic Material : The Hip @-@ Hop Album Guide described it " as timeless an album as hip @-@ hop has ever seen . "
Publications based outside of the United States have acclaimed 36 Chambers as well ; Australia 's Juice magazine placed it at number 40 on its list of " 100 Greatest Albums of the ' 90s " , and Les Inrockuptibles ranked it number 59 on a list of " The 100 Best Albums 1986 – 1996 " . In naming Enter the Wu @-@ Tang one of the 50 best albums of the 1990s , Pitchfork Media staff member Rollie Pemberton summed up the album 's critical recognition by writing :
This is the sound of accidental fame . Something as unique and unusual as this record isn 't supposed to find itself at the height of commercial viability ; it 's supposed to smolder underground , hidden from the view of mainstream America , who surely would not be ready for such a challenge . But America was ready , in part because this one challenged convention , not listeners . Sure , its sloppy drum programming , bizarre song structures , and unpolished sound quality disturbed commercial rap purists , but the talent was so inherent and obvious , and the charisma so undeniable , that it propelled the Wu @-@ Tang Clan to the height of the rap game , and today stands not just as the hip @-@ hop classic that introduced the concept of obscure thematic characters ( each member 's name references old kung @-@ fu movies ) , but also bridged the gap between traditional old @-@ school sensibilities and the technical lyricism of today .
In 2010 , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Legacy and influence = =
= = = East Coast hip hop = = =
Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) is one of the most influential albums in hip hop history . Adam Heimlich of the New York Press considers the album a touchstone of hardcore hip @-@ hop , a gritty , stripped @-@ down , dark and violent subgenre of hip hop and the signature sound of New York City 's rap scene during the mid @-@ 1990s . He writes that , " the Wu @-@ Tang Clan ... all but invented 90s New York rap , back when the notion of an East Coast gangsta still meant Schoolly D or Kool G. Rap .... [ They ] designed the manner and style in which New York artists would address what Snoop and Dre had made rap 's hottest topics : drugs and violence . " As the album helped return New York City hip hop to national prominence , a new generation of New York rappers , many of them inspired by the Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's example , released a flurry of classic albums that later became known as the East Coast Renaissance . Enter the Wu @-@ Tang has been recognized by critics as a landmark album in the movement . AllMusic indicates that the success of the album paved the way for Nas , The Notorious B.I.G. Mobb Deep and Jay @-@ Z.
At the time of the album 's release , mainstream hip hop was dominated by West Coast hip hop . Enter the Wu Tang ( along with the critically acclaimed Illmatic and the commercial success of Ready to Die ) was able to shift the emphasis away from the melodious , synthesizer @-@ driven G @-@ funk and restore interest into the East Coast hip hop scene . According to one columnist , " When Enter the Wu @-@ Tang : The 36 Chambers first graced the pages of rap lore in 1993 , Dr. Dre 's funk @-@ filled , West Coast gangster rap dominated the business . Though this initial dominance was difficult to overcome , Wu @-@ Tang still managed to carve out a piece of rap history . "
= = = Hip hop production = = =
RZA 's production on Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's debut album had a profound and significant influence on subsequent hip hop producers . The distinctive sound of Enter the Wu @-@ Tang has been credited for creating a blueprint for hardcore hip hop in the mid @-@ 1990s . Blackfilm.com asserts that Enter the Wu @-@ Tang 's production formula " transformed the sound of underground rap into mainstream formula , and virtually changed the face of contemporary music as popsters once knew it . " Many successful rap producers have admitted to the influence of RZA 's beats on their own production efforts . 9th Wonder , a producer and former member of Little Brother , is one of many whose vocal sampling styles are inspired by RZA . The album 's reliance on soul music samples was novel at the time , but 21st century producers such as The Alchemist , Kanye West and Just Blaze now rely on this technique . According to Allmusic , the production on two Mobb Deep albums , The Infamous and Hell on Earth ( 1996 ) , are " indebted " to RZA 's early production with Wu @-@ Tang Clan .
= = = Subsequent Wu @-@ Tang work = = =
Following Enter the Wu @-@ Tang 's success , the individual members of the group negotiated and signed solo contracts with a variety of different labels : Method Man signed with Def Jam , Ol ' Dirty Bastard with Elektra , GZA with Geffen Records , and Ghostface Killah with Epic Records . This expansion across the music industry was an element of RZA 's stated plan for industry @-@ wide domination , wherein " All Wu releases are deemed to be 50 percent partnerships with Wu @-@ Tang Productions and each Wu member with solo deal must contribute 20 percent of their earnings back to Wu @-@ Tang Productions , a fund for all Wu members . "
On Enter the Wu @-@ Tang 's effect on the group and the music industry , the Milwaukee Journal 's Aaron Justin @-@ Szopinski wrote " The Wu showed us that a hip @-@ hop group can control its own destiny in the tangled web of the industry . It owns publishing rights , controls its samples and has 90 % influence over its career . And that control , that outlook for the future , is what makes it the best . " Wu @-@ Tang Clan have produced four subsequent group albums since Enter the Wu @
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opposing army . A contemporaneous record of the battle recounts the process by which the bombs were launched . First , a soldier ignited the fuse . The rope of the trebuchet was pulled , launching the bomb into the air . The bomb produced a large explosion the moment it landed , inflicting damage that could penetrate armor . The explosion sometimes sparked a fire on the grass of the battlefield , which could burn a soldier to death , even if he survived the initial blast . The bombs were more primitive than modern explosives , and occasionally they would fail to detonate or detonated too early . Mongol soldiers counteracted the bombs by digging trenches leading up to the city , which they covered with shielding made of cowhide , to protect from the explosives fired overhead . The Jurchen official reports , in a translation provided by historian Stephen Turnbull :
Therefore the Mongol soldiers made cowhide shields to cover their approach trenches and men beneath the walls , and dug as it were niches , each large enough to contain a man , hoping that in this way the troops above would not be able to do anything about it . But someone suggested the technique of lowering the thunder crash bombs on iron chains . When these reached the trenches where the Mongols were making their dugouts , the bombs were set off , with the result that the cowhide and the attacking soldiers were all blown to bits , and not even a trace being left behind .
The infantry of the Jin were armed with fire lances . The fire lance was a spear , with a tube of gunpowder attached to it . The mixture contained , besides the gunpowder ingredients of sulfur , charcoal , and saltpeter , ground porcelain and iron filings . The flame that shot from the lance reached a distance of three meters . The heated tinder that ignited the weapon was stored in a small iron box toted by the Jurchen soldiers in battle . Once the gunpowder was consumed , the fire lance could be wielded like a normal spear , or replenished by a new tube filled with gunpowder .
The bombs and fire lances of the Jin were the only two weapons of the Jurchens that the Mongols were wary of facing . The Jurchen deployment of gunpowder was extensive , but it is not certain if the Mongols had acquired gunpowder from the Jurchens before this point . Herbert Franke maintains that gunpowder was in the arsenal of both combatants , but Turnbull believes that only the Jurchens made use of it . The Mongols loaded their catapults with large stones or bombs of gunpowder , which were fired at the Jin fortifications . The barrage inflicted casualties in the city and had a psychological impact on the soldiers operating the Jurchen trebuchets .
= = Historical significance = =
The siege of Kaifeng crippled the Jin dynasty , but did not destroy it . The penultimate emperor of the dynasty , Emperor Aizong , had evaded capture , but was left destitute after the siege . He sent his diplomats to entreat the neighboring Song Dynasty for help . They warned that the Mongols would invade the Song once the Jin fell , and requested supplies from the Song . The Song refused the offer . The Song , who had fought multiple wars against the Jin , resented the Jurchens for their conquest of northern China decades earlier . Instead of aiding the Jin , the Song allied with the Mongols . They cooperated militarily and captured the last of the cities still controlled by the Jin . In December 1233 , the Mongols besieged Caizhou , where Aizong had fled to from Kaifeng . The emperor was unable to escape the town under siege , and resorted to suicide . On February 9 , 1234 , the Mongols broke through the defenses of Caizhou . Emperor Mo , Emperor Aizong 's intended successor , resided in the same town and was killed in battle soon after . His reign lasted less than two days , from February 9 to his death in February 10 . The Jin dynasty ended with the fall of Caizhou .
= Rymdkapsel =
Rymdkapsel is a 2013 minimalist real @-@ time strategy video game by indie developer Grapefrukt , the studio of Martin Jonasson . Players build a space station using tetromino pieces while managing resources and minions , defending against attacks , and extending the base towards four monoliths at the edges of the level . The game was built over a year and a half and was inspired by the base @-@ building aspects of the Command & Conquer series . It was Jonasson 's first full game as an indie developer . Rymdkapsel was released on May 7 , 2013 for PlayStation Mobile , and was later ported to iOS , Android , Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux . Reviewers gave the game generally favorable reviews , where they appreciated its simplicity and challenge , but not its brevity and slow start .
= = Gameplay = =
Players build a space station on a flat plane using tetromino @-@ shaped floors that represent rooms . Rectangular workers generate the resources to build more spaces by working in these rooms . The workers occasionally must defend the base against attackers , who come in waves of increasing difficulty . The player can have the workers research four TMA @-@ 1 @-@ style monoliths for additional shield , speed , and generator upgrades . Rooms are used for special purposes : mineral mining ( extractors ) , growing food ( gardens ) , cooking it ( kitchens ) , making workers ( quarters ) , and creating power ( reactors ) . The goal is to flourish and protect the station 's inhabitants , but there are three concrete objectives : research all four monoliths , survive 28 waves , and research all monoliths in under 45 minutes . The game ends if all workers are killed . There is a tutorial , but no story . The player is not specifically told about the endgame goals .
= = Development = =
In 2012 , Grapefrukt developer Martin Jonasson began to make a space station game that considered what he found enjoyable and least stressful about real @-@ time strategy games . The game coalesced as he revised and removed features over the course of its year and a half of development . Rymdkapsel was written in Haxe , a programming language similar to ActionScript 3 that let Jonasson use the same code base for iOS , Android , and PC releases . He had used the language for years and had been making games for 20 years , primarily with Adobe Flash . Jonasson left his web development job in 2010 to " go indie " , and Rymdkapsel was his " first full @-@ time game " . The game 's name translates as " space capsule " in the Swedish language , which Jonasson liked as a title for its uniqueness and foreign overtones , though he acknowledged that the name was difficult for English speakers and made the game hard to find in the App Store .
He began the game after the 2012 Game Developers Conference as a weeklong diversion from another project , and slowly iterated into a full version . Jonasson started to prototype a game about a space station with a hull breach that releases the station 's occupants into outer space . Within a day , he built a feature where players could build the station using tetromino blocks . He liked this direction better than the hull breach , and abandoned the latter idea by the end of prototyping . He built the room construction mechanics within a day , and to make the construction more challenging , later added three different resources to be spent towards room construction . When the resources did not " look as interesting " as he wanted , he added minions to defend the station . The minions — shown as small white boxes — have retained their original design . It is an example of the minimalist design theme that pervades the work . Jonasson has said that he kept the artificial intelligence " a bit stupid on purpose " ( doing things such as stealing food intended for other minions ) because he found their actions " a bit adorable " . He otherwise removed the features he felt were not vital to the game . Jonasson then added " conflict " to the game by putting the minions in danger of being removed .
Jonasson 's game design was inspired by real @-@ time strategy game Command & Conquer , where he enjoyed managing his home base but not attacking the enemy . He designed the game to last 45 minutes , which he felt to be a proper length , whereupon the difficulty ramps up to require station defense over base construction . He felt that it was reasonable to reach all four monoliths within that time to be ready for the endgame sequence , and that the limit made players expand outwards rather than keeping the station small and easy to defend . The sole map is hand @-@ balanced , which made him reluctant to fulfill player requests to randomize it . He also considered adding a " zen " mode , which would pressure the player less . The music was composed by Niklas Ström .
The game was released on May 7 , 2013 for PlayStation Vita and PlayStation Mobile . It was later included as a prize for completing " quests " in a Sony E3 2013 promotion . It is available on Android via the PlayStation Mobile app . The iOS and Android releases were released on July 25 , 2013 . Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux versions were released on January 30 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Critics compared Rymdkapsel 's gameplay to Tetris and SimCity . Of its visual style , The New York Times published that the game makes others in the real @-@ time strategy genre " feel needlessly garnished " . Reviewers generally appreciated the game 's simplicity and challenge , but not its brevity and slow start . IGN 's Steve Watts thought that the game made too many " design concessions " to its minimalism , though he considered the style " gorgeous " , and felt that he was never fully in control of his base . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell said that the game 's minimalism extended to its core gameplay , where the player should strive to " play the game less and less " . Joseph Leray of TouchArcade described the game 's balance and pacing as " impeccable " . He gave Rymdkapsel a perfect score and wrote that it felt as if it were custom @-@ made for iOS . Bryan Vore of Game Informer criticized the game 's lack of features and thought that it " fizzled out with no fanfare " as a " creative " idea but without sufficient " polish " . The Verge 's Trent Wolbe called the soundtrack " a minimalist achievement " . Jonasson announced that the game had sold 200 @,@ 000 copies as of December 2 , 2013 , due in large part to its inclusion in a Humble Bundle sale .
= Beefsteak ( banquet ) =
A beefsteak is a type of banquet in which sliced beef tenderloin is served to diners as all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat finger food . The dining style originated in 19th @-@ century New York City as a type of working @-@ class celebration but went into a decline in the mid @-@ 20th century . Resurrected by caterers in New Jersey , the beefsteak banquet style is now popular in that state 's Bergen and Passaic counties , and is enjoying a revival in New York City , where the style originated , due to the reemergence of a biannual beefsteak in Brooklyn .
= = Origins = =
Beefsteak banquets originated among the working class of New York City in the mid @-@ 1800s as celebratory meals or " testimonials " . The meal would generally be set up by an organization wishing to laud or raise money for politicians , newly promoted friends , or celebrities . Tammany Hall regularly threw beefsteaks as political fundraisers , often enough that it was a large portion of beefsteak business in New York and " when Tammany Hall [ got ] a setback , beefsteaks [ got ] a setback " . Sophie Tucker and Bill Robinson had beefsteaks thrown for them in the 1930s .
Early beefsteaks were held in a relaxed , men @-@ only atmosphere , with diners sitting on crates and eating with their fingers off of rough , improvised tables in saloons , rental halls , or residential basements . Food and drink were the focus of the evening , and entertainment often consisted simply of those present telling stories and singing amongst themselves . Brass bands were sometimes hired .
= = = Early organization = = =
Though the centerpiece of beefsteak culture was indisputably the frenzied consumption of beef and beer , with diners eating with their fingers and drinking with abandon , serving styles varied . 1930s @-@ era beefsteaks could be grouped into two styles , referred to by Joseph Mitchell in a 1939 The New Yorker article as " East Side " and " West Side " and roughly corresponding to the geographic separation of New York City into the same @-@ named areas . Each group claimed to Mitchell to have originated beefsteak banquets and to have the most authentic serving and eating styles .
" East Side " beefsteaks were largely patronized by the working @-@ class and immigrants , and the center of the East Side beefsteak world was at First Avenue and Nineteenth Street in Manhattan . East Side beefsteaks were heavily meat @-@ centered , with courses consisting of items like sliced beef short loin , beef kidneys , and ground beef trimmings ( referred to as " hamburgers " ) . One East Side beefsteak was reported to have consisted of " 3 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 400 kg ) of steak , 1 @,@ 500 pounds ( 680 kg ) of lamb chops , 425 pounds ( 193 kg ) of hamburger and 1 @,@ 300 pounds ( 590 kg ) of kidneys wrapped with bacon . "
" West Side " beefsteaks , on the other hand , were often thrown at " gentlemen @-@ only " establishments centered on Eleventh Avenue and 23rd Street . West Side beefsteaks tended more toward expansive menus , with courses including crab meat , lamb chops , and baked potatoes to go along with the beef loin . Diners at West Side beefsteaks were allowed to use disposable forks for some courses , but were expected to eat the beef course with their fingers .
= = = Dining style = = =
Both schools of thought in New York agreed that eating with one 's fingers and not being afraid to get messy were integral to the culture of the beefsteak . No matter which type of beefsteak a diner attended , the main course was beef loin dipped in butter @-@ based sauce and served thinly sliced on rounds of bread ( day @-@ old bread , at East Side beefsteaks ; fresh toast , at West Side ) . Napkins were considered unnecessary ; diners generally wore aprons with which they could wipe the grease off their hands . Food was dispatched from the kitchen laid out on trays and waiters continued bringing out trays until diners could literally eat no more ( In his New Yorker article , Joseph Mitchell quotes one man as saying , " I 'm so full I 'm about to pop . Push those kidneys a little nearer , if you don 't mind . " ) . Beer flowed freely during banquets in pre @-@ prohibition years .
= = Evolution = =
With the passing of the 18th and 19th amendments to the U.S. Constitution , in 1919 and 1920 , respectively , the traditional men @-@ only , beer @-@ soaked format of the beefsteak began to change . Politicians began including newly enfranchised women voters in their beefsteak banquets after the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment , and with the attendance of women came corresponding social niceties . Cocktails , popularized by illicit drinkers during Prohibition , replaced pitchers of beer , and " fruit cups [ , ] and fancy salads " were soon added to beefsteak menus . Orchestras were hired in place of old @-@ fashioned brass bands and storytellers , and the long @-@ forbidden knives and forks began to appear on beefsteak tables . By the 1930s , according to Joseph Mitchell , beefsteaks were no longer the manly , messy affairs they had once been ; they were now closer to formal meals in which beef and bread happened to feature heavily . The cheerful gluttony of the past was tempered by female sensibilities ; " women , " Mitchell reported , " do not esteem a glutton , and at a contemporary beefsteak it is unusual for a man to do away with more than six pounds of meat and thirty glasses of beer . "
In 1938 , " Hap " Nightingale , a butcher in Clifton , New Jersey , began catering parties in his area according to the old @-@ time beefsteak formula . He offered a set , all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat menu of French fries and sliced beef tenderloin on bread . His business thrived locally , and the company has since been passed down through ensuing generations of Nightingales , all of whom continued to adhere to the tried @-@ and @-@ true formula .
= = Current practice = =
The modern beefsteak banquet hews fairly closely to the early @-@ 1900s model , although the expansive selections found at an old @-@ fashioned " West Side " beefsteak have been tapered down to beef , fried potatoes , and tossed salad . Butter is sometimes replaced by margarine , and a pasta course makes an occasional appearance , but attendees at beefsteaks still expect to be fed mostly abundant quantities of beef tenderloin . Modern beefsteak attendees often follow an unspoken protocol to leave their bread slices uneaten . Piling them up in front of one 's plate instead of consuming them " saves valuable stomach capacity for more beef while simultaneously serving as an informal scorekeeping system " .
= = Modern distribution = =
Beefsteak banquets have largely vanished from New York City , where they originated , but remain widespread in Bergen and Passaic counties in New Jersey . The institution is now almost entirely limited to these areas , save for a popular biannual beefsteak held in Brooklyn ; while residents of Bergen and Passaic counties consider them an ingrained part of regional culture and regularly stage beefsteak fundraisers ( caterers interviewed in a New York Times article stated that they " put on about 1 @,@ 000 of them in the region [ in 2007 ] " ) , across the county line in Essex County , for example , they remain nearly unheard of .
Regis High School ( a Jesuit school on the Upper East Side ) hosts an annual alumni affair ( Jug Night ) featuring traditional East Side beefsteak fare .
Political fundraiser beefsteak banquets are no longer common in New Jersey ; beefsteaks now usually raise money for fire departments , policemen 's benevolent associations , and other charitable organizations . Nostalgia for beefsteaks among foodies continues , and gourmet beefsteaks are sometimes staged by New York @-@ area restaurants .
Since 2009 , two Wesleyan University graduates , Andrew Dermont and Derek Silverman , have thrown a biannual " beefsteak for beefsteak 's sake " in Brooklyn , to revive the tradition of the beefsteak banquet in its place of origin , New York City .
= Fermium =
Fermium is a synthetic element with symbol Fm and atomic number 100 . It is a member of the actinide series . It is the heaviest element that can be formed by neutron bombardment of lighter elements , and hence the last element that can be prepared in macroscopic quantities , although pure fermium metal has not yet been prepared . A total of 19 isotopes are known , with 257Fm being the longest @-@ lived with a half @-@ life of 100 @.@ 5 days .
It was discovered in the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952 , and named after Enrico Fermi , one of the pioneers of nuclear physics . Its chemistry is typical for the late actinides , with a preponderance of the + 3 oxidation state but also an accessible + 2 oxidation state . Owing to the small amounts of produced fermium and all of its isotopes having relatively short half @-@ lives , there are currently no uses for it outside of basic scientific research .
= = Discovery = =
Fermium was first discovered in the fallout from the ' Ivy Mike ' nuclear test ( 1 November 1952 ) , the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb . Initial examination of the debris from the explosion had shown the production of a new isotope of plutonium , 244
94Pu : this could only have formed by the absorption of six neutrons by a uranium @-@ 238 nucleus followed by two β − decays . At the time , the absorption of neutrons by a heavy nucleus was thought to be a rare process , but the identification of 244
94Pu raised the possibility that still more neutrons could have been absorbed by the uranium nuclei , leading to new elements .
Element 99 ( einsteinium ) was quickly discovered on filter papers which had been flown through the cloud from the explosion ( the same sampling technique that had been used to discover 244
94Pu ) . It was then identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso and co @-@ workers at the University of California at Berkeley . They discovered the isotope 253Es ( half @-@ life 20 @.@ 5 days ) that was made by the capture of 15 neutrons by uranium @-@ 238 nuclei – which then underwent seven successive beta decays :
<formula>
Some 238U atoms , however , could capture another amount of neutrons ( most likely , 16 or 17 ) .
The discovery of fermium ( Z
= 100 ) required more material , as the yield was expected to be at least an order of magnitude lower than that of element 99 , and so contaminated coral from the Enewetak atoll ( where the test had taken place ) was shipped to the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California , for processing and analysis . About two months after the test , a new component was isolated emitting high @-@ energy α @-@ particles ( 7 @.@ 1 MeV ) with a half @-@ life of about a day . With such a short half @-@ life , it could only arise from the β − decay of an isotope of einsteinium , and so had to be an isotope of the new element 100 : it was quickly identified as 255Fm ( t =
20 @.@ 07 ( 7 ) hours ) .
The discovery of the new elements , and the new data on neutron capture , was initially kept secret on the orders of the U.S. military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions . Nevertheless , the Berkeley team were able to prepare elements 99 and 100 by civilian means , through the neutron bombardment of plutonium @-@ 239 , and published this work in 1954 with the disclaimer that it was not the first studies that had been carried out on the elements . The ' Ivy Mike ' studies were declassified and published in 1955 .
The Berkeley team had been worried that another group might discover lighter isotopes of element 100 through ion bombardment techniques before they could publish their classified research , and this proved to be the case . A group at the Nobel Institute for Physics in Stockholm independently discovered the element , producing an isotope later confirmed to be 250Fm ( t1 / 2 = 30 minutes ) by bombarding a 238
92U target with oxygen @-@ 16 ions , and published their work in May 1954 . Nevertheless , the priority of the Berkeley team was generally recognized , and with it the prerogative to name the new element in honour of the recently deceased Enrico Fermi , the developer of the first artificial self @-@ sustained nuclear reactor .
= = Isotopes = =
There are 19 isotopes of fermium listed in NUBASE 2003 , with atomic weights of 242 to 260 , of which 257Fm is the longest @-@ lived with a half @-@ life of 100 @.@ 5 days . 253Fm has a half @-@ life of 3 days , while 251Fm of 5 @.@ 3 h , 252Fm of 25 @.@ 4 h , 254Fm of 3 @.@ 2 h , 255Fm of 20 @.@ 1 h , and 256Fm of 2 @.@ 6 hours . All the remaining ones have half @-@ lives ranging from 30 minutes to less than a millisecond . The neutron @-@ capture product of fermium @-@ 257 , 258Fm , undergoes spontaneous fission with a half @-@ life of just 370 ( 14 ) microseconds ; 259Fm and 260Fm are also unstable with respect to spontaneous fission ( t1 / 2 = 1 @.@ 5 ( 3 ) s and 4 ms respectively ) . This means that neutron capture cannot be used to create nuclides with a mass number greater than 257 , unless carried out in a nuclear explosion . As 257Fm is an α @-@ emitter , decaying to 253Cf , and no fermium isotopes undergo beta minus decay ( which would produce isotopes of the next element , mendelevium ) , fermium is also the last element that can be prepared by a neutron @-@ capture process .
= = Production = =
Fermium is produced by the bombardment of lighter actinides with neutrons in a nuclear reactor . Fermium @-@ 257 is the heaviest isotope that is obtained via neutron capture , and can only be produced in nanogram quantities . The major source is the 85 MW High Flux Isotope Reactor ( HFIR ) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee , USA , which is dedicated to the production of transcurium ( Z > 96 ) elements . In a " typical processing campaign " at Oak Ridge , tens of grams of curium are irradiated to produce decigram quantities of californium , milligram quantities of berkelium and einsteinium and picogram quantities of fermium . However , nanogram and microgram quantities of fermium can be prepared for specific experiments . The quantities of fermium produced in 20 – 200 kiloton thermonuclear explosions is believed to be of the order of milligrams , although it is mixed in with a huge quantity of debris ; 40 picograms of 257Fm was recovered from 10 kilograms of debris from the ' Hutch ' test ( 16 July 1969 ) .
After production , the fermium must be separated from other actinides and from lanthanoid fission products . This is usually achieved by ion exchange chromatography , with the standard process using a cation exchanger such as Dowex 50 or TEVA eluted with a solution of ammonium α @-@ hydroxyisobutyrate . Smaller cations form more stable complexes with the α @-@ hydroxyisobutyrate anion , and so are preferentially eluted from the column . A rapid fractional crystallization method has also been described .
Although the most stable isotope of fermium is 257Fm , with a half @-@ life of 100 @.@ 5 days , most studies are conducted on 255Fm ( t1 / 2
= 20 @.@ 07 ( 7 ) hours ) as this isotope can be easily isolated as required as the decay product of 255Es ( t1 / 2 =
39 @.@ 8 ( 12 ) days ) .
= = Synthesis in nuclear explosions = =
The analysis of the debris at the 10 @-@ megaton Ivy Mike nuclear test was a part of long @-@ term project , one of the goals of which was studying the efficiency of production of transuranium elements in high @-@ power nuclear explosions . The motivation for these experiments was as follows : synthesis of such elements from uranium requires multiple neutron capture . The probability of such events increases with the neutron flux , and nuclear explosions are the most powerful neutron sources , providing densities of the order 1023 neutrons / cm2 within a microsecond , i.e. about 1029 neutrons / ( cm2 · s ) . In comparison , the flux of the HFIR reactor is 5 × 1015 neutrons / ( cm2 · s ) . A dedicated laboratory was set up right at Enewetak Atoll for preliminary analysis of debris , as some isotopes could have decayed by the time the debris samples reached the U.S. The laboratory was receiving samples for analysis , as soon as possible , from airplanes equipped with paper filters which flew over the atoll after the tests . Whereas it was hoped to discover new chemical elements heavier than fermium , those were not found after a series of megaton explosions conducted between 1954 and 1956 at the atoll .
The atmospheric results were supplemented by the underground test data accumulated in the 1960s at the Nevada Test Site , as it was hoped that powerful explosions conducted in confined space might result in improved yields and heavier isotopes . Apart from traditional uranium charges , combinations of uranium with americium and thorium have been tried , as well as a mixed plutonium @-@ neptunium charge . They were less successful in terms of yield that was attributed to stronger losses of heavy isotopes due to enhanced fission rates in heavy @-@ element charges . Isolation of the products was found to be rather problematic , as the explosions were spreading debris through melting and vaporizing rocks under the great depth of 300 – 600 meters , and drilling to such depth in order to extract the products was both slow and inefficient in terms of collected volumes .
Among the nine underground tests , which were carried between 1962 and 1969 and codenamed Anacostia ( 5 @.@ 2 kilotons , 1962 ) , Kennebec ( < 5 kilotons , 1963 ) , Par ( 38 , kilotons , 1964 ) , Barbel ( < 20 kilotons , 1964 ) , Tweed ( < 20 kilotons , 1965 ) , Cyclamen ( 13 kilotons , 1966 ) , Kankakee ( 20 @-@ 200 kilotons , 1966 ) , Vulcan ( 25 kilotons , 1966 ) and Hutch ( 20 @-@ 200 kilotons , 1969 ) , the last one was most powerful and had the highest yield of transuranium elements . In the dependence on the atomic mass number , the yield showed a saw @-@ tooth behavior with the lower values for odd isotopes , due to their higher fission rates . The major practical problem of the entire proposal was however collecting the radioactive debris dispersed by the powerful blast . Aircraft filters adsorbed only about 4 × 10 − 14 of the total amount and collection of tons of corals at Enewetak Atoll increased this fraction by only two orders of magnitude . Extraction of about 500 kilograms of underground rocks 60 days after the Hutch explosion recovered only about 10 − 7 of the total charge . The amount of transuranium elements in this 500 @-@ kg batch was only 30 times higher than in a 0 @.@ 4 kg rock picked up 7 days after the test . This observation demonstrated the highly nonlinear dependence of the transuranium elements yield on the amount of retrieved radioactive rock . In order to accelerate sample collection after explosion , shafts were drilled at the site not after but before the test , so that explosion would expel radioactive material from the epicenter , through the shafts , to collecting volumes near the surface . This method was tried in the Anacostia and Kennebec tests and instantly provided hundreds kilograms of material , but with actinide concentration 3 times lower than in samples obtained after drilling ; whereas such method could have been efficient in scientific studies of short @-@ lived isotopes , it could not improve the overall collection efficiency of the produced actinides .
Although no new elements ( apart from einsteinium and fermium ) could be detected in the nuclear test debris , and the total yields of transuranium elements were disappointingly low , these tests did provide significantly higher amounts of rare heavy isotopes than previously available in laboratories . So 6 × 109 atoms of 257Fm could be recovered after the Hutch detonation . They were then used in the studies of thermal @-@ neutron induced fission of 257Fm and in discovery of a new fermium isotope 258Fm . Also , the rare 250Cm isotope was synthesized in large quantities , which is very difficult to produce in nuclear reactors from its progenitor 249Cm – the half @-@ life of 249Cm ( 64 minutes ) is much too short for months @-@ long reactor irradiations , but is very " long " on the explosion timescale .
= = Natural occurrence = =
Because of the short half @-@ life of all isotopes of fermium , any primordial fermium , that is fermium that could be present on the Earth during its formation , has decayed by now . Synthesis of fermium from naturally occurring actinides uranium and thorium in the Earth crust requires multiple neutron capture , which is an extremely unlikely event . Therefore , most fermium is produced on Earth in scientific laboratories , high @-@ power nuclear reactors , or in nuclear weapons tests , and is present only within a few months from the time of the synthesis . The transuranic elements from americium to fermium did occur naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo , but no longer do so .
= = Chemistry = =
The chemistry of fermium has only been studied in solution using tracer techniques , and no solid compounds have been prepared . Under normal conditions , fermium exists in solution as the Fm3 + ion , which has a hydration number of 16 @.@ 9 and an acid dissociation constant of 1 @.@ 6 × 10 − 4 ( pKa = 3 @.@ 8 ) . Fm3 + forms complexes with a wide variety of organic ligands with hard donor atoms such as oxygen , and these complexes are usually more stable than those of the preceding actinides . It also forms anionic complexes with ligands such as chloride or nitrate and , again , these complexes appear to be more stable than those formed by einsteinium or californium . It is believed that the bonding in the complexes of the later actinides is mostly ionic in character : the Fm3 + ion is expected to be smaller than the preceding An3 + ions because of the higher effective nuclear charge of fermium , and hence fermium would be expected to form shorter and stronger metal – ligand bonds .
Fermium ( III ) can be fairly easily reduced to fermium ( II ) , for example with samarium ( II ) chloride , with which fermium coprecipitates . The electrode potential has been estimated to be similar to that of the ytterbium ( III ) / ( II ) couple , or about − 1 @.@ 15 V with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode , a value which agrees with theoretical calculations . The Fm2 + / Fm0 couple has an electrode potential of − 2 @.@ 37 ( 10 ) V based on polarographic measurements .
= = Toxicity = =
Although few people come in contact with fermium , the International Commission on Radiological Protection has set annual exposure limits for the two most stable isotopes . For fermium @-@ 253 , the ingestion limit was set at 107 becquerels ( 1 Bq is equivalent to one decay per second ) , and the inhalation limit at 105 Bq ; for fermium @-@ 257 , at 105 Bq and 4000 Bq respectively .
= Hurricane Bob =
Hurricane Bob was one of the costliest hurricanes in New England history . The second named storm and first hurricane of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season , Bob developed from an area of low pressure near The Bahamas on August 16 . The depression steadily intensified , and became Tropical Storm Bob late on August 16 . Bob curved north @-@ northwestward as a tropical storm , but re @-@ curved to the north @-@ northeast after becoming a hurricane on August 17 . As such , it brushed the Outer Banks of North Carolina on August 18 and August 19 , and subsequently intensified into a major hurricane ( Category 3 or greater on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) . After peaking in intensity with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , Bob weakened slightly as it approached the coast of New England .
Bob made landfall twice in Rhode Island as a Category 2 hurricane on August 19 , first on Block Island and then in Newport . Upon doing so , it became the only hurricane to make landfall in the contiguous United States during the 1991 season . Moving further inland , Bob rapidly weakened , and deteriorated to a tropical storm while emerging into the Gulf of Maine . Shortly thereafter , Bob made landfall in Maine as a strong tropical storm early on August 20 . Bob entered the Canadian province of New Brunswick a few hours later , where it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . By August 21 , the remnants of Bob crossed Newfoundland and re @-@ emerged into the open Atlantic Ocean . The remnants traveled a long distance across the northern Atlantic Ocean , and finally dissipated west of Portugal on August 29 .
Bob left extensive damage throughout New England in its wake , totaling approximately $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 1991 USD , $ 2 @.@ 61 billion 2016 USD ) . This made it the second costliest United States hurricane at the time ; as of 2013 , it ranked thirty @-@ second in the category . In addition , seventeen fatalities were reported in association with Bob . The loss of life and most of the damage occurred as a result of high winds and rough seas . There were six confirmed tornadoes during its passage . Bob is the most recent hurricane to hit the New England states directly as a hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Bob originated from the remnants of a frontal trough to the southeast of Bermuda on August 12 . The system tracked towards the southwest and later west towards the Bahamas . By August 15th , satellite analysis of the system found a weak low pressure area a couple hundred miles east of the Bahamas . Operationally , the system was not declared a tropical depression until 0600 UTC on August 16 after a reconnaissance mission into the storm found a closed circulation and flight level winds of 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) . After post @-@ storm analysis , it was determined that the low had developed into a depression around 0000 UTC . Several hours after being designated , the system began to develop convective banding features . Roughly 18 hours after being declared a depression , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) upgraded it to a tropical storm , giving it the name Bob . At this time , Bob was situated roughly 140 mi ( 225 km ) northeast of Nassau , Bahamas . The storm tracked slowly towards the northwest in response to the deep layer mean flow it was embedded within .
A deepening trough over the eastern United States was forecast to turn the storm toward the north on August 16 . This turn took place earlier than forecasters anticipated . The storm slowly intensified as convection was displaced from the center of circulation ; however , upper @-@ level outflow was well @-@ defined and intensification of the storm was expected as it tracked over the Gulf Stream . Later that day , Bob began to consolidate and a reconnaissance plane recorded hurricane @-@ force winds at 1719 UTC , following this reading , the NHC upgraded the storm to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Shortly after , the hurricane began to turn towards the north @-@ northeast in response to a subtropical ridge over the Atlantic and the trough over the southeastern United States .
By August 18 , the NHC noted that the hurricane was asymmetrical , having uneven distribution of the wind radii . Later that day , deep convection continued to form and an eye later appeared on satellite imagery . Early the next day , the eye became increasingly defined as the center of Bob passed roughly 35 mi ( 55 km ) from the North Carolina coastline . By 0600 UTC , Hurricane Hunters recorded flight level winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) , corresponding to surface winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . At this time , the barometric pressure of the storm also decreased to 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) , the lowest pressure recorded during the storm . After attaining this intensity , the hurricane tracked quickly northeast at 25 mph ( 35 km / h ) , steered by the trough over the southeast United States , an upper @-@ level cutoff low over the Great Lakes Region and the subtropical ridge over the Atlantic .
The track of Bob by August 19 was similar to that of Hurricane Carol in 1954 , another major hurricane that impacted New England . Significantly cooler sea surface temperatures in the path of the hurricane resulted in weakening , leading to the eye becoming cloud @-@ filled . Later on August 19 , the western portion of the eyewall brushed the eastern tip of Long Island . Around 1800 UTC , the center of Bob made landfall near Newport , Rhode Island with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , making it a Category 2 hurricane . The storm quickly weakened as it tracked through Rhode Island and Massachusetts before entering the Gulf of Maine . Around 0130 UTC on August 20 , the now weakened Tropical Storm Bob made another landfall near Rockport , Maine with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .
Later that day , Bob had crossed through Maine and part of New Brunswick , Canada and entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence . Around 1800 UTC , the former hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Early the next day , the storm passed over northern Newfoundland before re @-@ entering the Atlantic Ocean . Rapidly tracking eastward , the storm briefly weakened to the equivalent of a tropical depression on August 22 . After restrengthening to tropical storm @-@ force winds , the remnants of Bob turned towards the southeast and slowed . Once more , the extratropical system weakened to the equivalent of a tropical depression ; however , it did not re @-@ intensify . The storm slowly tracked towards the east before dissipating off the coast of Portugal on August 29 .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Watches and warnings = = =
Several hours after the declaration of Tropical Storm Bob on August 16 , the Government of the Bahamas issued a tropical storm warning for the northwestern Bahamas , between the islands of Andros and Eleuthera . After the storm turned northward , this warning was discontinued as tropical storm @-@ force winds were no longer expected to affect the islands . Shortly before Bob was upgraded to a hurricane on August 17 , the NHC issued a hurricane watch for coastal areas of North Carolina between Little River Inlet northward to Virginia Beach , Virginia . Roughly four hours after this watch , it was upgraded to a hurricane warning . A new hurricane watch was issued late on August 17 , encompassing areas between Virginia Beach northward to Cape Henlopen , Delaware . This watch was also upgraded to a warning on August 18 as Bob paralleled the Mid @-@ Atlantic coastline . During the afternoon hours , a tropical storm warning was declared for areas in the lower Chesapeake Bay area , including Norfolk , Virginia .
A new , extensive hurricane warning was issued late on August 18 as forecasts showed Bob moving directly over southern New England . The warning covered areas between Cape Henlopen , Delaware to Plymouth , Massachusetts , including Long Island and Long Island Sound . Early on August 19 , all watches and warnings south of Cape Lookout , North Carolina were discontinued and the hurricane warning was extended northward to encompass areas south of Eastport , Maine . The Canadian Hurricane Centre began issuing warnings for Atlantic Canada later that day . Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick were placed under wind and heavy rain warnings . By the morning of August 20 , all watches and warnings in the United States were discontinued ; however , a brief tropical storm warning was declared for coastal Maine between Rockland and Eastport before the remnants of Bob moved through eastern Canada . The advisories for Atlantic Canada were later discontinued after the system moved out of the region .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic states and the Carolinas = = =
Following the issuance of a hurricane warning in North Carolina on August 17 , mandatory evacuation orders were declared for the outermost islands in the state . Local police assisted significant traffic as an estimated 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 people left the region . At the height of the evacuations , delays in some places exceeded three hours . Despite the large number of evacuees , an additional 50 @,@ 000 people were estimated to have stayed home and wait out the storm . Several bridges in the area were shut down prior to Bob 's arrival as hurricane @-@ force winds were likely to create life @-@ threatening conditions on them . The National Park Service in the state also shut down campgrounds across the Outer Banks . An evacuation shelter was also opened in Carteret County .
In Virginia , 125 planes were relocated from Langley Air Force Base to Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton , Ohio . Roughly 400 people evacuated from coastal areas in Maryland , and stores in Ocean City reported a substantial increase in sales related to storm preparation . Further north in New Jersey , casinos prepared sandbags to protect the structures and tape to cover windows .
In Suffolk County , New York , emergency officials were unsure of whether or not to issue evacuation orders for residents along coastal areas . This contemplation led to " mixed messages " on the ability of the government being sent to the public . By the evening of August 19 , the evacuation order was not issued ; however , the county was placed under a state of emergency and disaster centers were opened . The American Red Cross opened four shelters on Long Island that housed 800 people during the storm .
= = = New England and Canada = = =
Prior to Bob 's arrival in New England , officials in Connecticut and Rhode Island declared a state of emergency in anticipation of significant damage . All state workers in the area were told to go home early and prepare for the storm . The Connecticut Legislature canceled a session on the state 's budget and Governor Lowell P. Weicker , Jr. activated the emergency operations center . Submarines stationed in Groton left port and waited out the storm under water . Airplane and train service was disrupted throughout the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England in relation to Bob . The American Red Cross opened 23 shelters in 16 communities in Connecticut . In neighboring Rhode Island , the agency set up 40 shelters , and there were an additional 25 shelters unaffiliated with the agency . About 3 @,@ 500 people statewide evacuated , including 2 @,@ 000 on Block Island . Several people injured themselves while preparing for the storm .
In Massachusetts , thousands of residents evacuated Cape Cod , leading to an 11 mi ( 18 km ) backup on the Sagamore Bridge . There were nine shelters set up in the region , which became overcrowded with evacuees . There were about 50 @,@ 000 people who left their homes statewide , of which 6 @,@ 500 went to shelters . On Martha 's Vineyard , electronic stores reported their best business sales in years , with supplies of D @-@ batteries being cleaned off the shelves . Many residents purchased these as well as battery @-@ powered radios and flashlights . President George H. W. Bush , staying at his home in Kennebunkport , Maine , evacuated to Pease Air Force Base in New Hampshire . To avoid possible risks by using helicopter , he drove by motorcade to the base . During this time , portions of Interstate 95 were closed to allow him direct access to the Air Force base ; however , this created many miles of backup as thousands of residents moved inland . Eight shelters were opened in New Hampshire , and about 5 @,@ 200 people – mostly tourists – evacuated the coastline . There were 49 shelters opened in neighboring Maine , and about 8 @,@ 600 people evacuated along the coastline in York County .
In the Bay of Fundy , fishermen were urged to return to port in fears of large swells from Hurricane Bob .
= = Impact = =
Throughout the east coast of the United States , Hurricane Bob produced moderate rainfall and substantial damage . Damage totaled about $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 1991 USD ) . That included about $ 700 million through cleanup costs , uninsured losses , and food claims . That made it , at the time , the second costliest United States hurricane , although the total was due to the storm passing through a densely populated region . As of 2010 , Hurricane Bob ranked as the 22nd costliest tropical cyclone in the United States mainland . Across its track , the hurricane left 2 @.@ 1 million people without power . There were six confirmed tornadoes , along with thirteen unconfirmed tornadoes .
= = = Carolinas and Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
As the center of the Hurricane Bob passed several hundred miles east of South Carolina with only slight effects on the state . However , the storm produced large swells that caught a swimmer in Myrtle Beach in strong undertow ; this swimmer drowned to death .
A crew of three sailed from Little River ( Horry County , South Carolina ) en route to Rhode Island . The hurricane destroyed the mast , leaving the crew stranded over the open ocean in shark @-@ infested waters . After 12 days , the United States Coast Guard rescued the three .
On 18 August 1991 , Hurricane Bob brushed the Outer Banks of North Carolina , bringing strong winds and heavy rains . Although a maximum of 5 @.@ 30 inches ( 135 mm ) of rain fell at the National Weather Service office building at Cape Hatteras , little heavy rain fell inland of the Outer Banks . One person was killed in the state in relation to Bob , and damage from the storm was estimated at $ 8 million ( 1991 USD ) . The community of Duck , North Carolina , received the highest recorded onshore sustained winds in the state , 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) , whereas the highest gusts reached 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) at Cape Hatteras . Diamond Shoal Light recorded a sustained wind of 85 @.@ 0 knots ( 157 @.@ 4 km / h ; 97 @.@ 8 mph ) with a gust of 106 @.@ 7 knots ( 197 @.@ 6 km / h ; 122 @.@ 8 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 962 @.@ 1 millibars ( 962 @.@ 1 hPa ) on the evening of 18 / 19 August 1991 . Cape Hatteras also recorded a storm surge of 2 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 6 ft ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 40 m ) .
Flooding was reported throughout the Outer Banks in relation to the heavy rains and storm surge of the storm . The storm required the shutdown of North Carolina Highway 12 , the only highway connecting the area to the mainland , isolating those who decided to stay behind . Many residents lost power as numerous power lines fell from strong winds . Six brief tornadoes , ranging between F0 and F1 on the Fujita scale
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,@ 000 people left without power in Connecticut . A man in Sterling died after being struck by a falling tree limb . The highest storm surge was 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in New London . Coastal flooding was limited to New London County , although coastal damage was minimal . One woman died while on a capsized sailboat . In Norwich , a rainfall total of 6 @.@ 22 in ( 158 mm ) was reported , which was the statewide peak . Flooding was minor , limited to streams and small rivers . Total damage in the state was estimated around $ 49 million , including $ 4 @.@ 5 million in crop damage . There was one death due to a fire that occurred during the storm 's passage , and there were five other deaths across the state .
The most significant area affected by Bob was Massachusetts , where over $ 1 billion in damage occurred . A C @-@ MAN station in Buzzards Bay recorded winds every hour and observed peak sustained winds of 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) , along with gusts to 89 mph ( 143 km / h ) . Sustained winds in the state peaked at 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) in Provincetown , and there was an unofficial report of a gust of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) in Brewster . The highest rainfall total in the state was 7 @.@ 06 in ( 179 mm ) in Westfield . Storm surges in the state were most significant along Buzzards Bay , peaking at 5 @.@ 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in New Bedford and Woods Hole . High waves eroded the beach around Chatham Light , leaving behind a 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) cliff . Other locations , including southward @-@ facing shores along Martha 's Vineyard and Nantucket , lost 50 ft ( 15 m ) of beach from erosion . Boat damage was significant in the region . The hurricane left over 500 @,@ 000 people without power , including all of Cape Cod . Damage was heaviest from Buzzards Bay eastward to Cape Cod , and at least 61 houses were destroyed . Damage was also extensive to apple and peach orchards across these areas , and agricultural damage was estimated around $ 10 million . The state also suffered $ 69 million in damage to public property .
Although it remained offshore of the state , Bob produced strong winds in New Hampshire , with gusts reaching 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) at Pease Air National Guard Base . Mount Washington experienced 7 @.@ 46 in ( 189 mm ) of precipitation during the storm 's passage . Both the Lovell and Contoocook rivers experienced flooding due to the storm , and widespread flooding occurred in urban areas in the south and central portions of the state . There were two deaths in the state , one from an automobile accident and the other due to a capsized boat . High winds downed widespread trees and power lines , causing 30 @,@ 000 people to lose power statewide . Damage was estimated around $ 2 million . In neighboring Vermont , the highest rainfall report was 4 @.@ 27 in ( 108 mm ) in Vernon .
Although moving across Maine as a tropical storm , Bob still maintained strong winds , producing gusts to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in Portland . A station in Wiscasset reported a gust of 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) before it was blown away , and another station recorded a gust of 93 mph ( 150 km / h ) . A total of 169 @,@ 200 customers lost power during the hurricane , some of whom remaining without electricity for a week . There was a tornado reported in St. Albans , which downed multiple trees , damaged a few houses , and moved a boathouse three blocks away ; its status as a tornado was not confirmed . As it passed the region , the storm produced a 2 @.@ 77 ft ( 0 @.@ 84 m ) storm tide . The heaviest rainfall nationwide from the hurricane fell at the Portland International Jetport , where 8 @.@ 24 in ( 209 mm ) fell during its passage . This contributed to August 1991 being the wettest month on record in Portland . At the time , its 24 ‑ hour rainfall total of 7 @.@ 83 in ( 199 mm ) was the highest on record , although it was surpassed in October 1996 by an extratropical system fueled by Hurricane Lili . The rains from Bob led to a record flow rate along the Presumpscot River , although that record was also surpassed by the 1996 system . River flooding washed out five bridges and roads across southwestern Maine . One man died due to being swept away by floodwaters , and another died in the ocean while on a life raft . A total of 700 houses were affected by the storm , including one that was destroyed and three that sustained major damage . Damage in the area around Portland totaled over $ 25 @.@ 7 million , and there were three deaths .
= = = Atlantic Canada = = =
After causing severe damage in the United States , the remnants of Hurricane Bob moved into Atlantic Canada . The highest rainfall amount in the country was 4 @.@ 37 in ( 111 mm ) in northern New Brunswick . St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador recorded a record 1 inch ( 26 mm ) of rainfall during the storm 's passage . Gusty winds were observed across the region , and winds reached 68 mph ( 109 km / h ) in Digby , Nova Scotia . In Nova Scotia , two 17 @-@ year @-@ old girls were washed out to sea near Cape Forchu after being caught in rough swells produced by the storm . Rescue officials quickly began searching operations ; however , it was later confirmed that the two had drowned . In Fredericton , New Brunswick , tropical storm @-@ force winds downed trees and power lines , resulting in scattered power outages . Lightning associated with strong storms also reportedly struck some trees in the area . A two @-@ story home in Pointe @-@ Verte collapsed due to high winds . In Petit @-@ Rocher , five fishing boats sank after being overwhelmed by large swells at port . Firefighters in the area were surveying the town all night on August 20 , checking for downed power lines and trees . Power outages were also reported on Prince Edward Island . The storm left about $ 1 million in damage ( 1991 CAD ) on Grand Manan Island in the Bay of Fundy .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm 's passage , the Long Island Lighting Company used 165 workers to restore the power outages on Long Island . In Connecticut , state officials deployed about 200 trucks to remove debris on roads . The Massachusetts National Guard was activated to assist in relief efforts . In Rhode Island , a man was killed while repairing damage caused by Bob . Beaches in the state re @-@ opened by five days after the storm . The hurricane mixed the waters in Long Island Sound and prevented the algae bloom that happened in previous summers . In the days after Bob , the Commonwealth Electric Company brought electricians from outside the company and put their own workers on 16 ‑ hour shifts to restore power across Massachusetts . Most Massachusetts residents , excluding those living on Cape Cod , had their power restored within five days . The hurricane struck toward the end of the summer , which significantly impacted the tourism season already in the midst of a recession . The New England coast was affected by a powerful nor 'easter known as the Perfect Storm about two months after the hurricane struck the region . Some locations experienced worse damage from the October storm than from Bob .
Due to the high damage from Hurricane Bob , president George H.W. Bush declared the following states as disaster ( in order ) : Rhode Island , Massachusetts , Maine , Connecticut , New Hampshire , and New York . Damage in Maine was insufficient to qualify for individual family assistance . Instead , the declaration allocated federal funding to reimburse cities for debris removal , repairing damaged public buildings , and other municipal expenses for each of the states . Despite the declaration , the federal government did not immediately provide aid to the affected region . This was partially due to President Bush considering the storm a " disaster but not an emergency " , which therefore required cuts from other budgets to offset the relief aid . This was in opposition to the Democratic @-@ controlled Congress , who requested an expedited process . Because of its impact , the name Bob was retired by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 1992 , and will never be used again for an Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced with " Bill " in the 1997 season .
= Banjo @-@ Tooie =
Banjo @-@ Tooie is a platform video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 . It was first released on 19 November 2000 in North America and on 12 April 2001 in Europe , and later re @-@ released as an Xbox Live Arcade game for the Xbox 360 on 29 April 2009 . It is the second instalment in the Banjo @-@ Kazooie series and serves as a sequel to the original Banjo @-@ Kazooie . The story of the game follows series protagonists Banjo and Kazooie as they attempt to stop the plans of antagonist Gruntilda and her two sisters from vapourising the inhabitants of the game 's world .
Development of the game started in June 1998 , directly after the release of its predecessor . Several new features were cut from the game due to time constraints and limitations of the Nintendo 64 hardware . Banjo @-@ Tooie features levels that are significantly larger than those of its predecessor and requires the player to complete various challenges such as solving puzzles , collecting items , and defeating bosses . It also includes a multiplayer mode where up to four players can compete in several minigames . Upon release , the game sold more than three million copies and received critical acclaim from video game critics . The game is also included in the Rare Replay video game compilation , released for the Xbox One in 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Similar to its predecessor Banjo @-@ Kazooie , Banjo @-@ Tooie features three @-@ dimensional worlds containing items to be collected . Among the items are golden jigsaw pieces , called Jiggies , that are used to complete jigsaw puzzles that unlock the levels . Instead of exploring the hub world in search of incomplete puzzle boards as in Banjo @-@ Kazooie , a singular board is used within a temple where Master Jiggywiggy resides . Whenever the player has obtained the number of Jiggies required , a timed puzzle @-@ completion challenge can be played , after which Jiggywiggy grants access to each world . Each puzzle challenge requires more Jiggies than the last .
Musical notes return in Banjo @-@ Tooie , but are now used to learn new moves from Bottles ' brother , the drill sergeant Jamjars , who assumes Bottles ' role from the first game . All of Banjo and Kazooie 's moves from the first game are immediately accessible in Banjo @-@ Tooie , and the player can acquire several new moves such as first @-@ person aiming , new egg types , and the ability to play as Banjo and Kazooie separately , with each gaining moves they can only use while on their own . Mumbo Jumbo also returns , this time as a playable character who can venture out into each world and use specific magic spells to help Banjo and Kazooie proceed . Taking over Mumbo 's previous role of transforming the duo into different forms is Humba Wumba , a Native American woman who acts as Mumbo 's rival .
Another feature introduced in Banjo @-@ Tooie is the direct connections between its worlds . In Banjo @-@ Kazooie the titular duo would be transported to each level via special doors in Gruntilda 's lair , but in Banjo @-@ Tooie the levels are physically connected at multiple points and are effectively extensions of the Isle o ' Hags hub world . In addition , the train Chuffy can be used to migrate minor characters between worlds which contain stations . The game also includes a multiplayer mode where up to four players can play each of the game 's single @-@ player minigames in customisable competitions .
= = Plot = =
Two years following Gruntilda 's first defeat by Banjo and Kazooie , the two are playing poker with their friends Mumbo Jumbo and Bottles in Banjo 's house . Meanwhile , Gruntilda 's sisters Mingella and Blobbelda arrive in a large digging machine , the Hag 1 , and destroy the boulder trapping Gruntilda with a magical spell . Unfortunately Gruntilda 's time spent underground has rotted her flesh away and reduced her to a skeleton . Seeking revenge , Gruntilda destroys Banjo 's house before fleeing with her sisters . Banjo , Kazooie , and Mumbo escape the house , but Bottles , who stays behind believing it is all a joke , gets caught in the blast and is killed . The three remaining friends swear to track Gruntilda down and put an end to her plans .
Following the witches ' trail , Banjo and Kazooie arrive at Jinjo Village on the Isle o ' Hags , where King Jingaling , king of all the Jinjos , explains that his subjects were frightened away by the Hag 1 and scattered throughout the island . He gives the two their first Jiggy as a token of gratitude to help find them . Meanwhile , Gruntilda 's sisters introduce her to a cannon called the " Big @-@ O @-@ Blaster " ( B.O.B. ) that can suck the life force from any given target . They test B.O.B. on King Jingaling , who consequently is turned into a zombie . Gruntilda plans to charge B.O.B. long enough to blast the entire island and use the stolen life force to restore her body . The witch 's most loyal minion , Klungo , is sent out to hinder Banjo and Kazooie in their progress by fighting them , but after taking many beatings from Gruntilda as punishment for losing to them , Klungo eventually abandons her and sides with Banjo and Kazooie .
Finally reaching Gruntilda 's fortress at Cauldron Keep , Banjo and Kazooie confront the witch and her sisters in a trivia quiz show named the Tower of Tragedy Quiz in which losing competitors will be flattened under one @-@ tonne weights . Mingella and Blobbelda lose to Banjo and Kazooie , getting crushed , but Gruntilda escapes . Banjo and Kazooie then reverse the effects of B.O.B. , resurrecting both King Jingaling and Bottles , who celebrate at Bottles ' house along with Klungo . Banjo and Kazooie enter the top of the fortress and defeat Gruntilda , destroying most of her body and the Hag 1 along with her . The two return to Bottles ' house with their remaining friends ( Jamjars , Mumbo , and Wumba ) to find that everyone else has celebrated without them , much to their disappointment . They instead head to Cauldron Keep and play a game of hacky @-@ sack with Gruntilda 's head , who vows to have her revenge .
= = Development = =
Banjo @-@ Tooie was developed by Rare and designed by Gregg Mayles , who previously worked on Banjo @-@ Kazooie . Development of the game started in June 1998 . Some features that were originally cut during the development of Banjo @-@ Kazooie , such as some of its worlds and a multiplayer game mode , were instead integrated into Banjo @-@ Tooie . An additional world set in a castle was planned , but due to time constraints , it was scrapped during development and assets from it were used in constructing Cauldron Keep . The game features roughly 150 total characters , including enemies and non @-@ playable characters .
Originally , Rare planned to include an additional mode , called Bottles ' Revenge , where a second player could play as an undead version of Bottles and take control of enemy characters to hinder Banjo in his quest , with the players swapping roles if the enemy character managed to defeat Banjo . The idea was ultimately scrapped because the developers ran out of time to debug it , despite admitting that " it did work rather well " . However , it would later serve as the inspiration behind the " Counter Operative " multiplayer mode in Perfect Dark . Bosses were originally to be able to be controllable by the second player as well , but the only boss that the developers had working when they dropped the mode was the third boss , ' Old King Coal ' . The developers also planned to implement a feature , called " Stop ' N ' Swop " , that would have allowed data to be transferred from Banjo @-@ Kazooie to Banjo @-@ Tooie so that players could unlock additional bonuses in Banjo @-@ Tooie . However , due to hardware limitations of the Nintendo 64 system , the feature was ultimately dropped . It is , however , included in the Xbox Live re @-@ release . Despite this , Rare decided to include at least some of the additional bonuses within the game .
The music was composed by Grant Kirkhope , who previously worked as the main composer for Perfect Dark , Donkey Kong 64 , and Banjo @-@ Kazooie . As Banjo @-@ Tooie was a larger game than its predecessor , Kirkhope had twice the memory space in the game 's cartridge for sound effects and music . Kirkhope initially had to pause his work on Banjo @-@ Tooie to work on other projects first , but ultimately the music score for the game was completed on time . Like the original , the themes heard in the game were designed to be interactive , which dynamically change to reflect the player 's location . Due to the game having larger memory space Kirkhope was able to combine two MIDI files to channel different fades of music when the player moves to different locations . The developers initially aimed for a fourth quarter 1999 release , but the game was ultimately delayed . Banjo @-@ Tooie was presented at the 2000 Electronic Entertainment Expo and released on 20 November 2000 . The game supports the Nintendo 64 Rumble Pak .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , Banjo @-@ Tooie was critically acclaimed and sold more than three million copies worldwide . Johnny Liu of Game Revolution considered Banjo @-@ Tooie to be a worthy successor to Banjo @-@ Kazooie and highlighted the scale of its worlds . Also commenting on the scale , GamePro remarked that the game is so large that players might lose their way and forget what they are supposed to do . Similarly , Jes Bickham of GamesRadar described Banjo @-@ Tooie as a game that requires a massive time @-@ investment on the player 's part , saying that " Keeping track of what you can do next , or where you can re @-@ visit to get something new , requires either a photographic memory or copious note @-@ taking " .
In a very positive review , Nintendo Power referred to Banjo @-@ Tooie as " the perfect cross between Donkey Kong 64 and Banjo @-@ Kazooie " , noting that it features less backtracking between levels that " [ Donkey Kong 64 ] over @-@ ambitiously played to the hilt " . The publication also stated that " If there 's one disappointment , it 's the halfhearted resolve of the Ice Key mystery introduced two years ago in Banjo @-@ Kazooie . " Shane Satterfield , writing for GameSpot , praised the game 's level design and progression , stating that the constant collecting of Jiggies " keeps the controller glued to your hand and your eyes in a fixed gaze " .
The graphics of the game were declared to be some of the best on the Nintendo 64 due to their rich textures , long drawing distance , and real @-@ time shadow generation , but were also criticised for their inconsistent frame rate during certain points in the game . Despite this , Satterfield noted that the action level of the game was normally low enough that it " does not significantly distract from the experience " . Liu of Game Revolution said that the graphics were " beautiful " , but admitted that the game did not meet the same level of awe as its predecessor . Despite the praise , Mark Green of N64 Magazine felt that although Banjo @-@ Tooie delivers " a decent complement of clever puzzles and enjoyable run @-@ and @-@ jump moments , it does not " feel as fresh or as exciting " as previous Rare platformers . The game earned the GameSpot 's Best Platform Game accolade for 2000 .
= = Re @-@ releases = =
An Xbox Live Arcade version of Banjo @-@ Tooie , developed by 4J Studios , was released for the Xbox 360 on 29 April 2009 . This version features a smoother frame rate and high @-@ definition graphics , and supports the " Stop ' N ' Swop " connectivity with the Xbox Live Arcade version of its predecessor , allowing players to unlock the bonuses included in the original Nintendo 64 version as well as new content related to the Xbox 360 . The Xbox Live Arcade version of Banjo @-@ Tooie received mixed to favourable reviews from video game critics , featuring an aggregate score of 73 out of 100 at Metacritic . In 2015 , the Xbox Live Arcade version of the game was included as part of the Rare Replay video game compilation for Xbox One .
= Hit ' Em Up =
" Hit ' Em Up " is a diss song by rap artist Tupac Shakur ( 2Pac ) , featuring his group the Outlawz . It is the B @-@ side to the single " How Do U Want It " , released on June 4 , 1996 , from the album All Eyez on Me . The song ’ s lyrics contain vicious insults to several East Coast rappers , chief among them , Shakur 's former friend turned rival , The Notorious B.I.G. , also known as Biggie Smalls . The song was recorded in Los Angeles , California at Can Am Studios in May 1996 . Reporter Chuck Philips , who interviewed Shakur at Can Am , described the song as " a caustic anti @-@ East Coast jihad in which the rapper threatens to eliminate Biggie , Sean Combs ( Puffy ) , and a slew of Bad Boy artists and other New York acts . " The song was produced by long @-@ time collaborator Johnny " J " and samples the bassline from " Don 't Look Any Further " by Dennis Edwards and interpolates " Get Money " by Biggie Smalls group Junior M.A.F.I.A. , which used the Dennis Edwards sample as well . The video , itself described as infamous , includes impersonations of Biggie , Puffy and Lil ' Kim .
" Hit ' Em Up " had a large role in exacerbating the East Coast – West Coast hip hop rivalry . Following its release , the East Coast rappers insulted in the song responded through tracks of their own . The controversy surrounding the song is due in part to Shakur ’ s murder only three months after its release .
The song is widely considered by the American hip hop community as one of the greatest " diss tracks " ever recorded due to its explicit lyrical content and the seriousness of violent intent by Shakur and his colleagues towards their competitors .
= = Origins = =
" Hit ' Em Up " was written and recorded in Can Am Studios in Los Angeles , California in May 1996 . For the song , Shakur recruited the members of the former group Dramacydal whom he had worked with previously , and was eager to work with again . Together , the rappers ( along with other associates ) formed the original lineup of the Outlawz . The first and third verses are performed by Shakur , while the second verse is performed by Hussein Fatal , the fourth by Yaki Kadafi and the fifth by E.D.I. Mean .
The ferocity of Shakur 's raging vocals , as said by long @-@ time collaborator and producer of " Hit ' Em Up " Johnny " J " , was entirely authentic . He explained that Shakur was initially fueled by his anger against Biggie and Bad Boy Records for the belief that they had a role in the November 30 , 1994 ambush and attack on Shakur . He claimed that Biggie and his crew knew of his shooting and wanted him dead . Shakur used this fury , which Johnny " J " described as " superhuman " , to attack Biggie and other East Coast rappers . Johnny " J " also stated that he had never seen Shakur so angry and that the words he rapped were in no way an act , describing the recording process as the most " hard @-@ core he had ever done . " Although he was very happy with the work he had put into it and the resulting song , Johnny " J " went on to say that he had no desire to work on anything of that magnitude again .
Shakur was also enraged by Biggie 's release of " Who Shot Ya ? " provocatively only months after the shooting incident , and although it did not mention Shakur 's name , he believed it was directed towards him , but it was not . Shakur admitted to releasing " Hit ' Em Up " as a response to " Who Shot Ya ? " In a Vibe interview , the rapper called out Sean “ Puffy ” Combs and Biggie Smalls and accused both of them for setting him up , or obtaining knowledge of the attack , and not cautioning him . He also singled out business men James Rosemond ( " Jimmy Henchman " ) , and Jacques Agnant ( " Haitian Jack " ) of orchestrating the assault . Shakur announced the names of his ostensible conspirators to Kevin Powell , a journalist for Vibe ; however , to mask their true identities , Vibe referred to Henchman as “ Booker , ” and Jack as “ Nigel ” in the published interview . Persons familiar with the interview say they used different names after the magazine received threats from Henchman . A former Vibe editor denied receiving threats , but neglected to explain why the magazine substituted aliases for Henchman and Haitian Jack .
Henchman promised Shakur $ 7 @,@ 000 to duo with Lil Shawn , a rapper whom the business man represented at that time . In a 2008 article by Philips , Henchman was implicated in organizing the assault , and in 2012 by his long @-@ time friend Dexter Isaac , who confessed to attacking Shakur on Henchman 's orders . He was confirmed as a source for Philip 's earlier story and in Henchman 's own confession according to prosecutors at his 2012 trial .
= = Composition = =
The lyrics in " Hit ' Em Up " were aimed primarily at Biggie and Puffy . Shakur viciously insults Biggie throughout , the first line by Shakur is " That 's why I fucked your bitch , you fat motherfucker " , and threatens retaliation in " Hit ' Em Up " , saying " Now you 're about to feel the wrath of a menace . " He also used the song as a platform to express his belief that Biggie was guilty of stealing his style of rapping , and was merely imitating his lifestyle . This notion is addressed in the verse in " Now it 's all about Versace , you copied my style . " He also touches topically on their early friendship with the line " Biggie , remember when I used to let you sleep on the couch ? " and their subsequent fallout . Towards the end of the song Tupac disses Mobb Deep , saying " Don 't one of you niggas got sickle cell or something ? You fucking with me , nigga you fuck around and get a seizure or a heart attack " , referring to Prodigy , a member of Mobb Deep , suffering from sickle cell disease . Mobb Deep responded by releasing Drop a Gem on ' Em , which was released shortly after Tupac 's death , however recorded before . " Hit ' Em Up " features much profanity and was issued a Parental Advisory label , using the word " fuck " and " motherfucker " over 35 times in the song .
The bassline in " Hit ' Em Up " is taken from the 1984 Dennis Edwards song " Don 't Look Any Further " . The chorus of " Hit ' Em Up " is a play on the chorus of Junior M.A.F.I.A 's " Player 's Anthem . " The phrase " take money " is repeated throughout the song , which is a play on Junior M.A.F.I.A 's recent release " Get Money " , which is also the beat used in " Hit ' Em Up " . Faith Evans , who at the time was Biggie 's estranged wife , was reportedly seen with Shakur after a public breakup with Biggie . Journalist Chuck Philips spotted Faith Evans at Can Am when he interviewed Shakur a year earlier in 1995 . People at the studio told the reporter that Faith Evans also contributed — that the R & B chanteuse recorded one or more “ Take Money ” background vocals that would appear on “ Hit Em Up . ” In his October 1995 interview of the rapper , Philips remembered in 2012 , " I was so unaware of the bi @-@ coastal rap war that I suspected nothing when Faith Evans appeared with Shakur at Can Am . The estranged wife of Biggie was recording background vocals for " Wonder Why They Call U Bitch " , a song which was at the time yet to be released . According to Shakur she had given him gifts of clothing , which he offered as proof of a relationship in an interview . Using this against Biggie in " Hit ' Em Up " , Shakur continued to fuel the rumors of a sexual relationship with Evans in the song 's line " You claim to be a player , but I fucked your wife . " Claims of an affair with Evans appear three times in the song .
Shakur also attacked many other people associated with Bad Boy Records and with Biggie , such as Lil ' Kim and Junior M.A.F.I.A. He exclaimed that their lifestyle and what they rapped about were fraudulent , and that they were not from the streets . He believed that they were only perpetuating the drama and did not understand the situation they were getting into . Bronx rapper Chino XL was also insulted for vulgar comments he made about Shakur on his song " Riiiot ! " . In the original recording , Shakur also insulted Jay Z at the ending segment , but removed it after being convinced by Outlawz members that Carter had nothing to do with the conflict between Death Row and Bad Boy . After Jay Z 's debut album ( which featured Biggie on " Brooklyn 's Finest " ) was subsequently released after " Hit ' Em up " , Shakur included Jay Z amongst the many other East Coast rappers to be insulted in his next studio album .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Hit ' Em Up " was filmed in a warehouse off Slauson Avenue near Fox Hills Mall in Los Angeles in May 1996 . It was filmed by the production company Look Hear Productions . Shakur raps in a white room with The Outlawz , as well as in purple @-@ caged room and a black room with bullet holes in the background . TV monitors in the background show clips of Shakur , Puffy , and Biggie Smalls , and even clips from the video " Made Niggaz . " The video featured actors who were recalled from their prior roles in the music video for " 2 of Amerikaz Most Wanted " to impersonate some of those who were attacked in " Hit ' Em Up . " This included Biggie , whose stand @-@ in stares dully into the camera and sports a Kangol and jacket , similar to one Biggie would wear . During the moments where Shakur raps about his claimed affair with Evans , the Biggie impersonator crouches near the camera while Shakur yells in his face . Puffy is also impersonated , appearing with a high @-@ top fade and leaning towards the camera , lowering and raising his sunglasses .
During the shooting of the video , Shakur was engaged in an argument with someone , who was heard telling him " You 'll get shot . " His armed bodyguard assured him that he had nothing to worry about . He also broke up a fight involving his friend Muta during the filming , and fired a production assistant on set . The assistant was answering Shakur 's pager and returning his personal calls without his consent . Many callers were confused or angry that a female assistant was answering Shakur 's calls . The assistant had mistakenly lost the pager , and with Shakur already growing wary of her , fired her for that reason .
Like the song , the video for " Hit ' Em Up " has also been called " infamous " . The pro @-@ West Coast track 's music video featured the members crushing buildings in Manhattan , which was already done in another pro @-@ West Coast music video for " New York , New York " by Tha Dogg Pound earlier . The music video for " Hit ' Em Up " can be found on Tupac : Live at the House of Blues DVD .
= = Release and reception = =
Upon finishing the recording of the song , Shakur felt very positively about the track , saying the " song is going to be playing in every club . Deejays are calling from everywhere , wanting to get a piece of this . " " Hit ' Em Up " appeared first as a B @-@ side , on the single " How Do U Want It " , by Shakur featuring The Outlawz . On June 4 , 1996 under the label Death Row Records , " Hit ' Em Up " was released on compact disc , 12 @-@ inch , and a 45 RPM . The original cover for the single had Puffy 's head on a snake 's body , and Biggie 's head on a pig 's . It also appeared posthumously on several compilations , including the 2004 release of Shakur 's last recorded live performance , Live at the House of Blues . " Hit ' Em Up " was also remixed on Nu @-@ Mixx Klazzics . Upon its release , " Hit ' Em Up " received frequent radio airplay , which was attributed to the public interest in the ongoing feud and radio stations ' desire to garner high ratings . However , some radio stations , such as the Los Angeles @-@ based KPWR , refused to play it . The follow @-@ up to " Hit ' Em Up " was the song " Bomb First ( My Second Reply ) " .
" Hit ' Em Up " has been called " controversial , " " infamous , " " disturbing , " and " brutal . " Shakur 's insults against virtually the entire East Coast scene of rappers were said to be ferocious . The song , along with " Dear Mama , " has been viewed as one of Shakur 's songs that resonated with and was spoken of the most by young people . Some felt that " Hit ' Em Up " showcased Shakur ranting and raving like a fool , and J.R. Reynolds of Billboard called it horrendous , noting that Shakur revealed his true colors upon recording the song . He also went on to say that although sympathetic to the shooting , " Hit ' Em Up " had " fan [ ned ] the flames of hatred ... and affect [ ed ] an entire black culture 's psyche " ; he called the song " repugnant and unacceptable . " Among associates of Shakur , it was called a " bad @-@ luck song . " Los Angeles radio director Bruce St. James called the song " the be @-@ all , end @-@ all , curse @-@ word , dirty @-@ lyric , violent song of all time " [ sic ] . Game 's manager has called it the best diss record . Documentary filmmaker Carl Weston believed that " most people in Biggie 's shoes would have wanted to at least hurt Tupac " in a Spin magazine interview .
Among musicians , the song drew criticism from singer Dionne Warwick , and disapproval from fellow rappers Kool Moe Dee and Chuck D , as written in their book There 's a God on the Mic : The True 50 Greatest MCs . They felt that although Shakur was one of the most substantive rappers of that period , he had gone too far with " Hit ' Em Up , " causing some of Shakur 's fans to turn on him , according to the two rappers .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Shakur and the Death Row crew attended a boxing match in Las Vegas , where he was murdered in 1996 . In retrospect of the events which ensued only a few months afterward , the song has been viewed as the turning point in the feud between Shakur and Biggie , where things were said and sung which could never be taken back during the remainder of Shakur 's life . This has led to it being dubbed as the beginning of the war between the East Coast and the West Coast , and the centerpiece in what became the most venomous battle in rap history .
In 2002 , Chuck Philips reported that the Crips ' Orlando Anderson pulled the trigger that killed Shakur and Biggie helped pay for the gun . Although Biggie 's family produced computerized receipts to show that Biggie was in the studio at the time of the murder , The New York Times called the evidence " inconclusive " noting :
The pages purport to be three computer printouts from Daddy 's House , indicating that Wallace was in the studio recording a song called Nasty Boy on the afternoon Shakur was shot . They indicate that Wallace wrote half the session , was In and out / sat around and laid down a ref , shorthand for a reference vocal , the equivalent of a first take . But nothing indicates when the documents were created . And Louis Alfred , the recording engineer listed on the sheets , said in an interview that he remembered recording the song with Wallace in a late @-@ night session , not during the day . He could not recall the date of the session but said it was likely not the night Shakur was shot . " We would have heard about it , " Mr. Alfred said . "
Philips ' article was based on police affidavits and court documents as well as interviews with investigators , witnesses to the crime and members of the Southside Crips who had never before discussed the killing outside the gang . As Assistant Managing Editor of the LA Times Mark Duvoisin wrote : " Philips ' story has withstood all challenges to its accuracy , ... [ and ] remains the definitive account of the Shakur slaying . "
" Hit ' Em Up " has been studied by and with academics , and it has been used as a part of a series of lessons for building the means to communicate with younger people . Its main role in these lessons is to define anger in rap music . Biggie was shot and killed six months after Shakur 's death .
= = Response = =
= = = From Biggie = = =
After hearing " Hit ' Em Up " Biggie continued proclaiming his innocence in the shooting incident . He also remarked that the song " Who Shot Ya ? " was written before Shakur was shot and thus , was not about him . Regarding the lyrics aimed at his wife Faith , Biggie expressed an inability to find merit in what Shakur had claimed . He believed that Shakur intended to attack him through Faith , although he remained unsure of whether an encounter between them had occurred . Ultimately , he thought that if something had occurred it was none of his business , and that Shakur should not have publicly disclosed this information in a song . Biggie responded to this matter in a similar fashion to " Hit ' Em Up " , rapping in a joint release by himself and Jay @-@ Z in the song " Brooklyn 's Finest " , where he says " If Faye have twins , she 'd probably have two Pacs . Get it ? Tupac 's ? " Shortly after the release of " Hit ' Em Up " , Evans went on the radio and denied that she had been with Shakur .
= = = From other artists = = =
Puffy had trouble understanding the sheer rage Shakur had expressed for Biggie in " Hit ' Em Up " . He also responded by reinforcing his and Biggie 's innocence regarding the shooting and went on to say that prior to the incident they " were friends " , and that they " would have never done nothing to hurt him . " In an interview with Vibe Magazine concerning Shakur 's allegations of Biggie and Puffy having prior knowledge of the ambush , Puffy stated :
He ain 't mad at the niggas that shot him ; he knows where they 're at . He knows who shot him . If you ask him , he knows , and everybody in the street knows , and he 's not stepping to them , because he knows that he 's not gonna get away with that shit . To me , that 's some real sucker shit . Be mad at everybody , man ; don 't be using niggas as scapegoats . We know that he 's a nice guy from New York . All shit aside , Tupac is a nice , good @-@ hearted guy .
Lil ' Kim responded on the original version of her song " Big Momma Thang " , which was aimed at Biggie 's wife , Faith Evans , and Shakur . Junior M.A.F.I.A. recorded a music video for the song " Get Money " , which has been regarded as a diss to Shakur . Biggie denies these claims , stating : " It 's just a video ; ain 't nobody got no time to make no diss on nobody . " Lil ' Cease said after the release that Biggie still had love for Shakur , and even respected him . The attack on Mobb Deep came as a response for their involvement on the song " L.A L.A " by Capone @-@ N @-@ Noreaga , which was a retaliation to Snoop Dogg and Tha Dogg Pound 's song " New York , New York " music video in which members of Tha Dogg Pound and Death Row are seen knocking down buildings in New York City . Mobb Deep responded to Shakur with the track " Drop a Gem on ' em " . It was first released as a promotional single , and later appeared on their album Hell on Earth . Lyrically , it did not specifically name Shakur , but it did allude to the shooting incident . It has also been noted for erroneously stating the cost of the assets Shakur had taken from him during the shooting incident . Bronx rapper King Sun also responded to Shakur with " New York Love ( All Eyez On Sun ) " .
= = Appearances = =
" Hit ' Em Up " was originally featured as a B @-@ side on Shakur 's single " How Do U Want It " . In 1998 , it was released on Shakur 's first compilation album , Greatest Hits . A remix of the song was featured on Nu @-@ Mixx Klazzics ( 2003 ) , where the intro lyrics from the originally explicit version and the main lyrics from the edited radio version . A live version of the song was included on the 2005 release of Tupac : Live at the House of Blues . " Hit ' Em Up " was first released on Death Row Greatest Hits , and was again released as a live recording on the 2004 album 2Pac Live .
In the second half of Eminem 's song " Quitter " , the rapper attempts to remake " Hit ' Em Up " and in itself is a diss track aimed towards Everlast . Eminem has support from D12 on his version like the Outlawz supported Shakur on the original . Khia used the song 's beat and part of the hook in her song " Hit ' Em Up " , which is a diss to female rappers Trina and Jacki @-@ O. " What I Think About You " by Bow Wow uses a reinterpolation of " Hit ' Em Up " and is a diss song to fellow rapper Soulja Boy Tell ' em .
= Maryland Route 413 =
Maryland Route 413 ( also known as MD 413 or Route 413 ) is a 14 @.@ 61 @-@ mile ( 23 @.@ 51 km ) state highway in Somerset County in the U.S. state of Maryland . The route runs from a dead end at Crisfield 's city dock , which is located on the Tangier Sound , northeast to U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Westover . It is the main highway leading into Crisfield , and is known as Crisfield Highway for much of its length . The highway travels through mostly rural areas of farms and woods as well as the communities of Hopewell , Marion Station , and Kingston . It is a two @-@ lane undivided road for most of its length ; a portion of the road in Crisfield is a four @-@ lane road that follows a one @-@ way pair . MD 413 is part of two scenic routes : Blue Crab Scenic Byway and the Beach to Bay Indian Trail , both are Maryland Scenic Byways .
The Crisfield – Westover Road was one of the original state roads marked for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission . The highway was paved in the 1910s and designated MD 413 in 1927 . MD 413 was relocated starting in the late 1930s to a new alignment parallel to the Eastern Shore Railroad line that made Crisfield the " Seafood Capital of the World . " The relocation began in Crisfield and was completed to Westover in 1950 . The old alignment of MD 413 was designated MD 667 . The state highway was expanded to a divided highway in the mid @-@ 1950s in Crisfield . The railroad track was abandoned in 1976 and later removed , but traces of the railroad remain along MD 413 's modern alignment .
= = Route description = =
MD 413 begins at the city dock on the waterfront in Crisfield at the intersection with Dock Street , heading to the northeast . It begins on a four @-@ lane boulevard with a median , and is known as West Main Street , fronting local businesses in the downtown area . After Seventh Street , Main Street leaves MD 413 , and the boulevard 's two carriageways become known as Richardson Avenue northbound and Maryland Avenue southbound . At this point the road begins to front mostly homes on Maryland Avenue , while on Richardson Avenue it runs past and homes and businesses , such as gas stations and restaurants . On a gentle curve , Chesapeake Avenue intersects the northbound carriageway , providing access to the southern beginning of MD 667 .
Before leaving the city , the route intersects MD 460 , also known as Hall Highway , immediately accessible only from the southbound carriageway . MD 460 provides a direct link to McCready Memorial Hospital . Access to that route from northbound MD 413 is given by Wynfall Avenue , which the road intersects farther south . Very soon after , it intersects MD 358 ( Jacksonville Road ) , which heads north , and Somerset Avenue , which heads south . Past the MD 358 intersection , the road narrows to two travel lanes with the median becoming a left turn lane as many businesses and side streets front the road . The route becomes the Crisfield Highway , which it is known as for the remainder of its journey . After intersecting Silver Lane , the left turn lane closes , and MD 413 becomes a rural , two @-@ lane highway with full shoulders , exiting Crisfield 's corporate limits just north of the Sherwin – Williams ( former Rubberset ) entrance and continuing past the old site of Carvel Hall Cutlery .
Upon leaving Crisfield , MD 413 passes through a mix of woodland and farmland . In Hopewell , MD 667 intersects the highway , and after clearing some modest wooded development up to and slightly beyond the Holland Crossing Road intersection , the route enters heavy woodland . It passes a man @-@ made pond before intersecting MD 667 again . Both routes parallel each other on the way into the community of Marion Station , straddling the old railroad bed . Both routes are intersected by Davis Road and Tulls Corner Road / Charles Cannon Road , after which MD 667 turns almost due east , with MD 413 heading through a small neighborhood outside the center of Marion .
Past Marion , the route resumes northeast through woods and farms with some residences along the route . Approaching Kingston , MD 413 intersects Lovers Lane . After this , a long curve to the north @-@ northeast begins , which ends just south of Kingston Lane and the center of Kingston . Beyond Kingston , the route crosses the Big Annemessex River and travels past a tree farm . After passing through a forest , two side roads lead to the Somerset County Health Department and the Somerset Intermediate School , with the pavement 's striping reconfigured to accommodate left turns at the two close intersections .
As the road nears Westover , it passes by the Great Hope Golf Course and shortly after intersects MD 361 ( Fairmount Road ) . Here , the road meets Old Westover @-@ Marion Road , a former routing of the highway . Passing through the development of Westover , MD 413 intersects MD 673 ( Sam Barnes Road ) , a short connector route to US 13 southbound to Pocomoke City . From US 13 northbound , MD 673 serves as the connection to MD 413 southbound . Past MD 673 , the highway passes through farmland . MD 413 heads through some woods and crosses the Back Creek of the Manokin River before coming to end at an intersection with US 13 .
MD 413 is part of the Blue Crab Scenic Byway , which consists of various roads in the lower Eastern Shore of Maryland . It is also part of the Beach to Bay Indian Trail , a Maryland Scenic Byway that connects Ocean City on the Atlantic Ocean to Smith Island in the Chesapeake Bay and is noted by signs along the route .
= = History = =
Crisfield grew to prominence as the " Seafood Capital of the World " and became the second largest city in Maryland by 1904 thanks to an extension of the Eastern Shore Railroad to the city in 1866 instigated by the city 's namesake , John W. Crisfield . The city 's importance led to the Crisfield – Westover Road being designated one of the original state roads nominated for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The state road was paved from the eastern city limits of Crisfield ( the present western terminus of MD 667 ) to Hopewell and from Westover to Kingston in 1913 . The segment between Kingston and Marion was completed in 1915 . The state road was completed when the final section was completed between Hopewell and Marion by 1920 . MD 413 received its number in the original assignment of state route numbers in 1927 . Within the city of Crisfield , Maryland Avenue was constructed between Main Street and Somerset Avenue , Chesapeake Avenue was brought into the state highway system within the city limits , and Main Street was improved and brought into the state highway system between the city pier and Maryland Avenue around 1935 .
Starting in the mid @-@ 1930s , MD 413 was relocated to an alignment paralleling the Crisfield Secondary Branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad . The first portion of MD 413 was relocated in 1935 in conjunction with the relocation of US 13 between Princess Anne and Westover . MD 413 was moved from Sam Barnes Road and Sign Post Road to its present alignment between US 13 and Old Westover – Marion Road in Westover . The first section of the present straight highway between Crisfield and Westover was constructed in 1938 and 1939 from the eastern city limits of Crisfield ( near the intersection with MD 358 ) to Hopewell . The bypassed portion of MD 413 and subsequent bypassed segments were designated MD 667 . The section of the new alignment between Hopewell and Marion was completed in 1942 . The Marion – Westover portion of the realignment was completed in 1950 .
MD 413 was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway between the city pier and the eastern city limits of Crisfield in 1956 . Between the city pier and Maryland Avenue , the divided highway replaced the path of the railroad ; the railroad 's terminus was moved to a new pier to the north . North of the Main Street portion of the divided highway , the railroad track separated the two directions of MD 413 : Maryland Avenue formed the northbound lanes while Richardson Avenue was brought into the state highway system to comprise the southbound lanes . The two directions of MD 413 were divided by an operating railroad track until the Crisfield Secondary Branch was abandoned with the formation of Conrail in 1976 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Somerset County .
= Miniopterus aelleni =
Miniopterus aelleni is a bat in the genus Miniopterus that occurs on Anjouan in the Comoros and in northern and western Madagascar .
It is a small brown bat ; its forearm length is 35 to 41 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) . The long tragus ( a projection in the outer ear ) has a broad base and a blunt or rounded tip . The uropatagium ( tail membrane ) is sparsely haired . The palate is flat , and there are distinct diastemata ( gaps ) between the upper canines and premolars .
Populations of this species have historically been included in Miniopterus manavi , but evidence published in 2008 and 2009 indicates that M. manavi is a complex of five separate species , including the newly described M. aelleni . M. aelleni has been found in forests and caves in karstic areas . Its distribution overlaps that of M. griveaudi , also formerly included in M. manavi .
= = Taxonomy = =
In a 1995 contribution to Faune de Madagascar on Malagasy bats , Randolph Peterson and colleagues listed four species of Miniopterus on Madagascar and the nearby Comoros , including the small Miniopterus manavi with a broad distribution on both Madagascar and the Comoros . However , during the first decade of the 21st century , molecular studies have revealed that Miniopterus , a widespread genus in the Old World , is much more species @-@ rich than previously thought . A 2008 study comparing sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b and D @-@ loop markers found two distinct , unrelated groups within the supposed M. manavi from the Comoros ; both groups were also found on Madagascar . The next year , Steven Goodman and colleagues revisited the group with more extensive sampling on Madagascar . They separated three species within the former " M. manavi " : M. manavi itself in the Central Highlands , M. griveaudi ( previously a subspecies of M. manavi ) on Anjouan , Grande Comore , and northern and western Madagascar , and the newly described Miniopterus aelleni on Anjouan and northern and western Madagascar . The specific name aelleni honors Prof. Villy Aellen of the Natural History Museum of Geneva , who has done much research on African bats . Within M. aelleni , Goodman and colleagues found some differentiation ( 3 @.@ 4 % sequence divergence in cytochrome b sequences ) between individuals from Montagne d 'Ambre in northern Madagascar and those from Anjouan and Ankarana , near Montagne d 'Ambre ; the cytochrome b divergence between M. aelleni and other Malagasy Miniopterus is 7 to 10 % .
Later in 2009 , Goodman and colleagues described two more species of M. manavi @-@ like Malagasy Miniopterus : M. brachytragos from northern Madagascar and M. mahafaliensis from the southwest . On the basis of cytochrome b sequences , they found that M. aelleni was most closely related to a clade of M. brachytragos , M. manavi , and another recently described Malagasy species , M. petersoni . The five recognized species of M. manavi @-@ like bats are not each other 's closest relatives , but apparently acquired their similarities through convergent evolution . At some places ( for example , Namoroka ) four cryptic species of M. manavi @-@ like bats , including M. aelleni , occur together .
= = Description = =
Miniopterus aelleni is a small , brown Miniopterus species . The head may be slightly lighter in color than the body . Some hairs on the underparts have buff tips . Miniopterus griveaudi is similar in color , but M. manavi is darker and M. brachytragos and M. mahafaliensis are lighter . The tragus ( a projection on the inner side of the outer ear ) is long and has a broad base with a crest at the side , and ends in a blunt to slightly rounded tip . In M. manavi and M. griveaudi , in contrast , the base is narrower , in M. mahafaliensis , the sides of the tragus are parallel , and M. brachytragus has a short , blunt tragus sparsely covered with hair . The wing membrane is also brown , but the uropatagium is lighter . The wing membrane and uropatagium are attached to the upper leg at the same level , above the ankle . The uropatagium is sparsely covered with thin , but clearly visible hairs . In contrast , M. manavi , M. mahafaliensis , and M. brachytragos have densely covered uropatagia and that of M. griveaudi is almost naked . Individuals from Anjouan have significantly shorter hindfeet than those from Madagascar , but otherwise the two populations cannot be distinguished on the basis of external characteristics .
In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is short and line @-@ shaped , but longer than in other manavi @-@ like species . The central groove in the nasal depression is relatively narrow . The frontal bones are rounded and bear a well @-@ developed sagittal crest . Further back on the braincase , the lambdoid crest is also prominent . The middle part of the palate is flat , as in M. manavi but unlike in M. brachytragos , M. griveaudi , and M. mahafaliensis , which have a curved palate . At the palate 's back margin is a long , thin posterior palatal spine . Miniopterus aelleni has 36 teeth in the dental formula 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 ( two incisors , one canine , two premolars , and three molars in both upper toothrows and three incisors , one canine , three premolars , and three molars in the lower toothrows ) . As is characteristic of Miniopterus , the first upper premolar ( P2 ; P1 and P3 are missing ) is smaller and more simplified than the second ( P4 ) . There are clear diastemata ( gaps ) between the upper canine ( C1 ) and P2 and between P2 and P4 , which are weaker or absent in M. griveaudi and M. manavi . Behind C1 , the toothrows are about parallel , not divergent as in M. manavi . The third upper molar ( M3 ) is more compressed than in M. manavi and M. griveaudi . In some measurements of the skull and teeth , Anjouan specimens are larger than those from Madagascar .
The animal has a karyotype of 46 chromosomes , with a total of 50 major arms on the autosomes ( non @-@ sex chromosomes ) . The karyotype is conserved among species of Miniopterus ; the number of chromosomes and arms is identical in M. aelleni , the Malagasy M. griveaudi and M. gleni , and even the Asian M. fuliginosus .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Miniopterus aelleni is known to live from 4 to 225 m ( 13 to 738 ft ) above sea level in northern and western Madagascar , at 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) on Montagne d 'Ambre , northern Madagascar , and from 220 to 690 m ( 720 to 2 @,@ 260 ft ) on Anjouan in the nearby Comoros . On Madagascar , it has been recorded in forest and caves in karst areas ; its distribution broadly overlaps that of M. griveaudi and the two have been found in the same roost sites on several occasions . On Anjouan , M. aelleni is less common than M. griveaudi ; there , it is known from four specimens only , all collected in 2006 . These come from two nearby sites : a rocky area near a river and a disturbed forest . These animals , collected in late November , were in reproductive condition , with two females pregnant and a third lactating . M. griveaudi were reproductively active at the same time , suggesting that the reproductive seasons of the two do not differ significantly . Although some ecological and behavioral data has been published on Miniopterus manavi , the recognition of several cryptic species within this group , more than one of which may occur in any given locality , renders the association of these data with any of the individual species uncertain ; however , species of Miniopterus generally feed on insects . Because M. aelleni is widespread and occurs in many protected areas on Madagascar , Goodman and colleagues inferred that its conservation status is secure .
= Not Your Kind of People =
Not Your Kind of People is the fifth studio album by American @-@ Scottish alternative rock band Garbage . It was released on May 11 , 2012 through the band 's own record label , Stunvolume . The album marks the return of the band after a seven @-@ year " hiatus " that started with previous album Bleed Like Me . Guitarist Duke Erikson said at the launch of the record that " working with Garbage again was very instinctual . Like getting on a bicycle ... with three other people . " The band emphasized that they did not want to reinvent themselves , but embrace their sonic identity , reflecting their classic sound whilst updating it for 2012 . Although Shirley Manson 's morose dispositions have a presence on the record , many of the songs share a more optimistic outlook on life , influenced by some of Manson 's personal experiences during their hiatus .
Recorded mostly at various recording studios in California , Not Your Kind of People was produced by Garbage , and was engineered and mixed by Billy Bush . The album contains bass guitar parts recorded by Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen while Finnish actress Irina Björklund performs the musical saw on one track . Both daughters of band @-@ members Steve Marker and Butch Vig laid down vocals on the album 's title track . Photos for the album package were shot by Autumn de Wilde at the Paramour Mansion in Silver Lake , Los Angeles .
Not Your Kind of People was preceded by the release of " Blood for Poppies " as the lead single internationally , while in the United Kingdom , " Battle in Me " was marketed as the album 's lead single . The album also spawned three more singles , " Automatic Systematic Habit " , " Big Bright World " , and " Control " . Not Your Kind of People received a generally positive reception from critics . It debuted at number 17 on the Billboard 200 , at number 10 on the UK albums chart , peaked at number three on Billboard 's Independent Albums chart and topped the Alternative Albums chart .
= = Background = =
Garbage decided to take a hiatus in 2005 , following the troubled production of their fourth studio album Bleed Like Me and cutting short the album 's promotional tour . Aside from a reunion in 2007 to compose new tracks for the compilation Absolute Garbage , the band members found themselves involved in various projects , with Butch Vig producing Green Day , Foo Fighters , and Muse , while singer Shirley Manson recorded an unreleased solo album and made her professional acting debut as a series regular on Terminator : The Sarah Connor Chronicles .
In 2009 , Vig and Manson met at the funeral of Pablo Castelaz , the six @-@ year @-@ old son of Dangerbird Records founder Jeff Castelaz , and had a conversation where , according to Vig , " we felt like we had some unfinished business , and we realized how precious life is and how important music has been in our lives . " Manson suggested calling guitarists Duke Erikson and Steve Marker to get together and write some songs . One week later , the group informally convened in Los Angeles , where they laughed , drank , and reminisced of the old days , leaving behind the tensions among them and general weariness that was partly responsible for their 2005 breakup ; they set up their equipment and " started fucking around . " " We were all pleased to notice on the first day there just didn 't seem to be any personal tensions , " Vig recalled . " Enough time had passed that any sort of weirdness or tension that had risen between us all had dissipated . So it was easy . There was no one telling us what to do . We weren 't signed to a label . We were between managers . So we made this on our own terms . " In that session , the group wrote the song " Battle In Me " .
In mid @-@ 2010 , the entire group were in Los Angeles for a birthday , where Manson suggested they book a studio and spend time writing . Along with Garbage 's long time engineer and Manson 's husband Billy Bush , the band , as Bush described , " hung out for a couple weeks , drank some wine and played a bunch of music ” . Three or four song ideas came together during this time . " But we didn 't go right into making @-@ a @-@ record mode " , Erikson recalled . " It took a bit of time for us to realize that we were going to make an album . " Erikson described reconvening as a piecemeal process , saying that it informally began with the first phone conversations among them since their hiatus , as they discussed playing together again . After convening , and composing and performing song ideas together through multiple sessions , they then decided to move forward with the band and embark on a full @-@ length album . The project took off in February 2011 , when Manson called Vig proposing to reunite the band and try making a new record . Manson convoked the group out of an eagerness " to make loud music again " . " I 'm a loud person " , she proclaimed ; " I love noise and aggression . I crave contact . I needed to make that connection again . I think we all did . To get something back up when there was absolutely no momentum took a Herculean effort on everybody 's part . It 's like pulling yourself out of mud . Even to stand back up and say ' we 're going to take another swing at this ' was a scary feeling , and I 'm proud of us for trying . It 's much easier to stay at home . ”
The band members stated that following the troublesome final years signed to Geffen Records , being an independent act again helped improve their mood and approach , with Vig remarking , " There were no expectations ; no one even knew we were recording . So it was all under the radar and pretty casual and we all felt inspired after having that amount of time off ... when we started writing songs , they came fast and furious . We probably wrote 24 , 25 songs over the course of a couple of months . Marker commented that " the business stuff ends up taking over some of that fun . We got really bogged down in people 's expectations of what we were supposed to be doing , being on bigger record labels and stuff . With all that behind us , it was suddenly exciting again and it felt a lot like it did when we first formed , which was really just sort of a fun idea that we had . " Manson added , " People at record companies live in fear of being wrong . Music cannot thrive in that environment . It is an unruly art form . You can 't keep treating it like sausage meat . You have to let it morph and move and breathe . "
Manson stated that eliminating the corporate pressure and indifference , as well as the band having a relaxed approach to the making of the record was pivotal for a healthy regroup , writing and recording process . " We didn 't put any pressure on ourselves to finish an album ... We just took our time and got together in two @-@ week blocks of time - any longer than that I 'm sure we would have started getting on each others ' nerves . So we did two weeks and then we 'd take some time off and then when everybody felt ready we 'd get back in [ the studio ] again . As a result , I think everybody really enjoyed our time together and really plugged in " , she remarked . Never much enjoying being in a studio , Manson relished the record @-@ making process this time around .
= = Recording = =
Unlike the previous albums , which were done at Vig 's Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin , Not Your Kind of People was mostly recorded in Los Angeles , where both Vig and Manson live . Smart was only used for some of Erikson 's parts , as he was the only bandmember still in Wisconsin . The working process was also different ; while the previous records had the band gathering for an entire year at Smart Studios , the band would instead work two weeks per month in Los Angeles , with Erikson and Marker flying in from Wisconsin and Colorado , respectively , then spend another two weeks in their home studios while e @-@ mailing ideas back and forth to develop songs . Manson would also visit Vig 's GrungeIsDead studio to experiment with vocals . Then they would get back together in the studio , which according to Marker " would be fun again because we hadn 't seen these people for a couple of weeks . "
The first recordings were done in two weeks of jam sessions at The Pass in Studio City . The band then moved to Bush 's studio Red Razor Sounds at Atwater Village , where the engineer did a rough mix of the tracks . Vig declared that the album 's mood emerged from the combination of the " trashy and lo @-@ tech " studio which he compared to a small clubhouse with the band 's ProTools and samplers . The band had a looser approach to recording and mixing compared to the " nano @-@ editing " of Version 2 @.@ 0 .
The band worked on estimatedly " 25 or 26 songs " during the album sessions ; While a few were still " bits and pieces " , Vig stated they might finish them as further bonus tracks , B @-@ sides , or as part of an EP at a later point . Erikson said that the bonus tracks of the deluxe edition are songs that were not ready in time to join the regular track list . He also said that while most songs were new compositions , some were old ideas , such as the " 10 years old or something " track " Show Me " . Throughout the recording sessions for the album , the band mentioned several song titles via Facebook and Twitter ; these included : " Alone " , " Animal " , " Choose Your Weapon " , " Time Will Destroy Everything " and " T.R.O.U.B.L.E. " . Manson confirmed on Twitter that " Animal " became " The One " , a song from the deluxe version , while " Time Will Destroy Everything " was released as the b @-@ side to the band 's 2014 Record Store Day single , " Girls Talk " .
= = Composition and style = =
According to Vig , Not Your Kind of People evokes ambient vibes of Garbage 's first two albums , Garbage and Version 2 @.@ 0 : " There 's lots of elements of things we 've always loved : noisy guitars , big electronic beats , atmospheric film moments " , adding that the band " wanted to make a record sound like something that we want to hear when we 're driving the car . " While the record was reminiscent " vibe @-@ wise " of the band 's early work , the production aimed for a rawer sound , instead of cleaning up the sound through computers , to " capture a performance " and " sound kind of trashy and for the songs to blow out a little bit . " Vig said , " we tried to leave a lot of the performance raw on this album . A lot of the songs , we sort of throw paint at the wall and some of it sticks and some of it drips off . " He explained that the group avoided reinventing themselves : " We wanted to just embrace exactly who we are and what we like to do and just sort of update it sonically for 2012 . For better or worse , when we approach a song , it 's going to end up sounding like Garbage . I think we have a strong sonic identity , and I think that 's an asset these days . " Manson similarly noted that what mattered most was the record sounding authentic to who they are as a band . Manson considered that while the record recalled the band 's classic sound " it fits in with radio programming right now " ; She said that they are interested in also reaching a new generation and , regarding their distinct sound , " We don 't sound like anyone else on the radio . Much to our surprise there hasn 't been another band like ours since we came off the road . "
Like the band 's earlier releases , the album features a variety of guitar configurations as well as electronic synths . Erikson said that initially they gather with the standard guitar @-@ bass @-@ drum and keyboard gear , and as they pass around different ideas and implement them the songs take form in any which way a session takes them . " Once we started on the album proper , it became a Garbage record , which is any number of approaches to writing a recording . There were no rules , certainly " , he explained . A song like " Automatic Systematic Habit " features more electronics than guitars , and " Big Bright World " , a guitar @-@ heavy song , involves configurations that make some of the guitars sound like synths . Guitar parts are normally divvied between guitarists Marker and Erikson . Erikson said it comes down to " Whoever comes up with what at any given time . There 's no job description as far as lead guitar / rhythm guitar . It 's just whoever has an idea as a articular [ sic ] moment . It 's usually about 50 / 50 " . Erikson and Marker used a variety of guitars and pedals , old , new ,
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and defective .
Vig recalled that the title " Not Your Kind of People " came to him when he was stuck in a traffic jam in Los Angeles ; he texted Manson the idea for a title and she loved it . Manson wrote all the lyrics that night , and the next day the four of them gathered with acoustic guitars and wrote the music to the song in about half an hour . Manson explained that the album title Not Your Kind of People was " a call to arms in a way to anyone who feels like we do about the world " , saying that " it can be great to be outsider . " She felt that this applied to them as the band " never fit into a music scene " and that " in my life I 've never been an insider . " Manson also described the title as " a two @-@ fingered salute to people who reject or criticize us " , stating the band was " only really interested in people who share our outlook " as she considered that their fans were " the people who connect with what you 're saying and how you say it . "
Most of the lyrics were written by Manson as she included and filtered some of her bandmates ' ideas on songwriting . " It was a very do @-@ it @-@ yourself , homemade thing when it comes down to it " , Erikson explained ; " We all pitch in . Shirley had just as many comments on the guitar parts or the sound of the guitars as anybody else , and likewise , if we don 't like a lyric , we say it right away . " Many songs have a more optimistic view in life , inspired by Manson overcoming a desire to quit music after the death of her mother and realizing how important her work is to her . Darker themes still appear as Manson described herself as " enthusiastic and passionate , but I do see death marching toward me . " " Blood for Poppies " came " from a lot of things " , Manson said ; " It 's really an analogy for a story I read about Afghanistan and the opium wars over there ... it 's from a few stories , one about a platoon of soldiers in Afghanistan and the other about the opium wars . I use that as a backdrop for a story about maintaining sanity in an out @-@ of @-@ control place . " " [ It 's about ] remaining sane , when faced with insanity " , she added . " I Hate Love " criticized " the commercialized idea of love and what pain that puts us through " along with " knowing that there will be no more torture in your life than really , truly loving somebody who doesn 't love you back . " Manson also incorporated some self @-@ confidence and knowledge of her personality achieved during acting classes , in which she accepted that " was never going to be the cheerleader or the beautiful , conventional girl who fits in everywhere . "
" Big Bright World " contains a lyrical sample from the poem " Do not go gentle into that good night " by Dylan Thomas . Both daughters of Steve Marker and Butch Vig laid down vocals on the album 's title track . Finnish actress Irina Björklund performs the musical saw on " Sugar " . " Beloved Freak " includes a sample of Klaus Nomi , as the group felt the artist fit Manson 's lyrics about " people being an outsider , feeling like a freak , and not fitting in and trying to come to terms with that it 's okay to feel like you 're an outsider . "
KROQ @-@ FM and MTV Buzzworthy described the sound of the album as electronic rock ; The Huffington Post noted " the band has maintained their signature dark , driving , trip @-@ hoppy sound " , while Jason Heller of The A.V. Club wrote that " the group 's shoegaze influences are more in vogue now than they were 15 years ago . "
= = Release and promotion = =
A post on Garbage 's Facebook page on January 23 , 2012 announced that the band launched their own record label , Stunvolume , to self @-@ release their new studio album , distributed in the United States by Fontana . Overseas distribution deals were made with Cooperative Music , Liberator Music , Sony Music Japan and Universal Canada . On March 7 , 2012 , Garbage confirmed the album track listing via YouTube . Four further tracks recorded for the deluxe edition were confirmed later in a press release issued through the band 's own label . In the United Kingdom , 250 copies of the deluxe edition were signed by Garbage and issued as part of the Record Store Day campaign . The album had a worldwide release date of May 14 , 2012 . At the launch of the record , guitarist Duke Erikson said that " working with Garbage again was very instinctual . Like getting on a bicycle ... with three other people " ; Erikson added , " We haven 't felt this good about a Garbage record since the last one . " Los Angeles @-@ based studio SMOG Design handled the album 's artwork and creative campaign , featuring band photographs by Autumn de Wilde . According to Duke Erikson , for the cover " there was some art that we wanted to do but we didn 't want to spend what the artist wanted us to " , so instead of " a very colorful and complex cover " they opted to go the other way and be simplistic , with only a lowercase " g " .
= = = Singles = = =
" Blood for Poppies " was confirmed as the lead single to launch the album . The song was made available for free digital download from the group 's website after it leaked online early . A digital single was confirmed for release in Australia ; while a limited edition 7 " single , backed with an exclusive remix by Butch Vig , was distributed to independent record stores across North America to mark Record Store Day on April 21 , 2012 . " Battle In Me " was confirmed as the lead @-@ single exclusively for the United Kingdom . A limited edition 7 " vinyl was issued on April 21 to mark Record Store Day , while a proper commercial release followed on May 7 , 2012 . To promote the album , " Automatic Systematic Habit " was released as a free download through iTunes in the US on May 8 , 2012 . " Big Bright World " was released as the album 's second single in Australia on June 1 , 2012 . On July 8 , Manson announced that " Control " was the band 's next US single .
= = = Songs in other media = = =
In the same year of release , " Blood for Poppies " appeared in an episode of True Blood titled " Whatever I Am , You Made Me " , while " Control " was used in the 2012 video game The Amazing Spider @-@ Man and featured in the launch trailer of the game . The song also appeared in the season 4 episode of The Vampire Diaries " Bring It On " . " Sugar " appeared in an episode of The Following , and the title track " Not Your Kind of People " was later featured in its entirety in the trailer and soundtrack for Metal Gear Solid V : The Phantom Pain .
= = World tour = =
In late 2011 , Garbage announced their return to touring upon the release of Not Your Kind of People , marking the band 's first live performances since 2007 , and their first tour since 2005 . " Thinking about going back on the road is both thrilling and terrifying in equal measure , " Manson stated , " ... but we 've always enjoyed a little pain mixed in with our pleasure . " Manson considered that self @-@ reflection helped change the way the group approached touring , and , as a result , " we 're playing the best shows of our career . " Eric Avery , who performed with the band during their Bleed Like Me tour , rejoined them as the tour bassist . The band played concerts throughout North and South America , Europe , Oceania and Asia .
= = Critical reception = =
Not Your Kind of People received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , it received a weighted average score of 63 based on 28 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . In his review for The Guardian , Dave Simpson gave the album four out of five stars , stating that it " returns to the blueprint of their first two , best albums " while lessening the electronics and augmenting the crunchy guitars , with a contemporary production . He praised the title track , deeming it a " surprise " and a " beautiful , otherworldly cross between a John Barry Bond theme and a David Bowie outsider anthem . " Cameron Adams of The Courier @-@ Mail wrote that " musically , they still find that sweet spot between Motown and Nirvana , via the Pretenders and Prodigy " , and considered it " refreshing " that the band is " still pushing pop music to its darkest limits . "
AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that unlike their previous two albums , " there is no grappling with new sounds and styles , only an embrace of the thick aural onslaught of " Stupid Girl " and " Vow " . He complimented Manson 's " keenly aware lyrics " and said that their hooks are efficiently delivered while " no flab in either the composition or production " is evident . He summarized the album " as a simultaneous testament and revival of their strengths " , but " what once was futuristic now sounds nostalgic . " Tim Grierson wrote in The About Group that out of the many ' 90s bands that reunited in the last few years , " none have done it with as much gusto as Garbage " as they " return with their sexy , edgy vibe intact " and Manson " sounds as ferocious and bruised as ever . "
The Bangkok Post noted that the band " stick [ s ] firmly to their ' 90s alt @-@ rock guns . " Their " fuzzy @-@ guitar / catchy @-@ hook formula continues to dominate the album " and amidst the fuzz and electronics , " the title @-@ track , Sugar and Beloved Freak do offer moments of ( relatively ) quiet bliss " — songs that " refreshingly showcase the essence of Manson 's voice " . It is proposed however that , apart from older , devoted 90 's fans , the album probably won 't connect with contemporary audiences . In his review for Time , Adam Kivel likewise stated that the album is most likely to resonate with fans of 90 's alternative fusion , characterizing it as " an anomaly " in the current musical climate and not likely to gain significant radio @-@ play . Lindsay Zoladz of Pitchfork Media summarized the album as " a statement from a band that 's stuck , combatively , to its guns . The times have changed but Garbage haven 't , and now , for better and for worse , they 've at last become alternative to everything . "
NME writer Rick Martin , despite hearing " flashes of their previous class " proving " they haven 't completely lost their confrontational electro @-@ rock streak " , considered too much of it " pedestrian , anodyne and utterly unremarkable " , and wondered " why they ever ditched the near @-@ perfect mid- ' 90s FM rock of " Stupid Girl " . " BBC Music writer Tom Hocknell felt that the band 's relocation to L.A. made " no discernible difference to the band 's sound " but that " despite occasional lapses into overproduced mess , the surprise here is their enthusiasm . " Similarly , Jamie Carson of Clash disapproved of the production , calling it " pompousness " and " annoying " , and Mark Davison of No Ripcord remarked that " for all the interesting noises that the band have come up with ... the production really doesn 't do them any favours , cramming them into a fairly narrow space and stripping them almost entirely of any sense of atmosphere " , concluding that the album is nonetheless " enjoyable , and will probably go down better than their last two releases . "
Not Your Kind of People was listed at number 44 on Rolling Stone 's list of the top 50 albums of 2012 .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Not Your Kind of People was released exclusively through iTunes during its first week , and debuted at number 17 on the Billboard 200 with 19 @,@ 000 digital copies sold in its first week . In its second week , the album rose to number 13 with sales of over 22 @,@ 000 copies . As of June 2016 , the album has sold 98 @,@ 000 copies in the US . In the United Kingdom , it became the band 's fifth top @-@ 10 studio album when it entered the UK Albums Chart at number 10 with first @-@ week sales of 8 @,@ 310 copies . The album also debuted at number 33 on the Japanese Oricon chart , selling 1 @,@ 983 copies .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Garbage .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the deluxe edition of Not Your Kind of People .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Playtex =
Playtex is an American brand name for undergarments , baby products , gloves , feminine products and sunscreen . It was founded in 1947 , when International Latex Corporation ( ILC ) created a division named Playtex to produce and sell latex products . Playtex was the first to advertise undergarments on national television in 1955 and the first to show a woman wearing only a bra from the waist @-@ up in a commercial in 1977 .
Playtex @-@ branded tampons were introduced in the 1960s and became the primary competition to incumbent Tampax . Playtex invented the plastic tampon applicator in 1973 . It was one of the tampon manufacturers that were sued for aggressively advertising over @-@ absorbent tampons , which led to toxic shock syndrome .
Playtex was acquired by Esmark in 1975 , and then by Beatrice Foods in 1985 . A year later it was acquired for $ 1 @.@ 25 billion and its cosmetics brands were sold to Revlon . In 1988 , Playtex split into two companies , Playtex Apparel Inc. and Playtex Products LLC . Playtex Apparel was sold to Sara Lee in 1991 , and to HanesBrands in 2007 .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Abram Nathaniel Spanel founded Playtex 's predecessor , the International Latex Corporation ( ILC ) , in 1932 to produce latex products , like bathing caps , swimwear and baby pants . ILC moved to Dover , Delaware , in 1939 , making it the first large , non @-@ agricultural business in the city .
ILC did not produce apparel for adults until the introduction of the Living Girdle in 1940 , after patenting a method of manufacturing latex girdles that would not tear at the seams if they had a small tear or hole . The Living Girdle was advertised with images of mobility and comfort , such as women playing tennis or leaping while wearing it , though the solid rubber girdle was actually very uncomfortable .
During World War II , the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the Japanese invasion of Malaysia cut off Allied manufacturers from their largest sources of latex . As supplies ran out and demand for consumer products fell , ILC halted production ; sales would not resume until 1946 . The company almost went out of business during the war , so it created an industrial division to find government and military applications for latex . Playtex was founded in 1947 as one of four divisions ILC re @-@ organized into . Its name was a portmanteau of " play " and " latex " , reflecting its focus on latex products . Playtex 's marketing in the post @-@ war era was influential in creating the shift from custom @-@ tailored undergarments to manufactured sizes . For example , the company introduced large floor displays with fitting charts , so women could find the right size without a custom fitting .
In 1954 , ILC was sold to Stanley Warner Corporation for $ 15 million ( $ 132 million in modern dollars ) . The following year , it was the first to advertise under @-@ garments on network television . In 1962 , the industrial division of Playtex was awarded a contract to develop space suits for the Apollo mission to the moon . Two years prior to the 1969 moon landing that used its latex suits , Playtex 's industrial division was spun off , eventually becoming ILC Dover .
Playtex created a consumer products subsidiary , Playtex Products Inc . , in 1960 , which produced baby products , tampons and other consumer goods . It introduced and patented the first plastic tampon applicator in 1973 . By 1975 , the five largest tampon manufacturers began competing with multimillion @-@ dollar advertising budgets and Playtex became the primary competitor to market @-@ leader Tampax . Playtex introduced a scented tampon that was advertised with the slogan , " When you 're wearing a tampon you don 't worry about odor . But should you ? " It added a warning label saying that some women may experience irritation from the chemicals after complaints were raised by Planned Parenthood . Tampon manufacturers , including Playtex , were sued for aggressively advertising and competing over absorbency , when some studies found that excessive absorbency leads to toxic shock syndrome . In 1985 , a judge offered to reduce an $ 11 million verdict against Playtex , if they admitted their super @-@ plus tampons were killing women and recalled them .
= = = Joel Smilow era = = =
Joel Smilow became chief executive officer ( CEO ) of Playtex in 1969 and was associated with the company through five owners . The company was acquired by Esmark in 1975 for $ 210 million ( $ 924 million in modern dollars ) .
By the early 1980s , Playtex controlled 25 percent of the market for bras , giving it the largest market @-@ share in the industry . In 1982 Playtex acquired the skin and hair products brand , Jhirmack Enterprises Inc . , for $ 28 @.@ 3 million . ( $ 69 @.@ 4 million in modern dollars ) . Three years later Esmark sold Playtex to Beatrice Foods . Four years later an investor group led by Smilow bought Playtex for $ 1 @.@ 25 billion ( $ 2 @.@ 7 billion in modern dollars ) . To help fund the acquisition , the company 's cosmetics brands , Max Factor , Almay and Halston , were sold to Revlon for $ 345 million . ( $ 690 million in modern dollars ) .
The following year , the National Association of Broadcasters ( NAB ) relaxed rules regarding partial nudity on television , which previously forced undergarment manufacturers to use mannequins in their commercials , despite bathing suits and equally revealing swimwear being allowed . Playtex was the first to advertise with a live model wearing only a bra from the waist up . This attracted criticisms from members of the American Family Association and the Eagle Forum . The New York Times called the ads , " totally inoffensive " and CBS 's spokesman said they were " well done , tasteful and not exploitative . "
Ownership of the remaining apparel and consumer products divisions were split among the company 's leadership ( 28 percent ) , BCI Holdings ( 20 percent ) , Drexel Burnham ( 19 percent ) and institutional investors ( 33 percent ) . The following year the company attempted to sell the Family Products division to Johnson and Johnson but the deal fell through .
In 1988 Playtex split into two companies , Playtex Apparel and Playtex Family Products , in a series of financial transactions totaling $ 1 @.@ 3 billion . The transactions allowed Smilow to buy out other Playtex shareholders and put ownership of the brand into two separate investment groups that were owned by Smilow and other Playtex executives . In 1990 Playtex Products acquired cosmetics brand Maybelline for $ 300 million . ( $ 543 million in modern dollars ) . The next year Smilow sold Playtex Apparel to the Sara Lee Corporation , transferring the Bali , Hanes , and Cross Your Heart brands for $ 571 million , ( $ 992 million in modern dollars ) but keeping the Playtex Family Products Corporation .
In November of that year , Sara Lee also bought a 25 percent stake in Playtex Family Products for $ 62 @.@ 5 million . ( $ 109 million in modern dollars ) . Playtex Products Inc. went public in 1994 . In 1995 , another 40 percent of Playtex Products Inc. was sold to Haas Wheat & Harrison Investment Partners for $ 180 million ( $ 280 million in modern dollars ) .
= = = Recent history = = =
Playtex Products continued to erode Tampax 's ' market share throughout the late 20th century . The two companies had divided the market almost evenly by the late 1990s . Both makers increased profits primarily by reducing the tampon count per box , and prepared to enter emerging markets , particularly in Asia , where many women still used homemade pads . In 1997 Procter & Gamble ( P & G ) , makers of Always sanitary napkins and pantiliners , bought Tambrands for $ 1 @.@ 25 billion , its largest acquisition up to that point , returning to the tampon sector almost two decades after pulling Rely from the market over Toxic Shock Syndrome concerns .
Due to its strong advantage among younger women , and baby boomers reaching menopause , Playtex continued to gain market share on Tampax . After extensive market research , Tampax reversed that trend with the 2002 introduction of Pearl , with an applicator designed to be as visually appealing as it was functional , and making the brand once again appealing to teens .
Playtex responded by litigating . In one suit , it alleged patent infringement over Pearl 's applicator design . It also alleged that advertising claiming Tampax Pearl had better leakage protection and comfort than Gentle Glide was false . Playtex won a verdict prohibiting Tampax from making claims of superiority , until the decision was reversed in 2007 , when Tampax made improvements in materials and manufacturing .
In 2006 , Sara Lee spun off its clothing sector into HanesBrands Inc . , which now runs the Playtex apparel business . The next year Playtex Products acquired the Hawaiian Tropic sunscreen company for $ 83 million . Later that year Playtex Products was acquired by Energizer Holdings for $ 1 @.@ 16 billion . Playtex Products was sued in 2008 , when a mother accused the company of not adequately disclosing their baby bottles contained bisphenol A. After Canada considered banning the chemical , the company took it out of their bottles the following year . In 2008 , Playtex Products was acquired by Energizer Holdings .
In 2013 , the Playtex intimate apparel brand launched a $ 10 million integrated marketing campaign called " Be Uniquely You . " This 360 rebranding included new bra styles and packaging and a strong presence in social media and national TV ads . The new campaign was created by KraftWorks NYC , their primary advertising agency since 2002 .
= = Organization = =
The Playtex trademark is owned by Playtex Marketing Corp. in the United States and Canada . They license the trademark to HBI Branded Apparel Enterprise ( a subsidiary of Hanesbrands ) for Playtex @-@ branded apparel and Playtex Products Inc ( a subsidiary of Energizer Holdings ) for baby products , gloves and feminine products . Hanesbrands and Energizer Holdings each own a fifty percent interest in Playtex Marketing Corp. Hanesbrands also owns the rights to the brand name for use with apparel internationally , except in Europe and South Africa , where DBA Apparel ( itself acquired by Hanes in 2014 ) sells Playtex @-@ branded apparel products . Playtex Products LLC is managed under the Personal Care Division of Energizer Holdings .
= = Products = =
According to Energizer Holdings ' 2012 annual report , Playtex Products LLC is the largest producer of household gloves , hand wipes and sunscreen , as well as the second largest producer of tampons in the US . The best @-@ selling Playtex tampon is the Gentle Glide brand , which was first introduced in 1973 . It also manufactures the Playtex Sport tampon , which targets young athletes . Both brands are sold in regular , super and super @-@ plus absorbency . Playtex had a 29 percent share of a $ 550 million market for tampons in 1994 and a 30 percent share of a $ 780 million market by 2000 .
Historically baby products were a small portion of Playtex Products ' revenues , but by 2000 they made up 38 percent of the company 's revenues . As of that year it had a 60 percent share of the market for " sippy cups " and an 84 percent share of the market for disposable baby @-@ bottle liners . Other baby products include Chubs Baby Wipes , Baby Magic toiletries ( until 2007 ) , and Diaper Genie . Playtex Products also manufactures the Banana Boat and Hawaiian Tropic sunscreen brands , household gloves , diaper pails , cleansing cloths and the Ortho @-@ Pro and Binky pacifiers .
Playtex @-@ branded apparel products sold by Hanesbrands include bras , panties and shapewear . According to Hanesbrands , Playtex is the fourth largest brand by revenue in its portfolio . The brand has the strongest loyalty among customers who prioritize fit . As of 2002 , Playtex was the second most popular brand of bras . In addition to panties and shapewear , Playtex bra brands include :
Cross Your Heart
Eighteen @-@ hour bra
Playtex Secrets
Full support
Everyday basics
The company has been producing and marketing the Cross Your Heart bra since 1954 under the slogan that it " lifts and separates , " a phrase that is now well known in popular culture . The Eighteen Hour bra has been marketed on the premise of comfort since the 1970s .
= Solo ( Boyd novel ) =
Solo is a James Bond continuation novel written by William Boyd . It was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape on 26 September 2013 in hardback , e @-@ book and audio editions , and in the US by HarperCollins on 8 October 2013 .
The plot centres on Bond 's mission to the civil war in the fictional country of Zanzarim — a thinly veiled version of Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War — where he meets the local MI6 contact , Efua Blessing Ogilvy @-@ Grant , and a Rhodesian mercenary , Kobus Breed . After being shot by Ogilvy @-@ Grant , Bond tracks both people to Washington on a revenge mission , finally establishing that Breed is drug trafficking heroin into the US .
Boyd closely based his version of the Bond character on Fleming 's , and eschewed any of the film versions . The novel is set in 1969 — six years after Fleming 's last work was set — and Bond is 45 years old . Boyd was raised in Nigeria and used his experiences during the civil war to provide the location for the novel . He has been a Bond fan since his youth and , in preparation for writing the novel he read all the Bond stories in chronological order . It took 18 months to write the novel , with some friction between Boyd and the Fleming estate over the portrayal of Bond .
Solo received mixed reviews , with a number of critics pointing to the convoluted and unstirring plot . Other critics saw the book as being equal with , or superior to , Fleming 's stronger novels . The book sold well , appearing in the top ten @-@ selling book lists in the UK .
= = Plot = =
After celebrating his 45th birthday alone at The Dorchester , Bond is sent to Zanzarim to bring a speedy end to the civil war in the country which has seen the delta region of the country split to form the Democratic Republic of Dahum . Before leaving for Africa , Bond visits Gabriel Adeka — the rebel leader 's brother — who runs AfriKIN , a London @-@ based charity who send aid to Dahumni children ; Gabriel tells Bond that he is not in contact with his brother Solomon , as the pair have fallen out .
On his arrival in Zanzarim , Bond is aided by a local agent who introduces herself as Efua Blessing Ogilvy @-@ Grant . The two travel from the capital city to the rebel enclave , but are attacked shortly before reaching their destination and taken captive by Kobus Breed , a mercenary assisting the rebels . The group are attacked on their return journey and Ogilvy @-@ Grant goes missing in the confusion , while Bond escapes .
Bond proceeds to the enclave , where he is met by Breed , who accepts Bond 's cover as a journalist . Bond meets Solomon Adeka and realises that the leader will shortly die of cancer : his mission to kill Adeka is needless . Bond sees supply flights of arms and equipment coming into the country , all funded by billionaire Hulbert Linck ; the aeroplanes all show the AfriKIN name on the fuselage . When Adeka dies a few days later , Bond tries to leave the country on one of the supply flights , but is confronted by Breed and Blessing , who both shoot him and leave him to die .
Bond is saved by a journalist he befriended and returns to the UK , where he spends time in a military hospital . After discharging himself , he decides to go on a revenge mission against Breed and Ogilvy @-@ Grant . Discovering AfriKIN has relocated to Washington DC , Bond travels to the US and tracks down both of them at the AfriKIN offices . While conducting surveillance against the company , Bond is briefly detained by Brigham Leiter — nephew of Felix — of the CIA , who explains Ogilvy @-@ Grant also works for the CIA .
Bond meets Ogilvy @-@ Grant , who assures him that she shot to wound him in order that Breed would not shoot them both . The following day Bond watches a mercy flight bringing in maimed and injured Zanzarimi children ; he dines alone and returns to his hotel to find that Breed has killed Ogilvy @-@ Grant .
Bond attacks the house where Breed is staying with the children , and incapacitates the mercenary , leaving him for dead . He establishes that the children are being used as drug mules to smuggle raw heroin into the country and locates Solomon Adeka , who had not been killed in Africa , but been turned into a heroin addict in order to control him . Adeka 's older brother had been killed in London , ensuring Solomon became chief of the tribe whose lands held massive amounts of oil : as he was an addict , these rights were signed away in favour of Hulbert Linck . Linck was killed by the CIA during the raid on the house .
= = Characters and themes = =
The central character of the novel is James Bond , the fictional MI6 agent created by Ian Fleming . The author , William Boyd modelled his version of the character on Fleming 's version , which Boyd identified as being very different from the version seen in the films . Solo is set in 1969 — six years after Fleming 's last work was set — and the novel begins with Bond celebrating his 45th birthday . Boyd altered aspects of the character , making him " an older , wiser Bond " ' ; while having coffee on the King 's Road , Bond 's " advancing age lends an undertone of poignancy to his almost detached observation of the bra @-@ less , mini @-@ skirted cavalcade " . Boyd 's version of Bond is " more impulsive , less emotionally guarded , and also more sadistic " than Fleming 's , and he has the facility for extreme violence : Bond 's " casual sexism has gone , to be replaced by a flaring lust that teeters on the edge of being out of control , and has to be reined in " .
The primary antagonist of the novel is Kobus Breed , a mercenary with a disfigured face and a permanently weeping eye who had previously served with the Rhodesian Light Infantry in Matabeleland ; Olen Steinhauer , writing in The New York Times thinks the scarred villain to be " an obligatory nod toward the requirements of the Bond formula " . Some writers are unimpressed with Breed ; Robert Crampton of The Sunday Times thinks that the character " feels more like a henchman than a proper power @-@ crazed villain . He has menace , but no ambition . You wait for the evil genius to turn up — but he never does " , while David Sexton in the London Evening Standard thinks the character " lacks charisma " , and David Connett in the Sunday Express considers him " a colourless character in comparison with factual and fictional counterparts " . The journalist Geoffrey Wansell in the Daily Mail disagreed and Breed , along with a second villain , millionaire Hulbert Linck , were as strong as some of Fleming 's villains ; Steinhauer also thought that the novel 's villains were realistic , " motivated by simple greed yet clever enough to be legitimately dangerous " . There are two main female characters in Solo — a horror film actress , Bryce Fitzjohn and the local MI6 contact Efua Blessing Ogilvy @-@ Grant ; rather like many of Fleming 's female characters , both are " determined females who are not to be patronised by Bond " .
The main theme of the novel is revenge . Bond is stopped from leaving Zanzarim by Breed and subsequently shot and badly wounded by Ogilvy @-@ Grant ; he tracks down the pair to Washington and attempts to get his revenge from the pair . According to the Sunday Business Post , " this is where the author comes into his own , along with our hero , and it 's all taken up a notch . " Associated with the revenge is treachery : it is a subject that recurred through Fleming 's works , and Boyd uses it to provide a motive for Bond 's mission of revenge .
= = Background = =
On 31 March 2012 Boyd announced at the Oxford Literary Festival that he was working on a novel set in Africa . Boyd had lived in Nigeria — " where his mother was a teacher and his father a doctor " — during the Nigerian Civil War , which " had a profound effect on him . " On 11 April 2012 the Fleming estate announced that Boyd would write a Bond novel to follow Jeffery Deaver 's 2011 novel Carte Blanche . The civil war , over the attempted secession by Biafra from Nigeria , was the location for Solo , although Boyd renamed this as the fictional Zanzarim .
On 15 April 2013 Boyd announced the book 's title at the London Book Fair . The announcement was part of the " Author of the Day " event at the English Pen Literary Café . Selected press were invited to the event and were given a brief opportunity to question Boyd about the book 's title . Boyd believes the short title is " strikingly apt " for the novel . He remarked that " titles are very important " to him , and that as soon as he " wrote down Solo on a sheet of paper I saw its potential . Not only did it fit the theme of the novel perfectly , it 's also a great punchy word , instantly and internationally comprehensible , graphically alluring and , as an extra bonus , it 's strangely Bondian in the sense that we might be subliminally aware of the ' 00 ' of ' 007 ' lurking just behind those juxtaposed O 's of SOLO " .
For background Boyd read all the Bond stories in chronological order ; and had researched Fleming and the literary Bond 's background . Boyd was a child when his father introduced him to Fleming 's works . As a result , Boyd found himself also becoming fascinated with Ian Fleming . He told reporters that he was interested in Bond as a human being . " Bond is not just a superhero . He has flaws , he has weaknesses , he makes mistakes . ... That was Fleming 's genius . " The novel is set in 1969 when Bond is 45 ; Boyd intentionally picked the year , further adding that " there are no gimmicks , it 's a real spy story . " Boyd criticised how the filmmakers have portrayed Bond onscreen as a " cartoon character " ; he also believes that Bond should be " troubled and a massive boozer . " The novel reflects Boyd 's view , where Bond " drinks enough to float a boat . He drinks so much you wonder that he ever has the time or inclination to do anything else " .
The writing process took 18 months and Boyd was required to run synopses and drafts through the Fleming estate , a process he described as " benevolent surveillance " . The process was not always smooth , and the author had a number of arguments with the estate over the portrayal of Bond : " they were concerned about Bond being seen as an assassin , but I would argue Bond is sent on an assassination mission in at least four Fleming books " , with further issues over Bond 's relationship with M.
Boyd described writing the book as " tremendous fun " and a " once in a lifetime challenge " , but admitted that he had to take it " really , really seriously . " After completing the writing process , Boyd commented that he did not " attempt to write as pastiche Fleming novel ... it 's my own voice ; I 'm dealing with things and subjects I am interested in ... it is very much my novel
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announced the release of the Orb 's ninth regular studio album Baghdad Batteries ( Orbsessions Volume III ) on 11 September 2009 . A reunification of Paterson and long @-@ term collaborator Thomas Fehlmann who last worked together on Okie Dokie It 's the Orb on Kompakt , the album was promoted with a launch party with Paterson and Fehlmann performing the whole album live at The @-@ Situation Modern in Clapham , England on 10 September . A track " Chocolate Fingers " was uploaded onto the label 's MySpace profile . The 11 @-@ track album is said to be the third in the Orbsessions series , although unlike the first two outtakes parts composed of brand new material , recorded at Fehlmann 's Berlin studio .
In March 2010 Internet station Dandelion Radio broadcast a seventeen and a half minute long Orb session track by Patterson and Fehlmann on the Andrew Morrison show . This new track was titled " Battersea Bunches " and was a remixed version of the soundtrack to a short movie of the same title by Mike Coles and Alex Patterson - a film installation to be seen at London ’ s Battersea Power Station on 1 June 2010 as part of an evening of art and music . The film and its soundtrack ( together with remixes ) were later released as the CD / DVD album C Batter C on 11 November 2011 .
In mid @-@ 2010 Alex Paterson teamed up with Youth aka Martin Glover to compile a retrospective compilation album of tracks from the WAU ! Mr Modo label . The album titled Impossible Oddities is set to be released on CD and double Vinyl on 25 October 2010 via Year Zero records .
The Orb released the Metallic Spheres album in October 2010 , featuring David Gilmour of Pink Floyd . It was released by Columbia Records .
In 2011 Alex Paterson teamed up with electronic producer Gaudi and vocalist Chester for the creation of their experimental and ongoing collaborative project SCREEN , releasing the album " We are Screen " by Malicious Damage Records .
In 2012 the Orb worked with dub musician Lee " Scratch " Perry to produce a reggae @-@ infused album titled The Observer In The Star House , which was recorded in Berlin over a period of several months and features the single " Golden Clouds " . The title song was based on an earlier version of Little Fluffy Clouds , with the lyrics rewritten by Perry reflecting his childhood in Jamaica and the property Golden Clouds near his home .
In 2013 the Orb performed with the Kakatsisi drummers of Ghana on the West Holts stage at Glastonbury Festival .
= = Themes and influences = =
= = = Inspiration = = =
The Orb 's members have drawn from an assortment of influences in their music . The Orb 's central figure , Alex Paterson , had early musical tastes and influences which included King Tubby , Alice Cooper , Prince , Kraftwerk , and T.Rex. Among these , Paterson cites Kraftwerk as one of the most important , claiming they created the foundation from which all modern dance music has been built . While in Brixton with Martin Glover as a teenager , Paterson was also exposed to a large amount of reggae music , such as The Mighty Diamonds , The Abyssinians , and Bob Marley . The reggae influence on Paterson and the Orb can readily be heard in tracks such as the single " Perpetual Dawn " and U.F.Orb 's " Towers of Dub " . The earliest ambient influences of the Orb came in 1979 during Paterson 's roadie days with Killing Joke . While with the band in Neuss , Paterson listened to Brian Eno 's Music for Films while on LSD and watched " the Ruhr steel works explode in the distance " , noting that " [ t ] he scene seemed to be taking place in the music as well " . The same night , Paterson was also inspired while listening to Cluster 's Grosses Wasser and found that the steel works ' " huge metal arms were crushing molten rocks in time to the music " , which was something he 'd " never seen , or heard , anything like it before " . Along with Cluster and Kraftwerk , Paterson was also influenced by other German experimental music from Can and composer Karlheinz Stockhausen . Modulations calls Paterson 's music a " maximal " version of Brian Eno 's " minimal " ambience , though according to Paterson , Eno resents Paterson 's use of his music as an influence .
The Orb have often been described as " The Pink Floyd of the Nineties " , but Paterson has stated that their music is more influenced by experimental electronic music than progressive rock of the 1970s . He has noted though that the Pink Floyd album Meddle was influential to him as a child in the 1970s . The psychedelic prog @-@ rock similarities have led critics to describe the Orb as hippie revivalists ; Paterson has strongly rejected the tag , claiming that even as a youth , he was " one of those punks who hated hippies " .
During production of Cydonia and Bicycles & Tricycles , Paterson 's biggest influences were drum and bass and trip hop music , as seen on the tracks " Ghostdancing " , " Thursday 's Keeper " , and " Aftermath " . The Orb 's more recent influences consist largely of German techno producers , such as Triola , who were inspired by the Orb 's earlier work . Paterson cites the music of Kompakt as one of his primary modern influences and claims it to be among the best modern ambient music .
= = = Imagery = = =
Imagery has always been an important part of the Orb 's persona . This is most prominent during live performances , where they often project surreal images against onstage screens . Common images include morphing faces , futuristic cityscapes , and aliens . They have long associated their act with absurd symbology with images such as floating pigs . This has carried over to their music videos , most of which are spacy , brightly coloured montages of surreal images including astronauts , clouds , and neon dolphins . Because of their use of psychedelic images at shows , the Orb 's shows are frequently compared to those of Pink Floyd , who also used in @-@ show imagery and films . Paterson cites Godfrey Reggio 's and Philip Glass 's film Koyaanisqatsi as a primary influence to their concert imagery .
The Orb 's album art features much of the same imagery as their live act . Graphic design group The Designers Republic created the cover art for the earlier work , including Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld , U.F.Orb , and the singles from those two albums . For their next album , the Orb poked fun at their Pink Floyd comparisons with the cover of Live 93 featuring a floating stuffed sheep over the Battersea Power Station , which had appeared on the cover of Pink Floyd 's Animals . The artwork found in Badorb.com releases was similar to the Orb 's odd artwork of the mid @-@ 1990s , as it was stylistically similar and contained little writing . Paterson has also dabbled in the creation of cover art himself , designing the cover of Okie Dokie It 's The Orb on Kompakt .
= = = Science fiction and space = = =
Some of the more prominent motifs in the Orb 's work are outer space and science fiction , including alien visitations , space flight , and mind control . These have included the use of samples from serious sources such as NASA transmissions to comedic clips from films like Woody Allen 's Sleeper . U.F.Orb especially expressed a fascination with alien life with its bizarre sound samples and in the album 's title itself . The title of its most popular single , " Blue Room " , is a reference to the supposed Blue Room of Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base , which was investigated as a possible UFO evidence holding room . Their 2001 album is named after the Cydonia Mensae region of Mars . Due to Paterson 's focus on science fiction and astronomical phenomena , The Guardian described Paterson as " pop [ music ] ' s primary spokesperson on aliens " .
= = Techniques , technology , live performances = =
In the Orb 's early DJ events in the 1980s , Paterson and Cauty performed with three record decks , a cassette player , and a CD player all of which were mixed through an Akai 12 @-@ track mixer . They used their equipment to harmonise recorded music and sound effect samples into an " endless sound continuum " for audiences of worn out dancers . Even after the Orb began producing original material , they kept the same sample @-@ heavy model for live acts by spontaneously integrating obscure samples into their pre @-@ recorded tracks . During promotional tours for Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld and U.F.Orb , they performed using a digital audio tape machine and experimented with other media sources such as dubplates . The tape machines held individual chords , rhythms , and basslines for each composition , allowing the Orb to reprocess them and mimic the act of DJ @-@ ing . Members could then easily improvise with these samples and manipulate them using sound effect racks . Often , the Orb had a live musician accompanying them , such as Steve Hillage on guitar . Their shows in the early 1990s would often be three hours of semi @-@ improvised , continuous music featuring a wealth of triggered samples , voices , and pre @-@ recorded tracks which were barely identifiable as the original piece .
The Orb began performing regularly at the Brixton Academy in the early 1990s , where they used the high ceilings and large space for their " well @-@ suited amorphous sound " , frequently performing their newest and more experimental pieces there . Andy Hughes took Weston 's place at live performances after the 1993 tour , though Weston did reappear for the Orb 's concert at the rainy Woodstock ' 94 . The Orb played for late night raves on the first two nights of Woodstock ' 94 in addition to artists including Aphex Twin , Orbital , and Deee @-@ Lite . The next year , the Orb 's touring group consisted of Paterson , Hughes , Nick Burton on percussion , and Simon Phillips on bass . This ensemble of live performers and electronic music created a " cacophony " of " gigantic , swarming sounds " . Though the Orb 's performances use much onstage equipment and many props , Paterson prefers to present them as " a non @-@ centralised figure of amusement on stage " .
The Orb used ADAT recorders for performances from 1993 to 2001 and utilised large 48 @-@ track decks , which Paterson described as being a " studio onstage " . They hooked synthesisers , such as the ARP 2600 , to MIDI interfaces to recreate specific sounds that appeared on their albums . The Orb 's methods of studio music creation changed as well . For more recent albums such as Cydonia , they used inexpensive equipment such as Korg 's Electribe products , which Paterson described as employing more of a " bedroom techno " approach . Despite their use of laptops during performances and in @-@ studio computers , Paterson says that he still cherishes vinyl and does not find purchasing CDs or downloading music to be nearly as satisfying .
= = = Sampling and remixing = = =
One of the Orb 's most notable contributions to electronic music is their idea of blurring the distinction between sampling and remixing . Albums such as Pomme Fritz , though released as a piece of original work , consist largely of manipulated samples . Conversely , the Orb 's remixes typically use only small sections of the original track , most notably in the case of their single " Toxygene " . " Toxygene " was originally commissioned as a remix of Jean Michel Jarre 's " Oxygene 8 " from Oxygene 7 @-@ 13 . The Orb " obliterated it " and reassembled only a few fragments for their remix , much to the chagrin of Jarre , who reportedly refused to release it ; The Orb released the track themselves under the name " Toxygene " , which further irritated Jarre , to whom Paterson retorted " The French are always five years behind us , anyway . " In statements made after the release of " Toxygene " , Jarre denied that he rejected the original remix because of disliking it .
Other artists have become agitated due to the Orb sampling their work , though Paterson jokingly suggests that " [ t ] hey don 't know the half of it . " Paterson says that he finds a " beauty " and a " cleverness " with slipping unlicensed samples into compositions without anyone recognizing it . Even though fans often try to guess the origins of many of the samples , Paterson states that they are rarely correct and that they would " die " if they discovered , for example , where the drums on " Little Fluffy Clouds " originated from . He has said that record labels have cautioned him , " Don 't tell anyone where you got your samples until we get them cleared ! " .
The Orb have used a wide variety of audio clips from sources ranging from McCarthy era speeches to prank phone calls by Victor Lewis @-@ Smith to David Thewlis ' apocalypse @-@ driven rant from the film Naked . Paterson obtains many samples from recording TV and radio for hours at a time and picking out his favourite clips . He and other members of the Orb record nature sounds for use on albums , especially FFWD and Orbus Terrarum . The Orb 's combination of ambient music and sampling from lower fidelity audio sources often creates a " fuzzy texture " in the sound quality , depersonalising the Orb 's music . The Orb are lauded for their " Monty Python @-@ esque levity " in their use of audio samples , though NME asserts that Paterson " sabotage [ s ] his majestic soundscapes " with " irritatingly zany " sounds .
The Orb has been a prolific remixing team , having completed over 80 commissioned remixes since 1989 . Even during periods of label conflict and contractual limbo , the Orb found steady work remixing for artists including Depeche Mode , Lisa Stansfield , and Front 242 . The Orb 's remixes from the early and mid @-@ 1990s feature a large number of comical samples , Progressive @-@ Sounds describe them as " ahead of their time " and NME notes them as " not entirely incompatible with contemporary chilling . " Some pieces , such as their Bee Gees cover collaboration with Robbie Williams , received criticism for being " beyond a joke " for their use of strange noises . The Orb 's remix of Nine Inch Nails ' " The Perfect Drug " , too , was described as " silly " , as they made it sound like Trent Reznor was " drowning in his bathtub " . Though Paterson maintains that much of the Orb 's remix work is done to support other artists , he admits some of their remixes for major artists were performed so that they could " pay the bills " .
= = Discography = =
The Orb 's Adventures Beyond The Ultraworld ( 1991 )
U.F.Orb ( 1992 )
Pomme Fritz ( 1994 )
Orbus Terrarum ( 1995 )
Orblivion ( 1997 )
Cydonia ( 2001 )
Bicycles & Tricycles ( 2004 )
Okie Dokie It 's the Orb on Kompakt ( 2005 )
The Dream ( 2007 )
Baghdad Batteries ( Orbsessions Volume III ) ( 2009 )
Metallic Spheres ( 2010 )
C Batter C ( 2011 )
The Orbserver in the Star House ( 2012 )
More Tales from the Orbservatory ( 2013 )
Moonbuilding 2703 AD ( 2015 )
= The Boat Race 1948 =
The 94th Boat Race took place on 27 March 1948 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by the former rower Claude Taylor , Cambridge won by five lengths in a record time of 17 minutes and 50 seconds , beating the existing record set in the 1934 race . The victory , their second in a row , took the overall record in the race to 50 – 43 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1947 race by ten lengths , and led overall with 50 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were R. E. Eason ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1924 race ) , J. H. Page and D. T. Raikes ( who represented Oxford in the 1920 , 1921 and 1922 races ) . Cambridge were coached by F. E. Hellyer ( who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1910 and 1911 races ) , Kenneth Payne ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races ) , Harold Rickett ( a Light Blue three times between 1930 and 1932 ) and Peter Haig @-@ Thomas ( a four @-@ time Light Blue between 1902 and 1905 ) . The umpire for the race was the former Cambridge rower Claude Taylor who had represented the Light Blues in the 1901 , 1902 and 1903 races .
The rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian anticipated a close race : " the prospects of Oxford and Cambridge for this year 's University Boat @-@ race on Saturday have now become much more even " . His counterpart at The Times was in agreement : " it really seems that whichever crew gets off best in the first two minutes will probably win the race . "
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 9 @.@ 375 lb ( 80 @.@ 3 kg ) , 1 @.@ 375 pounds ( 0 @.@ 62 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge saw three rowers return to the crew with Boat Race experience , including their stroke A. P. Mellows . Oxford 's boat also contained three former Blues , J. R. W. Gleave , P. N. Brodie and A. J. R. Purssell , all of whom were making their third appearances . Three of the participants were registered as non @-@ British : Oxford 's G. C. Fisk and W. W. Woodward , and Cambridge 's Brian Harrison were all from Australia .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The race was started at 3 : 30 p.m. by Taylor . The Light Blues out @-@ rated their opponents from the start but soon after their number six , Paul Bircher " caught a crab " , allowing Oxford to take a half @-@ length lead which they extended to three @-@ quarters of a length by Craven Steps . Despite having stopped to allow Bircher to recover his oar , Cambridge drew level and were over a quarter of a length ahead by the time the crews passed the Mile Post , yet nine seconds off record pace and rowing into a head wind . Cambridge were a length ahead at Harrods Furniture Depository and drew clear as the boats passed below Hammersmith Bridge .
As the crews passed the HMS Stork training ship , Cambridge began to draw away and were two lengths ahead by Chiswick Steps . With a strong tailwind along Corney Reach , the Light Blues continued to pull ahead and passed below Barnes Bridge four lengths ahead , and six seconds ahead of the course record . Cambridge passed the finishing post five lengths ahead in a time of 17 minutes 50 seconds . The victory , Cambridge 's second in a row , and third in the last four races , took the overall record in the race to 50 – 43 in their favour . The special correspondent writing in The Observer called it " the maddest Boat Race for years " . The Times 's rowing correspondent suggested it was " a great triumph for the Cambridge coaches , who so often seem able to produce something out of the bag which has not been apparent in practice . " Writing in The Manchester Guardian , the rowing correspondent noted that it was " strange that Cambridge had never shown anything like this form in practice " .
= Bobby Pulido =
Jose Roberto Pulido Jr . ( born April 25 , 1971 ) , known professionally as Bobby Pulido , is an American singer , songwriter , guitarist , and actor . He is credited for introducing Tejano music to a youthful crowd and became a teen idol and one of the most influential Tejano recording artists among Mexican American teenagers .
Pulido debuted on the music scene in 1995 as the lead vocalist of his eponymous band . That same year he signed a recording contract with EMI Latin and released his debut album , Desvelado . The album peaked at number nine on the United States Billboard Top Latin Albums chart and at number three on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . The title track of Desvelado launched Pulido as a popular Tejano musician , but he was criticized by veteran musicians , who believed he was successful in the genre because of his father Roberto Pulido 's established music career .
Enséñame ( 1996 ) , which peaked at number two on the Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart , earned Pulido a nomination for the Tejano Music Award for Male Entertainer of the Year and the Lo Nuestro Award for Regional Mexican New Artist of the Year . In 1998 , he performed to a sold @-@ out Auditorio Coca @-@ Cola in Monterrey , becoming the first Tejano musician to do so . He also became the youngest recipient to be awarded the Orgullo de la Frontera by the Fiestas Mexicanas in February 1999 . By 2000 , the popularity of Tejano music was declining , resulting in Pulido 's subsequent albums to not chart anywhere . Despite this , in 1998 he won Male Entertainer of the Year , which he won three consecutive times .
In 2003 , Pulido made his acting debut by starring in the made @-@ for @-@ television film La Decada Furiosa . He also appeared in the telenovelas Fuego en La Sangre and Qué pobres tan ricos . His album Enfermo de Amor ( 2007 ) was commercially unsuccessful , and he took a three @-@ year hiatus . Pulido returned to music in March 2010 and released an album titled Dias de Ayer ; he also returned to acting and guest @-@ starred in the film Noches Con Platanito . Aside from music and film , Pulido married Eliza Anzaldua in July 1996 . Pulido filed for divorce in September 2013 , after having fathered three sons with Anzaldua .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1971 – 94 : Early life and career beginnings = = =
Jose Roberto Pulido Jr. was born on April 25 , 1971 , in Edinburg , Texas . He is the youngest child of Roberto Pulido , an award winning Tejano music singer ; and Diana Montes , daughter of Tejano musician Mario Montes . Known as Bobby Pulido , he attended Edinburg High School and joined the school 's mariachi group before joining his father 's band Los Clásicos as their saxophonist and backup vocalist . In 1994 , EMI Latin released a compilation album titled Branding Icons , which featured Pulido with his father on the song " Contigo " . Pulido was accepted at St. Mary 's University , where he studied business management as his major . After the album 's release in 1994 , he decided to leave college and pursue a singing career in the Tejano market , during what is now known as the genre 's golden age .
= = = 1995 – 99 : Debut album and commercial success = = =
Pulido started his own band with guitarist Gilbert Trejo , bassist Mike Fox , drummer and cousin Jimmy Montes , keyboardist Rey Gutierrez , and Frank Caballero serving as the band 's accordionist . Initially , Pulido received criticism from veteran Tejano musicians , who believed the singer was " riding on the hard @-@ earned reputation " of his father 's established music career . In May 1995 , Pulido signed a recording contract with EMI Latin and released his debut album Desvelado that September . Then @-@ president of EMI Latin Jose Behar told Billboard the company had " high hopes " for the singer in the country music market . His debut single " No Se Por Que " peaked at number 33 on the United States Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart in December 1995 . Desvelado debuted at number 44 on the U.S. Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , the title track was second single released and debuted at number 21 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart in the week of February 3 , 1996 , and Pulido became a popular Tejano recording artist . In April 1996 , the album peaked at number nine on the Top Latin Albums chart and number three on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart . John Lannert of Billboard magazine called Pulido 's chart position " impressive " and called the singer a " fast @-@ rising artist " . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) the same year , signifying shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units in the U.S. Pulido ended 1996 as the eighth best @-@ selling regional Mexican artist and Desvelado ended the year as the eleventh best @-@ selling regional Mexican album . The album reached sales of 100 @,@ 000 units by the end of 1999 . At the 1996 Tejano Music Awards , Pulido tied first place with Eddie Gonzales for Best New Rising Male Tejano Artists .
In July 1996 , Pulido married Eliza Anzaldua and took a short career hiatus . He continued promoting his second studio album Enséñame , which was released a month after his marriage . Billboard called Enséñame a " rousing " ranchera and " infectious " cumbia @-@ flavored recording , and said it believed Pulido was aiming to follow Emilio Navaira , who wanted to crossover and become a country music artist . Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express @-@ News said Pulido 's vocals were " much improved " over his previous work . Enséñame peaked at number ten on the U.S. Billboard Top Latin Albums and number two on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart . It also produced three top @-@ twenty Regional Mexican Airplay tracks ; " Enséñame " , " Se Murió De Amor " , and " La Rosa " . The album earned Pulido a nomination for the Tejano Music Award for Male Entertainer of the Year and the Lo Nuestro Award for Regional Mexican New Artist of the Year . Pulido along with Mexican singer Graciela Beltrán , American urban quintets the Barrio Boyzz , Tejano musicians Emilio Navaira , Pete Astudillo , and Jennifer Peña recorded " Viviras Selena " for the 1997 soundtrack to the biopic film about Selena , who was called the Queen of Tejano music and was killed in March 1995 . By 1997 , Pulido was being credited for introducing Tejano music to a much younger audience in the U.S. , among other Tejano novitiates .
In 1998 , Pulido released his third studio album Llegaste a Mi Vida , which peaked at number two on the Regional Mexican Albums chart and at number eleven on the Top Latin Albums chart . The only single to appear on the Latin singles chart , " Pedire " , peaked at number 28 on the Hot Latin Tracks chart . Pulido 's album won five of twelve nominations at the 1998 Tejano Music Awards ; winning Male Vocalist of the Year , Male Entertainer of the Year , Tejano Crossover Song of the Year for " ¿ Dónde Estás ? " , and Tejano Album of the Year . The same year , Desvelado and Llegaste a Mi Vida , each sold 100 @,@ 000 units in Mexico — an unprecedented milestone for the singer . In September 1998 , Pulido released his first live album En Vivo : Desde Monterrey Mexico , which was recorded on April 24 , 1998 , The album became the singer 's fourth top @-@ ten U.S. recording and peaked at number 21 on the Top Latin Albums chart. in a sold @-@ out concert at the Auditorio Coca @-@ Cola in Monterrey , becoming the first Tejano grupo musician to do so . In March 1999 , he released his fourth studio album El Cazador , which produced the top @-@ thirty Regional Mexican Airplay single " Cantarle a Ella " . Pulido became the youngest recipient to be awarded the Orgullo de la Frontera from the Fiestas Mexicanas in February 1999 . In an April 1999 interview , Pulido expressed interest in recording a Latin pop album and said he was not interested in crossing over and recording English @-@ language albums .
= = = 2000 – 09 : Decline in popularity , acting debut , and hiatus = = =
By 2000 , Tejano music 's dwindling popularity was thought to have recovered but it failed to do so ; music critics believed veteran Tejano artists such as Emilio Navaira , Selena , Mazz , Michael Salgado , and Pulido dominated the airwaves in the U.S. and that old @-@ school singers were not able to compete . That year , Pulido became a teen idol among Mexican American teenage girls and one of the most influential Tejano recording artists to the same demographic . In March 2000 , he released Zona de Peligro , which was less successful than his previous albums , peaking at number 48 on the Top Latin Albums chart . None of its singles were commercially successful , but Pulido won the Tejano Music Award for Male Entertainer of the Year — his third consecutive win . According to musicologist Guadalupe San Miguel , Tejano musicians beginning in the late 20th century and into the early 21st century were indistinguishable from each other . Pulido released his sixth studio album Siempre Pensando En Ti in March 2001 ; it fared less well commercially , peaking at number 50 on the Top Latin Albums chart . The album became Pulido 's last recording to impact a music chart on Billboard . In 2002 , Pulido organized the Celebrity Golf Classic , a benefit charity that raised US $ 50 @,@ 000 for the Easter Seals program . McAllen mayor Leo Montalvo announced at the event that November 2 , 2002 , would be " Bobby Pulido Day " .
That June , Pulido released an eponymous album titled Bobby , which spawned the top 40 U.S. single " Vanidosa " that failed to appear on any music chart and was his final single . He recorded a cover version of Mexican singer Juan Gabriel 's 1999 single " Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez " , which was included on Bobby . His next albums , Montame ( 2003 ) and Vive ( 2005 ) , failed to chart , ending his eight @-@ year presence on Billboard . In 2003 , Pulido made his acting debut in the telenovela television movie La Decada Furiosa , in which he played himself . Two years later , he appeared as a guest on the reality television show Big Brother México . Pulido performed and recorded " Ya Ves " for the live televised tribute concert Selena ¡ VIVE ! in April 2005 . His next album , Enfermo de Amor , was released in August 2007 . AllMusic editor Evan Gutierrez complimented Pulido 's use of mixing genres without " [ pushing ] the envelope very far " , and said the album " sound [ s ] fresh rather than repetitive " . He called the title track " waltzing " , " Una Más " a roots rock recording , and " Desvelado Acústico " a " sophisticated acoustic " Latin pop track . However , Gutierrez said the album was lacking and its production quality was " not quite top @-@ notch " . After the album 's release , Pulido guest @-@ starred in three episodes of the telenovela series Fuego en La Sangre as himself .
= = = 2010 – present : Return to music and acting = = =
Pulido returned to recording music in 2010 and released Dias de Ayer in March that year . The album earned Pulido a nomination for the Tejano Music Award for Male Vocalist of the Year ; the first time since 2003 . Two years later , he released Lo Mio , his first album on Apodaca Records . In 2013 , Pulido recorded with former Aventura vocalist Henry Santos on Santos ' song " No Sé Vivir Sin Tí " . The same year , Pulido returned to acting and guest @-@ starred as himself in two episodes of the telenovela Noches Con Platanito ( 2013 – 15 ) . In 2014 , he landed a regular , minor role as himself in the telenovela Qué pobres tan ricos . In November 2015 , Pulido released " No Es Como Tú " , a track from his twelfth studio album , Hoy . The album is Pulido 's first as sole songwriter for any of his albums . Pulido told Mexican newspaper Publimentero that Hoy will be released as a strategic plan to " help fight the war " on physical music consumption ; he is against the digital age of downloading and music streaming in the popular market . The album was expected to be released only through Pulido 's social networking sites to combat piracy . In a May 2016 concert , Pulido performed " Si No Te Hubiera Conocido " , a song he recorded with Miguel Luna that was shelved and forgotten during his career .
= = Personal life = =
Pulido married Eliza Anzaldua in July 1996 . They had three sons ; Remy Pulido ( born 1996 ) , Darian Pulido ( born 1998 ) , and Trey Pulido ( born 2005 ) . However , Pulido filed for divorce in September 2013 , after 17 years of being married and four months of separation . He currently resides in Miami , Florida and enjoys working out , eating healthily , and playing golf ; his favorite pastime is playing guitar and he finds composing songs therapeutic .
During his musical career , Pulido 's fans questioned his sexuality ; he said he is not homosexual but rumors that he had slept with men continue to circulate . Pulido spoke to a Mexican television news program in 2013 , and told viewers he is heterosexual and that he has gay fans , which he said did not concern him . In April 2010 , media outlets questioned Pulido after he released a music video in which he plays a stereotypical gay male ; the singer said he wanted to " try something different [ in his music videos ] " and defended his gay followers , saying he nothing against the LGBT community . After American Latin pop singer Ricky Martin publicly announced his homosexuality , Pulido defended Martin 's choice , saying " he is living his dreams " .
Pulido has been an outspoken opponent of the 2016 U.S. presidential candidate and Republican presumptive nominee Donald Trump . On his Instagram account , Pulido uploaded a picture of himself " urinating " on Trump 's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Discography = =
= = Filmography = =
= Siege of Port Royal ( 1707 ) =
The Siege of Port Royal in 1707 was two separate attempts by English colonists from New England to conquer Acadia ( roughly the present @-@ day Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ) by capturing its capital Port Royal ( now Annapolis Royal ) during Queen Anne 's War . Both attempts were made by colonial militia , and were led by men inexperienced in siege warfare . Led by Acadian Governor Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase , the French troops at Port Royal easily withstood both attempts , assisted by irregular Acadians and the Wabanaki Confederacy outside the fort .
The first siege began on June 6 , 1707 , and lasted 11 days . The English colonel , John March , was able to establish positions near Port Royal 's fort , but his engineer claimed the necessary cannons could not be landed , and the force withdrew amid disagreements in the war council . The second siege began August 22 , and was never able to establish secure camps , owing to spirited defensive sorties organized by Acadian Governor Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase .
The siege attempts were viewed as a debacle in Boston , and the expedition 's leaders were jeered upon their return . Port Royal was captured in 1710 by a larger force that included British Army troops ; that capture marked the end of French rule in peninsular Acadia .
= = Background = =
Port Royal was the capital of the French colony of Acadia almost since the French first began settling the area in 1604 . It consequently became a focal point for conflict between English and French colonists in the next century . It was destroyed in 1613 by English raiders led by Samuel Argall , but eventually rebuilt . In 1690 it was captured by forces from the Province of Massachusetts Bay , although it was restored to France by the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick .
= = = French preparations = = =
With the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1702 , colonists on both sides again prepared for conflict . Acadia 's governor , Jacques @-@ François de Monbeton de Brouillan , had , in anticipation of war , already begun construction of a stone and earth fort in 1701 , which was largely completed by 1704 . Following a French raid on Deerfield on the Massachusetts frontier in February 1704 , the English in Boston organized a raid against Acadia the following May . Led by Benjamin Church , they raided Grand Pré and other Acadian communities . English and French accounts differ on whether Church 's expedition mounted an attack on Port Royal . Church 's account indicates that they anchored in the harbour and considered making an attack , but ultimately decided against the idea ; French accounts claim that a minor attack was made .
When Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase became governor of Acadia in 1706 , he went on the offensive , encouraging Indian raids against English targets in New England . He also encouraged privateering from Port Royal against English colonial shipping . The privateers were highly effective ; the English fishing fleet on the Grand Banks was reduced by 80 percent between 1702 and 1707 , and some English coastal communities were raided .
= = = New England preparations = = =
English merchants in Boston had long traded with Port Royal , and some of this activity had continued even after the war began . Some of these merchants , notably Samuel Vetch , were closely associated with Massachusetts Bay 's Governor Joseph Dudley , and by 1706 outrage began growing in the colonial assembly over the matter . Vetch chose to deal with these allegations by going to London to press a case for a military expedition against New France , while Dudley , who had previously requested such support without response , chose to demonstrate his anti @-@ French sentiment by organizing an expedition against Port Royal using mostly colonial resources . In March 1707 he revived an idea he had first developed in 1702 that called for provincial militia to man an expedition supported by resources of the Royal Navy that were locally available . His proposal was approved by the assembly on 21 March . Colonial popular opinion was divided on the need for the expedition : some ministers argued in its favour from the pulpit , while Cotton Mather " Pray 'd God not to carry his people hence . "
Massachusetts raised two full regiments , totalling nearly 1 @,@ 000 men ; New Hampshire provided 60 men , Rhode Island provided 80 , and a company of Indians from Cape Cod was also recruited . Recruiting was difficult in Massachusetts due to the lack of enthusiasm for the endeavour , and authorities were forced to draft men to fill the ranks . Connecticut was also asked to contribute to the expedition , but declined , citing bad feelings over the return of Port Royal by treaty after its capture in 1690 . The force , which was placed under the command of Massachusetts Colonel John March , totalled 1 @,@ 150 soldiers and 450 sailors , and was carried by a fleet of 24 ships , including the 50 gun man of war Deptford under the command of Captain Charles Stuckley , and the 24 gun colonial Province Galley of Cyprian Southack . ( March took a former prisoner of the Maliseet , John Gyles as his translator . )
= = First siege = =
The English fleet arrived outside the channel of the Port Royal harbour on June 6 , and troops were landed the next day . Governor Subercase 's defence force at the time consisted of 100 troupes de la marine that had fortuitously been reinforced by the recent arrival of another 60 who were due to take command of a recently built frigate . Just hours before the English arrival he had also welcomed about 100 Abenaki Indians led by the young Bernard @-@ Anselme d 'Abbadie de Saint @-@ Castin . As soon as the English ships were spotted , Subercase also called out the local militia , mustering about 60 men .
Colonel March landed with about 700 men to the north of the fort , and another 300 to its south under the command of Colonel Samuel Appleton , with the goal of establishing a siege line around the fort . Both forces were landed too far from the fort and spent the rest of the day marching toward it . Subercase sent a small force to the south on the morning of the 8th , who were driven back toward the fort by Appleton . Subercase himself led a larger contingent to the north , where he established an ambush at a river March 's force would have to cross . After a sharp battle in which Subercase 's horse was shot out from under him , the defenders were pushed back into the fort .
The New Englanders established camps about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the fort . Subercase sent parties out of the fort to harass English foraging parties , giving rise to rumors that additional militia forces were en route from northern Acadia . The English managed to advance their lines closer to the fort , but their engineer , Colonel John Redknap , did not believe the expedition 's heavy cannons could be landed safely , because they " must pass within command of the fort " . This led to disagreements between March , Redknap , and Stuckley which spelled the end of the expedition . After a final assault on June 16 , which French accounts describe as a failed attempt to take the fort , and English accounts say was merely an attempt to destroy some buildings outside the fort , the expedition embarked on its ships and sailed off on the 17th . March directed the fleet to sail for Casco Bay ( near present @-@ day Portland , Maine ) .
= = Interlude = =
From Casco Bay Colonel March sent a letter to Boston , in which he laid the blame for the expedition 's failure on Stuckley and Redknap . News of the failure preceded his messengers , and they were met upon their arrival by a jeering crowd of women and children . Colonel Redknap , one of the messengers , was able to convince Governor Dudley that he had acted within his orders , and blame was generally attached to March for the failure . Dudley issued orders to March that the fleet should stay put , with all men remaining aboard under penalty of death , while his council considered the next step . Dudley eventually sent reinforcements and a three @-@ man commission ( including two militia colonels and John Leverett , a lawyer with no military experience ) to oversee affairs , and ordered the expedition to make a second attack . Despite the orders , desertion from the fleet was high , and the forces was reduced to about 850 when it sailed for Port Royal in late August . Colonel March resigned the expedition command and was replaced by Colonel Francis Wainwright .
Governor Subercase was forewarned of the second attempt , and had erected additional defenses to impede the attackers ' approaches . He was also reinforced by the fortuitous arrival of the Intrepide , a French frigate under the command of Pierre Morpain . His crew was added to the defences , and captured prize ships he brought with him provided needed provisions for the fort .
= = Second siege = =
The English fleet arrived near Port Royal on August 21 , and Wainwright landed his troops about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) below ( south of ) the fort the next day and marched them to a position about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the fort . This area , where March had previously camped , was one of the areas near which Subercase had thrown up additional defensive earthworks . On August 23 Wainwright sent a detachment of 300 to clear a path for the heavy cannon ; this attempt was repulsed by forces sent out by Subercase to harass them . Using guerrilla @-@ style tactics and fire from the fort 's cannons , they forced the English to retreat to their camp . This defeat apparently had a significant effect on English morale ; Wainwright wrote that his camp was " surrounded with enemies and judging it unsafe to proceed on any service without a company of at least one hundred men . " In what was probably the most serious clash , an English party cutting brush was ambushed by a French and Indian force , and nine of the party were killed . The situation got so bad in the English camp that on the 27th they withdrew to a camp protected by their ships ' guns . The camp was not properly fortified , and the Englishmen were constantly subjected to sniping and attacks from swarming French and Indians . When Wainwright made a second landing at another point on August 31 , Subercase himself led 120 soldiers out of the fort . About 70 men engaged the New Englanders in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , which was fought with axes and musket butts . Saint @-@ Castin and almost 20 of his men were wounded while five others were killed . The next day , September 1 , the English reembarked on their ships , and sailed back to Boston . The French in their reports claimed to have killed as many as 200 men , but English sources claim only about 16 killed and 16 wounded in the siege .
= = Aftermath = =
The expedition 's return to Boston was also met with jeers . Dudley 's commissioners were sarcastically called " the three Port Royal worthies " and " the three champions " . Dudley 's reports of the affair minimized its failings , pointing out that many plantations around Port Royal had been destroyed during the two sieges . Dudley also refused to make inquiries into the expedition 's failure , fearing the blame would be placed on him .
Subercase , concerned that the British might return the following year , worked to strengthen the fortifications at Port Royal . He also built a small warship to assist in the colony 's defenses , and convinced Morpain to raid New England shipping . The privateer was so successful that by the end of 1708 Port Royal was overcrowded with prisoners from the captured prizes .
None of this ultimately helped save Port Royal from the next attack , since France failed to send any significant support , while the British mobilized larger and better @-@ organized forces . Samuel Vetch , with support from Dudley , Boston merchants , and the New England fishing community , successfully lobbied Queen Anne for military support for an expedition to conquer all of New France in 1709 . This prompted the colonists to mobilize in the expectation that troops would arrive from England ; their efforts were aborted when the promised military support failed to materialize . Vetch and Francis Nicholson returned to England in its aftermath , and again secured promises of military support for an attempt on Port Royal in 1710 . In the summer of 1710 a fleet arrived in Boston carrying 400 marines . Augmented by colonial regiments , this force successfully captured Port Royal after a third siege in 1710 .
= Survivor Series ( 2007 ) =
Survivor Series ( 2007 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on November 18 , 2007 , at the American Airlines Arena in Miami , Florida . It was presented by THQ 's WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 . It was the 21st annual Survivor Series and starred wrestlers from the Raw , SmackDown ! , and ECW brands .
The show 's seven matches showcased prominent WWE wrestlers , who acted out the franchise 's stories in and out of the ring . The main event featured SmackDown wrestlers in a Hell in a Cell match , in which the ring was surrounded by a roofed steel structure . In this match , World Heavyweight Champion Batista defeated The Undertaker to retain his title . In Raw 's main match , Randy Orton defeated Shawn Michaels in a singles match , while in ECW 's prime match , ECW Champion CM Punk defeated John Morrison and The Miz in a Triple Threat match to retain the title . Two matches were on the undercard . The first was a singles match , in which The Great Khali defeated Hornswoggle . The other featured Team Triple H ( Triple H , Jeff Hardy , Rey Mysterio and Kane ) defeating Team Umaga ( Umaga , Mr. Kennedy , Montel Vontavious Porter , Finlay and Big Daddy V ) in an inter @-@ brand five @-@ on @-@ four Survivor Series elimination tag team match .
Survivor Series helped WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 1 @.@ 2 million , through ticket sales and pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . It received mixed critical reviews by various independent sources , including Canadian Online Explorer and the Pro Wrestling Torch . After its release on DVD , the event peaked at number five on Billboard 's Video Sales chart , before it fell off the chart after ten weeks .
= = Background = =
Survivor Series was the culmination of various scripted plots and storylines . For three months before the event , several professional wrestling matches and scripted plots were played out on WWE programming ( Raw , Friday Night SmackDown ! , and ECW on Sci Fi ) to create feuds between various wrestlers , casting them as villains and heroes . Raw , SmackDown ! , and ECW were also the names of WWE 's televised brands – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a specific program , thus each brand promoted distinct matches .
The main narrative for Survivor Series from the SmackDown brand continues the events that unfolded at WrestleMania 23 , WWE 's April pay @-@ per @-@ view , in which The Undertaker defeated Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship . Over the course of several months , the two wrestlers fought in various matches over the title , which eventually involved Edge . The Undertaker was billed as having been injured in one of these matches in May , in which Edge had won the title . During The Undertaker 's absence , Edge was legitimately injured , and The Great Khali won the championship in a Battle Royal , in which wrestlers were eliminated until one remained as the winner . At Unforgiven , WWE 's September pay @-@ per @-@ view event , The Undertaker returned to WWE , while Batista won the World Heavyweight Title from The Great Khali . Afterwards , the original feud between the two wrestlers was restarted and culminated into a standard wrestling match , known in professional wrestling as a singles match , at WWE 's October pay @-@ per @-@ view event Cyber Sunday ; Batista won this match and retained his title . On the November 2 , 2007 episode of Friday Night SmackDown ! , a rematch was advertised in a Hell in a Cell match , in which both wrestlers would fight in a ring surrounded by a roofed steel structure at Survivor Series .
The prime rivalry scripted from the Raw brand continued a storyline that extended from Cyber Sunday , between WWE Champion Randy Orton and Shawn Michaels over Orton 's title . At Cyber Sunday , Michaels was chosen by the WWE fans , via online voting , to face Orton for the title , though , Orton retained his title via disqualification . A rematch was promoted for Survivor Series on the October 29 , 2007 edition of Raw , in which Michaels would face Orton for his title . Afterwards , Michaels and Orton fought in different match types over the weeks leading to Survivor Series . On the episode of Raw before Survivor Series , Michaels and Orton met " Face to Face " in a scripted confrontation , in which Orton attacked Michaels .
The prime storyline on the ECW brand featured ECW Champion CM Punk , John Morrison , and The Miz . Morrison and Punk 's rivalry revolved over the outcome of their match at Vengeance : Night of Champions , WWE 's June pay @-@ per @-@ view event , in which Morrison defeated Punk to win the ECW Title . Punk sought revenge , but Morrison defeated Punk in two championship matches ; however , Punk won the title from Morrison on the September 4 , 2007 episode of ECW on Sci fi . At Cyber Sunday , The Miz was voted online by fans to challenge Punk for the ECW Title , though , Punk defeated Miz to retain his title . A Triple Threat match was announced for Survivor Series on the November 13 , 2007 episode of ECW on Sci @-@ Fi , in which Punk would defend his title against Morrison and Miz , and the first wrestler to gain a pinfall or submission would win the match and the title .
In a narrative extending to the September 10 , 2007 episode of Raw , in which Hornswoggle , a dwarf , was announced as Vince McMahon 's illegitimate son . In this storyline , McMahon did not like the fact that Hornswoggle was his son , and as a result , he promoted matches in which Hornswoggle faced much larger opponents . As part of this storyline , McMahon announced that The Great Khali , who was billed as standing at 7 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 24 m ) , would face Hornswoggle at Survivor Series . In a promotional in @-@ ring segment on the episode of Friday Night SmackDown ! before the pay @-@ per @-@ view event , Khali and Hornswoggle weighed in for their match , in which Khali weighed double the weight of Hornswoggle ; this was a segment created by McMahon to humiliate his son . As a Survivor Series tradition , every event features an inter @-@ brand 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 Survivor Series elimination tag team match . Announced via WWE.com , WWE 's official website , Team Triple H ( Triple H , The Hardy Boyz ( Matt and Jeff ) , Rey Mysterio , and Kane would face Team Umaga ( Umaga , Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) , Finlay , Big Daddy V , and Mr. Kennedy ) .
= = Event = =
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The pay @-@ per @-@ view began with the ECW Championship Triple Threat match , in which CM Punk defended his title against John Morrison and The Miz . Throughout the match , The Miz and Morrison double @-@ teamed Punk , however , Miz turned his back on Morrison by attacking him . After Miz tossed Morrison over the top ring ropes onto ringside , Punk lifted Miz onto his shoulders and hit the Go To Sleep . He then pinned Miz to retain his ECW Title . The next scheduled match was an inter @-@ brand 10 @-@ Diva tag team match , in which the team of Kelly Kelly , Torrie Wilson , Mickie James , Maria , and Michelle McCool faced Victoria , Beth Phoenix , Melina , Layla , and Jillian Hall . Phoenix 's team had the advantage over James ' team , until James was tagged into the match . She attacked Melina with her forearm and kissed her before kicking her in the head . James then pinned her to earn the victory for her team . Next was a tag team match for the World Tag Team Championship , in which the champions , Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch defended against Hardcore Holly and Cody Rhodes . At one point , Holly hit Cade with his forearm , and sent Cade and himself onto ringside . In the ring , Murdoch flipped over Rhodes ' back and pulled him down to the mat to perform the " Ace of Spades " . Successfully pinning Rhodes , Murdoch retained the World Tag Team Championship for his team .
The fourth match was the five @-@ on @-@ five Survivor Series Elimination Tag team match between Team Triple H and Team Umaga . Before the event , it was announced that Matt Hardy would be unable to compete in the match due to a scripted injury . Kane was the first wrestler eliminated off of Team Triple H , after a Big Daddy V elbow drop . Umaga then pinned Rey Mysterio after the " Samoan Spike " . Only Jeff and Triple H remained for their team , while MVP was Team Umaga 's first elimination ; Jeff Hardy eliminated him after a " Twist of Fate " . Team Umaga 's second elimination occurred after Big Daddy V accidentally dropped an elbow on Mr. Kennedy , which led to a pinfall by Triple H. Big Daddy V was Team Umaga 's third elimination , which occurred after Hardy and Triple H hit a Double DDT . Finlay and Umaga were then eliminated via pinfall , after a " Pedigree " to Finlay , and a " Swanton " to Umaga . As a result , Team Triple H won . The Great Khali versus Hornswoggle was the next scheduled match . At one point , Hornswoggle tried to hit Khali with a shillelagh , but Khali slapped Hornswoggle down to the mat . The match ended via disqualification , after Finlay , Hornswoggle original caretaker , entered the ring and hit Khali in the head with his own shillelagh .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The sixth match was Raw 's main match , in which Randy Orton faced Shawn Michaels for Orton 's WWE Championship . In this stipulated match , Michaels was banned from using his signature move , " Sweet Chin Music " , while Orton was unable to get disqualified , and if either man broke those stipulations he would have lost the WWE Championship match . Because Michaels was banned from using the superkick , his signature maneuver , Michaels attempted various submission moves , such as the Sharpshooter , Crossface , and ankle lock . Eventually , Michaels , attempted to perform his superkick , but to prevent himself from losing the match , he stopped , which then allowed Orton to hit an RKO . Successfully pinning Michaels , Orton retained his WWE Title .
The main event from SmackDown was the event 's final match , in which World Heavyweight Champion Batista defended his title against The Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match . At one point , Batista hit the The Undertaker with a Batista Bomb through a table . Batista then attempted to pin The Undertaker but he only got a two count . The Undertaker then hit Batista with a Tombstone Piledriver . He pinned Batista but Batista kicked out at two . The Undertaker then hit another Tombstone Piledriver on top of the steel ring steps . The Undertaker pinned Batista , and as the referee counted the pin , Edge , dressed as a cameraman , pulled the referee out of the ring , and hit The Undertaker with the camera he was holding and then positioned Undertaker 's head on top of the steel steps . Edge then slammed a folding chair across the back of The Undertaker 's head . While the referee re @-@ entered the ring , Edge dragged Batista onto The Undertaker , and as a result , Batista pinned The Undertaker and retained his World Heavyweight Title . After the match Edge came back into the ring and struck The Undertaker in the head as he was sitting up .
= = Aftermath = =
After Survivor Series , Randy Orton was scripted into a feud with Chris Jericho , who made his return to WWE after a two @-@ year hiatus . The following night on Raw , the evolving feud culminated into a match being promoted for Armageddon , WWE 's December pay @-@ per @-@ view . At Armageddon , Orton retained his WWE Title . After Batista retained his World Heavyweight Championship , Edge was scripted into a rivalry with him over his title . Eventually , The Undertaker was also placed in feud , which led to the advertising of a Triple Threat match at Armageddon for the title . At Armageddon , Edge won the World Heavyweight Championship . Due to the events that occurred at Survivor Series , a match was announced between Finlay and The Great Khali for Armageddon . Finlay prevailed at Armageddon via pinning The Great Khali . After surviving their Elimination tag team match , Triple H and Jeff Hardy were promoted into a match for Armageddon , in which the winner would win the opportunity to challenge for the WWE Championship . At Armageddon , Hardy defeated Triple H. Because Beth Phoenix and Mickie James were the leaders of their teams at Survivor Series , a feud evolved from this , which culminated into a match at Armageddon over Phoenix 's WWE Women 's Championship . Phoenix retained her title at Armageddon .
= = = Reception = = =
The American Airlines Arena usually has a capacity of 19 @,@ 600 , which was reduced for Survivor Series due to production purposes . From an approximate attendance of 12 @,@ 000 and 341 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , Survivor Series helped WWE
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's Noel Murray graded the episode with a B , explaining that while he thought it was " much more fun " than the previous week 's episode and enjoyed Peter 's expanded presence , he was growing slightly wearied by the " hint @-@ dropping " of Peter 's past . Murray thought the climax was " so exciting " that he was willing " to forgive the fact that this is the third week in a row that Walter 's big idea has involved some kind of communication with the unconscious " . Jon Lachonis from UGO Networks compared it negatively to the pilot , as he thought " [ ' The Ghost Network ' ] struggled with the aspects that it really needed to prove itself in " . Lachonis also had problems with the villains ' logic , such as needing to kill a bus full of people to get at one person , rather than confront her alone later , though he understood they " just needed something weird to headline the show " . IGN 's Travis Fickett rated it 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , writing that he thought it was a solid episode because the " characters are coming together nicely , the story is better than last week 's – but already it seems the show is hitting a formula " . Fickett expressed worriment that Fringe would eventually become too formulaic , much like the first season of Smallville , and concluded his review by calling Fringe " a solid show , but [ not ] exceptional yet " .
Critics did however praise John Noble 's consistent performance as Walter Bishop , with Jon Lachonis calling it " still fantastically done " . Writing for Mania.com , Stephen Lackey thought that though the episode wasn 't perfect , Fringe had finally seemed to hit its stride , as its " mix of humor and darker storytelling ... is starting to come together nicely " . Lackey concluded his review by expressing his " excitement " at watching Fringe get better and better , and thought the show could become the best new series of the year if it continued to improve with each episode . Another UGO writer , Alex Zalben , compared " The Ghost Network " to the similarly @-@ plotted The X @-@ Files film The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe . Zalben wrote , " Man , that X @-@ Files movie was just no good . Fringe wins . "
= Breathing ( Jason Derulo song ) =
" Breathing " is a song recorded by American recording artist Jason Derulo for his second studio album , Future History ( 2011 ) . It was written by Derulo , Jacob Luttrell , Lauren Christy , Julian Bunetta , Krassimir Tsvetanov Kurkchiyski , Shope Trad and Folksong Thrace , while production of the song was helmed by DJ Frank E. " Breathing " was initially released as one of four promotional singles for the album in September 2011 . It was later released to contemporary hit radio in Australia on October 24 , 2011 , and elsewhere from January 31 , 2012 , as the third single from Future History . Musically , " Breathing " is a Eurodance song that displays influences of electro and house , and features " tribal vocal chorales " in the background . It samples the song " Pilentze Pee " , which is sung by the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir . Lyrical inspiration for the song came from the death of Derulo 's cousin , who died in 2011 .
" Breathing " garnered positive reviews by many music critics , most of whom praised the production . The song attained moderate chart success , where it peaked inside the top @-@ ten on the singles charts in Australia , Austria , Bulgaria , Germany , Slovakia and Switzerland . Additionally , it reached the top @-@ thirty in France , the Netherlands , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . The song peaked at number 28 on the US Pop Songs chart . " Breathing " was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments of 140 @,@ 000 copies . The accompanying music video was directed by Colin Tilley , and features Derulo in an abandoned warehouse , as well as other scenes of him shirtless in a blue tinted room . Derulo performed " Breathing " live at the Belfast City Hall in Northern Ireland , to coincide with the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . The song has been covered by British recording artist Cher Lloyd .
= = Background and release = =
" Breathing " was written by Jason Derulo , Jacob Luttrell , Lauren Christy , Julian Bunetta , Krassimir Tsvetano Kurkchiyski , Shope Trad and Folksong Thrace , while production of the song was helmed by DJ Frank E. The track was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , Los Angeles , with assistance by Erik Madrid and Chris Galland . Luttrell and Frank E played keyboards on the song , and the drums and synth programming was handled by Frank E. During an interview with Digital Spy , Derulo revealed that the inspiration for " Breathing " came from the death of his cousin , who died in 2011 . He stated , " That song means a lot to me as it 's serious and heartfelt " . Derulo further explained that " Breathing " was heavily influenced by African chants , eurodance and rock guitar .
" Breathing " was released digitally worldwide on September 9 , 2011 , as the third promotional single for Future History . The song later impacted contemporary hit radios in Australia on October 24 , 2011 , as the third official single from the album . In the United States , " Breathing " was sent to contemporary hit radio and rhythmic contemporary radio playlists on January 31 , 2012 . In Germany , it was made available as a CD single on February 24 , 2012 . In the United Kingdom , a CD single and digital EP , which contains the album version , an instrumental version and three remixes of " Breathing " , was released on February 26 , 2012 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Breathing " is three minutes and fifty @-@ four seconds long . It is a Eurodance song that displays influences of electro and house . " Breathing " is written in the key of B ♭ minor and is set in common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute . Derulo 's vocal range spans from the note of F4 to the note of F6 . The song features " tribal vocal chorales " in the background , and samples the song " Pilentze Pee " , which is sung by the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir . The song contains lyrical content about winning back a past love . " Breathing " opens with a " slow build @-@ up of synths and a quick club beat " before Derulo sings : " I only miss you when I 'm breathing / I only miss you when my heart is beating / You are the color that I 'm bleeding / I only miss you when I 'm breathing . " Scott Shetler of PopCrush noted that he appears to be screaming the vocals during the chorus line : " I only miss you when I 'm breathing " , writing that " his final note [ is ] stretched out for several seconds " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Breathing " received positive reviews from music critics . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy described the song as " hypnotic " and " an impressive club pumper " . He praised " Breathing " for being a perfect tribute to Derulo 's late cousin . Nicole James of MTV Buzzworthy viewed the song as a " more subtle route " than the album 's previous promotional single " Pick Up the Pieces " . She praised Derulo for knowing " how to make a dance song " and wrote that " Breathing " is the type of song you would add " to your Girls ' Night Out playlist " . Aaron @-@ Spencer Charles of Metro wrote that the song is " an anthem for the clubs " that fans of pop and dance music would love . Pete Rivas of The AU Review praised the song 's hook and likened its catchy production to the album 's other two singles " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and " It Girl " Scott Shetler and other reviewers of PopCrush wrote that " ' Breathing ' is a song we could definitely get down to in a club " . Ben Chalk of MSN Music viewed " Breathing " as one of the standout tracks on Future History . He concluded by writing that in the song , " Derulo 's energy overshadows the kitchen sink production and inane lyrics " . Meena Rupani of DesiHits noted that " Breathing " is " more tribal " than his previous singles . Rupani also noted Derulo 's continuation of past themes , " as he tries to romance the ladies with his cheesy lyrics but also keep the guys dancing in the clubs with the beats " .
= = Chart performance = =
In Australia , " Breathing " debuted at number 36 on the ARIA Singles Chart on November 14 , 2011 . It peaked at number nine in its fifth week on the chart , becoming Derulo 's sixth top @-@ ten single in that country . " Breathing " also charted on the Australian Urban Singles Chart at number four . It was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 140 @,@ 000 copies . " Breathing " debuted at number 37 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on December 12 , 2011 . It ascended to number 30 in its third week , but descended the chart for the following two weeks . " Breathing " managed to peak at number 28 in its sixth week . In the United States , " Breathing " peaked at number 28 on the Pop Songs chart , but failed to impact the Billboard Hot 100 .
" Breathing " achieved commercial success in Europe . It peaked at number one on the Bulgarian Airplay Chart , and number four on the Slovak Airplay Chart . In Austria , " Breathing " debuted at number 43 on February 10 , 2012 , and peaked at number eight in its fifth week on the chart . It peaked at number five on the German Singles Chart , becoming Derulo 's third top @-@ ten single in that country . The song was certified gold by The Federal Association of Music Industry ( BVMI ) , denoting shipments of 150 @,@ 000 copies . In Switzerland , " Breathing " debuted at number 33 on March 11 , 2012 . It descended to number 50 in its second week on the chart , but managed to peak at number seven in its seventh week . The song was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting sales of 15 @,@ 000 copies . " Breathing " peaked at number 19 on the Irish Singles Chart and spent a total of 10 weeks in the chart . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 101 on January 28 , 2012 , and ascended to number 49 the following week . It managed to peak at number 25 in its seventh week on the chart . " Breathing " also charted on the UK R & B Singles Chart at number nine .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The accompanying music video for " Breathing " was directed by Colin Tilley and premiered exclusively on PopCrush.com on November 3 , 2011 . The video begins with Derulo on the balcony of a building at night , as well as scenes of him sitting in an old chair surrounded by cobwebs inside an industrial warehouse . There are then scenes which feature Derulo standing shirtless in a dark , blue @-@ tinted room , digitally showing the insides of his body to show the intensity of his emotion . After the first chorus , Derulo then rises out of the chair and begins to dance . During the bridge , Derulo is shown kissing his former love interest , before several female backup dancers join him to perform choreography in the final chorus . Aaron @-@ Spencer Charles of Metro noted that the video had " some impressive footwork and a great ' straight jacket ' dance move with the choreographed piece with female dancers . " A reviewer for 4Music also praised Derulo 's dance routines in the video . Contessa Gayles of AOL Music described the video as " creepy " and compared it to Rihanna 's " Disturbia " ( 2008 ) video .
= = = Live performances and cover versions = = =
On November 6 , 2011 , Derulo performed " Breathing " at the Belfast City Hall in Northern Ireland , to coincide with the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . The song was part of a set list , which also included " Whatcha Say " , " In My Head " , " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and " It Girl " . Holly Thomas of the Daily Mail praised his set , writing that " Jason Derulo gave a steamy performance " . In 2012 , British recording artist Cher Lloyd performed a cover of " Breathing " as part of the set list for her Sticks and Stones Tour .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Future History .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = = Promotional single = = =
= = = Single release = = =
= Scottish art in the eighteenth century =
Scottish art in the eighteenth century is the body of visual art made in Scotland , by Scots , or about Scottish subjects , in the eighteenth century . This period saw development of professionalisation , with art academies were established in Edinburgh and Glasgow . Art was increasingly influenced by Neoclassicism , the Enlightenment and towards the end of the century by Romanticism , with Italy becoming a major centre of Scottish art .
The origins of the tradition of Scottish landscape painting are in the capriccios of Italian and Dutch landscapes undertaken by James Norie and his sons . These were further developed by Jacob More , who added a romantic sensibility to the Scottish landscape . Alexander Nasmyth helped found the Scottish landscape tradition and was highly influential as a teacher in Edinburgh on the subsequent generation of artists . John Knox linked it with the Romantic works of Walter Scott and was one of the first artists to take an interest in the urban landscape of Glasgow . Aberdeen @-@ born John Alexander and William Mossman were the leading portrait artists of the first half of the century . Allan Ramsay emerged as the leading portrait painter of the mid @-@ century and to the royal family , noted for his intimate representations . Towards the end of the century Henry Raeburn emerged as the leading portraitist and one of the first artists to spend the majority of their career in Scotland , extending his range to leading figures of the Enlightenment and most famous for his depiction of the Skating Minister .
Neoclassicism was pioneered by Gavin Hamilton and his proteges , the brothers John and Alexander Runciman , and David Allan . Alexander Runciman pioneered historical painting and Alan helped develop genre art , both of which would be taken up by Scottish artists in the next century . After the Acts of Union in 1707 there was very little patronage for large and expensive works of art in Scotland . With the growth of civic development there was an increasing demand for public statuary and the portrait bust also became popular . Commissions of new statuary tended to be made in relatively cheap lead and even more economical painted or gilded plaster . From the late eighteenth century there are a handful of examples of work from Scottish artists .
= = Background = =
= = = Professionalisation = = =
Many Scottish painters of the early part of the eighteenth century remained largely artisans . Roderick Chalmers ' ( fl . 1709 – 30 ) painting The Edinburgh Trades ( 1720 ) shows the artist himself , perhaps ironically , among the glaziers , wrights and masons of the burgh . Thomas Warrender ( fl . 1673 – 1713 ) produced the Allegorical Still Life ( after 1708 ) , of a letter board that seems to be a commentary on the union of 1707 , but he made his living as a house decorator , working closely with architects , including William Adam . He may have trained James Norie ( 1684 – 1757 ) , who with his sons James ( 1711 – 36 ) and Robert ( d . 1766 ) , painted the houses of the peerage with Scottish landscapes that were pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes . They tutored many artists and have been credited with the inception of the tradition of Scottish landscape painting that would come to fruition from the late eighteenth century . The painters Allan Ramsay ( 1713 – 84 ) , Gavin Hamilton ( 1723 – 98 ) , the brothers John ( 1744 – 68 / 9 ) and Alexander Runciman ( 1736 – 85 ) , Jacob More ( 1740 – 93 ) and David Allan ( 1744 – 96 ) , mostly began in the tradition of the Nories , but were artists of European significance , spending considerable portions of their careers outside Scotland . Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) was the most significant artist of the period to pursue his entire career in Scotland , born in Edinburgh and returning there after a trip to Italy in 1786 .
In 1729 there was an attempt to found a school of painting in Edinburgh as the Academy of St. Luke , named after the Renaissance Accademia di San Luca in Rome . Its sponsors were the elder Norie , the poet Allan Ramsay and William Adam . Its president was George Marshall , a painter of still lives and portraits , and its treasurer was the engraver Richard Cooper . Other members included Cooper 's student Robert Strange , the two younger Nories , the portrait painters John Alexander ( c . 1690 @-@ c . 1733 ) and Allan Ramsay , son of the poet ( 1713 – 84 ) . The success of the group was limited by its associations with Jacobitism , with Strange printing bank notes for the rebels . The Foulis Academy was founded in Glasgow in 1754 by the printmaking brothers Robert and Andrew Foulis , and in Edinburgh the Board of Trustees for Fisheries , Manufactures and Improvements in Scotland established the Trustees Drawing Academy in 1760 , indicating that art was now part of civic life and not just aristocratic patronage .
The growing importance of art can be seen in the post of Royal Painter and Limner , created in 1702 for George Ogilvie . The duties included " drawing pictures of our [ Monarch 's ] person or of our successors or others of our royal family for the decorment of our houses and palaces " . However , from 1723 to 1823 the office was a sinecure held by members of the Abercrombie family , not necessarily connected with artistic ability .
= = = Intellectual trends = = =
All the major painters of the period were to varying degrees influenced by forms of Neoclassicism , which revived Greek and Roman form of artistic expression . Italy became an important point of reference for Scottish artists , with over fifty artists and architects known to have travelled there in the period 1730 – 80 as part of a Grand Tour , to paint , sample the art and learn from Italian masters . With so many artists visiting or resident , Rome became almost a " Third Academy ) " for Scots . In the second half of the century Scots became the major figures in the trade in antique sculpture , particularly Gavin Hamilton , Colin Morison ( 1732 – 1801 ) and James Byres ( 1734 – 1817 ) , making them the arbiters of British taste in this area . However , the only major Scottish collection of marble before the nineteenth century was that of James Johnstone , 2nd Marquess of Annandale .
Scottish artists in the later eighteenth century were strongly influenced by the Enlightenment , which stressed rationalism and human inquiry , of which Scotland was a major centre of influence . Artists like Alan Ramsey formed The Select Society , with philosophers David Hume and Adam Smith and produced his Dialogue on Taste , which made a major contribution to the study of aesthetics . Scotland also played a major part in the origins of the Romantic movement through the publication of James Macpherson 's Ossian cycle , which was proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics . Fingal , written in 1762 , was speedily translated into many European languages , and its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the Romantic movement in European , and especially in German literature , influencing Herder and Goethe .
= = Forms = =
= = = Landscape = = =
The origins of the Scottish landscape painting tradition are in the Nories ' capriccios or pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes . Jacob More , having trained with the Nories , moved to Italy in 1773 and is chiefly known as a landscape painter . This period saw a shift in attitudes to the Highlands and mountain landscapes in general , from viewing them as hostile , empty regions occupied by backwards and marginal people , to interpreting them as aesthetically pleasing exemplars of nature , occupied by rugged primitives , which were now depicted in a dramatic fashion . Produced before his departure to Italy , More 's series of four " Falls of Clyde " ( 1771 – 73 ) paintings have been described by art historian Duncan Macmillan as treating the waterfalls as " a kind of natural national monument " and has been seen as an early work in developing a romantic sensibility to the Scottish landscape .
Alexander Nasmyth visited Italy and worked in London , but returned to his native Edinburgh for most of his career . He produced work in a large range of forms , including his portrait of Romantic poet Robert Burns , which depicts him against a dramatic Scottish background , but he is chiefly remembered for his landscapes and is described in the Oxford Dictionary of Art as " the founder of the Scottish landscape tradition " . He was also a highly influential teacher at the Trustees Drawing Academy in Edinburgh . The work of John Knox ( 1778 – 1845 ) continued the theme of landscape , directly linking it with the Romantic works of Walter Scott . He was also among the first artists to take a major interest in depicting the urban landscape of Glasgow . Alexander Runciman was probably the first artist to paint Scottish landscapes in watercolours in the more romantic style that was emerging towards the end of the century .
= = = Portraiture = = =
Aberdeen @-@ born John Alexander and William Mossman were the leading portrait artists of the first half of the century . John Alexander was born in Aberdeen and was a great grandson of portrait painter George Jamesone . He studied in London and Rome , returning to Scotland about 1720 . His younger contemporary William Mossman ( 1700 – 71 ) was also from Aberdeen and studied in Rome . Both worked predominately in the north @-@ east around their home city , but also painted many of the figures of early @-@ Enlightenment Edinburgh . Alexander 's best known work included the portrait of George Drummond the Lord Provost of Edinburgh ( 1756 ) , who had been responsible for the creation of the New Town in Edinburgh and the Royal Infirmary , which is shown in the background of the painting . Mosman 's work included his portrait of John Campbell of the Bank ( 1749 ) , who was chief cashier of the Royal Bank of Scotland and a Whig , but who is depicted in the recently forbidden Highland Dress . Because of his Jacobite sympathies Alexander was forced to leave for the continent after the rebellion of 1745 , and in Rome he made a living painting the Jacobite expatriates who congregated there , before his return a few years later .
Allan Ramsay studied in Sweden , London and Italy before basing himself in Edinburgh , where he established himself as a leading portrait painter to the Scottish nobility and he undertook portraits of many of the major figures of the Scottish Enlightenment , including his friend the philosopher David Hume and the visiting Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau . After a second visit to Italy he moved to London in 1757 and from 1761 he was Principal Painter in Ordinary to George III . He now focused on royal portraits , often presented by the king to ambassadors and colonial governors . His work has been seen as anticipating the grand manner of Joshua Reynolds , but many of his early portraits , particularly of women , are less formal and more intimate studies .
The leading portrait painter of the second half of the century was Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) . He was the first significant artist to pursue his entire career in Scotland . Born in Edinburgh and returning there after a trip to Italy in 1786 , he is most famous for his intimate portraits of leading figures in Scottish life , going beyond the aristocracy to lawyers , doctors , professors , writers and ministers , adding elements of Romanticism to the Grand Manner tradition of Joshua Reynolds . The most famous painting attributed to him is The Reverend Robert Walker Skating on Duddingston Loch , known as The Skating Minister . He became a knight in 1822 and the King 's painter and limner in 1823 , marking a return to the post being associated with the production of art .
= = = Neoclassism and genre painting = = =
Gavin Hamilton spent almost his entire career in Italy and emerged as a pioneering neoclassical painter of historical and mythical themes , including his depictions of scenes from Homer 's Iliad , as well as having been an informal tutor to British artists , early archaeologist and antiquarian . Many of his works can be seen as Enlightenment speculations about the origins of society and politics , including the Death of Lucretia ( 1768 ) , an event thought to be critical to the birth of the Roman Republic . His classicism would be a major influence on French artist Jacques @-@ Louis David ( 1748 – 1825 ) .
John and Alexander Runciman both gained reputations as painters of mythological and historical themes . They travelled to Italy , where they worked with Hamilton . John died in 1768 / 9 and Alexander returned home . His most widely known work , distributed in etchings , was mythological . His version of The Origin of Painting ( 1773 ) , depicting Pliny 's story of a young Corinthian woman outlining a shadow on the wall , has her hand guided by Cupid , suggesting the ultimate motivation for art was love . The same theme was painted by another of Hamilton 's proteges , David Allan , two years later . In the late eighteenth century Ossian became a common subject for Scottish artists , and works were undertaken by Alexander Runciman and David Allan among others .
Alexander also produced one of the earliest examples of a Scottish historical painting , showing the escape of Mary , Queen of Scots from Loch Leven Castle , which would become a major form in the nineteenth century . Allan returned to Edinburgh in 1780 , became director and master of the Academy of Arts in 1786 . Here he produced his most famous work , with illustrations of themes from Scottish life , earning him the title of " the Scottish Hogarth " . These included Highland Wedding , Blair Athol ( 1780 ) and illustrations for the elder Allan Ramsey 's Gentle Shepherd ( 1788 ) . These themes would be taken up by David Wilkie ( 1785 – 1841 ) , often noted as the founder of the British tradition of genre painting .
= = = Sculpture = = =
After the Acts of Union in 1707 the royal family spent very little time in , or money on , Scottish palaces and many Scottish nobles followed the royal court to England , tending to invest in sculpture for their residences in London , rather than their estates in Scotland . With the growth of civic development there was an increasing demand for public statuary , often with the patronage of a public institution , such as the lead figure of George II at the newly founded Royal Infirmary , Edinburgh in 1753 or the figure of the judge Duncan Forbes for the Outer Parliament House in 1752 . The portrait bust , designed for interior display , also became popular . By the middle of the century statuary were preferred to painted portraits among the aristocracy .
As in England , commissions of new statuary tended to be made in relatively cheap lead and even more economical painted or gilded plaster . The plasterwork of John Cheere 's yard in London was particularly in demand . Also important was the work from the yard of John Bacon ( 1740 – 99 ) who produced a monument for Robert Dundas ( d . 1787 ) at Borthwick Church and one for Mrs Allardyce ( d . 1787 ) at West Church , Aberdeen . Bacon was also a partner in Mrs Eleanor Coade 's Artificial Stone Manufactory at Lambeth in London . This produced a buff coloured ceramic that could be moulded to provide fine detail , and be fired in sections , but was impervious to frost and fire . Much cheaper than carved stone , Coade stone was used for sphinxes , balustrading , capitals , coat of arms , tablets , ornamental vases , church monuments and fonts . It was used extensively by the Adam brothers , particularly in the houses they built in Scotland , such as Cullen , Banff , Culzean Castle , Ayrshire , Dunbar Castle , East Lothian , Register House , Edinburgh , Gosford House , East Lothian and Wedderburn , Berwickshire . As well as supplying sculpture , candelabra and cippi , the Adam family supplied designs to the Carron Company , founded in 1759 , which produced a wide range of iron products , including stoves , safes , vases and tablets .
From the late eighteenth century there are a handful of examples of work from Scottish artists . These included statues of druids on the portico of Penicuik House carved by one " Willie Jeans " in 1776 ; the marble bust of James Gillespie by the obscure Robert Burn ( fl . 1790 – 1816 ) and the bronze figure in Roman armour at the City Chambers , Edinburgh , which may represent Charles Edward Stuart or Louis XV . James Tassie ( 1735 – 99 ) was born in Glasgow and trained as a stonemason . He attended the Foulis Academy , before moving to Dublin and then London . He developed a formula for making casts in vitreous paste and manufactured casts of antique carved gems . He also produced portrait medallions and among his sitters were many leading figures in Scottish intellectual life , such as Adam Smith , David Hume and Henry Raeburn . His medallions were popular when produced in Wedgwood jasper and were used by the Carron Company to be cast in iron .
= Clathrus ruber =
Clathrus ruber is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family , and the type species of the genus Clathrus . It is commonly known as the latticed stinkhorn , the basket stinkhorn , or the red cage , alluding to the striking fruit bodies that are shaped somewhat like a round or oval hollow sphere with interlaced or latticed branches . The fungus is saprobic , feeding off decaying woody plant material , and is usually found alone or in groups in leaf litter on garden soil , grassy places , or on woodchip garden mulches . Although considered primarily a European species , C. ruber has been introduced to other areas , and now has a wide distribution that includes northern Africa , Asia , Australia , and North and South America . The species was illustrated in the scientific literature during the 16th century , but was not officially described until 1729 .
The fruit body initially appears like a whitish " egg " attached to the ground at the base by cords called rhizomorphs . The egg has a delicate , leathery outer membrane enclosing the compressed lattice that surrounds a layer of olive @-@ green spore @-@ bearing slime called the gleba , which contains high levels of calcium that help protect the fruit body during development . As the egg ruptures and the fruit body expands , the gleba is carried upward on the inner surfaces of the spongy lattice , and the egg membrane remains as a volva around the base of the structure . The fruit body can reach heights of up to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) . The color of the fruit body , which can range from pink to orange to red , results primarily from the carotenoid pigments lycopene and beta @-@ carotene . The gleba has a fetid odor , somewhat like rotting meat , which attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores . Although the edibility of the fungus is not known with certainty , its odor would deter most from consuming it . C. ruber was not regarded highly in tales in southern European folklore , which suggested that those who handled the mushroom risked contracting various ailments .
= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =
Clathrus ruber was illustrated as early as 1560 by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his Nomenclator Aquatilium Animantium — Gesner mistook the mushroom for a marine organism . It appeared in a woodcut in John Gerard 's 1597 Great Herball , shortly thereafter in Carolus Clusius ' 1601 Fungorum in Pannoniis Observatorum Brevis Historia , and was one of the species featured in Cassiano dal Pozzo 's museo cartaceo ( " paper museum " ) that consisted of thousands of illustrations of the natural world .
The fungus was first described scientifically in 1729 , by the Italian Pier Antonio Micheli in his Nova plantarum genera iuxta Tournefortii methodum disposita , who gave it its current scientific name . The species was once referred to by American authors as Clathrus cancellatus L. , as they used a system of nomenclature based on the former American Code of Botanical Nomenclature , in which the starting point for naming species was Linnaeus 's 1753 Species Plantarum . The International Code for Botanical Nomenclature now uses the same starting date , but names of Gasteromycetes used by Christian Hendrik Persoon in his Synopsis Methodica Fungorum ( 1801 ) are sanctioned and automatically replace earlier names . Since Persoon used the specific epithet ruber , the correct name for the species is Clathrus ruber . Several historical names of the fungus are now synonyms : Clathrus flavescens , named by Persoon in 1801 ; Clathrus cancellatus by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and published by Elias Fries in 1823 ; Clathrus nicaeensis , published by Jean @-@ Baptiste Barla in 1879 ; and Clathrus ruber var. flavescens , published by Livio Quadraccia and Dario Lunghini in 1990 .
Clathrus ruber is the type species of the genus Clathrus , and is part of the group of Clathrus species known as the Laternoid series . Common features uniting this group include the vertical arms of the receptacle ( fruit body ) that are not joined together at the base , and the spongy structure of the receptacle . According to a molecular analysis published in 2006 , out of the about 40 Phallales species used in the study , C. ruber is most closely related to Aseroe rubra , Clathrus archeri , Laternea triscapa , and Clathrus chrysomycelinus .
The generic name Clathrus is derived from Ancient Greek κλειθρον or " lattice " , and the specific epithet is Latin ruber , meaning " red " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " basket stinkhorn " , the " lattice stinkhorn " , or the " red cage " . It was known to the locals of the Adriatic hinterland in the former Yugoslavia as veštičije srce or vještičino srce , meaning " witch 's heart " . This is still the case in parts of rural France , where it is known as cœur de sorcière .
= = Description = =
Before the volva opens , the fruiting body is egg @-@ shaped to roughly spherical , up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter , with a gelatinous interior up to 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) thick . White to grayish in color , it is initially smooth , but develops a network of polygonal marks on the surface prior to opening as the internal structures expand and stretch the peridium taut . The fruit body , or receptacle , bursts the egg open as it expands ( a process that can take as little as a few hours ) , and leaves the remains of the peridium as a cup or volva surrounding the base . The receptacle ranges in color from red to bright pink to pale orange , and it is often lighter in color approaching the base . The color appears to be dependent upon the temperature and humidity of the environment . The receptacle consists of a spongy network of " arms " interlaced to make meshes of unequal size . At the top of the receptacle , the arms are up to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , but they taper down to smaller widths near the base . A cross @-@ section of the arm reveals it to be spongy , and made up of one wide inner tube and two indistinct rows of tubes towards the outside . The outer surface of the receptacle is ribbed or wrinkled . There are between 80 and 120 mesh holes in the receptacle . The unusual shape of the receptacle has inspired some creative comparisons : David Arora likened it to a whiffleball , while the German Mycological Society — who named C. ruber the 2011 " Mushroom of the Year " — described it as " like an alien from a science fiction horror film " .
A considerable variation in height has been reported for the receptacle , ranging from 8 to 20 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) tall . The base of the fruit bodies are attached to the substrate by rhizomorphs ( thickened cords of mycelia ) . The dark olive @-@ green to olive @-@ brown , foul @-@ smelling sticky gleba covers the inner surface of the receptacle , except near the base . The odor — described as resembling rotting meat — attracts flies , other insects , and , in one report , a scarab beetle ( Scarabaeus sacer ) that help disperse the spores . The putrid odor — and people 's reaction to it — have been well documented . In 1862 Mordecai Cubitt Cooke wrote " it is recorded of a botanist who gathered one for the purpose of drying it for his herbarium , that he was compelled by the stench to rise during the night and cast the offender out the window . " American mycologist David Arora called the odor " the vilest of any stinkhorn " . The receptacle collapses about 24 hours after its initial eruption from the egg .
The spores are elongated , smooth , and have dimensions of 4 – 6 by 1 @.@ 5 – 2 µm . Scanning electron microscopy has revealed that C. ruber ( in addition to several other Phallales species ) has a hilar scar — a small indentation in the surface of the spore where it was previously connected to the basidium via the sterigma . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are six @-@ spored .
= = = Similar species = = =
Clathrus ruber may be distinguished from the closely related tropical species C. crispus by the absence of the corrugated rims which surround each mesh of the C. crispus fruit body . The phylogenetically close species C. chrysomycelinus has a yellow receptacle with arms that are structurally simpler , and its gleba is concentrated on specialized " glebifers " located at the lattice intersections . It is known only from Venezuela to southern Brazil . Clathrus columnatus has a fruit body with two to five long vertical orange or red spongy columns , joined together at the apex .
= = = Edibility and folklore = = =
Although edibility for C. ruber has not been officially documented , its foul smell would dissuade most individuals from consuming it . In general , stinkhorn mushrooms are considered edible when still in the egg stage , and are even considered delicacies in some parts of Europe and Asia , where they are pickled raw and sold in markets as " devil 's eggs " . However , an 1854 report provides a cautionary tale to those considering consuming the mature fruit body . Dr. F. Peyre Porcher , of Charleston , South Carolina , described an account of poisoning caused by the mushroom :
" A young person having eaten a bit of it , after six hours suffered from a painful tension of the lower stomach , and violent convulsions . He lost the use of his speech , and fell into a state of stupor , which lasted for forty @-@ eight hours . After taking an emetic he threw up a fragment of the mushroom , with two worms , and mucus , tinged with blood . Milk , oil , and emollient fomentations , were then employed with success . "
British mycologist Donald Dring , in his 1980 monograph on the Clathraceae family , wrote that C. ruber was not regarded highly in southern European folklore . He mentions a case of poisoning following its ingestion , reported by Barla in 1858 , and notes that Ciro Pollini reported finding it growing on a human skull in a tomb in a deserted church . According to John Ramsbottom , Gascons consider the mushroom a cause of cancer ; they will usually bury specimens they find . In other parts of France it has been reputed to produce skin rashes or cause convulsions .
= = Ecology , habitat , and distribution = =
Like most of the species of the Phallales order , Clathrus ruber is saprobic — a decomposer of wood and plant organic matter — and is commonly found fruiting in mulch beds . The fungus grows alone or clustered together near woody debris , in lawns , gardens , and cultivated soil .
Clathrus ruber was originally described by Micheli from Italy . It is considered native to southern and central continental Europe , as well as Macaronesia ( the Azores and the Canary Islands ) , western Turkey , North Africa ( Algeria ) , and western Asia ( Iran ) . The fungus is rare in central Europe , and is listed in the Red data book of Ukraine .
The fungus has probably been introduced elsewhere , often because of the use of imported mulch used in gardening and landscaping . It may have extended its range northwards into the British Isles or been introduced in the nineteenth century . It now has a mainly southerly distribution in England and has been recorded from Cornwall , Devon , Dorset , Somerset , the Isle of Wight , Hampshire , Sussex , Surrey , and Middlesex . In Scotland , it has been recorded from Argyll . It is also known from Wales , the Channel Islands , and Ireland . The fungus also occurs in the United States ( California , Florida , Georgia , Virginia , North Carolina , and New York ) , Canada , Mexico , and Australasia . The species was also reported from South America ( Argentina ) . In China , it has been collected from Guangdong , Sichuan , Guizhou , and Tibet . Records from Japan are referable to Clathrus kusanoi ; records from the Caribbean are probably of C. crispus .
= = Biochemistry = =
Like other stinkhorn fungi , C. ruber bioaccumulates the element manganese . It has been postulated that this element plays a role in the enzymatic breakdown of the gleba with simultaneous formation of odorous compounds . Compounds like dimethyl sulfide , aldehydes , and amines — which contribute to the disagreeable odor of the gleba — are produced by the enzymatic decarboxylation of keto acids and amino acids , but the enzymes will only work in the presence of manganese . A chemical analysis of the elemental composition of the gelatinous outer layer , the embryonic receptacle and the gleba showed the gelatinous layer to be richest in potassium , calcium , manganese , and iron ions . Calcium2 + stabilizes the polysaccharide gel , protecting the embryonic receptacle from drying out during the growth of the egg . Potassium is required for the gelatinous layer to retain its osmotic pressure and retain water ; high concentrations of the element are needed to support the rapid growth of the receptacle . The high concentration of elements suggests that the gelatinous layer has a " placenta @-@ like " function — serving as a reservoir from which the receptacle may draw upon as it rapidly expands .
Pigments responsible for the orange to red colors of the mature fruit bodies have been identified as carotenes , predominantly lycopene and beta @-@ carotene — the same compounds responsible for the red and orange colors of tomatoes and carrots , respectively . Lycopene is also the main pigment in the closely related fungus Clathrus archeri , while beta @-@ carotene is the predominant pigment in the Phallaceae species Mutinus caninus , M. ravenelii , and M. elegans .
= Garamond =
Garamond is a group of many old @-@ style serif typefaces , originally those designed by Claude Garamond and other 16th century French designers , and now many modern revivals . Though his name was written as ' Garamont ' in his lifetime , the typefaces are invariably spelled ' Garamond ' .
Garamond worked as an engraver of punches , the masters used to stamp matrices , the moulds used to cast metal type . He worked in the tradition of what is now called old @-@ style serif letter design , that produced letters with a relatively organic structure resembling handwriting with a pen but with a slightly more structured and upright design . Although Garamond himself remains considered an eminent figure in French printing of the sixteenth century , historical research over the last century has increasingly placed him in context as one artisan among several active at a time of rapid production of new typefaces in sixteenth @-@ century France , operating within a pre @-@ existing tradition defined by the work of printers of the preceding half @-@ century , in particular Aldus Manutius and his punchcutter Francesco Griffo . Therefore , the term Garamond may be understood to mean typefaces based on the appearance of early modern French printing , not necessarily specifically Garamond 's work .
Some distinctive characteristics in Garamond 's letters are the small eye of the ' e ' and the bowl of the a , which has a sharp hook upwards at top left . The ' M ' is slightly splayed . The x @-@ height ( height of lower @-@ case letters ) is low , especially at larger sizes , making the capitals large relative to the lower case , while the top serifs on the ascenders of letters like ' d ' have a downward slope and rise subtly above the cap height . Garamond typefaces are popular and often used , particularly for printing body text and books .
Since around 1910 , many modern revivals of Garamond and related typefaces have been developed . Among these , the roman ( regular ; upright ) versions of Adobe Garamond , Granjon , Sabon , and Stempel Garamond are directly based on Garamond 's work . It is common to pair these with italics based on those created by his contemporary Robert Granjon , who was well known for his proficiency in this genre . However , many ' Garamond ' revivals are actually based on the work of a later punch @-@ cutter , Jean Jannon , whose work was for some years misattributed to Garamond .
Modern Garamond revivals also often add a matching bold and ' lining ' numbers at the height of capital letters , neither of which were used in Garamond 's time . The most common digital release of Garamond is Monotype Garamond . Bundled with many Microsoft products , it is a revival of Jannon 's work .
= = History = =
= = = Garamond 's life and career = = =
Garamond designed type in the ' roman ' , or upright style , in italic , and Greek . In the period of Garamond 's early life roman type had been displacing the blackletter or Gothic type which was used in much ( although not all ) early French printing .
The roman designs of Garamond which are his most imitated were based on a typeface cut in 1495 – 1496 for the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius by Francesco Griffo . This was first used in the book De Aetna , a short work by poet and cleric Pietro Bembo which was Manutius ' first printing in the Latin alphabet after a long series of publications of classics of Greek literature that had won him an international reputation . Historian Beatrice Warde has assessed De Aetna as something of a pilot project , a small book printed to an even higher standard than Manutius ' norm .
French typefounders of the 16th century assiduously examined Manutius 's work ( and , it is thought , De Aetna in particular ) as a source of inspiration . De Aetna was printed using a mixture of alternate characters , perhaps as an experiment , and several of these are all found in Robert Estienne 's printing of the 1530s ; typefaces created by Antoine Augereau ( who may have been Garamond 's mentor ) only use those letters preferred in Manutius ' later printing , indicate that other Manutius books were examined as a source of inspiration separately . This examination extended to in some cases copying his first ' M ' shown in De Aetna which had no serif pointing out of the letter at top right , a design considered very eccentric . ( It has been suggested to be the result of defective casting , especially since Manutius ' later fonts do not show it . )
The period from 1520 to around 1560 , encompassing Garamond 's career , was an extremely busy period for typeface creation . Many fonts were created , some apparently for exclusive use by a specific printer , others sold or traded between them . Many engravers were active over this time , including Garamond himself , Granjon , Guillaume Le Bé , Antoine Augereau , Simon de Colines , Pierre Hautin and others , creating typefaces not just in the Latin alphabet , but also in Greek and Hebrew for scholarly use . This period saw the creation of a pool of high @-@ quality punches and matrices that would supply the French printing industry , to a large extent , for the next two centuries .
Garamond was born perhaps around 1510 , but very little is known about his life or work before 1540 . He worked for a variety of employers on commission , creating punches for publishers and the government . Garamond 's typefaces were popular abroad , and replaced Griffo 's original roman type at the Aldine Press in Venice . He also worked as a publisher and bookseller . While his italics have been considered less impressive than his roman typefaces , he was one of the early printers to establish the modern tradition that the italic capitals should slope as the lower case does , rather than remain upright as Roman square capitals do .
Garamond designed type for the Greek alphabet from early in his career , but these , the Grecs du roi fonts created for the government around 1540 , are very different to his Latin designs : they attempt to simulate the elegant handwriting of Cretan scribe Angelo Vergecio and include a vast variety of alternate letters and ligatures to achieve this . This style is impractical for modern setting of body text , since it requires careful manual choice of characters for every word . Several ' Garamond ' releases such as Adobe 's contain Greek designs that are either a compromise between Garamond 's upright Latin designs and his slanted Greek ones or primarily inspired by his Latin designs .
Garamond died in 1561 and his punches and matrices were sold off by his widow . Purchasers included the Le Bé type foundry in Paris run by the family of Guillaume Le Bé , Christophe Plantin of Antwerp , and the Frankfurt foundry often referred to by historians as Egenolff @-@ Berner . The chaotic sales caused problems , and Le Bé 's son wrote to Plantin 's successor Moretus offering to trade matrices so they could both have complementary type in a range of sizes . Egelhoff @-@ Berner brought out a specimen in 1592 of types by Garamond and others , which would later be a source for many Garamond revivals .
Plantin 's collection of original Garamond punches and matrices survives at the Plantin @-@ Moretus Museum in Antwerp , together with many other typefaces collected by Plantin from other typefounders of the period . The collection has been used extensively for research , for example by historians Harry Carter and Hendrik Vervliet . Carter 's son Matthew would later describe his research as helping to demonstrate " that the finest collection of printing types made in typography 's golden age was in perfect condition ( some muddle aside ) [ along with ] Plantin 's accounts and inventories which names the cutters of his types . "
While some records such as Plantin 's exist of what exact types were cut
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bondale , Judyville and Kramer ( near the site of the Mudlavia Hotel ) . Several townships contain only a single settlement . Foster is the only one in Mound Township and has a motel and several houses . In the northeast corner of the county , Green Hill is Medina Township 's only settlement . Tab is the only settlement in Prairie Township ; most of this township is agricultural , and a large grain processing facility is Tab 's only remaining business . Pine Township 's only community is Rainsville .
Some settlements did not survive . The river town of Baltimore thrived and was a major center of trade until the river was overshadowed by the railroad for purposes of trade and transportation ; a single house , built long after the town 's heyday , is all that remains . Warrenton had a promising start as the first county seat , but it began to wane after the seat moved , and today no trace is left . Chesapeake was the first settlement in Steuben Township , but it faded away so early that even an 1883 county history has little to say on the subject . Brisco was never large , though it did have a school house from the 1850s through the 1920s . It likewise disappeared by the end of the 20th century . Chatterton had a school , a store and a post office , but it has disappeared even though the name continues to appear on maps . Other communities were planned but did not develop . Dresser was never much more than a collection of houses , though it did have a post office for a few years around the turn of the 20th century . The settlements of Kickapoo , Locust Grove , Sloan and Walnut Grove were similar in this respect . Point Pleasant never developed much beyond the founder 's residence and a liquor store , and was later described as a " paper town " .
= = Climate and weather = =
Warren County is in the humid continental climate region of the United States , as is most of Indiana . Its Köppen climate classification is Dfa , meaning that it is cold , has no dry season , and has a hot summer . From 1971 to 2000 , average temperatures in Indiana have ranged from a low of 26 ° F ( − 3 ° C ) in January to a high of 74 @.@ 3 ° F ( 23 @.@ 5 ° C ) in July , although a record low of − 33 ° F ( − 36 ° C ) was recorded in 1887 and a record high of 116 ° F ( 47 ° C ) was recorded in 1936 . Average monthly precipitation has ranged from 2 @.@ 27 inches ( 58 mm ) inches in February to 4 @.@ 46 inches ( 113 mm ) inches in May .
On April 17 , 1922 , a tornado touched down in Warren County . The town of Hedrick in southern Jordan Township was almost entirely destroyed , along with other buildings in the vicinity of the town , and several people were killed . From 1950 through 2009 , ten tornadoes were reported in Warren County ; none resulted in any deaths or injuries , but the total estimated property damage was over $ 3 million .
Warren County was affected by the Great Blizzard of 1978 which covered several states and was the worst blizzard on record for Indiana ; in late January , a record of snowfall of over 20 inches ( 51 cm ) fell locally , and high winds resulted in snowdrifts as high as 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Local schools were closed for up to seventeen days , and some residents were snowbound for as many as five days .
= = Transportation = =
There are no interstate highways in Warren County , although Interstate 74 passes less than half a mile ( 800 m ) from the southern border . About 20 miles ( 32 km ) of federal highways and 86 miles ( 138 km ) of state highways cross the county , as do about 550 miles ( 890 km ) of county roads . Of these , roughly a third are paved and the rest are topped with crushed gravel or packed dirt .
U.S. Route 41 enters from Benton County to the north and runs through the center of Warren County , veering to the east and crossing the Wabash River between Williamsport and Attica before continuing south . U.S. Route 136 passes through the far southern part of the county on its route between Covington and Danville , Illinois .
In the northern part of the county , Indiana State Road 26 begins at the Illinois border and passes through the town of Pine Village , where it intersects State Road 55 on its way from Oxford in the north to Attica in the south ; State Road 26 continues east through Lafayette and on to the Ohio border . Likewise , State Road 28 runs across the state from Illinois to Ohio ; it connects West Lebanon with Williamsport and continues east through Attica .
The four @-@ lane divided State Road 63 runs south from its northern terminus at U.S. Route 41 near the center of the county ; both reach Terre Haute about 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the south , but while Route 41 crosses to the east side of the river , State Road 63 remains on the west side . Construction on the current State Road 63 , which replaced the older two @-@ lane road and streamlined its route , began in the late 1960s and was completed by the early 1980s . The current two @-@ lane State Road 263 is a part of the original route of State Road 63 and forms a 13 @-@ mile ( 21 km ) business route that leaves its parent route , passes through West Lebanon and along the river , then rejoins its parent near the south edge of the county . A small portion of State Road 352 lies in the far northwestern corner of the county , following the county and state border north from State Road 26 for only about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before leaving Warren County and entering Benton County on its way through the small town of Ambia .
A Norfolk Southern Railway route connecting Danville , Illinois , with the city of Lafayette is the county 's busiest rail line , carrying about 45 freight trains each day . It enters Warren County at State Line City and passes northeast through the communities of Johnsonville , Marshfield , West Lebanon and Williamsport before exiting the county at Attica . Two short @-@ line railroads operate less frequently . The Bee Line Railroad is used principally for agricultural transportation and runs approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Stewart north through Tab and into southern Benton County where it joins the Kankakee , Beaverville and Southern . The 6 @-@ mile ( 10 km ) Vermilion Valley Railroad serves the Flex @-@ N @-@ Gate factory near Covington and runs west from the plant through the town of Foster to meet a CSX line in Danville .
The nearest airport is the small Vermilion Regional Airport , located 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ; 4 @.@ 6 mi ) northeast of Danville , Illinois . Purdue University Airport is Indiana 's second busiest airport and is operated by Purdue University in neighboring Tippecanoe County to the northeast . Indianapolis International Airport is located about 90 miles ( 140 km ) to the southeast .
= = Economy = =
Warren County 's economy is supported by a labor force of approximately 4 @,@ 815 workers with an unemployment rate in July 2010 of 8 @.@ 8 % . Farming is a significant part of the economy , employing approximately 14 % of the county 's workers and supporting grain elevators in most towns . In some cases , the elevator is the town 's only formal business . The county 's farmland is highly productive and is among the top 10 % of Indiana counties in terms of crop yield per acre . In 2009 , 94 @,@ 700 acres ( 38 @,@ 300 ha ) of corn was planted and 93 @,@ 100 acres ( 37 @,@ 700 ha ) acres harvested , yielding an average of 187 bushels per acre ( 11 @.@ 7 metric tons per hectare ) for a total corn production of 17 @.@ 4 million bushels ( 441 @,@ 980 metric tons ) . Approximately 72 @,@ 000 acres ( 29 @,@ 000 ha ) of soybeans were planted , yielding 55 bushels per acre ( 3 @.@ 7 metric tons per hectare ) for a total of 3 @.@ 96 million bushels ( 107 @,@ 774 metric tons ) . Farmers also grew small amounts of hay ( 3 @,@ 700 acres ( 1 @,@ 500 ha ) ) and winter wheat , and held 3 @,@ 600 head of cattle . Roughly 86 % of the county 's 234 @,@ 413 acres ( 94 @,@ 864 ha ) is cropland .
About 14 % of the labor force works in the government sector for state and county services and schools ; in the non @-@ government sector , manufacturing is the largest industry at about 17 % of the labor force . The county has several industrial employers . Flex @-@ N @-@ Gate , an automobile parts assembly and warehouse facility , occupies the 750 @-@ acre ( 300 ha ) former Olin factory complex west of Covington . In Williamsport , industry includes TMF Center , which manufactures parts for construction equipment and trucking ; GL Technologies , which procures industrial tooling ; and Kuri @-@ Tec , which manufactures industrial hoses and accessories . Tru @-@ Flex Metal Hose in West Lebanon has made stripwound and corrugated flexible metal hose since 1962 ; Dyna @-@ Fab , also in West Lebanon , specializes in metal stampings and weldments . St. Vincent Hospital and a nursing home in Williamsport are also important local employers ; 9 @.@ 8 % of the county 's jobs relate to health care and social services .
Larger local economies in the more populous counties to the east and west offer additional employment and commerce , particularly in the cities of Lafayette and West Lafayette in Tippecanoe County and the city of Danville in Vermilion County , Illinois .
Electricity in the county comes from three providers . Duke Energy and the Warren County Rural Electric Membership Cooperative ( REMC ) serve most of the county , while the northern edge of the county receives power from NIPSCO .
= = Education and health care = =
The county 's four public schools are administered by the Metropolitan School District of Warren County . There is one junior – senior school in the system : Seeger Memorial Junior @-@ Senior High School north of West Lebanon , which was built in 1957 as part of the school consolidation effort . Seeger had an enrollment of 557 students during the 2014 – 15 school year and graduated 90 students the previous year . Warren Central Elementary School is co @-@ located with Seeger and served 305 students during the 2014 – 15 school year , while Williamsport Elementary School served 168 students and Pine Village Elementary School served 117 students .
There are no colleges or universities within Warren County , but there are several in nearby counties . Purdue University is a major undergraduate and graduate land @-@ grant university in West Lafayette , approximately 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast in Tippecanoe County . The University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , another major research land @-@ grant university , is about 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the west . Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana has 23 campuses throughout the state ; the closest to Warren County is in Lafayette . Danville Area Community College is a public two @-@ year college located in neighboring Vermilion County , Illinois , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) southwest of Williamsport . Indiana State University is located about 60 miles south of West Lebanon , in Terre Haute , IN . ISU is one of the Princeton Review 's " Best in the Midwest , " and holds Carnegie classification as a research / doctoral university .
The towns of Williamsport and West Lebanon both have public libraries . The Williamsport @-@ Washington Township Public Library was built in 2002 and replaced the town 's 1917 Carnegie library ; the West Lebanon @-@ Pike Township Public Library is housed in the original 1916 Carnegie building , which was expanded in 2006 .
The county 's single hospital is St. Vincent Williamsport Hospital , a 16 @-@ bed acute care facility operated by Indianapolis @-@ based St. Vincent Health . The hospital includes a 24 @-@ hour emergency medical service and ambulance service . Williamsport also has a nursing home that provides health care and rehabilitation services primarily for seniors .
= = Notable people = =
George D. Wagner was raised on a farm near Green Hill in Medina Township , where his family moved when he was four years old . As an adult he became a prosperous farmer ; in 1856 he was elected to the Indiana House of Representatives , and he later served in the Indiana Senate . He fought in the Civil War on the Union side and was promoted to Brigadier General in 1863 . After the war , he moved to Williamsport and practiced law ; he died in 1869 at age 39 and is buried in Armstrong Cemetery north of Green Hill , near the farm where he was raised .
James Frank Hanly was born in Champaign County , Illinois in 1863 . He moved to Warren County in 1879 and worked as a school teacher from 1881 to 1889 , when he joined a local law office . He entered politics and served as Governor of Indiana from 1905 to 1909 . He was a strong supporter of prohibition and lectured widely on the subject after his time as governor . While traveling to such a lecture in 1920 , he died in an automobile accident in Ohio and is buried at Hillside Cemetery on the northeast side of Williamsport .
Fremont Goodwine was born in West Lafayette in 1857 . He attended Purdue University and was part of the original freshman class in 1874 , graduating in 1878 . He became a teacher , and later lived in Williamsport and served as the superintendent of education for Warren County , starting in 1887 . He was elected to a seat in the state senate in 1897 and continued there for 12 years ; he served as President pro tem of the senate for one session . He died in 1956 at the age of 99 .
Albert Lee Stephens , Sr. was born in State Line City in 1874 . He studied law in California and set up a private practice there , and later served in several legal positions before becoming a judge in 1919 . In 1935 he was nominated by Franklin D. Roosevelt to serve as a United States District Court judge in California . Two years later Roosevelt nominated him to a new seat as judge in the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit , and in 1957 he became chief judge . He died while still serving in 1965 , at age 91 .
Vernon Burge attended school in West Lebanon , where his father worked as a blacksmith . After graduation , he enlisted in the United States Army in 1907 and was assigned to the Balloon Attachment of the Signal Corps . He later became part of the first United States military aviation unit , and in 1912 he became the first American enlisted man to be certified as a military pilot .
Like George Wagner , Donald E. Williams grew up in Green Hill . He studied mechanical engineering at Purdue University , served as a pilot during the Vietnam War , then as a test pilot , and became a NASA astronaut in 1979 ; he flew on two Space Shuttle missions in the 1980s .
Stephanie White @-@ McCarty attended Seeger Memorial High School and was named 1995 Indiana Miss Basketball after setting a state scoring record while playing on the Seeger team . She went on to be part of Purdue University 's first NCAA women 's basketball championship team in 1999 , then began a five @-@ year career in the Women 's National Basketball Association .
= = Media = =
The first newspaper in the county was The Wabash Commercial , which was printed in Williamsport and started publication in the 1850s . A new owner changed the name to The Warren Republican in 1854 , the same year that the Republican Party was formed . It had several different owners until 1870 ; it was then published by a single owner for the next 40 years . Another paper called The Warren Review was started in 1891 and also had several owners until the two papers combined in 1914 as The Review Republican , which is now billed as " Warren County 's only newspaper " . It is now owned by Community Media Group which produces newspapers and other print distribution products in six states . West Lebanon also had several newspapers which began publication around the time of the Civil War . The most recent was The Gazette , which was printed from the late 1800s into the early 1900s ; before this there were several other papers printed under several different names as owners changed . As of 1912 , Pine Village had a newspaper called the Sentinel @-@ News . The Neighbor is a weekly paper serving Fountain and Warren counties .
The nearest major television market area is based in Indianapolis . The smaller Lafayette market area is closer and includes several broadcast stations that can be received in much of Warren County ; the Champaign , Illinois market area is closer to the southwestern portions of the county and is also in broadcast range . There are no radio stations based in Warren County , but several nearby areas have AM and FM stations that are in broadcast range . This includes Lafayette and Terre Haute in Indiana , and Danville and Champaign @-@ Urbana in Illinois .
= = Government = =
The county government is a constitutional body granted specific powers by the Constitution of Indiana and the Indiana Code . The seven @-@ member county council is the legislative branch of the county government and controls all spending and revenue collection . Representatives are elected from county districts . The council members serve four @-@ year terms and are responsible for setting salaries , the annual budget and special spending . The council also has limited authority to impose local taxes , in the form of an income and property tax that is subject to state level approval , excise taxes and service taxes . In 2010 , the county budgeted approximately $ 2 @.@ 2 million for the district 's schools and $ 2 @.@ 8 million for other county operations and services , for a total annual budget of approximately $ 5 million .
The executive body of the county consists of a board of commissioners . The three commissioners are elected from county districts in staggered four @-@ year terms . The commissioners are charged with executing the acts legislated by the council , collecting revenue , and managing the day @-@ to @-@ day functions of the county government .
The Warren Circuit Court serves as a trial court of general jurisdiction . It hears original disputes in civil , criminal , probate , juvenile , traffic and small claims cases . In most cases , court decisions can be appealed to the Indiana Court of Appeals or Supreme Court . The judge is elected to a term of six years , and is assisted by a clerk who is elected to a term of four years .
The county has several other elected offices , including sheriff , coroner , auditor , treasurer , recorder , surveyor and circuit court clerk . Each of these elected officers serves a term of four years and oversees a different part of county government . Members elected to county government positions are required to declare party affiliations and be residents of the county .
Each of the townships has a trustee who administers rural fire protection and ambulance service , provides poor relief and manages cemetery care , among other duties . The trustee is assisted in these duties by a three @-@ member township board . The trustees and board members are elected to four @-@ year terms .
Based on 2000 census results , Warren County is part of Indiana 's 8th congressional district . Most of the county is in the 38th Indiana Senate district ; the exceptions are Warren and Washington townships , which are in the 23rd . The western portion of the county is in the 42nd Indiana House of Representatives district ; the eastern townships of Adams , Medina and Warren are in the 26th .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2010 United States Census , there were 8 @,@ 508 people , 3 @,@ 337 households , and 2 @,@ 416 families residing in the county . The population density was 23 @.@ 3 inhabitants per square mile ( 9 @.@ 0 / km2 ) . There were 3 @,@ 680 housing units at an average density of 10 @.@ 1 per square mile ( 3 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the county was 98 @.@ 3 % white , 0 @.@ 1 % black or African American , 0 @.@ 2 % Native American , 0 @.@ 4 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 2 % from other races , and 0 @.@ 7 % from two or more races . Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 0 @.@ 8 % of the population . In terms of ancestry , 27 @.@ 7 % were German , 11 @.@ 3 % were English , 10 @.@ 9 % were Irish , and 9 @.@ 2 % were American .
There were 3 @,@ 337 households , of which 31 @.@ 7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 59 @.@ 4 % were married couples living together , 8 @.@ 3 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 27 @.@ 6 % were non @-@ families . 23 @.@ 1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 52 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 94 . The median age was 42 @.@ 4 years .
The median income for a household in the county was $ 49 @,@ 238 , and the median income for a family was $ 57 @,@ 990 . Males had a median income of $ 46 @,@ 731 versus $ 31 @,@ 064 for females . The per capita income for the county was $ 23 @,@ 670 . About 6 @.@ 9 % of families and 8 @.@ 8 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 13 @.@ 9 % of those under age 18 and 6 @.@ 3 % of those age 65 or over .
= 2011 Cofidis season =
The 2011 season for the Cofidis cycling team began in January at the Grand Prix d 'Ouverture La Marseillaise and ended in October at Paris – Tours . Cofidis was a UCI Professional Continental team in 2011 , meaning they had to be proactively selected by the organizers of UCI World Tour events , including each of the season 's Grand Tours , if they were to compete .
The team 's most successful rider in 2011 was David Moncoutié . The veteran Frenchman won the Tour Méditerranéen and Tour de l 'Ain overall crowns , as well as successes in the Vuelta a España . Moncoutié took a stage win and the King of the Mountains , each for the fourth straight year ( a new record for the mountains title ) . Sprinter Samuel Dumoulin was also a prolific winner , winning six races .
= = 2011 roster = =
Ages as of January 1 , 2011 .
= = One @-@ day races = =
The team was active in races which preceded those known as " classics " and the traditional start of the spring season . At the Grand Prix d 'Ouverture la Marseillaise , held in January as the first race of the season in France , El Fares rode to tenth place by finishing in the main field behind the solo winner . In February , Gallopin was the team 's best finisher at two of the races in the Vuelta a Mallorca series , coming ninth at the unofficial Trofeo Palma de Mallorca and tenth at the Trofeo Inca .
= = = Spring classics = = =
Duque took a high placing at the Gran Premio dell 'Insubria @-@ Lugano , finishing just off the podium in fourth place , coming home in a group that trailed two leading riders . At Kuurne – Brussels – Kuurne , a race which included most of the sport 's top teams , Petit finished ninth in a field sprint finish at the front of the race . Ista narrowly missed out on a victory at Le Samyn in early March . The race 's top finishers came across the finish line scattered , in groups of eight or fewer . Ista finished second , alone , 8 seconds back of solo winner Dominic Klemme . Two weeks later , Keukeilere finished fourth in a sprint at Nokere Koerse . Gallopin finished on the podium at Cholet @-@ Pays de Loire . Team Europcar 's Thomas Voeckler won the race with a late attack , with the peloton coming so close to catching him at the finish line that there was no time gap . Gallopin was first from the peloton for second overall . Vogondy rode to fourth place at the Route Adélie de Vitré , just missing the podium after figuring into a winning breakaway .
The team picked up their first single @-@ day win the same day as the more prestigious Tour of Flanders , in which they participated but were not especially competitive , with Duque in 19th their best finisher . The race they won was the inaugural Flèche d 'Emeraude , a new race in the UCI Europe Tour and the French Road Cycling Cup . Gallopin came first at the head of a field sprint in Saint @-@ Malo . Zingle figured into a winning breakaway at the Brabantse Pijl , the precursor to the Ardennes classics . He took seventh place , a minute and a half back of the winner Philippe Gilbert . Vogondy was sixth at the Tour du Finistère , finishing with a big main group behind two leaders .
Demaret took the team 's second single @-@ day win at the Tartu GP in late May . He was the best of a five @-@ rider breakaway at the front of the race , one which included teammate Taaramäe . That same day , Gallopin took sixth in a sprint finish to the Grand Prix de Plumelec @-@ Morbihan . The team 's last race of the early season was Halle – Ingooigem in June , where Sijmens rode to ninth place .
The team was not especially competitive at the spring season 's monument classics , coming in 37th at Milan - San Remo , 19th at the Tour of Flanders , 29th at Paris – Roubaix , and 57th at Liège – Bastogne – Liège . The team also sent squads to the Trofeo Laigueglia , Omloop Het Nieuwsblad , Gran Premio di Lugano , Les Boucles du Sud Ardèche , Dwars door Vlaanderen , E3 Prijs Vlaanderen – Harelbeke , Gent @-@ Wevelgem , Scheldeprijs , Paris – Camembert , the Grand Prix de Denain , the Amstel Gold Race , Tro @-@ Bro Léon , La Flèche Wallonne , the Eschborn @-@ Frankfurt City Loop , and the Tallinn @-@ Tartu GP , but finished no higher than 12th in any of these races .
= = = Fall races = = =
The team secured several high placings in the later season , but did not obtain any victories . In late July , the team took two of the top six placings at the Polynormande , with El Fares in second and Gallopin in sixth . El Fares had been part of a breakaway , and Gallopin first from the peloton four and a half minutes back . The result put Gallopin into the lead in the French Road Cycling Cup , the year @-@ long competition among French single @-@ day races where French riders , and those on French teams , can earn points . Cusin came eighth at the Tour du Doubs in September . Petit just missed out on the podium at the Grand Prix de Fourmies , finishing fourth in a large field sprint . He made the podium in a similar finish at Binche – Tournai – Binche in October , finishing third . Also in October , Dumoulin took ninth place at Paris – Bourges , from a selective sprint of ten riders . Duque was seventh in a leading group of thirteen at the Grand Prix de la Somme . Though he won only the one race , Gallopin 's consistent high finishes in the French single @-@ day races made him the overall victor of the season @-@ long French Road Cycling Cup , which he clinched after the Tour de Vendée .
The team sent squads to the Châteauroux Classic , the GP Ouest @-@ France , Paris – Brussels , the Grand Prix Cycliste de Québec , the Grand Prix Cycliste de Montréal , the Grand Prix de Wallonie , the Tour de Vendée , and Paris – Tours , but finished no higher than 11th in any of these races .
= = Stage races = =
The team got their first win of the season , in their first stage race , at the Étoile de Bessèges . Dumoulin made a late selection in stage 3 , joining nine other riders who finished just ahead of the rest of the peloton , and won the sprint to the finish line . Later in February , Moncoutié won the queen stage of the Tour Méditerranéen , finishing at Mont Faron . He had previously won stages there in 2003 and 2009 , but his win this year was enough to win him the race overall thanks to his time gap . The squad also won the teams classification . Dumoulin took another win later in February , in the first stage of the two @-@ day Tour du Haut Var . He stayed latched onto Rinaldo Nocentini 's wheel during the stage 's final climb , and came around him in the sprint .
Taaramäe took fourth overall at Paris – Nice in March , winning the youth classification with this performance , which was easily the strongest for an Estonian rider in the event 's history . Taaramäe turned in a similar strong ride at the two @-@ day , three @-@ stage Critérium International , finishing on the event 's final podium in third place , and securing the youth classification . At the concurrent Volta a Catalunya , Dumoulin took two stage wins . The first was in stage 5 , on an uphill false flat finish which Dumoulin felt suited him well . The second was more unexpected , in that it was a dead flat run in to the finish on wide roads , a more traditional field sprint . Dumoulin was delighted to win twice in front of some of the sport 's biggest stars , and stated that his next goal would be a major spring classic , perhaps the Amstel Gold Race . Dumoulin , however , was not a factor at the Amstel , finishing 104th , over eight minutes behind the winner .
In June , Maté won the final stage at the Route du Sud , coming best in a five @-@ man breakaway sprint . Keukeleire , a prolific winner in his neo @-@ pro season of 2010 but shut out in the first several months of 2011 , took his first win of the year in July at the Tour of Austria . He won a selective sprint at the end of stage 3 , finishing at the head of a 23 @-@ rider group that included the race 's top riders . It was also in that stage that Edet took the lead in the mountains classification . He went on to win it at the end of the race , holding off Skil – Shimano 's Alexandre Geniez by a single point .
The team took several wins in August . Dumoulin took a win in the first stage of Paris – Corrèze , breaking away near the end of the day to finish 4 seconds better than the main field . By finishing in the front group the next day , he secured overall victory in the two @-@ day event . On the same day Dumoulin secured Paris – Corrèze , Cusin narrowly defeated Saxo Bank – SunGard 's Matti Breschel at the end of stage 2 at the Tour of Denmark . After laying 28 seconds down in the overall classification before the final day at the Tour de l 'Ain , Moncoutié secured overall victory the next day . He missed out on the stage win to FDJ 's Thibaut Pinot , but by finishing only 3 seconds back he moved past previous race leader Wout Poels to win the event itself . Lastly , Gallopin took a stage at the Tour du Limousin . He took his second win of the season by breaking away from the peloton within stage 's final kilometer , and holding on for first by 6 seconds .
The team also sent squads to the Volta ao Algarve , Three Days of West Flanders , the Circuit de la Sarthe , the Presidential Cycling Tour of Turkey , Four Days of Dunkirk , the Circuit de Lorraine , the Tour of Belgium , the Critérium du Dauphiné , the Tour of Slovenia , the Eneco Tour , the Tour du Poitou Charentes , and Circuit Franco @-@ Belge , but did not obtain a stage win , classification win , or podium finish in any of them .
= = Grand Tours = =
As a Professional Continental team , Cofidis needed to be selected by the organizers of any of the Grand Tours in order to participate . They were selected to ride the Tour de France and the Vuelta a España , but not the Giro d 'Italia .
= = = Tour de France = = =
The Amaury Sport Organisation announced the wildcard entries to the Tour de France in January , much earlier in than in past years . Cofidis , who had participated in the Tour every year of their existence , were among the four teams added to the 18 UCI ProTeams obligated to attend . After not racing the Tour in 2010 and indicating at the time that he may not return to it , Moncoutié decided instead to ride the 2011 Tour with hopes of winning the King of the Mountains title . The decision put a bit of doubt to his potential return to the Vuelta a España , notwithstanding the team needing a wildcard for that race as well , in spite of his three @-@ year string of winning the mountains classification at that race . Taaramäe , Dumoulin , El Fares , and Vogondy were also named to the squad .
Taaramäe finished near the front of the race on stage 1 atop the short Mont des Alouettes hill . He was distanced by stage winner Philippe Gilbert and eventual Tour de France winner Cadel Evans , but finished with the main front group six seconds back for eighth on the day . The team had a very poor team time trial , coming in 21st . They were second to last , ahead of Euskaltel – Euskadi , who are renowned for having weak time trialists on their roster , and only by 2 seconds . The result dropped Taaramäe down to 66th place . The squad was mostly quiet in the first half of the Tour , with Gallopin taking fourth in a field sprint to finish stage 5 and Dumoulin tenth in stage 10 their best finishes .
On stage 13 into Lourdes , which included a passage over the hors catégorie climb Col d 'Aubisque , Moncoutié figured into a ten @-@ man breakaway . Given the lack of overall threat in the group , the peloton did not mount a serious chase , meaning the stage winner would come from this group of ten . FDJ 's Jérémy Roy broke away from the group on the way up the climb . Moncoutié strenuously chased him , with Thor Hushovd following behind . The other breakaway riders all faded , finishing five minutes back on the stage . Roy crested the Aubisque first , and Moncoutié second . Hushovd , a rider known as a very strong descender , caught up with Moncoutié on the way down the Aubisque . With a short flat section still to race after the descent , Moncoutié and Hushovd worked cohesively as a chase group behind Roy . They caught and passed Roy 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from the end of the stage , and Hushovd eventually dropped Moncoutié as well to be the solo stage winner ; Moncoutié finished second and Roy third . Moncoutié was roundly criticized by the French press for collaborating with Hushovd in the chase , with Roy ( a fellow Frenchman ) up the road . To that point in the Tour , no French rider had yet won a stage . Team manager Boyer defended Moncoutié , saying Hushovd was likely to surpass Roy and win any sprint at the end of the stage no matter what , and by working with him Moncoutié assured himself second place rather than falling to third .
Taaramäe took over the white jersey for best young rider from Rigoberto Urán on stage 18 . Urán finished a distant 27th on the day , seven minutes off the pace of stage winner Andy Schleck . Taaramäe 's eighth place , three minutes back of Schleck but four minutes the better of Urán , moved him into 11th place overall and into the best young rider 's position , by 33 seconds over Pierre Rolland . Rolland won the stage at Alpe d 'Huez the next day , with Taaramäe finishing 14th two minutes back . This gave Rolland an advantage of a minute and 33 seconds going into the stage 20 individual time trial , where Taaramäe 's skills are superior . Taaramäe indeed finished better than Rolland in the time trial , tenth to Rolland 's 21st , but gained only 48 seconds . This was insufficient to win back the white jersey before the final , largely ceremonial stage into Paris on the Tour 's final day . Taaramäe finished the Tour in 12th place overall , at a deficit of eleven and a half minutes to Tour champion Cadel Evans . Moncoutié was not a major factor in any classification , finishing 41st overall and 25th in the mountains classification . Given his result at just 24 years of age , and that he retains eligibility for the white jersey in the 2012 Tour de France , Boyer expressed that he was quite pleased with Taaramäe 's performance , and that he expected the Estonian to be a contender for the overall podium at the Tour within two or three years .
= = = Vuelta a España = = =
Cofidis was one of the four wildcard entries to the Vuelta a España . After a disappointing Tour de France , Moncoutié decided to ride the Vuelta in hopes of capturing his fourth consecutive King of the Mountains jersey at the Spanish Grand Tour , which would be a new record . While he had entered 2011 thinking it would likely be his last season as a professional rider , Moncoutié changed his mind about that as well and said he would " probably be part of the bunch in 2012 . " Taaramäe was also named to the team for the Vuelta .
The squad did slightly better in the stage 1 team time trial than they did in the equivalent stage at the Tour de France , coming 17th of 22 teams . Moncoutié secured a high placing on stage 6 , coming in ninth on the day with the lead chase group that finished behind four Liquigas – Cannondale riders at the head of the race . Taaramäe climbed with the race 's best riders on stage 9 , coming in seventh on La Covatilla . However , he was not any sort of overall threat – he was already over an hour down in the overall standings , having been in breakaways in stages 4 , 6 , and 8 which did not succeed and lost considerable time to the stage winner each day .
Moncoutié participated in a winning breakaway in stage 11 . Some 19 km ( 12 mi ) from the end of the stage , which concluded on a climb at Estación de Montaña Manzaneda , Moncoutié set out on a solo attack to win the stage . The attack was successful , and the veteran Frenchman won a Vuelta stage for the fourth consecutive year . He said after the stage that he rued falling short at Sierra Nevada , and had studied this course profile carefully to know when to attack to get away for victory . The result also moved Moncoutié up to second in the mountains classification , just a single point behind Ag2r – La Mondiale 's Matteo Montaguti . He took the jersey two days later on stage 13 by joining another winning breakaway . Montaguti had also made the breakaway , but he was unable to stay at the front of the race all day . Moncoutié took two second places and one win on the final three climbs of the day , resulting in a 12 @-@ point lead over Montaguti in the classification . The next day was another good one for the team . Taaramäe made the morning breakaway and held off the race 's top riders as they neared the front of the race . He held on for victory atop La Farrapona by 25 seconds ahead of eventual Vuelta champion Juan José Cobo in second , as all other members of the breakaway finished well back .
Moncoutié all but clinched his mountains classification triumph on stage 15 . While he finished nine minutes behind Cobo on Angliru , he won the day 's second climb to score ten mountain points and increase his lead over Montaguti to 22 points . He scored his final mountain classification points on stage 17 , ending with a total of 63 . Montaguti nearly reclaimed the jersey on stage 18 , when he made a breakaway and Moncoutié did not . Fortunately for Moncoutié , teammate Sijmens had made the escape group and kept Montaguti from maximum points on four of the five climbs . Given that riders who are not involved in a classification nor have teammates that are will generally not ride against someone who is , Sijmens ' presence in this breakway was effectively the only way Moncoutié could have retained the jersey . Moncoutié continued to lead Montaguti , by a score of 63 @-@ 56 . Neither rider scored again , and Moncoutié won his fourth consecutive mountains title , a first in Vuelta history . He was the team 's best overall finisher as well , but was not any real threat , coming in 37th overall at a deficit of over an hour to Cobo . Taaramäe , for his part , did not complete the Vuelta , abandoning on stage 17 .
= = Season victories = =
= James VI and I =
James VI and I ( 19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 ) was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death . The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states , with their own parliaments , judiciary , and laws , though both were ruled by James in personal union .
James was the son of Mary , Queen of Scots , and a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Henry VII , King of England and Lord of Ireland ( through both his parents ) , uniquely positioning him to eventually accede to all three thrones . James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months , after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour . Four different regents governed during his minority , which ended officially in 1578 , though he did not gain full control of his government until 1583 . In 1603 , he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland , Elizabeth I , who died without issue . He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years , a period known as the Jacobean era after him , until his death in 1625 at the age of 58 . After the Union of the Crowns , he based himself in England ( the largest of the three realms ) from 1603 , only returning to Scotland once in 1617 , and styled himself " King of Great Britain and Ireland " . He was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland . In his reign , the Plantation of Ulster and British colonisation of the Americas began .
At 57 years and 246 days , James 's reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors . He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced great difficulties in England , including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and repeated conflicts with the English Parliament . Under James , the " Golden Age " of Elizabethan literature and drama continued , with writers such as William Shakespeare , John Donne , Ben Jonson , and Sir Francis Bacon contributing to a flourishing literary culture . James himself was a talented scholar , the author of works such as Daemonologie ( 1597 ) , The True Law of Free Monarchies ( 1598 ) , and Basilikon Doron ( 1599 ) . He sponsored the translation of the Bible that was named after him : the Authorised King James Version . Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed " the wisest fool in Christendom " , an epithet associated with his character ever since . Since the latter half of the 20th century , historians have tended to revise James 's reputation and treat him as a serious and thoughtful monarch .
= = Childhood = =
= = = Birth = = =
James was the only son of Mary , Queen of Scots , and her second husband , Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley . Both Mary and Darnley were great @-@ grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor , the older sister of Henry VIII . Mary 's rule over Scotland was insecure , and she and her husband , being Roman Catholics , faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen . During Mary 's and Darnley 's difficult marriage , Darnley secretly allied himself with the rebels and conspired in the murder of the Queen 's private secretary , David Rizzio , just three months before James 's birth .
James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle , and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland . He was baptised " Charles James " or " James Charles " on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle . His godparents were Charles IX of France ( represented by John , Count of Brienne ) , Elizabeth I of England ( represented by the Earl of Bedford ) , and Emmanuel Philibert , Duke of Savoy ( represented by ambassador Philibert du Croc ) . Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews , whom she referred to as " a pocky priest " , spit in the child 's mouth , as was then the custom . The subsequent entertainment , devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez , featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails ; the English guests took offence , thinking the satyrs " done against them " .
James 's father , Darnley , was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o ' Field , Edinburgh , perhaps in revenge for Rizzio 's death . James inherited his father 's titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross . Mary was already unpopular , and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn , 4th Earl of Bothwell , who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley , heightened widespread bad feeling towards her . In June 1567 , Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle ; she never saw her son again . She was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half @-@ brother , James Stewart , Earl of Moray , as regent .
= = = Regencies = = =
The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar , " to be conserved , nursed , and upbrought " in the security of Stirling Castle . James was crowned King of Scots at the age of thirteen months at the Church of the Holy Rude , Stirling , by Adam Bothwell , Bishop of Orkney , on 29 July 1567 . The sermon at the coronation was preached by John Knox . In accordance with the religious beliefs of most of the Scottish ruling class , James was brought up as a member of the Protestant Church of Scotland . The Privy Council selected George Buchanan , Peter Young , Adam Erskine ( lay abbot of Cambuskenneth ) , and David Erskine ( lay abbot of Dryburgh ) as James 's preceptors or tutors . As the young king 's senior tutor , Buchanan subjected James to regular beatings but also instilled in him a lifelong passion for literature and learning . Buchanan sought to turn James into a God @-@ fearing , Protestant king who accepted the limitations of monarchy , as outlined in his treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos .
In 1568 , Mary escaped from her imprisonment at Loch Leven Castle , leading to several years of sporadic violence . The Earl of Moray defeated Mary 's troops at the Battle of Langside , forcing her to flee to England , where she was subsequently imprisoned by Elizabeth . On 23 January 1570 , Moray was assassinated by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh . The next regent was James 's paternal grandfather Matthew Stewart , 4th Earl of Lennox , who was carried fatally wounded into Stirling Castle a year later after a raid by Mary 's supporters . His successor , the Earl of Mar , " took a vehement sickness " and died on 28 October 1572 at Stirling . Mar 's illness , wrote James Melville , followed a banquet at Dalkeith Palace given by James Douglas , 4th Earl of Morton .
Morton was elected to Mar 's office and proved in many ways the most effective of James 's regents , but he made enemies by his rapacity . He fell from favour when Frenchman Esmé Stewart , Sieur d 'Aubigny , first cousin of James 's father Lord Darnley and future Earl of Lennox , arrived in Scotland and quickly established himself as the first of James 's powerful male favourites . Morton was executed on 2 June 1581 , belatedly charged with complicity in Lord Darnley 's murder . On 8 August , James made Lennox the only duke in Scotland . The king , then fifteen years old , remained under the influence of Lennox for about one more year .
= = Rule in Scotland = =
Lennox was a Protestant convert , but he was distrusted by Scottish Calvinists who noticed the physical displays of affection between him and the king and alleged that Lennox " went about to draw the King to carnal lust " . In August 1582 , in what became known as the Ruthven Raid , the Protestant earls of Gowrie and Angus lured James into Ruthven Castle , imprisoned him , and forced Lennox to leave Scotland . During his imprisonment , John Craig , whom James had personally appointed Royal Chaplain in 1579 , rebuked him so sharply from the pulpit ( 19 September 1582 ) for having issued a proclamation offensive to the clergy " that the king wept " .
After James was liberated in June 1583 , he assumed increasing control of his kingdom . He pushed through the Black Acts to assert royal authority over the Kirk , and denounced the writings of his former tutor Buchanan . Between 1584 and 1603 , he established effective royal government and relative peace among the lords , ably assisted by John Maitland of Thirlestane who led the government until 1592 . An eight @-@ man commission known as the Octavians brought some control over the ruinous state of James 's finances in 1596 , but it drew opposition from vested interests . It was disbanded within a year after a riot in Edinburgh that was stoked by anti @-@ Catholicism led the court to withdraw to Linlithgow temporarily .
One last Scottish attempt against the king 's person occurred in August 1600 , when James was apparently assaulted by Alexander Ruthven , the Earl of Gowrie 's younger brother , at Gowrie House , the seat of the Ruthvens . Ruthven was run through by James 's page John Ramsay and the Earl of Gowrie was himself killed in the ensuing fracas ; there were few surviving witnesses . James 's account of the circumstances was not universally believed , given his history with the Ruthvens and the fact that he owed them a great deal of money .
In 1586 , James signed the Treaty of Berwick with England . That and the execution of his mother in 1587 , which he denounced as a " preposterous and strange procedure " , helped clear the way for his succession south of the border . Queen Elizabeth was unmarried and childless , and James was her most likely successor . Securing the English succession became a cornerstone of his policy . During the Spanish Armada crisis of 1588 , he assured Elizabeth of his support as " your natural son and compatriot of your country " .
= = = Marriage = = =
Throughout his youth , James was praised for his chastity , since he showed little interest in women . After the loss of Lennox , he continued to prefer male company . A suitable marriage , however , was necessary to reinforce his monarchy , and the choice fell on fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Anne of Denmark , younger daughter of Protestant Frederick II . Shortly after a proxy marriage in Copenhagen in August 1589 , Anne sailed for Scotland but was forced by storms to the coast of Norway . James sailed from Leith on hearing that the crossing had been abandoned , in what Willson calls " the one romantic episode of his life " , with a 300 @-@ strong retinue to fetch Anne personally . The couple were married formally at the Bishop 's Palace in Oslo on 23 November and returned to Scotland on 1 May 1590 , after stays at Elsinore and Copenhagen and a meeting with Tycho Brahe . By all accounts , James was at first infatuated with Anne and , in the early years of their marriage , seems always to have showed her patience and affection . The royal couple produced three children who survived to adulthood : Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , who died of typhoid fever in 1612 , aged 18 ; Elizabeth , later queen of Bohemia ; and Charles , his successor . Anne died before her husband in March 1619 .
= = = Witch hunts = = =
James 's visit to Denmark , a country familiar with witch @-@ hunts , sparked an interest in the study of witchcraft , which he considered a branch of theology . He attended the North Berwick witch trials , the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the Witchcraft Act 1563 . Several people were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James 's ship , most notably Agnes Sampson .
James became obsessed with the threat posed by witches and wrote the Daemonologie in 1597 , a tract inspired by his personal involvement which opposed the practice of witchcraft and which provided background material for Shakespeare 's Tragedy of Macbeth . James personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches . After 1599 , his views became more sceptical . In a later letter written in England to his son Prince Henry , James congratulates the Prince on " the discovery of yon little counterfeit wench . I pray God ye may be my heir in such discoveries ... most miracles now @-@ a @-@ days prove but illusions , and ye may see by this how wary judges should be in trusting accusations " .
= = = Highlands and Islands = = =
The forcible dissolution of the Lordship of the Isles by James IV in 1493 had led to troubled times for the western seaboard . The king had subdued the organised military might of the Hebrides , but he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance . As a result , the 16th century became known as linn nan creach , the time of raids . Furthermore , the effects of the Reformation were slow to affect the Gàidhealtachd , driving a religious wedge between this area and centres of political control in the Central Belt .
In 1540 , James V had toured the Hebrides , forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him . There followed a period of peace , but the clans were soon at loggerheads with one another again . During James VI 's reign , the citizens of the Hebrides were portrayed as lawless barbarians rather than being the cradle of Scottish Christianity and nationhood . Official documents describe the peoples of the Highlands as " void of the knawledge and feir of God " who were prone to " all kynd of barbarous and bestile cruelteis " . The Gaelic language , spoken fluently by James IV and probably by James V , became known in the time of James VI as " Erse " or Irish , implying that it was foreign in nature . The Scottish Parliament decided that Gaelic had become a principal cause of the Highlanders ' shortcomings and sought to abolish it .
It was against this background that James VI authorised the " Gentleman Adventurers of Fife " to civilise the " most barbarous Isle of Lewis " in 1598 . James wrote that the colonists were to act " not by agreement " with the local inhabitants , but " by extirpation of thame " . Their landing at Stornoway began well , but the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod . The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result , although a third attempt in 1607 was more successful . The Statutes of Iona were enacted in 1609 , which required clan chiefs to : send their heirs to Lowland Scotland to be educated in English @-@ speaking Protestant schools ; provide support for Protestant ministers to Highland parishes ; outlaw bards ; and regularly report to Edinburgh to answer for their actions . So began a process " specifically aimed at the extirpation of the Gaelic language , the destruction of its traditional culture and the suppression of its bearers . "
In the Northern Isles , James 's cousin Patrick Stewart , Earl of Orkney resisted the Statutes of Iona and was consequently imprisoned . His natural son Robert led an unsuccessful rebellion against James , and the Earl and his son were hanged . Their estates were forfeited , and the Orkney and Shetland islands were annexed to the Crown .
= = = Theory of monarchy = = =
In 1597 – 98 , James wrote The True Law of Free Monarchies and Basilikon Doron ( Royal Gift ) , in which he argues a theological basis for monarchy
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Ibn Batuta has reasoned that Muhammad Shah wished to see a unified city comprising Old Delhi , Siri , Jahanpanah and Tughlaqabad with one contiguous fortification encompassing them but cost considerations forced him to abandon the plan halfway . In his chronicle , Batuta also stated that the Hazar Sutan Palace ( 1000 pillared palace ) , built outside the Siri fort limits but within the Jahanpanah city area , was the residence of the Tughlaq .
Hazar Sutan Palace was located within the fortified area of the Jahnapanah in Bijaya Mandal ( literal meaning in Hindi : ' victory platform ' ) . The grand palace with its audience hall of beautifully painted wooden canopy and columns is vividly described but it does no longer exists . The Fort acted as a safe haven for the people living between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri . Tughalqabad continued to act as Tughlaq ’ s centre of government until , for strange and inexplicable reasons , he shifted his capital to Daulatabad , however he returned after a short period .
= = = Adilabad = = =
Adilabad , a fort of modest size , built on the hills to the south of Tughlaqabad was provided with protective massive ramparts on its boundary around the city of Jahanpanah . The fort was much smaller than its predecessor fort , Tughlaqabad fort , but of similar design . Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) in its evaluation of the status of the fort for conservation has recorded that two gates ,
one with barbicans between two bastions on the south @-@ east and another on the south @-@ west . Inside , it , separated by a bailey , is a citadel consisting of walls , bastions and gates within which lay the palaces .
The fort was also known as ‘ Muhammadabad ’ , but inferred as a later day development . The two gates on the southeast and southwest of Adilabad fort had chambers at the lower level while the east and west gates had grain bins and courtyards at the upper floors . The fortifications built , linking with the other two city walls , was 12 m ( 39 @.@ 4 ft ) in thickness and extended to a length of 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) . Another smaller fortress , called the Nai @-@ ka @-@ kot was also built at a distance of about 700 m ( 2 @,@ 296 @.@ 6 ft ) from Adilabad , with citadel and army camps , which are now seen only in ruins .
Tughlaq ’ s primary attention to infrastructure , particularly of water supply to the city , was also well thought out . A structure ( weir or tank ) with seven sluices ( Urdu : Satpula ) was built on a stream that flowed through the city . This structure called the Satpula is still existing ( though non – functional ) near Khirki village on the boundary walls of Jahanpanah . Similar structures had also been built at Tughlaqabad and Delhi in Hauz Khas Complex , thus covering the water supply needs of entire population of Jahanpanah .
= = = Begampur Mosque = = =
Now , remnants of the city lie scattered in Begumpur village , as a mute reminder of its ancient glory . The Begumpur Mosque , a vestige of the old city , of overall layout plan of 90 m × 94 m ( 295 @.@ 3 ft × 308 @.@ 4 ft ) size with the inner courtyard measuring 75 m × 80 m ( 246 @.@ 1 ft × 262 @.@ 5 ft ) , is said to be patterned on an Iranian design planned by the Iranian architect Zahir al @-@ Din al @-@ Jayush . A majestic building in the heart of the city with a pride of place played a pivotal role of serving as a madrasa , an administrative centre with the treasury and a mosque of large proportions serving as a social community hub surrounded by a market area . It has an unusual layout with three arch covered passages with a " three by eight " deep nine bay prayer hall on the west . Construction of this mosque is credited to two sources . One view is that it was built by Khan @-@ i @-@ Jahan Maqbul Tilangani , Prime Minister during Feroz Shah Tughlaq ’ s rule , who was also builder of six more masjids ( two of them in the close vicinity ) . The other view is that it was built by Tughlaq because of its proximity to Bijay Mandal and could probably be dated to 1351 A.D. , the year Tughlaq died here . In support of the second view , it is said that Ibn Batuta , the chronicler of the period ( till his departure from Delhi in 1341 A.D. ) had not recorded this monument . The Mosque considered an architectural masterpiece ( see pictures in gallery ) has three gates , one in each of the three covered passages , in North , East ( main gate ) and South directions . The west wall which has the Mihrab , has Toghluqi style tapering minarets flanking the central high opening covered by a big dome . The entire passageway of the west wall has twenty @-@ five arched openings . The Mihrab wall depicts five projections . The prayer hall has modest decorative carvings but the columns and walls are bland . The eastern gate approach is from the road level up a flight of steps to negotiate the raised plinth on which this unique mosque has been built with a four Iwan layout . Stone chajjas or eaves can also be seen on all the four arcades . The Northern entry with 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) raised entrance , probably linked the Mosque to the Bijayamandal Palace . The stucco plastering work on the mosque walls have lasted for centuries and even now show some tiles fixed on them at a few locations . The mosque was under occupation during Jahanpanah 's existence till the 17th century . In the later period , encroachers had occupied the mosque but were cleared by the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) in 1921 . A shuttered by lane entry from the north has been interpreted as an approach that was used by the womenfolk of the Sultan 's family for attending prayers in the mosque .
= = = Bijay Mandal = = =
Bijay Mandal is a building with a layout plan of 74 m ( 242 @.@ 8 ft ) x82 m ( 269 @.@ 0 ft ) dimensions , with a well proportioned square dome . It cannot be categorized as a tower or a palace . It is a typical Toghlaqi structure with an octagonal plan built in rubble masonry ( with massive battered sloping walls on east , west and southern directions ) on a raised platform with door ways in each cardinal direction . The purpose of this unusual structure and the ruins of the Sar Dara Palace was described by Ibn Battuta as the palace with multiple chambers and the large public audience hall as the famed Hazar Sutan Palace . It was also interpreted as serving as an observation tower to monitor the activities of his troops . The ambience of the place presented it as place to relax and enjoy the scenic view of the environs . The inclined path around the monument was a walkway leading to the apartments of the Sultan . Two large openings in the living rooms of the floor were inferred as leading to the vaults or the treasury . On the level platform , outside the building in front of the apartment rooms , small holes equally spaced are seen , which have been inferred to be holes used to fix wooden pillars to hold a temporary shamiana ( pavilion ) or cover . The process of ushering people into the presence of the Sultan was devious and formal involving entry through semi – public places to private chambers to the audience hall . The debate on whether the Hazara Sutan Palace cited as existing during Allauddin Khilji reign and also during Togluq 's time are one and the same palace , has not been conclusive . A plausible hypothesis is that the stone hall of the palace was built by Allauddin Khilji while the tower adjoining the stone buildings was surely built by Mohammed bin Toghluq .
Archaeological excavations carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed treasures from the vaults in the buildings , which date the occupation of this monument during Feruz Shah ’ s reign and also by Sheikh Hasan Tahir ( a saint ) during Sikander Lodi ’ s rule at the beginning of the 16th century . Also , excavations done in 1934 have revealed wooden pillar bases attributed to the Hazar Sutan Palace . Within the close precincts of the Bijaymandal , a domed building is seen which has a unique architectural façade of two openings on each of its three sides , interpreted as an annex to another building ( based on underground passages seen in the adjoining structure ) . However , the purpose for which this dome was built is not known .
Kalusarai Masjid
Kalusarai Masjid is located 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 @.@ 4 ft ) to the north of the Bijaymandal but it is in a highly dilapidated state ( pictured ) needing urgent attention for restoration in view of its heritage monument status . At present , it is occupied as a residential complex by a few families . The Masjid was built by the famous builder of Mosques Khan @-@ i @-@ Jahan Maqbul Tilangani , Prime Minister during Feroz Shah Tughlaq ’ s reign , as one of his seven mosques ; built in the same architectural style as the other six built by him . But even now the visible decorations of the mihrab appear to be more intricate than in his other mosques . When built with rubble masonry and plastered , the mosque had seven arched openings as the frontage , three bays depth wise and crowned by a sequence of low domes in typical Toghluqi architectural style .
= = = Serai Shaji Mahal = = =
Further to the east of Begumpur Masjid , in the Serai Shahji village , Mughal period buildings are seen of which the Serai Shaji Mahal is a distinguishing monument . The area surrounding this is scattered with decrepit gates , graves and a large slum area . A little distance from this place is the tomb of Shiekh Farid Murtaza Khan , who during Emperor Akbar ’ s period , was credited with building a number of Serai 's , a mosque and Faridabad village , which is now the present – day large city in Haryana .
= = Other notable structures = =
Other notable structures in the Jahanpanah ’ s ambit of 20 ha ( 49 @.@ 4 acres ) area in close vicinity of the present day Panchshila Public School are the following :
The Lal Gumbad , was built as a tomb for Shaikh Kabbiruddin Auliya ( 1397 ) , a sufi saint who lived in the 14th century as a disciple of Sufi saint Shaikh Raushan Chiragh – i – Delhi . The dome tomb was built with red sandstone . It is considered to be a small size replica of the Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ’ s Tomb in Tughlaqabad . The gateway to the tomb has a pointed arch with marble bands . It is also called the Rakabwala Gumbad because dacoits had stolen the finial on the roof of the tomb by climbing up over the iron rungs ( called ' Rakab ' ) on its western wall . Apart from these structures , the four walls of a mosque also are within the compound wall of the tomb .
The Sadhana Enclave are features Baradari an arched hall . Thought to have been built in the 14th century or 15th century , it is in a fairly well preserved condition . A Lodi period tomb is also seen nearby .
Further away from the Sadhana enclave on its opposite side , in Shiekh Serai , three tombs are noted of which only one is well preserved , the squared domed tomb of Sheikh Alauddin ( 1541 – 42 ) . The tomb building is raised on twelve columns with perforated screens on the façade has a large dome , creating a drum with sixteen faces . The ceiling of the tomb is well decorated with medallions in plaster on the spandrel of arches and within the parapets a merlon design .
= = Conservation measures = =
Archaeological excavations were done by ASI in part of the fort walls at its junction with the eastern wall of Qila Rai Pithora . The excavations revealed rough and small stones in the foundations followed by an ashlar face in the exterior wall above ground . The ASI is presently involved in conservation activities of the wall , providing railings , environmental improvements and lighting of the area , at a cost of Rs 15 lakhs ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) .
= = Modern location = =
Jahanpanah 's ruins are mostly concentrated in South Delhi in the present suburbs of Kalu Sarai , Bijaymandal , Adchini , Begumpur village , IIT , Delhi crossing , Aurobindo Marg , Malviya Nagar , Panchsheel Enclave South , Sadhana Enclave , Press Enclave road , in the urban village of Chirag Delhi , Tuhghlaqabad and Qutub Minar . The ancient city walls are seen at a few locations , such as east of Khirki village near Satpula . The main approach road from Connaught Place to Qutub Minar complex passes through the IIT crossing at a distance of 14 @.@ 5 km ( 9 @.@ 0 mi ) . The Outer Ring Road also crosses this road at IIT crossing . From this crossing , all the locations can be reached from the Aurobindo Marg diversion road next to the Essex Farms ( opposite to IIT , Delhi ) .
= = Gallery = =
= Roon @-@ class cruiser =
The Roon class was a pair of armored cruisers built for the German Imperial Navy after the turn of the 20th century . The class comprised Roon and Yorck , which closely resembled the earlier Prinz Adalbert @-@ class ships , but incorporated slight incremental improvements . The ships were easily distinguished from their predecessors by the addition of a fourth funnel . Like all of the armored cruisers built by Germany , they were intended to serve as station ships in Germany 's overseas possessions . The ships did not compare well with their British rivals .
The two ships served with the High Seas Fleet in the reconnaissance squadrons after they joined the fleet in 1905 – 1906 . At the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , the ships served alongside the more powerful battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . While returning to port after a raid of the English coast on 16 December 1914 , Yorck struck German mines and sank with heavy loss of life . Roon was disarmed in 1916 and intended to be converted into a seaplane carrier , though this was never carried out . The ship was eventually broken up for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Design work on Roon and her sister ship Yorck was completed in 1901 . The design for the Roon class can be traced back to the first German armored cruiser , Fürst Bismarck , built between 1896 – 1900 , and the preceding Victoria Louise class of protected cruisers that came before it . The German armored cruisers were designed for overseas service , specifically to serve as station ships in the German colonies in Africa , Asia , and the Pacific .
Roon and her sister Yorck were improved versions of the preceding Prinz Adalbert class . The two ships were slightly larger and faster than the Prinz Adalbert class and had a slightly different armor layout ; the Roon class ships had thinner armor on the turret faces , and slightly thinner armored decks . They shared many of the same layout characteristics as the contemporary German pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , including a smaller main armament but heavier secondary battery than their foreign equivalents . As a result , they compared unfavorably with their British contemporaries . Taylor describes the ships as " poorly protected and not a successful class in service . "
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Roon class were 127 @.@ 3 meters ( 418 ft ) long at the waterline and 127 @.@ 8 m ( 419 ft ) overall . They had a beam of 20 @.@ 2 m ( 66 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 76 m ( 25 @.@ 5 ft ) . Roon and Yorck displaced 9 @,@ 533 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 382 long tons ; 10 @,@ 508 short tons ) normally , and 10 @,@ 266 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 104 long tons ; 11 @,@ 316 short tons ) at full load . Their hulls were constructed from transverse and longitudinal steel frames that formed a structure over which the steel hull plates were riveted . The hulls contained 12 watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 60 percent of the length of the ship .
Like the preceding Prinz Adalbert @-@ class ships , Roon and Yorck were good sea boats ; when the fuel bunkers were full they had a gentle motion . They also maneuvered well and were responsive to the helm . With the rudder hard over , the ships lost up to 60 percent speed . The ships ' casemates were placed too low , and as a result they were exceedingly wet ; the casemate guns were impossible to use in heavy seas . They had a metacentric height of 1 @.@ 04 m ( 3 @.@ 4 ft ) . The ships ' standard complements numbered some 35 officers and 598 enlisted men . While serving as a squadron flagship the crew was augmented by 13 officers and 62 men , and as a second command ship by 9 officers and 44 sailors .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Roon and Yorck were powered by the same engine system as the preceding class , three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines , each of which drove one of the ships ' three screws . The central screw was 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) in diameter , and the outer screws were 4 @.@ 8 m ( 16 ft ) . Steam was provided to the engines by 16 boilers built by Düsseldorf @-@ Ratinger Röhrenkesselfabrik ( Dürr ) . Each boiler had 4 fireboxes apiece for a total of 48 . The propulsion system produced 19 @,@ 000 ihp ( 14 @,@ 200 kW ) , which delivered a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ) . The ships had four turbo generators , which provided 260 kilowatts at 110 volts . The ships had a single rudder .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' primary armament consisted of four 21 @-@ centimeter ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) SK L / 40 guns mounted in two twin turrets , one fore and one aft . These guns fired a 108 @-@ kilogram ( 238 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shell at a muzzle velocity of 780 meters ( 2 @,@ 560 ft ) per second , for a maximum range of 12 @,@ 300 m ( 13 @,@ 500 yd ) with their original maximum elevation of 16 degrees . The guns were later improved to 30 degrees , which extended the maximum range to 16 @,@ 200 m ( 17 @,@ 700 yd ) .
Secondary armament included ten 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 40 guns in single turrets and casemates and fourteen 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns , also casemated . The 15 cm guns fired a 40 kg ( 88 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) per second . The guns could be elevated to 30 degrees , which provided a maximum range of 13 @,@ 900 m ( 15 @,@ 200 yd ) . The 8 @.@ 8 cm guns fired a 7 kg ( 15 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 770 m ( 2 @,@ 530 ft ) per second . These guns had a maximum elevation of 25 degrees and a range of 9 @,@ 100 m ( 10 @,@ 000 yd ) . The ships were also equipped with four 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes .
This armament was identical to that on the preceding Prinz Adalbert class , with the exception of ammunition stores . The Roon @-@ class ships carried 380 shells for the main battery , 1 @,@ 600 rounds for the 15 cm guns , and 2 @,@ 100 shells for the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns . The planned conversion for Roon to a seaplane carrier called for six 15 cm L / 45 guns and six 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak guns , with 2 @,@ 400 rounds , though this was never carried out .
= = = Armor = = =
Roon and Yorck were protected by Krupp cemented steel armor . At the waterline , their armored belt was 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships where the ships ' vitals were located . This was decreased slightly to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) on either end of the central section of the belt . The belt was backed by 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) of teak planking . At the casemate deck the side armor was also 100 mm thick . The armored deck ranged in thickness from 40 – 60 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) and was connected to the belt by sloped armor that was 40 – 50 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
The forward conning tower had 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick roof . The rear conning tower was less well @-@ protected ; its sides were only 80 mm thick and its roof was 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick . The main battery gun turrets were armored with 150 mm thick steel plates on the sides and 30 mm thick roofs . The 15 cm turrets were protected by 100 mm thick sides and 80 mm thick gun shields .
= = Construction = =
Roon was laid down in 1902 at the Kiel Navy dockyard . She was launched on 27 June 1903 and completed on 5 April 1906 , at the cost of 15 @,@ 345 @,@ 000 marks . Yorck was laid down in February 1903 , at Blohm & Voss shipyard . Yorck was launched on 14 May 1904 and completed on 21 November 1905 at a cost of 16 @,@ 241 @,@ 000 marks . Roon was laid down as Ersatz Kaiser , as a replacement for the old armored frigate Kaiser , which had been renamed Uranus and used as a harbor ship . Yorck was ordered as Ersatz Deutschland to replace Deutschland , the sistership to Kaiser , which had renamed Jupiter and converted into a target ship .
= = Service history = =
= = = SMS Roon = = =
After commissioning into the fleet , Roon was assigned to the I Scouting Group . In 1908 , she served as the flagship for Rear Admiral Jacobsen in the second division . Roon served here until 1912 when she was replaced by the new battlecruiser Moltke .
At the start of World War I , Roon was serving as the flagship of the III Scouting Group . The ship participated in several actions during World War I , including the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , during which she served in the cruiser screen for the dreadnoughts of the High Seas Fleet . Roon also conducted operations against Russian forces in the Baltic Sea , including bombardments against the Russian positions at Libau in support of the army in May 1915 . The Battle of the Åland Islands took place between Roon and several other German cruisers and Russian forces led by the powerful cruiser Rurik. in July 1915 . In August Roon and Prinz Heinrich bombarded Russian positions in the Baltic and briefly engaged several Russian destroyers .
After 1916 , Roon was disarmed and used as a guard ship and floating barracks in Kiel until the end of the war . Design work commenced in 1916 to convert the ship into a seaplane carrier ; work was planned to last from 1917 to 1918 during a period of 20 months . The ship was struck from the naval register on 25 November 1920 and scrapped the following year at Kiel @-@ Nordmole .
= = = SMS Yorck = = =
Yorck also served in the I Scouting Group with her sister ship , in the second division . In 1908 , the ship won the annual " Kaiser 's Challenge Cups for Prize Firing " for the reconnaissance squadron . In 1911 , the ship came under the command of Franz von Hipper , who would go on to command the I Scouting Group during the war . Hipper held this position aboard Yorck from 1 October 1911 to 26 January 1912 . In early 1912 the ship was decommissioned and her crew was transferred to the new battlecruiser Seydlitz .
The ship had a short career during World War I. At the outbreak of war , Yorck was brought out of the reserve fleet and joined her sistership Roon in the III Scouting Group . After the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , the ship made a navigational error upon returning to the Jadebusen , and accidentally sailed into a German defensive minefield . The ship sank quickly and only 127 men of her complement of 629 were rescued . The wreck was cleared over several periods between 1929 and the mid @-@ 1980s . The first period of work lasted from 1929 – 30 ; work commenced briefly in 1965 . The final work on removing the ship began in 1982 .
= Haymarket affair =
The Haymarket affair ( also known as the Haymarket massacre or Haymarket riot ) was the aftermath of a bombing that took place at a labor demonstration on Tuesday May 4 , 1886 , at Haymarket Square in Chicago . It began as a peaceful rally in support of workers striking for an eight @-@ hour day and in reaction to the killing of several workers the previous day by the police . An unknown person threw a dynamite bomb at police as they acted to disperse the public meeting . The bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven police officers and at least four civilians ; scores of others were wounded .
In the internationally publicized legal proceedings that followed , eight anarchists were convicted of conspiracy . The evidence was that one of the defendants may have built the bomb , but none of those on trial had thrown it . Seven were sentenced to death and one to a term of 15 years in prison . The death sentences of two of the defendants were commuted by Illinois governor Richard J. Oglesby to terms of life in prison , and another committed suicide in jail rather than face the gallows . The other four were hanged on November 11 , 1887 . In 1893 , Illinois ' new governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned the remaining defendants and criticized the trial .
The Haymarket affair is generally considered significant as the origin of international May Day observances for workers . The site of the incident was designated a Chicago Landmark in 1992 , and a public sculpture was dedicated there in 2004 . In addition , the Haymarket Martyrs ' Monument at the defendants ' burial site in nearby Forest Park was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1997 .
" No single event has influenced the history of labor in Illinois , the United States , and even the world , more than the Chicago Haymarket Affair . It began with a rally on May 4 , 1886 , but the consequences are still being felt today . Although the rally is included in American history textbooks , very few present the event accurately or point out its significance , " according to labor studies professor William J. Adelman .
= = Background = =
Following the Civil War , particularly following the Depression of 1873 – 79 , there was a rapid expansion of industrial production in the United States . Chicago was a major industrial center and tens of thousands of German and Bohemian immigrants were employed at about $ 1 @.@ 50 a day . American workers worked on average slightly over 60 hours , during a six @-@ day work week . The city became a center for many attempts to organize labor 's demands for better working conditions . Employers responded with anti @-@ union measures , such as firing and blacklisting union members , locking out workers , recruiting strikebreakers ; employing spies , thugs , and private security forces and exacerbating ethnic tensions in order to divide the workers . Mainstream newspapers supported business interests , and were opposed by the labor and immigrant press . During the economic slowdown between 1882 and 1886 , socialist and anarchist organizations were active . Membership of the Knights of Labor , which rejected socialism and radicalism , but supported the 8 @-@ hour work day , grew from 70 @,@ 000 in 1884 to over 700 @,@ 000 by 1886 . In Chicago , the anarchist movement of several thousand , mostly immigrant , workers centered about the German @-@ language newspaper Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung ( " Workers ' Times " ) , edited by August Spies . Other anarchists operated a militant revolutionary force with an armed section that was equipped with guns and explosives . Its revolutionary strategy centered around the belief that successful operations against the police and the seizure of major industrial centers would result in massive public support by workers , revolution , destroy capitalism , and establish a socialist economy .
= = = May Day parade and strikes = = =
In October 1884 , a convention held by the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions unanimously set May 1 , 1886 , as the date by which the eight @-@ hour work day would become standard . As the chosen date approached , U.S. labor unions prepared for a general strike in support of the eight @-@ hour day .
On Saturday , May 1 , thousands of workers went on strike and rallies were held throughout the United States , with the cry , " Eight @-@ hour day with no cut in pay . " Estimates of the number of striking workers across the U.S. range from 300 @,@ 000 to half a million . In New York City the number of demonstrators was estimated at 10 @,@ 000 and in Detroit at 11 @,@ 000 . In Milwaukee , Wisconsin , some 10 @,@ 000 workers turned out . In Chicago , the movement 's center , an estimated 30 @,@ 000 @-@ to @-@ 40 @,@ 000 workers had gone on strike and there were perhaps twice as many people out on the streets participating in various demonstrations and marches , as , for example , a march by 10 @,@ 000 men employed in the Chicago lumber yards . Though participants in these events added up to 80 @,@ 000 , it is disputed whether there was a march of that number down Michigan Avenue led by anarchist Albert Parsons , founder of the International Working People 's Association [ IWPA ] and his wife Lucy and their children .
On May 3 , striking workers in Chicago met near the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company plant . Union molders at the plant had been locked out since early February and the predominantly Irish @-@ American workers at McCormick had come under attack from Pinkerton guards during an earlier strike action in 1885 . This event , along with the eight @-@ hour militancy of McCormick workers , had gained the strikers some respect and notoriety around the city . By the time of the 1886 general strike , strikebreakers entering the McCormick plant were under protection from a garrison of 400 police officers . Although half of the replacement workers defected to the general strike on May 1 , McCormick workers continued to harass strikebreakers as they crossed the picket lines .
Speaking to a rally outside the plant on May 3 , August Spies advised the striking workers to " hold together , to stand by their union , or they would not succeed . " Well @-@ planned and coordinated , the general strike to this point had remained largely nonviolent . When the end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ workday bell sounded , however , a group of workers surged to the gates to confront the strikebreakers . Despite calls for calm by Spies , the police fired on the crowd . Two McCormick workers were killed ( although some newspaper accounts said there were six fatalities ) . Spies would later testify , " I was very indignant . I knew from experience of the past that this butchering of people was done for the express purpose of defeating the eight @-@ hour movement . "
Outraged by this act of police violence , local anarchists quickly printed and distributed fliers calling for a rally the following day at Haymarket Square ( also called the Haymarket ) , which was then a bustling commercial center near the corner of Randolph Street and Desplaines Street . Printed in German and English , the fliers claimed that the police had murdered the strikers on behalf of business interests and urged workers to seek justice . The first batch of fliers contain the words Workingmen Arm Yourselves and Appear in Full Force ! When Spies saw the line , he said he would not speak at the rally unless the words were removed from the flier . All but a few hundred of the fliers were destroyed , and new fliers were printed without the offending words . More than 20 @,@ 000 copies of the revised flier were distributed .
= = = Rally at Haymarket Square = = =
The rally began peacefully under a light rain on the evening of May 4 . August Spies , Albert Parsons , and Samuel Fielden spoke to a crowd estimated variously between 600 and 3 @,@ 000 while standing in an open wagon adjacent to the square on Des Plaines Street . A large number of on @-@ duty police officers watched from nearby .
Paul Avrich , a historian specializing in the study of anarchism , quotes Spies as saying :
There seems to prevail the opinion in some quarters that this meeting has been called for the purpose of inaugurating a riot , hence these warlike preparations on the part of so @-@ called ' law and order . ' However , let me tell you at the beginning that this meeting has not been called for any such purpose . The object of this meeting is to explain the general situation of the eight @-@ hour movement and to throw light upon various incidents in connection with it .
Following Spies ' speech , the crowd was addressed by Parsons , the Alabama @-@ born editor of the radical English @-@ language weekly The Alarm . The crowd was so calm that Mayor Carter Harrison , Sr. , who had stopped by to watch , walked home early . Parsons spoke for almost an hour before standing down in favor of the last speaker of the evening , the British socialist Samuel Fielden , who delivered a brief ten @-@ minute address . Many of the crowd had already left as the weather was deteriorating .
A New York Times article , with the dateline May 4 , and headlined " Rioting and Bloodshed in the Streets of Chicago ... Twelve Policemen Dead or Dying " , reported that Fielden spoke for 20 minutes , alleging that his words grew " wilder and more violent as he proceeded " . Another New York Times article , headlined " Anarchy ’ s Red Hand " and dated May 6 , opens with : " The villainous teachings of the Anarchists bore bloody fruit in Chicago tonight and before daylight at least a dozen stalwart men will have laid down their lives as a tribute to the doctrine of Herr Johann Most . " It refers to the strikers as a " mob " and uses quotation marks around the term " workingmen " .
= = = = Bombing and gunfire = = = =
At about 10 : 30 pm , just as Fielden was finishing his speech , police arrived en masse , marching in formation towards the speakers ' wagon , and ordered the rally to disperse . Fielden insisted that the meeting was peaceful . Police Inspector John Bonfield , proclaimed :
I command you [ addressing the speaker ] in the name of the law to desist and you [ addressing the crowd ] to disperse .
A home @-@ made bomb with a brittle metal casing filled with dynamite and ignited by a fuse , was thrown into the path of the advancing police . Its fuse briefly sputtered , then the bomb exploded , killing policeman Mathias J. Degan with flying metal fragments and mortally wounding six other officers .
Witnesses maintained that immediately after the bomb blast there was an exchange of gunshots between police and demonstrators . Accounts vary widely as to who fired first and whether any of the crowd fired at the police . Historian Paul Avrich maintains that the police fired on the fleeing demonstrators , reloaded and then fired again , killing four and wounding as many as 70 people . What is not disputed is that in less than five minutes the square was empty except for the casualties . According to the May 4 New York Times demonstrators began firing at the police , who then returned fire . In his report on the incident , Inspector Bonfield wrote that he " gave the order to cease firing , fearing that some of our men , in the darkness might fire into each other " . An anonymous police official told the Chicago Tribune , " A very large number of the police were wounded by each other 's revolvers . ... It was every man for himself , and while some got two or three squares away , the rest emptied their revolvers , mainly into each other . "
In all , seven policemen and at least four workers were killed . Another policeman died two years after the incident from complications related to injuries received on that day . About 60 policemen were wounded in the incident . They were carried , along with some other wounded people , into a nearby police station . Police captain Michael Schaack later wrote that the number of wounded workers was " largely in excess of that on the side of the police " . The Chicago Herald described a scene of " wild carnage " and estimated at least fifty dead or wounded civilians lay in the streets . It is unclear how many civilians were wounded since many were afraid to seek medical attention , fearing arrest . They found aid where they could .
= = = Aftermath and red scare = = =
A harsh anti @-@ union clampdown followed the Haymarket incident . There was a massive outpouring of community and business support for the police and many thousands of dollars were donated to funds for their medical care and to assist their efforts . The entire labor and immigrant community , particularly Germans and Bohemians , came under suspicion . Police raids were carried out on homes and offices of suspected anarchists . Scores of suspects , many only remotely related to the Haymarket affair , were arrested . Casting legal requirements such as search warrants aside , Chicago police squads subjected the labor activists of Chicago to an eight @-@ week shakedown , ransacking their meeting halls and places of business . The emphasis was on the speakers at the Haymarket rally and the newspaper , Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung . A small group of anarchists were discovered to have been engaged in making bombs on the same day as the incident , including round ones like the one used in Haymarket Square .
Newspaper reports declared that anarchist agitators were to blame for the " riot " , a view adopted by an alarmed public . As time passed , press reports and illustrations of the incident became more elaborate . Coverage was national , then international . Among property owners , the press , and other elements of society , a consensus developed that suppression of anarchist agitation was necessary . While for their part , union organizations such as The Knights of Labor and craft unions were quick to disassociate themselves from the anarchist movement and to repudiate violent tactics as self @-@ defeating . Many workers , on the other hand , believed that men of the Pinkerton agency were responsible because of the agency 's tactic of secretly infiltrating labor groups and its sometimes violent methods of strike breaking .
= = Legal proceedings = =
= = = Investigation = = =
The police assumed that an anarchist had thrown the bomb as part of a planned conspiracy ; their problem was how to prove it . On the morning of May 5 , they raided the offices of the Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung , arresting its editor August Spies , and his brother ( who was not charged ) . Also arrested were editorial assistant Michael Schwab and Adolph Fischer , a typesetter . A search of the premises resulted in the discovery of the " Revenge Poster " and other evidence considered incriminating by the prosecution .
On May 7 police searched the premises of Louis Lingg where they found a number of bombs and bomb @-@ making materials . Lingg 's landlord William Seliger was also arrested but cooperated with police and identified Lingg as a bomb maker and was not charged . An associate of Spies , Balthazar Rau , suspected as the bomber , was traced to Omaha and brought back to Chicago . After interrogation , Rau offered to cooperate with police . He alleged that the defendants had experimented with dynamite bombs and accused them of having published what he said was a code word , " Ruhe " ( " peace " ) , in the Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung as a call to arms at Haymarket Square .
= = = The defendants = = =
Rudolf Schnaubelt , the police ’ s lead suspect as the bomb thrower , was arrested twice early on and released . By May 14 , when it became apparent he had played a significant role in the event , he had fled the country . William Seliger , who had turned state 's evidence and testified for the prosecution , was not charged . On June 4 , 1886 , seven other suspects , however , were indicted by the grand jury and stood trial for being accessories to the murder of Degan . Of these , only two had been present when the bomb exploded . Newspaper editor August Spies and Samuel Fielden had spoken at the peaceful rally and were stepping down from the speaker 's wagon in compliance with police orders to disperse just before the bomb went off . Two others had been present at the beginning of the rally but had left and were at Zepf 's Hall , an anarchist rendezvous , at the time of the explosion . They were : Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung typesetter Adolph Fischer and the well @-@ known activist Albert Parsons , who had spoken for an hour at the Haymarket rally before going to Zepf 's . Parsons , who believed that the evidence against them all was weak , subsequently voluntarily turned himself in , in solidarity with the accused . A third man , Spies 's assistant editor Michael Schwab ( who was the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Schnaubelt ) was arrested since he was speaking at another rally at the time of the bombing ( he was also later pardoned ) . Not directly tied to the Haymarket rally , but arrested because they were notorious for their militant radicalism were George Engel ( who was at home playing cards on that day ) , and Louis Lingg , the hot @-@ headed bomb maker denounced by his associate , Seliger . Another defendant who had not been present that day was Oscar Neebe , an American @-@ born citizen of German descent who was associated with the Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung and had attempted to revive it in the aftermath of the Haymarket riot .
Of the eight defendants , five – Spies , Fischer , Engel , Lingg and Schwab – were German @-@ born immigrants ; a sixth , Neebe , was a U.S.-born citizen of German descent . Only the remaining two , Parsons and Fielden , born in the U.S. and England , respectively , were of British heritage .
= = = Trial = = =
The trial , Illinois vs. August Spies et al . , began on June 21 , 1886 , and went on until August 11 . The trial was conducted in an atmosphere of extreme prejudice by both public and media toward the defendants . It was presided over by Judge Joseph Gary . Judge Gary displayed open hostility to the defendants , consistently ruled for the prosecution , and failed to maintain decorum . A motion to try the defendants separately was denied . The defense counsel included Sigmund Zeisler , William Perkins Black , William Foster , and Moses Salomon . Selection of the jury was extraordinarily difficult , lasting three weeks , and nearly one thousand people called . All union members and anyone who expressed sympathy toward socialism were dismissed . In the end a jury of 12 was seated , most of whom confessed prejudice towards the defendants . Despite their professions of prejudice Judge Gary seated those who declared that despite their prejudices they would acquit if the evidence supported it , refusing to dismiss for prejudice . Eventually the peremptory challenges of the defense were exhausted . Frustrated by the hundreds of jurors who were being dismissed , a bailiff was appointed who selected jurors rather than calling them at random . The bailiff proved prejudiced himself and selected jurors who seemed likely to convict based on their social position and attitudes toward the defendants . The prosecution , led by Julius Grinnell , argued that since the defendants had not actively discouraged the person who had thrown the bomb , they were therefore equally responsible as conspirators . The jury heard the testimony of 118 people , including 54 members of the Chicago Police Department and the defendants Fielden , Schwab , Spies and Parsons . Albert Parsons ' brother claimed there was evidence linking the Pinkertons to the bomb . This reflected a widespread belief among the strikers .
Police investigators under Captain Michael Schaack had a lead fragment removed from a policeman 's wounds chemically analyzed . They reported that the lead used in the casing matched the casings of bombs found in Lingg 's home . A metal nut and fragments of the casing taken from the wound also roughly matched bombs made by Lingg . Schaack concluded , on the basis of interviews , that the anarchists had been experimenting for years with dynamite and other explosives , refining the design of their bombs before coming up with the effective one used at the Haymarket .
At the last minute , when it was discovered that instructions for manslaughter had not been included in the submitted instructions , the jury was called back , and the instructions were given .
= = = Verdict and contemporary reactions = = =
The jury returned guilty verdicts for all eight defendants . Before being sentenced , Neebe told the court that Schaack 's officers were among the city 's worst gangs , ransacking houses and stealing money and watches . Schaack laughed and Neebe retorted , " You need not laugh about it , Captain Schaack . You are one of them . You are an anarchist , as you understand it . You are all anarchists , in this sense of the word , I must say . " Judge Gary sentenced seven of the defendants to death by hanging and Neebe to 15 years in prison . The sentencing provoked outrage from labor and workers ' movements and their supporters , resulting in protests around the world , and elevating the defendants to the status of martyrs , especially abroad . Portrayals of the anarchists as bloodthirsty foreign fanatics in the press along with the 1889 publication of Captain Schaack 's sensational account , Anarchy and Anarchism , on the other hand , inspired widespread public fear and revulsion against the strikers and general anti @-@ immigrant feeling , polarizing public opinion .
In an article datelined May 4 , entitled " Anarchy ’ s Red Hand " , The New York Times had described the incident as the " bloody fruit " of " the villainous teachings of the Anarchists . " The Chicago Times described the defendants as " arch counselors of riot , pillage , incendiarism and murder " ; other reporters described them as " bloody brutes " , " red ruffians " , " dynamarchists " , " bloody monsters " , " cowards " , " cutthroats " , " thieves " , " assassins " , and " fiends " . The journalist George Frederic Parsons wrote a piece for The Atlantic Monthly in which he identified the fears of middle @-@ class Americans concerning labor radicalism , and asserted that the workers had only themselves to blame for their troubles . Edward Aveling remarked , " If these men are ultimately hanged , it will be the Chicago Tribune that has done it . " Schaack , who had led the investigation , was dismissed from the police force for allegedly having fabricated evidence in the case but was reinstated in 1892 .
= = = Appeals = = =
The case was appealed in 1887 to the Supreme Court of Illinois , then to the United States Supreme Court where the defendants were represented by John Randolph Tucker , Roger Atkinson Pryor , General Benjamin F. Butler and William P. Black . The petition for certiorari was denied .
= = = Commutations and suicide = = =
After the appeals had been exhausted , Illinois Governor Richard James Oglesby commuted Fielden 's and Schwab 's sentences to life in prison on November 10 , 1887 . On the eve of his scheduled execution , Lingg committed suicide in his cell with a smuggled blasting cap which he reportedly held in his mouth like a cigar ( the blast blew off half his face and he survived in agony for six hours ) .
= = = Executions = = =
The next day ( November 11 , 1887 ) four defendants — Engel , Fischer , Parsons , and Spies — were taken to the gallows in white robes and hoods . They sang the Marseillaise , then the anthem of the international revolutionary movement . Family members including Lucy Parsons , who attempted to see them for the last time , were arrested and searched for bombs ( none were found ) . According to witnesses , in the moments before the men were hanged , Spies shouted , " The time will come when our silence will be more powerful than the voices you strangle today . " In their last words , Engel and Fischer called out , " Hurrah for anarchism ! " Parsons then requested to speak , but he was cut off when the signal was given to open the trap door . Witnesses reported that the condemned men did not die immediately when they dropped , but strangled to death slowly , a sight which left the spectators visibly shaken .
= = = Identity of the bomber = = =
Notwithstanding the convictions for conspiracy , no actual bomber was ever brought to trial , " and no lawyerly explanation could ever make a conspiracy trial without the main perpetrator in the conspiracy seem completely legitimate . " Historians such as James Joll and Timothy Messer @-@ Kruse say the evidence points to Rudolph Schnaubelt , brother @-@ in @-@ law of Schwab , as the likely perpetrator . Howard Zinn , in A People 's History of the United States also pointed towards Schnaubelt , suggesting he was a provocateur , posing as an anarchist , who threw the bomb so police would have a pretext to arrest leaders of Chicago 's anarchist movement . However , Paul Avrich disputes this claim as being " sheer speculation and utterly without foundation . " Avrich argues that Schnaubelt 's appearance did not match the description of the bomber and that his behavior was inconsistent with either being the culprit or a mole .
= = = Documents = = =
An extensive collection of documents relating to the Haymarket affair and the legal proceedings related to it , The Haymarket Affair Digital Collection , has been created by the Chicago Historical Society
= = Pardon and historical characterization = =
Among supporters of the labor movement in the United States and abroad and others , the trial was widely believed to have been unfair , and even a serious miscarriage of justice . Prominent people such as novelist William Dean Howells ; celebrated attorney Clarence Darrow ; poet and playwright Oscar Wilde ; and playwright George Bernard Shaw strongly condemned it . On June 26 , 1893 , Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld , the progressive governor of Illinois , himself a German immigrant , signed pardons for Fielden , Neebe , and Schwab , calling them victims of " hysteria , packed juries , and a biased judge " and noting that the state " has never discovered who it was that threw the bomb which killed the policeman , and the evidence does not show any connection whatsoever between the defendants and the man who threw it . " Altgeld also faulted the city of Chicago for failing to hold Pinkerton guards responsible for repeated use of lethal violence against striking workers . Altgeld 's actions concerning labor were used to defeat his reelection .
Soon after the trial , anarchist Dyer Lum wrote a history of the trial critical of the prosecution . In 1888 , George McLean , and in 1889 , police captain Michael Shack , wrote accounts from the opposite perspective . Awaiting sentencing , each of the defendants wrote their own autobiographies ( edited and published by Philip Foner in 1969 ) , and later activist Lucy Parsons published a biography of her condemned husband Albert Parsons . Fifty years after the event , Henry Davis , wrote a history , which was superseded in another scholarly treatment by Paul Avrich in 1984 , and a " social history " of the era by Bruce C. Nelson in 1988 . In 2006 , labor historian , James Green , wrote a popular history .
Christopher Thale writes in the Encyclopedia of Chicago that lacking credible evidence regarding the bombing , " ... the prosecution focused on the writings and speeches of the defendants . " He further notes that the conspiracy charge was legally unprecedented , the Judge was " partisan , " and all the jurors admitted prejudice against the defendants . Historian Carl Smith writes , " The visceral feelings of fear and anger surrounding the trial ruled out anything but the pretense of justice right from the outset . " Smith notes that scholars have long considered the trial a " notorious " " miscarriage of justice . " In a review somewhat more critical of the defendants , historian Jon Teaford concludes that " [ t ] he tragedy of Haymarket is the American justice system did not protect the damn fools who most needed that protection ... It is the damn fools who talk too much and too wildly who are most in need of protection from the state . " In 2011 , labor historian Timothy Messer @-@ Kruse published a history . Based on his examination of the trial transcripts and other archival material , he concludes there is abundant evidence connecting defendants to advocacy of violence and preparations for it . He argues that Chicago 's anarchists were indeed " part of an international terrorist network and did hatch a conspiracy to attack police with bombs and guns that May Day weekend " ; and he calls the evidence establishing the guilt of " most of the defendants " " overwhelming . " Moreover , Messer @-@ Kruse opines that the trial was fair " by the standards of the age " and the jury representative . According to him , " The tragic end of the story was the product not of prosecutorial eagerness to see the anarchists hang , but largely due to a combination of the incompetence of the defendant 's lawyers and their willingness to use the trial to vindicate anarchism rather than to save the necks of their clients . "
During the late 20th century , scholars doing research into the Haymarket affair were surprised to learn that much of the primary source documentation relating to the incident ( beside materials concerning the trial ) was not in Chicago , but had been transferred to then @-@ communist East Berlin .
= = Effects on the labor movement and May Day = =
The Haymarket affair was a setback for the American labor movement and its fight for the eight @-@ hour day . Yet it also can be seen as strengthening its resistance , especially in Chicago , where , as historian Nathan Fine points out , trade union activities continued to show signs of growth and vitality , culminating later in 1886 with the establishment of the Labor Party of Chicago .
Fine observes :
[ T ] he fact is that despite police repression , newspaper incitement to hysteria , and organization of the possessing classes , which followed the throwing of the bomb on May 4 , the Chicago wage earners only united their forces and stiffened their resistance . The conservative and radical central bodies – there were two each of the trade unions and two also of the Knights of Labor — the socialists and the anarchists , the single taxers and the reformers , the native born ... and the foreign born Germans , Bohemians , and Scandinavians , all got together for the first time on the political field in the summer following the Haymarket affair .... [ T ] he Knights of Labor doubled its membership , reaching 40 @,@ 000 in the fall of 1886 . On Labor Day the number of Chicago workers in parade led the country .
On the first anniversary of the event , May 4 , 1887 , the New @-@ York Tribune published an interview with Senator Leland Stanford , in which he addressed the consensus that " the conflict between capital and labor is intensifying " and articulated the vision advocated by the Knights of Labor for an industrial system of worker @-@ owned co @-@ operatives , another among the strategies pursued to advance the conditions of laborers . The interview was republished as a pamphlet to include the bill Stanford introduced in the Senate to foster co @-@ operatives .
Popular pressure continued for the establishment of the 8 @-@ hour day . At the convention of the American Federation of Labor ( AFL ) in 1888 , the union decided to campaign for the shorter workday again . May 1 , 1890 , was agreed upon as the date on which workers would strike for an eight @-@ hour work day .
In 1889 , AFL president Samuel Gompers wrote to the first congress of the Second International , which was meeting in Paris . He informed the world 's socialists of the AFL 's plans and proposed an international fight for a universal eight @-@ hour work day . In response to Gompers 's letter , the Second International adopted a resolution calling for " a great international demonstration " on a single date so workers everywhere could demand the eight @-@ hour work day . In light of the Americans ' plan , the International adopted May 1 , 1890 as the date for this demonstration .
A secondary purpose behind the adoption of the resolution by the Second International was to honor the memory of the Haymarket martyrs and other workers who had been killed in association with the strikes on May 1 , 1886 . Historian Philip Foner writes " [ t ] here is little doubt that everyone associated with the resolution passed by the Paris Congress knew of the May 1 demonstrations and strikes for the eight @-@ hour day in 1886 in the United States ... and the events associated with the Haymarket tragedy . "
The first international May Day was a spectacular success . The front page of the New York World on May 2 , 1890 , was devoted to coverage of the event . Two of its headlines were " Parade of Jubilant Workingmen in All the Trade Centers of the Civilized World " and " Everywhere the Workmen Join in Demands for a Normal Day . " The Times of London listed two dozen European cities in which demonstrations had taken place , noting there had been rallies in Cuba , Peru and Chile . Commemoration of May Day became an annual event the following year .
The association of May Day with the Haymarket martyrs has remained strong in Mexico . Mary Harris " Mother " Jones was in Mexico on May 1 , 1921 , and wrote of the " day of ' fiestas ' " that marked " the killing of the workers in Chicago for demanding the eight @-@ hour day " . In 1929 The New York Times referred to the May Day parade in Mexico City as " the annual demonstration glorifying the memory of those who were killed in Chicago in 1887 . " The New York Times described the 1936 demonstration as a commemoration of " the death of the martyrs in Chicago . " In 1939 Oscar Neebe 's grandson attended the May Day parade in Mexico City and was shown , as his host told him , " how the world shows respect to your grandfather " .
The influence of the Haymarket affair was not limited to the celebration of May Day . Emma Goldman , the activist and political theorist , was attracted to anarchism after reading about the incident and the executions , which she later described as " the events that had inspired my spiritual birth and growth . " She considered the Haymarket martyrs to be " the most decisive influence in my existence " . Her associate , Alexander Berkman also described the Haymarket anarchists as " a potent and vital inspiration . " Others whose commitment to anarchism crystallized as a result of the Haymarket affair included Voltairine de Cleyre and " Big Bill " Haywood , a founding member of the Industrial Workers of the World . Goldman wrote to historian Max Nettlau that the Haymarket affair had awakened the social consciousness of " hundreds , perhaps thousands , of people " .
= = Suspected bombers = =
While admitting none of the defendants were involved in the bombing , the prosecution made the argument that Lingg had built the bomb and two prosecution witnesses ( Harry Gilmer and Malvern Thompson ) tried to imply the bomb thrower was helped by Spies , Fischer and Schwab . The defendants claimed they had no knowledge of the bomber at all .
Several activists , including Dyer Lum ( a close associate of the defendants who wrote an account of the case in 1891 ) , Voltairine de Cleyre and Robert Reitzel , later hinted they knew who the bomber was . Writers and other commentators have speculated about many possible suspects :
Rudolph Schnaubelt ( 1863 – 1901 ) was an activist and the brother @-@ in law of Michael Schwab . He was at the Haymarket when the bomb exploded . Schnaubelt was indicted with the other defendants but fled the city and later the country before he could be brought to trial . He was the detectives ' lead suspect , and state witness Gilmer testified he saw Schnaubelt throw the bomb , identifying him from a photograph in court . Schnaubelt later sent two letters from London disclaiming all responsibility , writing , " If I had really thrown this bomb , surely I would have nothing to be ashamed of , but in truth I never once thought of it . " He is the most generally accepted and widely known suspect and figured as the bomb thrower in The Bomb , Frank Harris 's 1908 fictionalization of the tragedy . Written from Schnaubelt 's point of view , the story opens with him confessing on his deathbed . However , Harris 's description was fictional and those who knew Schnaubelt vehemently criticized the book .
George Schwab was a German shoemaker who died in 1924 . German anarchist Carl Nold claimed he learned Schwab was the bomber through correspondence with other activists but no proof ever emerged . Historian Paul Avrich also suspected him but noted that while Schwab was in Chicago , he had only arrived days before . This contradicted statements by others that the bomber was a well @-@ known figure in Chicago .
George Meng ( b. around 1840 ) was a German anarchist and teamster who owned a small farm outside of Chicago where he had settled in 1883 after emigrating from Bavaria . Like Parsons and Spies , he was a delegate at the Pittsburgh Congress and a member of the IWPA . Meng 's granddaughter , Adah Maurer , wrote Paul Avrich a letter in which she said that her mother , who was 15 at the time of the bombing , told her that her father was the bomber . Meng died sometime before 1907 in a saloon fire . Based on his correspondence with Maurer , Avrich concluded that there was a " strong possibility " that the little @-@ known Meng may have been the bomber .
An agent provocateur was suggested by some members of the anarchist movement . Albert Parsons believed the bomber was a member of the police or the Pinkertons trying to undermine the labor movement . However , this contradicts the statements of several activists who said the bomber was one of their own . Lucy Parsons and Johann Most rejected this notion . Dyer Lum said it was " puerile " to ascribe " the Haymarket bomb to a Pinkerton . "
A disgruntled worker was widely suspected . When Adolph Fischer was asked if he knew who threw the bomb , he answered , " I suppose it was some excited workingman . " Oscar Neebe said it was a " crank . " Governor Altgeld speculated the bomb thrower might have been a disgruntled worker who was not associated with the defendants or the anarchist movement but had a personal grudge against the police . In his pardoning statement , Altgeld said the record of police brutality towards the workers had invited revenge adding , " Capt. Bonfield is the man who is really responsible for the deaths of the police officers . "
Klemana Schuetz was identified as the bomber by Franz Mayhoff , a New York anarchist and fraudster , who claimed in an affidavit that Schuetz had once admitted throwing the Haymarket bomb . August Wagener , Mayhoff 's attorney , sent a telegram from New York to defense attorney Captain William Black the day before the executions claiming knowledge of the bomber 's identity . Black tried to delay the execution with this telegram but Governor Oglesby refused . It was later learned that Schuetz was the primary witness against Mayhoff at his trial for insurance fraud , so Mayhoff 's affidavit has never been regarded as credible by
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dubium within Psittacosaurus . Sereno 's hypothesis was supported by a morphometric study in 2013 , which found P. houi and P. lujiatunensis to be synonymous . While P. houi is the oldest available name , the researchers argued that because the type specimen of P. lujiatunensis was better preserved , the correct name for this species should be P. lujiatunensis rather than P. houi , which would normally have priority .
P. gobiensis is named for the region it was found in 2001 , and first described by Sereno , Zhao and Lin in 2010 . It is known from a skull and partial articulated skeleton with gastroliths . Many other specimens either cannot be determined to belong to any particular species , or have not yet been assigned to one . These specimens are generally all referred to as Psittacosaurus sp . , although it is not assumed that they belong to the same species . More than 200 specimens of Psittacosaurus have been found in the Yixian Formation , which is famous for its fossils of feathered dinosaurs . The vast majority of these have not been assigned to any published species , although many are very well preserved and some have already been partially described . Nearly 100 Psittacosaurus skeletons were excavated in Mongolia during the summers of 2005 and 2006 by a team led by Mongolian paleontologist Bolortsetseg Minjin and American Jack Horner from the Museum of the Rockies in Montana . Although only P. mongoliensis has been described from Mongolia so far , these specimens are still in preparation and have not yet been assigned to a species .
= = Classification = =
Psittacosaurus is the type genus of the family Psittacosauridae , which was also named by Osborn in 1923 . Psittacosaurids were basal to almost all known ceratopsians except Yinlong and perhaps the Chaoyangsauridae . While Psittacosauridae was an early branch of the ceratopsian family tree , Psittacosaurus itself was probably not directly ancestral to any other groups of ceratopsians . All other ceratopsians retained the fifth digit of the hand , a plesiomorphy or primitive trait , whereas all species of Psittacosaurus had only four digits on the hand . In addition , the antorbital fenestra , an opening in the skull between the eye socket and nostril , was lost during the evolution of Psittacosauridae , but is still found in most other ceratopsians and in fact most other archosaurs . It is considered highly unlikely that the fifth digit or antorbital fenestra would evolve a second time .
In 2014 , the describers of a new taxon of basal ceratopsian published a phylogenetic analysis encompassing Psittacosaurus . The below cladogram is from their analysis , placing the genus as one of the most primitive ceratopsians . The authors ( Farke et al . ) noted that all taxa outside of Leptoceratopsidae and Coronosauria with the exception of their genus Aquilops are from Asia , meaning the group likely originated there .
Although many species of Psittacosaurus have been named , their relationships to each other have not yet been fully explored and no scientific consensus exists on the subject . Several phylogenetic analyses have been published , with the most detailed being those by Alexander Averianov and colleagues in 2006 , Hai @-@ Lu You and colleagues in 2008 , and Paul Sereno in 2010 . The middle one is shown below .
In 2005 , Zhou and colleagues suggested that P. lujiatunensis is basal to all other species . This would be consistent with its earlier appearance in the fossil record .
= Wait & See ( Risk ) =
" Wait & See ( Risk ) " ( stylized as Wait & See ~ リスク ~ ) is a song recorded by Japanese – American recording artist Utada Hikaru for her third studio and second Japanese language album , Distance ( 2000 ) . It premiered on April 19 , 2000 as the second single from the album in Japan . It was written and composed by Utada , whilst production and arrangement was handled by Utada and American duo Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis . The single also included the two B @-@ side track 's ; " Hayatochiri " and " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) , to which the former song appeared on the parent album . Musically , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " is an R & B song , influenced by dance @-@ pop and rock .
Upon its release , the track garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics highlighted the track as one of Utada 's best singles , and commended the production and composition . It was also successful in Japan , peaking at number one on both the Oricon Singles Chart and Tokyo Broadcasting System 's ( TBS ) Count Down TV singles chart . It was certified million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of one million units , and is amongst one of the best selling singles in Japan . An accompanying music video was shot by Wataru Takeishi ; it features Utada driving through Shibuya , Tokyo on a futuristic hover – cycle , with inter cut scenes of her dancing . It was performed on some of her concert tours , including the Bohemian Summer ( 2000 ) and Utada United tours ( 2006 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
" Wait & See ( Risk ) " was written and composed by Utada , whilst production and arrangement was handled by Utada and American duo Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis . It was the second time Utada worked with Jam and Lewis , and not with her father Teruzane Utada and Miyake Akira . The song included live instrumentation by Xavier Smith ( drum machine ) and Dave Barry ( bass and acoustic guitar ) , whilst Jam and Lewis incorporated synthesizers and keyboards . The song was recorded and mixed by Steve Hodge , Indoh Mitsuhiro , and Ugajin Masaaki in 2000 at Flyte Tyme Studios , Minneapolis , Minnesota , and mixed at Flyte Tyme , Edina , Minnesota . It premiered on April 19 , 2000 as the second single from Utada 's third studio and second Japanese language album , Distance ( 2001 ) in Japan . Since then , the song has been remastered and re @-@ released twice ; the first on April 1 , 2004 , and the second time on December 9 , 2014 for Utada 's first greatest hits album Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2003 ) .
The single also included the two B @-@ side tracks ; " Hayatochiri " and " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) " . The original version of " Hayatochiri " appears on the single , whilst a remixed version by Utada appeared on Distance . " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) " is a cover version that was originally written and performed by Bart Howard and Kaye Ballard in 1954 ; a second cover version sung by Utada appeared eight years later on her single " Kiss & Cry " / " Beautiful World " . The maxi CD of the single contains all three new recordings , plus a remix by Baton Girl and instrumental version of " Wait & See ( Risk ) " . The cover artwork of the single featured four images of Utada in front of a brown backdrop , two of which are transparent . The DVD single was released on June 30 , 2000 , which included new artwork of Utada in the speed bike , and the music video and the behind the scenes video . Musically , " Wait & See " is an R & B song , influenced by rock and dance @-@ pop . Rock musician and music journalist David Bertrand Wilson had reviewed the parent album , and labelled it a " bouncy dance track " . Kano , editor in chief for Rockin 'On Japan magazine noted elements of R & B music through the song 's composition . When a staff editor from CD Journal reviewed Utada 's first greatest hits album , Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2004 ) , he labeled the composition as " urban " and " speedy " .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " received positive reviews from most music critics . Nagasawa Tomonori from Barks.com selected the song as one of the album 's best tracks . Editor in chief for Rockin 'On Japan magazine Kano commended the " excellent " composition of the song , and the " innovative " production by Jam and Lewis . AllMusic 's Ian Martin praised Jam and Lewis ' involvement , saying that " providing a stark contrast to the cheap , tinny sound that characterized much Japanese pop of the previous decade , with " Wait & See " and " Addicted to You " both featuring the production talents of Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis . " A staff reviewer from Yahoo ! GeoCities was positive in their review , whom highlighted the single as one of the best tracks on the album .
Conversely , rock musician and music journalist , David Bertrand Wilson , had reviewed the parent album with journalist John Alroy , and gave it a mixed review ; whilst they praised the composition , they felt its production was " distressingly drab " . A staff review from CD Journal discussed Utada 's compilation Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 , and said although the vocal delivery " floats " and is " basic " , it molded into one of Utada 's " masterpieces " . At the 15th Japan Gold Disc Awards , Utada won the Song of the Year award for " Wait & See ( Risk ) " ; she had also won two same awards that year for her singles " For You " and " Time Limit " . In December 2015 , in honor of Utada 's comeback into the music business , Japanese website Goo.ne.jp hosted a poll for fans to rank their favourite songs by Utada out of 25 positions ; the poll was held in only twenty @-@ four hours , and thousands submitted their votes . As a result , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " was ranked at number 10 with 40 votes in total .
= = Commercial response = =
Commercially , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " was a success in Japan . It became her third single to debut at number one on the Oricon Singles Chart , with over 804 @,@ 570 units sold in its first week . Its first week sales made it the 13th highest on Oricon Database , her second single behind " Addicted to You " with 1 @.@ 067 million first week units , and the only female artist to occupy the top twenty with three entries . It stayed at number one for a sole week , and spent a total of 21 weeks on that chart . By the end of 2000 , the single was ranked at number three on Oricon 's Annual 2000 chart ; it sold 1 @,@ 662 @,@ 060 units by the end of the year . This became Utada 's highest entry in that annual chart , the highest selling female recording artist based on single sales , and made " Wait & See ( Risk ) " the highest selling single of 2000 by a female recording artist . The single was certfieid million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of one million units .
The single debuted at number one on Tokyo Broadcasting System 's ( TBS ) Count Down TV chart during the chart week of April 29 , 2000 , her fifth consecutive single to do so . The single stayed in the chart for 20 weeks , and was ranked at number four on their 2000 Annual Chart . The B @-@ side track , " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) " , debuted at number 22 during the chart week of May 20 , 2000 . It slipped to number 87 the following week , and was present for two weeks . According to Oricon Style database , the single is Utada 's second highest selling single , and is currently ranked by Music TV Program as the fiftieth best selling single in Japanese music history , her third highest entry behind " Addicted to You " and " Automatic / Time Will Tell " .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video was directed by Wataru Takeishi . The video opens with Utada entering a warehouse , and lifts a tarp off a hover cycle . As the camera pans away from the bike , Utada sits down and starts the bike . The first verse opens with Utada singing to the camera in a warehouse , whilst intercut scenes have her driving throughout Shibuya , Japan . As the verse progresses , two more clones of Utada appear and sing behind the original Utada . As the chorus starts , the hover cycle starts grinding against the road as she rides through small streets and corners . During the second verse , Utada stops through a city centre as shots of the clones appear on city billboards . She takes of her goggles , and stares at the moon , while close @-@ up of the clone 's faces are seen singing to the track .
The second chorus has the clones singing in different parts of the warehouse , with scenes of Utada driving through the subways in Shibuya . By the bridge section , the clones disappear and the original Utada is singing in the warehouse . She is then driving through tunnels at night , and stops at the warehouse she started from . She turns it off during the final scene of the video , puts the tarp back on , and walks outside of the warehouse . The music video and the " behind the scenes " video was included on her Single Clip Collection Vol . 2 ( 2000 ) .
= = Live performances and promotion = =
The single has been performed on majority of Utada 's concert tours . Its first performance was during her Bohemian Summer Tour in 2000 , which was included on the live release on December 9 , 2000 . It was then included on Utada 's exclusive MTV Unplugged concert , serving as the opening number . It was included on the live DVD , released on November 28 , 2001 . She later performed it in 2004 , during her Bokuhan concert tour . It appeared on the live DVD , which was released on July 28 , 2004 . It was included on Utada 's debut English concert tour named Utada United , which was later included on the live DVD , released on December 20 , 2006 . Since the track 's release , it has appeared on three compilation releases : Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2003 ) , it 's 2014 remastered version , and a special bundle of the compilation and the vol . 2 collection on a USB .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Details adapted from the liner notes of the single 's CD release .
Recording
Recorded at Flyte Tyme Studios , Minneapolis , Minnesota , and mixed at Flyte Tyme , Edina , Minnesota .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certification = =
= Battle of Bonchurch =
The Battle of Bonchurch took place sometime in late July 1545 at Bonchurch on the Isle of Wight . No source of information states a specific date , although it could have happened on 21 July . The battle was a part of the wider Italian War of 1542 – 1546 , and took place during the 1545 French invasion of the Isle of Wight . Several landings were made by the French during the invasion of the Isle of Wight , including the one at Bonchurch . The two combatants were the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France . England won the battle , and the French advance across the Isle of Wight was halted .
The battle was fought between French regular soldiers , and English militiamen . The number of French soldiers involved is believed to be around 500 . The number of English militiamen is uncertain , with one source of information stating 300 , and another stating 2800 . English forces at the battle are understood to have been commanded by Captain Robert Fyssher , whilst French forces engaged were commanded by Le Seigneur de Tais . The battle was one of several that were fought between the English and the French on the Isle of Wight . The majority of sources of information regarding the battle state that the English won , although one source of information states that the French were victorious . The battle was fought because it was part of the French attempt to cause enough damage to the Isle of Wight to force the English ships standing off the coast of England to leave their defensive positions and attack in conditions favourable to the French . The landing at Bonchurch was one of several made by the French on the Isle of Wight , with others taking place at Sandown , Bembridge and St Helens .
= = Background = =
The Italian War of 1542 @-@ 1546 occurred because the disputes between the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Francis I of France had not been settled by the Italian War of 1535 @-@ 1538 , and those disputes resulted in a war between France , aided by the Ottoman Empire and Jülich @-@ Cleves @-@ Berg , and the Holy Roman Empire , aided by the Kingdom of England , Spain , Saxony , and Brandenburg . After two years of fighting Charles V , and Henry VIII of the Kingdom of England , invaded France . In September 1544 , English forces captured Boulogne . France attempted to re @-@ capture the city by force , but failed . Peace talks to end the fighting between England and France did not yield any positive results , partly because Henry VIII refused to consider returning Boulogne . As a result of the failure of diplomacy to get back Boulogne for France , Francis I decided to invade England , hoping that Henry VIII would return Boulogne to France in return for French forces leaving England . Thirty thousand French troops and a fleet of some 400 vessels were assembled . The fleet left Le Havre , in France , on 16 July .
On 18 July , the hostile engagement of French and English ships by the English coast marked the beginning of the Battle of the Solent . On that day , the outnumbered English ships withdrew . The English hoped to lure the French ships into the shallows and narrow channels of the Spithead , but the French wanted to attack the English in the more open waters of the eastern Spithead where the English ships could be encircled and annihilated . To entice the English ships to abandon their defensive position , and engage the numerically greater French ships , the French decided to invade the Isle of Wight , burning buildings and crops . France hoped that the residents of the Isle of Wight would support them , and rebel against England , and that the Isle of Wight could be used a base to challenge the English . French troops landed on the Isle of Wight , on 21 July . England would oppose this invasion of the Isle of Wight .
The Hundred Years War had resulted in the society which existed on the Isle of Wight being very militarised . Every male adult was obligated to fight when needed , and they participated in regular military training . The Captain of the Isle of Wight , Sir Richard Worsley of Appuldurcombe House , is considered to have been a “ capable and energetic commander ” . He was assisted by Sir Edward Bellingham , an officer in the regular English army , along with a headquarters staff . The English militiamen were equipped with " long pikes topped with a bill hook , and daggers , knives and clubs for close fighting " , as well as the Welsh longbow . The French soldiers were equipped with firearms , and steel blades . The militiamen had the advantage of superior morale , speed and agility .
The plan for the advance of the French soldiers at Bonchurch may have been to burn Wroxall and Appuldurcombe , capture and consolidate a position on the heights of St. Boniface Down , and then move towards Sandown to link up with a French landing there . The area around Bonchurch became important in its own right because Dunnose Point , near Bonchurch , offered a safe anchorage for French ships . There were also sources of fresh water nearby that could be used by the soldiers and sailors of the fleet .
= = Prelude = =
French troops were landed at three locations on the coast of the Isle of Wight , and the total number of French soldiers who were landed was 2000 . Bonchurch was one of the three places where French troops landed , and the number of soldiers who landed at Bonchurch is believed to be around 500 . The landing was unopposed and the French forces began to advance inland , up steep thickly wooded slopes . The Isle of Wight militia , however , learnt about the French invasion very quickly . 300 soldiers of the militia , under the command of Captain Robert Fyssher , were waiting at St. Boniface Down for the French to advance from Monks Bay .
= = Battle = =
Reports of the fighting are confused , and therefore no fully comprehensive account of the battle has been agreed upon . However , the battle could have taken place at dawn ( the day of the battle is unknown ) , and lasted until midday . Some records of the battle say that some women of the Isle of Wight participated in the battle by shooting arrows at the French .
= = = Did the French win the battle ? = = =
One source of information states that the French won the battle at Bonchurch . This source says that the English forces opposing the French were not local militiamen , but militiamen from Hampshire . The English forces took up a defensive position , a fact which is agreed upon by another account of the fighting , and were flanked by cliffs and screened by woods . According to this account , the number of English troops was 2 @,@ 800 . The first French attack was repelled but Le Seigneur de Tais , commander of the French forces involved in the battle , rallied his troops . A second French attack against the English forces was launched , with the French forces arranged into the ' array ' fighting formation . The account concludes its description of the fighting by saying that , after heavy casualties were sustained by both sides , the English line broke and the militia routed as a result of the second attack by the French . The account also states that Captain Robert Fyssher , which another source of information states commanded the English forces during the battle , is reported to have shouted out , as the militia routed , offering £ 100 for anyone who could bring him a horse , because he was too fat to run . A quote by Sir John Oglander is recorded , which reads that “ but none could be had even for a kingdom ” . The captain was never heard from again , and the account states that he was either killed , or captured and then buried at sea .
= = Aftermath = =
The casualties for both sides were heavy . The battle resulted in the French invasion of the Isle of Wight being stopped . Another skirmish took place at Bonchurch several days after the battle , when English forces engaged with French men who had disembarked from French ships retreating from Portsmouth looking for water . A senior French commander , Chevalier D 'Aux , was killed as a result of the engagement . The English victory at Bonchurch only had a marginal impact on the course of the Italian War of 1542 @-@ 1546 , because the battle only involved a very small number of men relative to the numbers of men that were engaged throughout the entirety of the war . The fact that it only had a marginal impact is also because , if the French had captured the Isle of Wight , it is unlikely that that capture would have drastically affected the course of the war , because there were more significant territories that were being contested . The Isle of Wight could have been used to support French operations against England had it been captured ; Claude d 'Annebault , commander of the French armada , recorded that “ having it [ the Isle of Wight ] under our control , we [ the French ] could then dominate Portsmouth ... and so put the enemy to extraordinary expense in maintaining a standing army and navy to contain us . ” Although some sources do state that the victory at Bonchurch was responsible for the French withdrawal from the Isle of Wight , the source of information which states that the French won the battle says that fighting at Bembridge was what drove the French from the island .
= Tim Rogers ( journalist ) =
Tim Rogers ( born June 7 , 1979 ) is an American video game journalist and developer . In games journalism , he is known for his association with mid @-@ 2000s New Games Journalism , his verbose writing style , and his video game reviews website ActionButton.net. The Guardian cited his 2005 " Dreaming in an empty room : a defense of Metal Gear Solid 2 " as a core example of New Games Journalism , a style of video game journalism that emphasizes the author 's subjective and personal experiences in relation to the game world . Rogers has also written for Next Generation , GamesTM , Play , Game Developer , and Kotaku .
In game development , he is a co @-@ founder of Action Button Entertainment , where he designed games including Ziggurat and Videoball . The four @-@ person studio specializes in simple aesthetics and controls , following from Rogers 's own video game aesthetic and minimalist eSports interests . He compared the studio 's design philosophy to the spartan menu selections of Gordon Ramsay 's Kitchen Nightmares .
= = Early and personal life = =
Tim Rogers graduated from Indiana University Bloomington in 2001 with a degree in East Asian Languages and Cultures . He is a " self @-@ avowed messy guitar player " in his rock band , Large Prime Numbers . He has written that Mother 2 made him a vegetarian .
= = Video games journalism = =
Rogers is a video games journalist known for his verbosity . Danny Cowan of IndieGames.com described him as " infamous " in New Games Journalism , a style of subjective video game journalism in which authors emphasize their personal experiences in relation to the game world . The Guardian cited Rogers as one of the " unmissable examples of New Games Journalism " in 2005 for his Insert Credit piece on Metal Gear Solid 2 , " Dreaming in an empty room : a defense of Metal Gear Solid 2 " . Gaming journalist Kieron Gillen called the article " highly discussed and fairly brilliant " . In 2006 , Simon Carless of GameSetWatch remarked that online communities were fascinated with Rogers as an originator of New Games Journalism , which Carless found at odds with their mistreatment of him , citing a Something Awful mock review of Sonic Riders . The next year , the same author cited Rogers ' 80 @,@ 000 @-@ word article , " the insertcredit.com fukubukuro 2006 : GAME OF THE YEAR EDITION " , in calling Rogers " the Lester Bangs of video games " for being the only person " disruptive and iconoclastic enough " for the title . In 2011 , Jim Rossignol of Rock , Paper , Shotgun recommended " Who Killed Videogames ? " , a new Rogers essay , as a standout work .
Rogers started ActionButton.net , a video games reviews website , in early 2007 as an outgrowth from Insert Credit and its forums , SelectButton . At the time of its launch , Simon Carless of GameSetWatch called the site " great writing " in a signature " self @-@ conscious metacommentary " style . GamesRadar called Tim Rogers " loquacious " and " a character " as profiled in Cara Ellison 's " Embed With ... " profile series , where they discussed " sticktion " as the role of " sticky friction " in Super Mario Bros. 3 and how it was used in Rogers ' own Ziggurat and Videoball . Edge described Rogers as a " polarising author of so much ' publish @-@ now @-@ edit @-@ never ' brain spew " . In 2013 , Rogers was selected to publish in the first round of digital books on games criticism published by Press Select . Rogers has also written for Insert Credit , Next Generation , GamesTM , Play , N @-@ Revolution , Kotaku , Atomix , and Game Developer magazine . As of June 2016 , Rock , Paper , Scissors reported ActionButton.net to be " dormant " .
= = Action Button Entertainment = =
Rogers is a co @-@ founder of Action Button Entertainment , a four @-@ person studio that consists of Rogers , Brent Porter , Michael Kerwin , and Nicholas Wasilewski , who together have built all of the studio 's four games from Ziggurat through Videoball . Their games are consistently simple in their aesthetics and controls , following from Rogers 's own video game aesthetic interests . Rogers became known for producing " infomercial @-@ style trailers " . Rogers interest in minimalist eSports and simple games parlays into his design philosophy , which he compared to Gordon Ramsay 's Kitchen Nightmares , where Ramsay advises failing restaurants to improve by trimming their menus to a spartan few great dishes . Rogers also felt simple games were " less work " .
Rogers has said that he aspires for Action Button Entertainment to make games that share his preferred gaming styles and his hobbies . In finding that the common link between his top 25 video games ( including Panzer Dragoon , Cave Story , Canabalt , and his favorite , Out of This World ) was minimalist aesthetics with no overt story to tell other than through game mechanics , Rogers wanted Ziggurat and future games to live up to those expectations and used his gut to fine @-@ tune design decisions . The games also reflect aspects of Rogers 's personality , such as in the " scream sound effect " on Ziggurat made and distorted from his guitar based on sounds made by eccentric Japanese musicians whose records he owned . He also called Ziggurat a descendant of his hobbies : the video game Ibara : Black Label and the Rubik 's Cube .
= = = Ziggurat = = =
Ziggurat is a retro @-@ style arcade shooter video game where the player fights off incoming aliens as the world 's last human from atop a ziggurat . The player uses simple touch controls to charge and shoot the enemies away , and dies if hit by an enemy . The game has 16 @-@ bit graphics style and an 8 @-@ bit chiptune soundtrack .
Rogers co @-@ founded Action Button Entertainment while working on Ziggurat , which began with an idea Rogers had while playing Angry Birds about pushing back a swarm of bats by shooting projectiles at them . He decided that he could not make the game alone . Rogers put out a call for artists on Twitter with a submissions request of " fan art of the Japanese box art of Phantasy Star II " , and Action Button artist Brent Porter replied in under an hour with an entry Rogers called " incredible " . In mid 2011 , Rogers decided to work on an iPhone game for a few weeks as a break from a larger project . Rogers said the team was convinced by his design document — this game would become Ziggurat . Rogers contacted an Internet acquaintance who had previously mocked up a design idea from Rogers 's Kotaku column , programmer Michael Kerwin , who came through with a rough draft within a week . Andrew Toups converted a soundtrack created by Rogers 's rock band into an 8 @-@ bit soundtrack . After six months of hiatus and working at a social games company , Rogers rekindled development and the team finished the Ziggurat , which was released in February 2012 for iOS platforms .
Edge related the " unexpectedly poignant " red screen and sound effect that flashes upon the player 's death to Rogers 's personal interest in noise rock . They called it a " beguiling personal signature " .
= = = TNNS = = =
TNNS , pronounced " tennis " , is a brick @-@ breaking action game where players use a paddle along the screen 's left side to bounce a ball towards breakable objects on the right side of the screen , and to avoid getting the ball in their goal . It was released with little advanced notice in November 2012 for iOS as a universal app playable on iPhones , iPads , and iPods . Danny Cowan of IndieGames.com compared it with Sidhe Interactive 's Shatter and VG247 called it a rendition of Breakout . Pocket Gamer likened it to both and further compared it with Alleyway , Arkanoid , and Super Hexagon with a " telekinetic power " to alter the ball 's direction apart from the panel ( as in Shatter ) .
= = = 10 × 8 = = =
Ten by Eight , stylized as 10 × 8 , is a puzzle video game where players match tiles . Players align similarly colored blocks and trace the path they create when aligned . Star blocks act as power @-@ ups that extend combos . Rogers produced an " infomercial @-@ style trailer " for the game , which VG247 called one of his signature moves and that IndieGames.com called " glorious " . It was released on July 31 , 2013 in North America for PlayStation Mobile — the PlayStation Vita and compatible devices . Around the same time , Rogers presented at the GDC 2013 Indie Soapbox , where he told the story of how he " went indie " .
= = = Videoball = = =
In Videoball , players use solely one analog stick and one button to control triangles that shoot projectiles to knock a circular ball into the opposing team 's endzone . The triangle shoots a projectile , which charges the longer the button is held , such that a charged " slam " shot can sail across the full screen . Rogers , the game 's designer , describes the game as " an abstract minimalist electronic sport " . Its development began as a dare from QWOP developer Bennett Foddy , Rogers 's friend , to make a " one @-@ button StarCraft " . Rogers compared the game 's design process to Gordon Ramsay 's Kitchen Nightmares , where Ramsay convinces failing restaurants to provide fewer menu options and to make those dishes well . Rogers noted the role of noted basketball @-@ like strategy in its playtests , and the difficulty in crafting a minimalist game with a high importance on nuanced detail . He livestreams prerelease sessions of Videoball via Twitch and broadcast gameplay from Twitch 's booth at PAX East 2014 with indie publisher Midnight City . The game is expected for release in 2015 with cross @-@ platform multiplayer and support for more than six simultaneous players .
= Battle of Borgerhout =
The Battle of Borgerhout was a battle during the Eighty Years ' War , of the Spanish Army of Flanders led by Alexander Farnese , Prince of Parma , upon a fortified camp at the village of Borgerhout , near Antwerp , where several thousand French , English , Scottish and Walloon soldiers in service of the recently created Union of Utrecht were stationed . It took place during the reconquest by the armies of Philip II of Spain of the Burgundian Netherlands , whose different provinces had united in 1576 under the Pacification of Ghent to drive out the foreign troops out and to grant religious liberty to Protestants .
Despite the rebel victory at the Battle of Rijmenam in July 1578 , much of the Southern Netherlands were lost to the Spanish Army during the autumn ; Brussels was menaced , and the States General were moved to the safer Antwerp . Taking advantage of the Dutch rebel army 's indiscipline , Farnese decided at the beginning of 1579 to besiege Maastricht . As a feint to distract the Dutch rebels from his goal , but also aiming to scare Antwerp 's inhabitants , Farnese moved with his troops to surprise the village of Borgerhout , very close to Antwerp , where a part of the Dutch States Army had its quarters , namely 3 @,@ 000 or 4 @,@ 000 infantry which were the backbone of the rebel army and consisted of French Calvinists under François de la Noue , and English and Scottish troops under John Norrey 's orders .
On 2 March Farnese deployed elements of his army in a plain stretching between his position at the village of Ranst and the Dutch camp at Borgerhout , which Norreys and De la Noue had fortified with moats , palisades and earthworks . The assault was divided into three columns , each one provided with a mobile bridge to pass over the camp 's moat . After one of the attacks , undertaken by Walloon troops , succeeded in securing a bridge , the Spanish forces were able to attack the States @-@ General 's soldiers inside their camp . Norreys and De la Noue 's men opposed a strong defence , but Farnese , throwing his light cavalry to the battle , forced the Dutch troops to abandon Borgerhout and look for shelter under the artillery of Antwerp 's walls . William of Orange , leader of the Dutch revolt , and archduke Matthias of Habsburg , Governor @-@ General of the Netherlands appointed by the States General , witnessed the fight from Antwerp 's walls .
The battle meant the destruction of the villages of Borgerhout and Deurne and saw up to 1 @,@ 500 men killed between both armies . Farnese then proceeded to besiege Maastricht , which the Spanish Army invested less than a week after the battle and was taken by assault on 29 June of the same year . Farnese 's successful campaign opened the way to a nine @-@ year period of Spanish reconquest of much of the Netherlands .
= = Background = =
In 1566 the Burgundian Netherlands , Charles V of Habsburg 's original realm , which had passed to his son Philip II of Spain on his abdication in 1556 , were in disarray due to religious tensions between Protestants and Catholics and the nobility and cities ' unwillingnes of funding Philip 's wars and ceding its powers to the Royal administration . In 1567 Philip sent an army to the Netherlands under Fernando Álvarez de Toledo , Duke of Alba , to restore his authority , but Alba 's persecution of the religious and political dissenters led William of Orange , the leader of the nobility , to exile into Germany and prepare an invasion of the Netherlands to expel Alba . Orange invaded the Netherlands twice , in 1568 and 1572 , but in both occasions Alba defeated him . The second time , however , the revolt spread into the provinces of Holland and Zealand , and Alba was unable of quelling it . In 1576 , the lack of an authority due to the death of Alba 's successor Luis de Requesens , together with a Spanish general bankruptcy , led the Spanish mutinuous soldiers to sack several towns , including Antwerp . In reaction , the loyal and rebel provinces united to expel the foreign troops under the Pacification of Ghent .
John of Austria , the victor of Lepanto and replacement to Requesens , had no choice but to sign the Perpetual Edict in 1577 , accepting the Pacification of Ghent , but later , frustrated by the intransigence of Orange and his supporters , he seized the citadel of Namur and recalled his troops . John 's striking victory at the Battle of Gembloux in January 1578 , was followed by a tactical defeat at Rijmenam in July , and John himself died of plague in October . However , despite the Spanish failure to exploit militarily the victory of Gembloux , it rendered important political benefits to the royal cause in the Netherlands , as it shattered the unity of the Dutch rebels . As a consequence of the battle 's outcome , the leaders of the main families of the Southern provinces lost faith in Orange 's cause and the promises of aid made by the English queen Elizabeth I , which meant an important setback to Orange . Aiming to restore the military capability of the Dutch rebels , Elizabeth arranged with John Casimir , son to the Calvinist Elector Palatine , the raising of a German Army under English pay to assist the Dutch troops John Casimir brought to the Netherlands 11 @,@ 000 men , but instead of fighting the Spanish , he sided with the Calvinist extremists at Ghent and widened the gap between the Catholic and Protestant rebels . The States General also called for help Francis , Duke of Anjou , brother and heir of the King of France , who entered Mons in July 1578 , but was back in France in a short time .
The Catholic nobility and southern provinces ' defections , already started in the autumn 1578 , expanded further when the provinces of Hainaut and Artois concluded on 6 January 1579 , the Union of Arras , which the Walloon Flanders joined soon – the Catholic provinces of Namur , Luxembourg and Limburg were already controlled by the Spanish – . The Union of Arras opened talks in February with Alexander Farnese , who succeeded his uncle John of Austria as the Royal @-@ appointed Governor @-@ General of the Netherlands , to reconcile with Philip II . In response , a meeting took place in Utrecht shortly thereafter between deputies from the northern provinces of Holland , Zealand , Utrecht , Friesland , Gelderland and Ommelanden , which signed an alliance and union on 23 January . In the south , meanwhile , Farnese was planning the capture of Maastricht to use the city with its stone bridge over the Meuse as a base to conquer Brussels and Antwerp in the following campaigns . In November 1578 , the Spanish Army left Namur and crossed the Ardennes and Limburg . However , Farnese deemed too risky starting the siege of Maastrich at midwinter and with the John Casimir 's numerous cavalry on the countryside .
= = Campaign = =
For the 1579 campaign , Farnese planned two different movements . A portion of his army , under Cristóbal de Mondragón , was to clean the area between Maastricht and the German border from Dutch garrisons , while Farnese himself , ahead of the main army , decided to move against Atwerp with two objectives : to neutralize the Dutch field army , or primarily its German cavalry , before laying siege to Maastricht and to distract the Dutch from the campaign 's real objective . The first part of the plan was accomplished when Mondragón took the towns of Kerpen , Erkelenz and Straelen between 7 and 15 January . On 24 January , Farnese moved to attack the States General army , which was at Weert , east of Antwerp . Outnumbered , François de la Noue , who had taken to role of field commander of the States ' army after the Count of Bossu 's death , left some States ' troops in the Castle of Weert and withdrew to Antwerp with his unpaid men . They asked the city council to allow them to enter the city , but it was refused , and De la Noue had no choice but to entrench his army outside the walls , in the village of Borgerhout . This was a residential area for the wealthy inhabitants of Antwerp where they had country houses and gardens , among them Peeter van Coudenberghe 's botanical garden , which had more than 600 exotic plants .
In the meantime , Farnese entrusted to Count Hannibal d 'Altemps the capture of Weert and continued his advance upon the Dutch Army . D 'Altemps encircled Weert with 6 @,@ 000 men and breached its walls with a two @-@ cannon battery . The defenders of the castle surrendered at discretion but , on Farnese orders , were hanged on the windows , which the Count willingly did because his steward had lost an eye during the siege . Farnese , instead of following the Dutch Army to its quarters , lodged in Turnhout with his troops and his court to forage . Before moving to Antwerp he dealt with John Casimir 's German Army . Spanish troops attacked and defeated part of the German reiters near Eindhoven on 10 February . Moreover , while John Casimir himself was in England dealing with Elizabeth I , Farnese agreed with his lieutenant , Maurice of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , the withdrawal of the Calvinist Army , which the Spaniards allowed to leave the Netherlands freely . Once this matter was finished , Farnese advanced upon Borgerhout .
= = Order of battle = =
The Dutch States ' troops quartered in the village of Borgerhout numbered 25 or 40 infantry companies which comprised from 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 soldiers , plus 100 additional mounted troops . They were the backbone of the rebel army and William of Orange referred to them as " his braves " . Moreover , they were led by officers of renown such as François de la Noue and John Norreys . To confront the Spanish Army , they were detached along the village of Borgerhout , which they had fortified by digging a moat and building an earth rampart around the village , from the bridge of Deurne over the Groot Schijn stream , which flowed into the Scheldt , to the road of Voetweg , which ran parallel to the canal of Herentals . Orange deployed four additional French infantry regiments and Walloon troops from the nearby garrisons of Ath and Termonde behind Borgerhout and under the protection of Antwerp 's citadel and moat . The city 's civic guard , numbering 80 flags of armed and trained burghers , was ready to defend the city if necessary , but not willing to get out to join the battle nor to allow the regular troops to come within Antwerp . The Spanish soldier and chronicler Alonso Vázquez claimed that Orange 's army had , in all , 25 @,@ 000 men .
Farnese deployed a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ man vanguard , both infantry and cavalry , in the plain which separated his camp at Ranst from Borgerhout . Three small battalions , not surpassing 12 companies each one , but made up of chosen men , went in advance ; the right was taken by the Spanish tercio of Lope de Figueroa , the center by a Lower German regiment under Francisco de Valdés and the right by a Walloon regiment under Claude de Berlaymont , known as Haultpenne . Each formation was supported by a sleeve of 100 musketeers , a group of men armed with axes to cut the palissades and a wheeled bridge to cross the moat . A corps of light cavalry led by Antonio de Olivera followed the infantry at some distance with instructions to cover its withdrawal if the attack went bad , or to follow up the victory , if it took place . According to Alonso Vázquez , Farnese made the Walloon soldiers of the Spanish Army wear white shirts over their armors , a practise common in night attacks known as camisades , to distinguish themselves from the Walloons who fought for the Union of Utrecht . Thus the Walloons look , in his words , like " a very colorful procession of clerics and sacristans " .
In reserve , Farnese deployed a large battalion made up by the German regiments of Hannibal d 'Altemps and Georg von Frundsberg , flanked on its right by troops of reiters under Duke Francis of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , elder brother of Duke Maurice , John Casimir 's former lieutenant , and on its left by lancers under Pierre de Taxis . The remaining Spanish cavalry , led by Ottavio Gonzaga , covered the rear . Farnese led his troops personally , and before the battle was started , he scouted the Dutch position , having ordered his troops not to move until his return . On the Dutch side , while De la Noue and Norreys directed the men standing in Borgerhout , William of Orange witnessed the battle from the walls of Antwerp in company of archduke Matthias , brother of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II , whom the States General had elected as Governor of the Netherlands in opposition to the deceased John of Austria .
= = Battle = =
The fight started with the three battalions of the Spanish first line advancing upon the Dutch camp , each one trying to be the first to laid its bridge over the moat . Haultpenne 's Wallons , headed by Sergeant @-@ Major Camille Sacchino , moved up to Deurne , crossing the Schijn river at the small village of Immerseel . Valdés ' Germans advanced frontally to Borgerhout across the Borsbeek road , and Figueroa 's Spaniards took the Voetweg road to assault the Dutch camp from the south . While the sleeves of musketeers from the Spanish and German units exchanged fire with the Dutch troops covered by the rampart , Sacchino 's Walloons drove the defenders of Deurne behind the Groot Schijn stream and took its bridge . De la Noue sent reinforcements there to content the assault , but they arrived too late to prevent the Walloons from laying their bridge over the moat and began to climb the rampart , starting a close combat with the Dutch troops . In the meantime , the Spanish and German troops , supported by two or three artillery pieces , breached the rampart , crossed the moat and also started to come inside Borgerhout , where De la Noue and Norreys ' men reorganized and stood on the barricaded streets .
Farnese , seeing that his attack was going well , ordered Olivera to advance with his cavalry to support the infantry 's push . While the light horsemen penetrated into Borgerhout across the breach opened by Figueroa 's men , Farnese himself took the command of Taxis ' lancers and did the same across Valdés ' path . The French and English soldiers offered a strong resistance , but after two hours of battle inside the quarters , De la Noue began to withdraw his forces to Antwerp to avoid destruction . The retreating troops set fire to their lodgements and looked for shelter under the coverage of Antwerp 's artillery . Many of the Spanish soldiers went in persecution , despite their officers ordered them to stay together , and chased the rebels until Antwerp 's moat . At William of Orange 's orders , the artillery of the city walls fired then sharpnel over the Spanish troops with different results , depending on the sources . The Spanish soldier Alonso Vázquez claimed that the shots were ineffective because the battlefield was covered of the smoke produced by the fire of Borgerhout . On the other hand , the Flemish official Guillaume Baudart claimed that it was precise and made " arms and legs fly on the air " .
By then , Farnese , unwilling of having for a longer time his troops close to Antwerp 's cannons , made drums and trumpets to call for withdrawal and gathered his men at Borgerhout . Meanwhile , people from Antwerp sallied to carry the wounded French , British and Walloon officers and soldiers into the city to receive treatment . The Spanish soldiery , once the fire of Borgerhout was finished , looted the basements of the burned buildings and had a meal before praying to thank God . After that , the Spanish Army marched across the roads of Lier and Herentals to Turnhout , where Farnese wanted to arrive the next day . Fearing a new attack , Antwerp 's civic guards spent the night at their posts .
= = Aftermath = =
The number of casualties endured by both armies differs according to the authors . The Italian Jesuit Famiano Strada noted that Farnese , in a letter to his father Ottavio , Duke of Parma , put the Dutch loss as 600 men killed and gave eight men killed and 40 wounded amongst his troops . Strada also mentions that other estimations pointed to 1 @,@ 040 men killed in the Dutch ranks . On the other hand , the Flemish author Guillaume Baudart set the Dutch loss as 200 men killed and claimed that the Spanish Army lost 500 men . The villages of Deurne and Borgerhout were seriously damaged by the fire during the battle : in 1580 Deurne had 133 standing buildings , while 146 had been destroyed by the fire ; in Borgerhout 206 buildings remained and 280 were ruined .
Farnese 's attack achieved his goal of distracting the Dutch States forces from Maastricht . After the battle , the Spanish Army moved quickly to Turnhout , taking the castle of Grobbendonk on its way and appearing before Masstricht on 8 March , just six days after the battle of Borgerhout . François de la Noue followed the Spanish till Herentals with some troops , but when he realized that Farnese was to lay siege to Maastricht , it was too late for him to reinforce the city 's garrison . Moreover , mutinies and defections hampered the Dutch efforts to save the city . The English soldiers under John Norrey 's orders , who remained out of Antwerp , kidnapped the abbot of St. Michael 's Abbey in demand for back pays , and William of Orange 's had to mediate to placate them . In political terms , the battle increased the Walloon defections from the States General to the Spanish party in the following months . Emanuel Philibert de Lalaing joined the Spanish Army with 5 @,@ 000 Walloon troops of the Dutch States army and expelled from Menen a garrison loyal to the States General .
Farnese besieged Maastricht in command of 15 @,@ 000 infantry , 4 @,@ 000 cavalry , 20 cannons and 4 @,@ 000 sappers , joined later by 5 @,@ 000 additional troops . In May , while the siege developed , peace talks were held at Cologne under the mediation of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf to preserve the unity of the Netherlands . However , divisions become more serious during the process . In Brussels , fight erupted in early June between Catholics headed by Philip of Egmont , son of Lamoral of Egmont , whom the Royalist authorities had executed in 1568 and Calvinists under Olivier van den Tympel , resulting in the expulsion of Egmont and his supporters . At Mechelen , the Catholic inhabitants forced the Dutch garrison to leave , while in ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch an armed struggle resulted in the magistrates declaring support to the Royalist side . The revolt took a character of civil war , and as a result of the religious problem , the peace conference at Cologne failed . Henceforth , Farnese reconquered Flanders and the Brabant town after town , even forcing Antwerp to surrender after a long and exhausting siege in 1585 .
= Lazarus W. Powell =
Lazarus Whitehead Powell ( October 6 , 1812 – July 3 , 1867 ) was the 19th Governor of Kentucky , serving from 1851 to 1855 . He was later elected to represent Kentucky in the U.S. Senate from 1859 to 1865 .
The reforms enacted during Powell 's term as governor gave Kentucky one of the top educational systems in the antebellum South . He also improved Kentucky 's transportation system and vetoed legislation that he felt would have created an overabundance of banks in the Commonwealth . Powell 's election as governor marked the end of Whig dominance in Kentucky . Powell 's predecessor , John J. Crittenden , was the last governor elected from the party of the Commonwealth 's favorite son , Henry Clay .
Following his term as governor , Powell was elected to the U.S. Senate . Before he could assume office , President James Buchanan dispatched Powell and Major Benjamin McCulloch to Utah to ease tensions with Brigham Young and the Mormons . Powell assumed his Senate seat on his return from Utah , just prior to the election of Abraham Lincoln as president . Powell became an outspoken critic of Lincoln 's administration , so much so that the Kentucky General Assembly asked for his resignation and some of his fellow senators tried to have him expelled from the body . Both groups later renounced their actions .
Powell died at his home near Henderson , Kentucky shortly following a failed bid to return to the Senate in 1867 .
= = Early life = =
Powell was born on October 6 , 1812 near Henderson , Kentucky , the third son of Lazarus and Ann McMahon [ a ] Powell . He attended the common schools of Henderson , and was tutored by George Gayle . He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from Saint Joseph College in Bardstown , Kentucky in 1833 , and began studying law under John Rowan . He then enrolled in the Transylvania University School of Law , studying under Justice George Robertson and Judge Daniel Mayes . He was admitted to the bar in 1835 , and partnered with Archibald Dixon to start a law practice in Henderson . The two remained partners until 1839 .
On November 8 , 1837 , Powell married Harriet Ann Jennings . The couple had three sons [ b ] before Jennings died on July 30 , 1846 .
= = Political career = =
A Democrat in a Whig district , Powell 's political career began with an 1836 bid for a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives . He campaigned vigorously while his opponent , John G. Holloway , relied largely on his party affiliation to carry the election . This proved a critical misstep for Holloway , as Powell secured the surprise victory . Holloway apparently learned from his mistake . Upon the completion of Powell 's term in 1838 , Holloway challenged Powell again , and defeated him by a considerable majority . Six year later , Powell was chosen as a presidential elector on the Democratic ticket , supporting James K. Polk .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
In 1848 , Kentucky Democrats nominated Linn Boyd for governor , but Boyd declined the nomination . Powell was chosen to replace Boyd on the ticket , largely due to the influence of James Guthrie . The Whig party nominated Senator John J. Crittenden , and the race was complicated by former Vice President Richard Mentor Johnson 's announcement that he would run as an independent Democratic candidate . Knowing the Democrats ' chances were dimmed by having two candidates in the race , Powell arranged a meeting with Johnson , following which the latter withdrew his candidacy and pledged his support to Powell . Nevertheless , Crittenden won the election .
In the gubernatorial election of 1851 , Powell was once again the Democratic Party nominee . The Whigs nominated Powell 's friend and law partner , Archibald Dixon . Powell and Dixon traveled the state together , eating at the same taverns , speaking from the same platforms , and generally showing cordiality and friendliness that was rare in Kentucky politics in those days . Powell 's margin of victory in the general election was a thin 850 votes , while Whig candidate John P. Thompson defeated the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor , Robert Wickliffe , by several thousand votes . A third candidate for governor , abolitionist Cassius M. Clay , received 3 @,@ 621 votes . Powell was the first Democrat elected to the office in almost twenty years . ( John L. Helm had ascended to the governorship on Crittenden 's resignation . )
The Whigs also maintained control of the General Assembly , and although Governor Powell was largely able to cooperate with his political opponents , some clashes did occur . As a result of the 1850 census
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the outermost layer of hyphae , forms a cutis , and on older specimens ( and on the small scales ) forms a trichoderm .
= = = Similar species = = =
There are five species similar in appearance to G. maritimus : G. arenophilus , G. decipiens , G. flavus , G. fulgens and G. pseudofulgens . G. arenophilus and particularly G. fulgens are the most similar . Though G. maritimus and G. arenophilus show similarities in their biogeography and ecology , the typically slightly smaller G. arenophilus differs from G. maritimus morphologically . While G. maritimus has a cap covered in fibrils with small scales , G. arenophilus can sometimes be completely smooth , and spore ornamentation differs , with G. maritimus typically displaying larger warts . Like G. maritimus , G. fulgens has been recorded growing on sand @-@ dune heathland ; further , the spores are similar in appearance to those of G. maritimus . However , G. fulgens requires soil rich in peat and must grow among moss . Moreover , there are a number of morphological differences ; G. maritimus mushrooms are larger and thicker , there are never remains of the partial veil on G. fulgens stems , the shape of the top of the spores differs between the two species , and the cheilocystidia and caulocystidia are significantly larger on G. maritimus . G. fulgens var. luteicystis is even more distinct from G. maritimus than the nominate variety . Despite the similarities between the three species , the three have been shown to be in different clades within Gymnopilus , suggesting ecological convergence between G. arenophilus and G. maritimus , and morphological convergence between G. fulgens and G. maritimus .
Gymnopilus flavus , despite also appearing on land near the Mediterranean , can be differentiated from G. maritimus as it lives among grass , especially Dactylis glomerata , and it has distinctly smaller spores , typically measuring 5 to 6 by 3 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 2 μm . G. pseudofulgens , also collected in Italy , shows two major morphological differences : it produces smaller mushrooms , and spores that are of a different shape with smaller warts . G. decipiens , another species that grows on sandy soil , again has spores that are markedly different . The American species G. arenicola also favours sandy soil , but has significantly smaller spores than G. maritimus . Two other species of Gymnopilus found around the Mediterranean are G. corsicus and G. spadiceus . G. corsicus has no veil remnants on the stem , and spores that do not turn red in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's iodine , and so can easily be differentiated from G. maritimus . G. spadiceus shows several similarities to G. maritimus , but grows only on pine wood and has rectangular spores .
Gymnopils maritimus is clearly a different species from other members of its clade , despite their close relation . All other species in the clade grow upon dead wood and have well @-@ developed rings on their stems . The spores also differ ; in the case of G. junonius and G. spectabilis ( often considered synonymous ) , as well as G. pampeanus , they are narrower , and in the case of G. imperialis , they are wider . Of the other members of the clade , only G. junonius and G. spectabilis also grow in Europe .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Gymnopilus maritimus is known only from a single site in Pittulongu , an area of Olbia , in Sardinia , Italy , which is the type locality . There , mushrooms were found growing in close groups and tufts on coastal sand dunes around 10 metres ( 33 ft ) from the high tide line . They were observed at the base of live Juncus maritimus ( sea rush ) plants , growing on sandy soil or decaying plants , where they were feeding as saprotrophs . As such , it is possible that the species would be able to grow on other substrates . They were observed growing from autumn to winter , between the end of October and January . In addition to the collections in Sardinia , Contu and Vizzini speculate that reports of G. fulgens growing in " sand @-@ dune heaths " on Great Britain , an unusual habitat for that species , may in fact show the presence of G. maritimus on the island .
= Brooks & Dunn =
Brooks & Dunn is an American country music duo consisting of Kix Brooks and Ronnie Dunn , both vocalists and songwriters . The duo was founded in 1990 through the suggestion of Tim DuBois . Before the foundation , both members were solo recording artists . Brooks wrote number one singles for John Conlee , Nitty Gritty Dirt Band , and Highway 101 ; both he and Dunn also charted two solo singles a piece in the 1980s , with Brooks also releasing an album for Capitol Records in 1989 . However , they began hitting the charts together in 1991 .
Signed to Arista Nashville in 1991 , the duo has recorded ten studio albums , one Christmas album , and three compilation albums for the label . They also have released fifty singles , of which twenty went to number one on the Hot Country Songs charts and nineteen more reached top ten . Two of these number @-@ one songs , " My Maria " ( a cover of the B.W. Stevenson song ) and " Ain 't Nothing ' Bout You " , were the top country songs of 1996 and 2001 , respectively , according to the Billboard Year @-@ End charts . The latter is also the duo 's longest @-@ lasting number one , at six weeks . Several of their songs have also reached the Billboard Hot 100 , with the number 25 peaks of " Ain 't Nothing ' bout You " and " Red Dirt Road " being their highest there . Brooks & Dunn also won the Country Music Association Vocal Duo of the Year award every year between 1992 and 2006 , except for 2000 . Two of their songs won the Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal : " Hard Workin ' Man " in 1994 and " My Maria " in 1996 . All but two of the duo 's studio albums are certified platinum or higher by the Recording Industry Association of America ; their highest @-@ certified is their 1991 debut Brand New Man , which is certified sextuple @-@ platinum for shipments of six million copies .
The duo 's material is known for containing influences of honky @-@ tonk , mainstream country , and rock , as well as the contrast between Brooks ' and Dunn 's singing voices and on @-@ stage personalities , although some of their music has also been criticized as formulaic . Their 1992 single " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " helped re @-@ popularize line dancing in the United States , and 2001 's " Only in America " was used by both George W. Bush and Barack Obama in their respective presidential campaigns . Brooks & Dunn has collaborated with several artists , including Reba McEntire , Vince Gill , Sheryl Crow , Mac Powell , Billy Gibbons , and Jerry Jeff Walker among others . Brooks and Dunn was deemed country music 's most successful duo .
After announcing their retirement in August 2009 , they performed their final concert on September 2 , 2010 at the Bridgestone Arena in Nashville , Tennessee . Both Brooks and Dunn have continued to record for Arista Nashville as solo artists . Dunn released a self @-@ titled album in 2011 , which included the Top 10 country hit " Bleed Red " , while Brooks released New to This Town in September 2012 . The duo reunited in 2015 for a series of concerts with McEntire in Las Vegas , Nevada .
= = History = =
= = = Kix Brooks = = =
Leon Eric " Kix " Brooks III was born May 12 , 1955 in Shreveport , Louisiana and before moving to Nashville in 1979 , he played at various venues in Maine . He was also a neighbor of country singer Johnny Horton . Brooks worked as a songwriter in the 1980s , co @-@ writing the number @-@ one singles " I 'm Only in It for the Love " by John Conlee , " Modern Day Romance " by the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band , and " Who 's Lonely Now " by Highway 101 , plus The Oak Ridge Boys ' top 20 hit " You Made a Rock of a Rolling Stone " , Nicolette Larson 's " Let Me Be the First " , and Keith Palmer 's " Don 't Throw Me in the Briarpatch " . Brooks also released several singles through the independent Avion label , charting at number 73 on Hot Country Songs in 1983 with " Baby , When Your Heart Breaks Down " . In 1989 , he released a self @-@ titled studio album through Capitol Records . This album included " Baby , When Your Heart Breaks Down " and the number 87 single " Sacred Ground " , which McBride & the Ride covered and took to number two on the country charts in 1992 . Brooks and Pam Tillis co @-@ wrote and sang on " Tomorrow 's World " , a multi @-@ artist single released on Warner Bros. Records in 1990 in honor of Earth Day , which peaked at number 74 on the country charts . Brooks also produced and co @-@ wrote " Backbone Job " , a Keith Whitley outtake that appeared on his compilation Kentucky Bluebird .
= = = Ronnie Dunn = = =
Ronnie Gene Dunn was born June 1 , 1953 in Coleman , Texas . He played bass guitar in local bands during high school and he briefly studied theology at Hardin @-@ Simmons University with the intention of becoming a Baptist preacher . Dunn was " kicked out " of the school because he played in bars . Between 1983 and 1984 , he recorded for the Churchill label , taking both " It 's Written All Over Your Face " and " She Put the Sad in All His Songs " to number 59 on the country charts . In 1989 , session drummer Jamie Oldaker entered Dunn in a talent contest sponsored by Marlboro , which he won . The grand prize in the competition included a recording session in Nashville . The producer of that session , Scott Hendricks , recommended Dunn 's recordings to Tim DuBois , then an executive of Arista Nashville . DuBois paired Brooks and Dunn because he thought that they would work well together as songwriters , and after the two recorded a demo , he suggested that they form a duo . During this timespan , Dunn also wrote " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " , which Asleep at the Wheel recorded on their 1990 album Keepin ' Me Up Nights .
= = Musical career = =
= = = Brand New Man = = =
Brooks & Dunn 's first single , " Brand New Man " , entered the Hot Country Songs charts in June 1991 and went to number one . It was the title track to the duo 's debut album , Brand New Man , which was released two months later . Brooks and Dunn wrote this song and several other cuts in collaboration with songwriter Don Cook , who co @-@ produced the album with Hendricks . It was also Cook 's first credit as a producer . The next three single releases from Brand New Man ( " My Next Broken Heart " , " Neon Moon " , and their own rendition of " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " ) all made number one on the country music charts as well , making for the first time in country music history that a duo or group had sent its first four singles to the top of the charts . A fifth single , " Lost and Found " , peaked at number six . " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " , which had previously been the B @-@ side to " My Next Broken Heart " , also made number 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and its commercial success led to a renewed interest in line dancing throughout the United States . Brand New Man was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in August 1992 for shipments of one million copies ; by 2002 , the album had been certified sextuple @-@ platinum for shipments of six million . It spent more than 190 weeks on the Top Country Albums charts . In 1992 , the duo won the Duo of the Year Award from the Country Music Association ( CMA ) , which also nominated them for that year 's Album of the Year and Horizon awards . Brooks & Dunn won the association 's Duo award for every year from then until 2006 , except for 2000 when the award went to Montgomery Gentry . After the album 's release , Brooks & Dunn began touring as well .
Brand New Man received a positive review from Allmusic , whose critic Daniel Gioffre thought that the album showed the duo 's diversity of musical influences . Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly was less positive , criticizing the duo 's sound for being " imitative " .
= = = Hard Workin ' Man and Waitin ' on Sundown = = =
Hard Workin ' Man was the title of Brooks & Dunn 's second album , which was released in 1993 . The title track , also its first single , peaked at number 4 on the country music charts . The album included two number @-@ one singles in its third and fifth releases : " She Used to Be Mine " and its B @-@ side , " That Ain 't No Way to Go " . " We 'll Burn That Bridge " and " Rock My World ( Little Country Girl ) " ( respectively the second and fourth releases ) both made Top 5 on Billboard , with the former reaching number one on Radio & Records . Also included on the album was a remix of " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " . In 1994 , " Hard Workin ' Man " won the duo a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal , and the album was nominated for Best Country Album . Hard Workin ' Man earned its highest RIAA certification in 2002 , when it was certified quintuple platinum . Brian Mansfield gave a generally positive review in Allmusic , saying that its up @-@ tempo songs " rocked harder " than any of the songs from the first album .
By the end of 1994 , the duo released their third studio album , Waitin ' on Sundown . It also produced five charting singles , three of which made number one on the country charts : " She 's Not the Cheatin ' Kind " , " Little Miss Honky Tonk " and " You 're Gonna Miss Me When I 'm Gone " . The other two singles , " I 'll Never Forgive My Heart " and " Whiskey Under the Bridge " , both made top ten . Allmusic critic Thom Owens thought that the album 's singles were " solid " but that the rest of the songs were " filler " . A review of the single " She 's Not the Cheatin ' Kind " from the same site praised it for its " hard @-@ driving , honky @-@ tonk spirit " . Nash praised the honky @-@ tonk sound of " I 'll Never Forgive My Heart " , but thought that most of the other songs relied on " contrivance " . Randy Lewis of the Orlando Sentinel gave a generally positive review , saying that the " minidrama " of " A Few Good Rides Away " ( which Brooks co @-@ wrote ) was the strongest track on the album .
= = = Borderline = = =
The first single from Brooks & Dunn 's fourth album , Borderline , was a cover version of B.W. Stevenson 's 1972 single " My Maria " . Brooks & Dunn 's version of the song spent three weeks at number one in mid @-@ 1996 and peaked at number 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 ; it was also that year 's top country song according to the Billboard Year @-@ End charts . Dunn said that he was initially reluctant to record " My Maria " because the duo had not previously recorded any cover songs . The song won Brooks & Dunn its second Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Group or Duo , and the duo won the 1996 Entertainer of the Year award from both the Country Music Association and Academy of Country Music , making them the first duo to win that award from the former . In 1997 , Brooks & Dunn joined a double @-@ headliner tour with Reba McEntire . Borderline produced another number one in " A Man This Lonely " , along with the top ten hits " I Am That Man " and " Why Would I Say Goodbye " . " Mama Don 't Get Dressed Up for Nothing " , the third single and B @-@ side to " My Maria " , became their first release not to make the top ten .
Michael McCall of Allmusic and Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly both thought that the album 's material was " cliché " and that " My Maria " was the strongest song on it . A more positive review came from Larry Stephens of Country Standard Time , who thought that the album had " the right mix " of songs .
= = = The Greatest Hits Collection and If You See Her = = =
Their first greatest hits compilation was released on September 16 , 1997 . It comprised most of their singles to that point and three new songs : " Honky Tonk Truth " , " He 's Got You " , and " Days of Thunder " . The first two were released as singles , with respective peaks of three and two on the country charts . The Greatest Hits Collection was certified platinum in April 1998 , and double @-@ platinum in 2001 .
Brooks & Dunn collaborated with Reba McEntire to perform " If You See Him / If You See Her " , which was the lead @-@ off single to Brooks & Dunn 's If You See Her and McEntire 's If You See Him , both of which were released on the same day . Arista Nashville and MCA Nashville , the label to which McEntire was signed , both promoted the single . This cut went to number one , as did If You See Her 's next two singles : " How Long Gone " and a cover of Roger Miller 's " Husbands and Wives " , which also became the duo 's first top 40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 . Dunn recorded the vocals for " Husbands and Wives " in one take . Also included on the album was " Born and Raised in Black and White " , the first song of the duo 's career in which they alternated on lead vocals . The album 's fourth single was " I Can 't Get Over You " , which was a top five country hit . Following it was " South of Santa Fe " , which peaked at number 41 on the country charts and thus became the duo 's lowest @-@ peaking single there . In 2001 , If You See Her reached double @-@ platinum certification in the United States .
Jana Pendragon , in her review for Allmusic , praised Dunn 's vocal performances on " Husbands and Wives " and " You 're My Angel " , but thought that a couple of the other cuts were " formula " . Country Standard Time writer Kevin Oliver criticized the album for having " wildly uneven " material , calling the McEntire collaboration a " snoozer " and " South of Santa Fe " " wretched " .
= = = Tight Rope = = =
Tight Rope ( 1999 ) , the duo 's sixth album , was also its least commercially successful release . It included three singles : a cover of John Waite 's " Missing You " , followed by " Beer Thirty " and " You 'll Always Be Loved By Me " . The former two failed to make Top 10 , while the latter peaked at number 5 in 2000 . Dunn co @-@ wrote some songs on this album with McBride & the Ride lead singer and bassist Terry McBride ( who would later join Brooks & Dunn 's road band ) , and Brooks collaborated with Bob DiPiero . The duo shared production duties with Byron Gallimore on all three singles and four other songs on the album , while retaining Cook as producer on the other six . While " Beer Thirty " was climbing , the album cut " Goin ' Under Gettin ' Over You " charted as high as number 60 based on unsolicited airplay . Tight Rope was certified gold for U.S. shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies , but did not receive any higher certification .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave this album a mixed review , referring to the " Missing You " cover as a " misstep " . Jon Weisberger thought that the album was " consistent " but added that it did not have any " surprises " . Brooks revealed in 2015 that the album 's poor performance almost led to the duo splitting up , as he felt that “ We weren ’ t really writing together anymore , and we were just kind of done " , but they ultimately stayed together at the suggestion of Joe Galante , then the head of their label .
= = = Steers & Stripes = = =
In addition to persuading the duo to stay together , Galante suggested that they record the song " Ain 't Nothing ' Bout You " , because he felt it had potential as a hit . The song served as the lead single from their seventh album , 2001 's Steers & Stripes . It became their longest @-@ lasting number 1 , with a six @-@ week stay at that position . This song was the second song of the duo 's career to be named the top single of the year according to Billboard Year @-@ End ; it was also their highest peak on the Billboard Hot 100 at the time , peaking at number 25 there . For this album , the duo worked with producer Mark Wright , who also produced for Lee Ann Womack and Gary Allan at the time .
The next two singles from Steers & Stripes both made number 1 as well : " Only in America " and " The Long Goodbye " , the latter of which was written by Irish pop singers Ronan Keating and Paul Brady . After it , the duo charted at number 5 with " My Heart Is Lost to You " and number 12 with a cover of Kim Richey 's " Every River " , featuring a backing vocal from Richey . All of these other singles also made the pop charts . " Only in America " was later used by George W. Bush in his 2004 re @-@ election campaign , and again in 2008 by Barack Obama in his campaign . Noting that the song was used by both a Republican and a Democrat candidate , Brooks ( who wrote the song with Cook and Ronnie Rogers ) said that it was " very flattering to know our song crossed parties and potentially inspires all Americans . "
This album was generally well received , with the reviews in Allmusic and Country Standard Time noting that the album was more consistent than the previous ones . Nash was less favorable , referring to the up @-@ tempos as " retreads " but praising Dunn 's voice .
= = = It Won 't Be Christmas Without You and Red Dirt Road = = =
Brooks & Dunn released a Christmas album in 2002 titled It Won 't Be Christmas Without You . Four of its cuts made the country music charts based on seasonal airplay : the title track , " Hangin ' ' round the Mistletoe " , " Rockin ' Little Christmas " and a rendition of " Winter Wonderland " . It was followed in early 2003 by the duo 's eighth studio album , Red Dirt Road , whose title track became the duo 's eighteenth number one on Billboard . Two more singles were released from it : " You Can 't Take the Honky Tonk Out of the Girl " , which spent five weeks in the number three position , and " That 's What She Gets for Loving Me " at number six . On the Hot 100 , these songs respectively peaked at 25 , 39 and 53 . As with Steers & Stripes , Red Dirt Road was certified platinum .
Erlewine described Red Dirt Road as a concept album in his review of it , saying that its title track and other songs offered a " tribute to their roots and upbringing . " Nash gave the album an A @-@ minus rating , saying that Brooks & Dunn " dig even deeper " on the album ; she also referred to the title track as a " gutsy account of the terrible beauty of coming of age . " A less favorable review came from Country Standard Time , whose critic Jeffrey B. Remz called it " satisfactory , but not much more . " Both Nash and Remz compared " You Can 't Take the Honky Tonk Out of the Girl " to the sound of The Rolling Stones .
= = = The Greatest Hits Collection II and Hillbilly Deluxe = = =
Arista Nashville released Brooks & Dunn 's second Greatest Hits package , The Greatest Hits Collection II , in October 2004 . The album included singles from If You See Her , Steers & Stripes and Red Dirt Road , and the previously unreleased " That 's What It 's All About " and " It 's Getting Better All the Time " . Respectively , these cuts peaked at numbers two and one on the country music charts , as well as 38 and 56 on the Hot 100 .
In August 2005 , the duo released the single " Play Something Country " . According to Dunn and co @-@ writer Terry McBride , it was inspired by Gretchen Wilson , who was touring with Brooks & Dunn and Big & Rich on the Deuces Wild tour at the time . " Play Something Country " was the lead @-@ off to their ninth studio album , Hillbilly Deluxe . Brooks & Dunn co @-@ produced with Tony Brown , with further production from Mark Wright on " My Heart 's Not a Hotel " . A month after the album 's release , " Play Something Country " became the duo 's twentieth and final number one on Hot Country Songs , and went to number 37 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The album 's second single , " Believe " , peaked at number eight , also winning the next year 's Single of the Year and Song of the Year awards from the Country Music Association . After it was " Building Bridges " , with guest vocals from Vince Gill and Sheryl Crow , which peaked at number four . Before the duo released this song , it had been released by co @-@ writer Larry Willoughby , a cousin of country singer Rodney Crowell , and later by Nicolette Larson . The final release from Hillbilly Deluxe was the title track , which peaked at number sixteen on Hot Country Songs . Erlewine gave this album a positive review , saying that it was not " quite as ambitious " as the previous two albums , but " just as satisfying " .
Brooks & Dunn began the Long Haul tour in mid @-@ 2006 , which featured Sugarland and Jack Ingram as opening acts . Of this tour , Brooks said , " They 've got a lot of shows under their belt , they 're really good at what they do , and they are great performers [ … ] We want everything about this show from opening act ' til the lights go down to be first class . "
= = = Cowboy Town = = =
Their tenth studio album , Cowboy Town , was released on October 2 , 2007 . Its lead @-@ off single " Proud of the House We Built " reached number 4 on the country charts and 57 on the Hot 100 . Following this song were " God Must Be Busy " at number 11 and " Put a Girl in It " at number 3 . After this song , the duo released " Cowgirls Don 't Cry " , which they later performed with Reba McEntire at the Country Music Association awards . Following this performance , the song was re @-@ released partway through its chart run with McEntire dubbed into the final chorus . In early 2009 , the song peaked at number two on the country charts . Although not released as a single , the title track spent three weeks on the charts and peaked at number 56 . Also included on the album is a collaboration with Jerry Jeff Walker on " The Ballad of Jerry Jeff Walker " . Cowboy Town was also the name of the duo 's 2009 tour , which featured Rodney Atkins and ZZ Top . The tour began on June 6 at the BamaJam festival in Enterprise , Alabama .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that " Brooks & Dunn have crafted these songs [ … ] with an eye on the middle of the road , and they do it well enough that this music will likely win them that audience yet again . " Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly rated it " B + " , saying that " even if the themes on their 11th studio CD are a bit predictable , their muscular riffs and handsome vocal harmonies give the material a boot @-@ scooting vibrancy " .
= = = Retirement and solo careers = = =
On August 10 , 2009 , Brooks & Dunn announced that they would be splitting up after a tour titled The Last Rodeo . According to Brooks , the decision to split was on good terms ; he told CMT that he and Dunn are " still good friends " , while Dunn said that " We 've ended up more like brothers . " The duo released its final compilation , # 1s … and Then Some , on September 8 of the same year . The album features 28 past hits and two new songs . Both of these new songs , " Indian Summer " and " Honky Tonk Stomp " ( featuring guest vocals from Billy Gibbons of ZZ Top ) , peaked at number 16 on the country music charts . On May 23 , 2010 , CBS aired a tribute show presented by the Academy of Country Music titled The Last Rodeo , on which various country music stars performed Brooks & Dunn songs while the duo received a Milestone Award . The academy donated proceeds from the concert to help victims of the 2010 Tennessee floods . Brooks & Dunn performed their last concert together at the Bridgestone Arena in Nashville on September 2 , 2010 , with proceeds from the concert benefiting the Country Music Hall of Fame .
Both members stayed with Arista Nashville as solo artists after the split . Dunn released his self @-@ titled solo album in June 2011 , which produced the top 40 country hits " Bleed Red " , " Cost of Livin ' " and " Let the Cowboy Rock " . Dunn announced via Facebook on June 7 , 2012 that he had exited Arista Nashville . Restaurant chain Cracker Barrel re @-@ issued the album in late May with two bonus tracks ; proceeds from the re @-@ issue benefit the Wounded Warrior Project . In late 2013 , Dunn sang duet vocals with Kelly Clarkson on a cover of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " from her Christmas album Wrapped in Red . Dunn 's second solo album , Peace , Love , & Country Music , was released in 2014 . In 2015 , he signed to Valory Music Group 's NASH Icon .
In February 2012 , Brooks released the solo single " New to This Town " , which features Joe Walsh on slide guitar . Brooks ' first Arista album , also titled New to This Town , was released in September 2012 .
On December 3 , 2014 , it was announced that Brooks & Dunn will reunite and perform a series of concerts in Las Vegas , Nevada with Reba McEntire during throughout mid @-@ late 2015 .
= = = Other works = = =
Brooks & Dunn have also contributed to several soundtracks and compilation albums . In 1994 , they recorded " Ride ' em High , Ride ' em Low " for the soundtrack to the 1994 film 8 Seconds , and a cover of " Corrine , Corrina " in collaboration with Asleep at the Wheel for a tribute album to Bob Wills . Both of these cuts peaked at number 73 on the country charts while " Rock My World " was climbing . In early September 1994 , the duo collaborated with Johnny Cash on a rendition of his song " Folsom Prison Blues " for the album Red Hot + Country , a charity album made by the Red Hot Organization to benefit AIDS awareness . Also that year , they covered " Best of My Love " on the Eagles tribute album Common Thread : The Songs of the Eagles . They covered Bob Seger 's " Against the Wind " for the soundtrack to the cartoon King of the Hill ; this rendition charted at number 55 in late 1999 based on unsolicited airplay . They also recorded " Keep On Swinging " , which Brooks wrote with Five for Fighting , for the soundtrack to the 2006 animated film Everyone 's Hero . Finally , they collaborated with Mac Powell on " Over the Next Hill " from the soundtrack to the 2008 film Billy : The Early Years , and took the song to number 55 on the country charts .
Dunn has sung guest vocals on other artists ' songs , including Lee Roy Parnell 's mid @-@ 1994 cover of the Hank Williams song " Take These Chains from My Heart " ( from Parnell 's album On the Road ) , " Try Me " on Trisha Yearwood 's 2005 album Jasper County , " Raise the Barn " on Keith Urban 's 2006 album Love , Pain & the Whole Crazy Thing , and Ashley Monroe 's 2006 single " I Don 't Want To " , which reached number 37 on the country charts . He also sang duet vocals with Carlene Carter on a cover of Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash 's " Jackson " for the 2007 tribute album Anchored in Love : A Tribute to June Carter Cash . In 2011 , he covered Gary Stewart 's " She 's Actin ' Single ( I 'm Drinkin ' Doubles ) " for the soundtrack of the film Country Strong , and contributed duet vocals to Cledus T. Judd 's parody of " God Must Be Busy " , titled " Garth Must Be Busy " .
Dunn and Dean Dillon co @-@ wrote Shenandoah 's 1994 single " Darned If I Don 't ( Danged If I Do ) " and the track " She Wants Me to Stay " on David Kersh 's debut album Goodnight Sweetheart . He also co @-@ wrote " Don 't Leave " on Toby Keith 's 2003 album Shock 'n Y 'all with Keith , and Reba McEntire 's 2010 single " I Keep On Loving You " with Terry McBride . Brooks & Dunn co @-@ wrote " Steady as She Goes " on Wade Hayes ' debut album Old Enough to Know Better and " Our Time Is Coming " ( originally an album cut from Hard Workin ' Man ) on his second album On a Good Night , while Dunn co @-@ produced his 2001 album Highways & Heartaches .
In January 2006 , Brooks succeeded Bob Kingsley as the host of the radio countdown show American Country Countdown , while Kingsley moved to his own show , Bob Kingsley 's Country Top 40 . Brooks received an Academy of Country Music nomination for National On @-@ Air Radio Personality in 2010 , and again in 2011 . Later that same year , he made his acting debut in an independent film called Thriftstore Cowboy . In 2011 , he starred in a second film , The Last Ride .
= = Musical style = =
Steve Huey of Allmusic contrasts Brooks ' and Dunn 's voices , saying that Dunn " was the quietly intense singer with the soulful voice , while Kix Brooks played the part of the high @-@ energy showman . " He also describes their sound as " a winning formula of rambunctious , rocked @-@ up honky tonk with punchy , danceable beats [ alternated with ] smooth , pop @-@ tinged ballads . " In the book The New Generation of County Music Stars , David Dicaire describes Dunn as " possess [ ing ] a soulful voice with a quiet intensity " and a " traditional country singer " , while calling Brooks " the opposite to Dunn 's musical personality , " " a high @-@ energy showman " and " the perfect accompaniment to his partner " . Brooks sang lead on " Lost and Found " , " Rock My World " , " You 're Gonna Miss Me When I 'm Gone " , " Mama Don 't Get Dressed Up for Nothing " , " Why Would I Say Goodbye " , and " South of Santa Fe " .
= = Slim & Howdy = =
In the liner notes to each of their studio albums , Brooks & Dunn wrote short stories about Slim & Howdy , fictionalized cowboy versions of themselves . The duo worked with Bill Fitzhugh in late 2008 and wrote a book titled The Adventures of Slim and Howdy .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
1991 : Brand New Man
1993 : Hard Workin ' Man
1994 : Waitin ' on Sundown
1996 : Borderline
1998 : If You See Her
1999 : Tight Rope
2001 : Steers & Stripes
2003 : Red Dirt Road
2005 : Hillbilly Deluxe
2007 : Cowboy Town
= = = Compilation albums = = =
1997 : The Greatest Hits Collection
1999 : Super Hits
2004 : The Greatest Hits Collection II
2008 : Playlist : The Very Best of Brooks & Dunn
2009 : # 1 's ... and Then Some
= = = Holiday album = = =
2002 : It Won 't Be Christmas Without You
= = Awards = =
Brooks & Dunn has 17 Country Music Association awards , 26 Academy of Country Music awards and 2 Grammy Awards .
= E language =
E ( simplified Chinese : 诶话 ; traditional Chinese : 誒話 ; pinyin :
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Ē Huà ) or Wuse / Wusehua ( simplified Chinese : 五色话 ; traditional Chinese : 五色話 ; pinyin : Wŭsè Huà ; literally : " Colored Language " ) is a Tai – Chinese mixed language spoken primarily in Rongshui Miao Autonomous County , Guangxi , China . It contains features of both Tai and Chinese varieties , generally adopting Chinese vocabulary into Tai grammar . E is a tonal language — distinguishing between seven tones — and contains a few rare phonemes : voiceless versions of the more common nasal consonants and alveolar lateral approximant .
= = Etymology = =
The E language 's unusual pinyin @-@ transliterated name , which is also an autonym , consists of a single letter e . The character , which is written " 诶 " in Simplified Chinese and " 誒 " in Traditional Chinese , denotes an expression of affirmation . The language 's speakers also refer to their language as Kjang E. Wusehua is a derogatory name for E.
= = Geographical distribution = =
In 1992 , E was spoken by about 30 @,@ 000 people , but by 2008 this number had dwindled to 9 @,@ 000 . Most E speakers are classified as Zhuang by the Chinese government . E speakers live primarily in the Guangxi autonomous region of China , specifically in the Rongshui Miao county and border areas of Luocheng Mulao . Villages inhabited by E speakers include Xiatan , Simo , Xinglong , and the Yonglei district . Ethnologue classifies E as rank 6b ( Threatened ) . E speakers ' most commonly spoken other languages are Yue Chinese and the Guiliu variant of Southwestern Mandarin .
= = Phonology = =
E 's consonant and vowel inventories are mostly similar to those of its parent languages . However , it contains a few unusual consonants : the voiceless nasal consonants [ n ̥ ] , [ ŋ ̥ ] , [ m ̥ ] , and the voiceless alveolar lateral approximant [ l ̥ ] . All are voiceless versions of consonants that , in most languages , are always voiced . E allows syllabic consonants and diphthongs .
Like most Southeast Asian languages , including Tai and the varieties of Chinese , E is tonal . The language is described as having seven tones , with the seventh varying allophonically with the length of the vowel it is attached to . With numbers ranging from 1 to 5 , with 1 being the lowest tone and 5 the highest , the contours of the various tones in E are as follows .
= = Grammar and lexicon = =
E is usually classified as a mixed language deriving ultimately from the Tai @-@ Kadai and Sino @-@ Tibetan families , which both inhabit southern China and Southeast Asia . Some non @-@ Chinese scholars , however , consider it a Tai @-@ Kadai language with Chinese influence . Whatever its classification , the grammar resembles that of the Tai branch of Tai @-@ Kadai . Specifically , scholars consider E 's grammatical features a blend of Northern Zhuang , Mulam , and Kam . The Caolan language of Vietnam displays many similarities with E.
The vocabulary , however , is mostly Chinese , based on Guiliu and the Tuguai variant of Pinghua . Out of the 2 @,@ 000 most commonly used E words , only about 200 are of Tai @-@ Kadai origin . E also inherits elements of these Chinese dialects ' phonology and compound word formation . E morphology is primarily analytic , with concepts such as negation expressed with auxiliary words ( pat6 , m2 ) and no pronominal agreement .
In its pronouns , E distinguishes for person between first , second , and third ; in number between singular and plural ; and , in the case of the second @-@ person plural , between inclusive and exclusive we . E does not , however , make distinctions for grammatical gender .
= Barlow Road =
The Barlow Road ( at inception , Mount Hood Road ) is a historic road in what is now the U.S. state of Oregon . It was built in 1846 by Sam Barlow and Philip Foster , with authorization of the Provisional Legislature of Oregon , and served as the last overland segment of the Oregon Trail . Its construction allowed covered wagons to cross the Cascade Range and reach the Willamette Valley , which had previously been nearly impossible . Even so , it was by far the most harrowing 100 miles ( 160 km ) of the nearly 2 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) Oregon Trail .
Before the opening of the Barlow Road , pioneers traveling by land from the east followed the Oregon Trail to Wascopam Mission ( now The Dalles ) and floated down the Columbia River to Fort Vancouver , then a perilous and expensive journey . It was also possible to drive livestock over Lolo Pass on the north side of Mount Hood , but that trail was too rugged for vehicles and unsuitable for wagons .
The Barlow Road begins at The Dalles and heads south to Tygh Valley ( some consider Tygh Valley to be the beginning ) , then turns west and roughly parallels the White River on the north and then west , crosses the south shoulder of Mount Hood at Barlow Pass , follows Camp Creek and the Sandy River for some way , and finally leads to Oregon City . The road was rendered largely irrelevant in the early 1900s by the construction of the Mount Hood Highway . It still exists as a dirt road in some places , while many other parts have been paved over by new modern streets and highways .
= = Planning and construction = =
When Sam Barlow arrived at The Dalles late September 1845 , as many as sixty families were waiting for river transport . The expected wait was more than ten days , and the transportation " exorbitantly " priced . Local inquiries turned up little information about traveling over the mountains except that water , timber , and grazing were plentiful . Barlow and H. M. Knighton set out to determine the feasibility of a route , seeking a more expedient and less expensive way to the Willamette Valley . Knighton decided it was impractical after 20 or 25 miles ( 30 – 40 km ) and returned . Barlow forged on with a train of seven wagons , intending to return for river transport if the mountain passage proved impractical .
On October 1 , 1845 , Barlow and three men scouted ahead of their company and entered Mount Hood 's foothills from the east near Tygh Creek , about 35 miles ( 56 km ) from the mouth of the Deschutes River . They came within perhaps 12 miles ( 19 km ) of Mount Hood . They thought they had glimpsed the Willamette Valley , and learned from the Indians of a trail leading to Oregon City , but returned to Tygh Creek about five days after their departure . There Joel Palmer was waiting for him with a 23 wagon party . Palmer had followed Barlow for a better route , and had just returned from exploring the same area . The combined company organized road clearing through the forest , mostly by burning .
The clearing party made it to the top of a ridge , now known as Barlow Pass , where they were effectively lost . Barlow , Palmer , and a man named Lock hiked the south face of Mount Hood west of Palmer Glacier to scout a westward route off the mountain . Palmer , in better physical condition than his companions , climbed high on the glacier ( likely Zigzag Glacier ) , and took detailed notes on the surrounding ridges and rivers . They returned to the group , arranged for guards for their wagons at a place they named Fort Deposit . Several families in wagons ill @-@ suited for travel through the wilderness remained at Fort Deposit , while the remainder returned to The Dalles . Barlow 's group followed the Sandy River west on foot . Palmer noted an intersection with a trail coming from The Dalles by way of Lolo Pass , around the north side of Mount Hood , which had previously been the only overland trail traversed by pioneers . Near the present @-@ day city of Sandy , they turned southwest to reach Eagle Creek and Philip Foster 's farm near present @-@ day Clackamas .
That autumn , Barlow considered the route over the mountains and petitioned the Provisional Legislature of Oregon for permission to build a road on December 9 , 1845 , claiming that his estimated cost of $ 4000 was lower than that of others familiar with the route . Permission was granted with a vote of 8 @-@ 2 on December 17 , 1845 , approved by Speaker pro @-@ tem Henry A. G. Lee , and signed into law by Governor George Abernethy .
The road 's toll was authorized for two years effective January 1 , 1846 and specified toll rates at five dollars ( about a week 's wages ) for each wagon and ten cents for each head of horse , mule , ass , or horned cattle . The grant named the route " Mount Hood Road " — but it was immediately known as the " Barlow Road . "
The road was built with the financial backing of Philip Foster and a crew of forty men . Five toll gates were eventually built along the route . Barlow 's estimate of $ 4000 had underestimated the number of trees to be cut down and forgotten the numerous challenging bridges that would have to be built over rivers such as the Sandy , Zigzag , White , and Salmon . The White River continues to challenge its bridges to this day .
In its first season of operation , Barlow recorded the passage of 152 wagons , 1300 sheep , 1559 mules , horses , and cattle . Despite ongoing maintenance , the general condition of the road was considered to vary from " rough to barely passable . "
= = Early use = =
The direction of travel was effectively one @-@ way until 1861 , when a better road was blasted through Laurel Hill . Despite the expense and difficulties of passage , the road was very popular , with more than a thousand immigrants and 145 wagons recorded in the first year of operation . Approximately three @-@ quarters of the pioneers entering the Willamette Valley traveled the Barlow Road , with most of the remainder choosing the Columbia River route .
Barlow 's concession expired in 1848 , and he and Foster terminated their largely unprofitable partnership on November 29 , 1848 . Others continued to operate the toll road , but weather and mountain conditions made this a financial struggle . By 1863 , the toll had decreased to $ 2 @.@ 50 per wagon and team .
In 1849 , a military wagon train destined for Oregon forts passed over the road . It carried 250 tons of munitions in more than 400 wagons pulled by 1700 mules . From the beginning of Barlow Road to the camp the soldiers made at what has been known since as Government Camp , they abandoned 45 wagons after dozens of mules died of starvation .
= = Later use and historic designations = =
Various owners operated the road until 1882 . Ownership then passed to the Mount Hood & Barlow Road Company . E. Henry Wemme purchased that company in 1912 , and made improvements to the road . Wemme 's attorney , George W. Joseph , became the owner upon Wemme 's death in 1914 , in a probate dispute so contentious that it shaped the 1930 race for Governor of Oregon . Joseph and his wife donated the road to the people of Oregon in 1919 .
The 1923 Oregon Legislative Assembly designated the path from Idaho to the Pacific Ocean as the " Old Oregon Trail " route and approved signage with a prairie schooner and oxen for modern travelers to navigate . In 1978 , the entire Oregon Trail , including the Barlow Road , was named a National Historic Trail by the U.S. Congress . In 1992 , the Barlow Road was placed on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district . In 2005 , part of it was incorporated into the Mount Hood Scenic Byway .
The Oregon Trail , Barlow Road Segment is a small segment of an alternate route , near Wemme , that was separately listed on the National Register in 1974 . Also Rock Corral on the Barlow Road , a campsite on the Barlow Road near Brightwood , was also separately NRHP @-@ listed in 1974 .
= = Today = =
On the western side of the Cascades , U.S. Route 26 follows more or less the same route from Sandy to Government Camp ; south of Government Camp , US 26 follows a valley just west of the Barlow Road 's route along Barlow Creek . The route is concurrent with a few miles of the southern end of Oregon Route 35 , and much of the Mount Hood Highway .
The Barlow Road is intact as a dirt road in a roughly north – south stretch along Barlow Creek ; other portions are pristine ruts up to six feet deep . The easternmost part of the original Barlow Road in Wasco County traverses an unpopulated area within Mount Hood National Forest and follows small Forest Service roads and " Jeep trails " , then Rock Creek Dam Road , and finally Wamic Market Road , north of the White River , from the Cascades to Tygh Valley . The areas east of Mount Hood National Forest have always been sparsely populated . Good rut viewing is possible at Pioneer Woman 's Grave near Bennett Pass and in several other places . Much of the Clackamas County side is buried under US 26 . Overall , about twenty percent of the road is still visible today .
A roadside marker and trail at Laurel Hill ( just west of Government Camp ) provides history and access to the portion where a sixty percent grade was present in the early Barlow Road . Wagons were lowered down the hill winched by ropes wrapped around trees .
= Barbados at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Barbados sent a delegation to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . The island nation made its tenth appearance as an independent nation upon its arrival in Beijing . Eight athletes across three sports and ten events represented Barbados , marking the smallest delegation in its history up to the Beijing Games . Its runners and swimmers advanced past the first rounds in their events in four of their nine events , although none advanced to their events ' final rounds or medaled . The nation 's flagbearer during the Beijing Games was swimmer Bradley Ally .
= = Background = =
Barbados is the easternmost of the islands located within the Caribbean Sea . Home to 280 @,@ 000 residents , Barbados was first settled by the British in the 1620s . The nation remained a British colony until it declared total independence from the United Kingdom in 1966 . The very first appearance of a uniquely Barbadian delegation at the Olympic games came two years after it declared independence from the United Kingdom . At its debut , nine male athletes arrived to participated at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City . Previously , Barbados ( as a British colony ) constituted a major part of the West Indies Federation along with Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago , which sent a delegation to participate at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome .
Between its 1968 debut and its appearance at the Beijing Olympics , Barbadian delegations appeared at every Summer Olympics except for the 1980 Summer Olympics , which took place in Moscow in the Soviet Union . With the exceptions of the 1968 and the 2008 Barbadian teams , every appearance by Barbados at the Olympics ( as of Beijing ) included at least ten athletes ; its smallest delegation arrived in 2008 , carrying only eight competitors . All the delegations except the one that arrived in 1968 have included female athletes . Prior to and including the 2008 Beijing Olympics , there had been one medalist from Barbados . Obadele Thompson won a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , Australia , as part of Barbados ' most successful showing at any Olympic games as of 2008 .
In Beijing , eight athletes participated across three sports ( swimming , track and field , and sailing ) in ten distinct events . Gregory Douglas , the nation 's only sailor in Beijing , was the youngest participant from Barbados at 18 years old ; runner Jade Bailey , the only female athlete in the delegation , was the oldest , at 25 years old . There were no medalists from Barbados at Beijing . Swimmer Bradley Ally bore the flag of Barbados at the ceremonies .
= = Athletics = =
In track and field events , there were two ways to qualify for later rounds . The first way , " qualifying by right " , involves ranking high enough in one 's heat . Athletes could also " qualify by result " ; if they did not rank high enough in their heats but were high enough in the event 's overall standings , they could also advance .
= = = Men 's competition = = =
Andrew Hinds participated for the Barbadian team at the Beijing Olympics , participating in the men 's 100 meters dash . Born in 1984 , he is the son of former Olympian Hadley Hinds , and has been affiliated in training with the MVP Track and Field Club in Kingston , Jamaica . Hinds participated in the Beijing Olympics at age 24 , and had not previously participated in any Olympic games prior to that . During the qualification round of the event , which took place on August 14 , Hinds participated in the third heat . He completed the race in 10 @.@ 35 seconds , placing fifth out of the heat 's eight athletes . Indonesia 's Suryo Agung Wibowo ranked behind him in sixth place ( 10 @.@ 46 seconds ) , while Ghana 's Aziz Zakari ranked ahead of him in fourth place ( 10 @.@ 34 seconds ) . Trinidad and Tobago 's Richard Thompson ( 10 @.@ 24 seconds ) and France 's Martial Mbandjock ( 10 @.@ 26 seconds ) led the Barbadian sprinter 's heat. of the 80 athletes participating in the event , Hinds tied Colombia 's Daniel Grueso and the Netherlands Antilles ' Churandy Martina for 27th place . He advanced to the quarterfinal round .
During the quarterfinal round , which took place on August 15 , Hinds was placed in the second heat . Eight athletes participated in the heat , and Hinds placed fifth with a time of 10 @.@ 25 seconds . Brazil 's Jose Carlos Moreira ranked directly behind him ( 10 @.@ 32 seconds ) , while Nigeria 's Olusoji Fasuba ranked directly ahead of him ( 10 @.@ 21 seconds ) . Hinds ' heat was led by Richard Thompson again ( 9 @.@ 99 seconds ) and the United States ' Tyson Gay ( 10 @.@ 09 seconds ) . Of the 40 athletes who advanced to quarterfinals in the event , Hinds tied Russia 's Andrey Epishin for 24th place . He did not advance to later rounds .
Ryan Brathwaite is a hurdler who competed for Barbados at the Beijing Olympics . Born in 1988 in the Barbadian capital city of Bridgetown , Brathwaite attended Barton County Community College in rural central Kansas , competing in the school 's athletic programs . He competed in Beijing at age 20 in a single track event , the men 's 110 meters hurdles . Brathwaite had not previously competed at any Olympic games . During the qualification round of his event , which took place on August 17 , Brathwaite participated in the third heat against seven other athletes . He finished the race in 13 @.@ 38 seconds , placing second in the event ahead of the Czech Republic 's Petr Svoboda ( 13 @.@ 43 seconds ) and behind Colombia 's Paulo Villar ( 13 @.@ 37 seconds ) . 43 athletes competed in the qualification round of the event , and 40 finished their races ; of those , Brathwaite ranked third . He advanced to the quarterfinal round .
Brathwaite participated in the third heat of the quarterfinal round in the men 's 110 meters hurdles , which took place on August 19 . His heat included eight athletes , although one was disqualified and did not rank . With a time of 13 @.@ 44 seconds , Brathwaite ranked second in the event behind Jamaica 's Maurice Wignall ( 13 @.@ 36 seconds ) and ahead of Villar , who led Brathwaite 's qualification heat ( 13 @.@ 46 seconds ) . The quarterfinal round included 32 advancing athletes , and 30 of those competitors finished their races . Of those , Brathwaite ranked tenth . He again advanced , this time to the semifinal round .
Semifinals in the hurdling event took place on August 20 . Brathwaite competed in the eight @-@ person second heat . Running the race in 13 @.@ 59 seconds , Brathwaite finished in seventh place , defeating France 's Samuel Coco @-@ Villoin ( 13 @.@ 65 seconds ) but falling behind Dutch sprinter Marcel van der Westen ( 13 @.@ 45 seconds ) . The heat was led by the United States ' David Oliver ( 13 @.@ 31 seconds ) and Poland 's Artur Noga ( 13 @.@ 34 seconds ) . Of the 16 semifinalists , Brathwaite ranked 12th . He did not advance to the final round .
= = = Women 's competition = = =
Jade Latoya Bailey participated at the Beijing Olympics in track and field events on Barbados ' behalf . Born in 1983 , Bailey was 25 at the time she entered the Beijing Olympics . She had not previously competed in any Olympic games or events . One of the events in which she participated was the women 's 100 meters dash . During the qualification round of the event , which occurred on August 15 , Bailey was placed in the ninth heat against eight other athletes . She ranked second in the heat after finishing the race in 11 @.@ 46 seconds , displacing Jamaica 's Sherone Simpson ( 11 @.@ 48 seconds ) and falling behind Russia 's Evgeniya Polyakova ( 11 @.@ 24 seconds ) . Of the 85 athletes who competed in and finished this round of the event , Bailey tied Tahesia Harrigan of the British Virgin Islands for 25th place . She advanced to the quarterfinal round .
The quarterfinal round of the women 's 100 meters took place on August 16 . Bailey competed in the first heat , which included eight athletes . Of those , Bailey placed last in the heat after finishing the race in 11 @.@ 67 seconds . Nigeria 's Franca Idoko ranked ahead of her ( 11 @.@ 66 seconds ) , while Cameroon 's Myriam Leonie Mani ranked ahead of Idoko ( 11 @.@ 65 seconds ) . The heat was led by Jamaica 's Shelly @-@ Ann Fraser ( 11 @.@ 06 seconds ) and Polyakova , who led Bailey 's previous heat ( 11 @.@ 13 seconds ) . 40 athletes advanced to the quarterfinal round . Of those , the Barbadian sprinter tied Brazil 's Lucimar Moura for 37th place . She did not advance to semifinals .
Jade Bailey also competed in the women 's 200 meters race . During the qualification round of the event , which took place on August 18 , Bailey was placed in the fourth heat , which included eight athletes . She finished in seventh place after finishing with a time of 23 @.@ 62 seconds , defeating Myanmar 's Lai Lai Win ( 24 @.@ 37 seconds ) but falling behind Uzbekistan 's Guzel Khubbieva ( 23 @.@ 44 seconds ) . Bailey 's heat was led by Bahraini sprinter Roqaya Al Ghasara ( 22 @.@ 81 seconds ) and Great Britain 's Emily Freeman ( 22 @.@ 95 seconds ) . 48 people competed in the qualification round , and 46 of those athletes finished the races . Bailey tied Slovenia 's Sabina Veit for 34th place overall . She did not advance to later rounds .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= = Sailing = =
Then 18 @-@ year @-@ old Canada @-@ raised Gregory Douglas participated in the Beijing Olympics on behalf of Barbados . He was the only Barbadian sailor to participate in the Beijing Olympics . Douglas competed in the one person dinghy event , where he was assessed using a score derived from his participation in nine distinct races . In the first race , Douglas ranked 41st place out of 43 ; in the second , 43rd out of 43 ; in the third , 43rd out of 43 ; in the fourth , 34th out of 43 ; in the fifth , 33rd out of 43 ; in the sixth , 30th out of 43 ; in the seventh , 40th out of 43 ; in the eighth , 37th out of 43 ; and in the ninth , 41st out of 43 . His total final score was 342 , and his net final score was 299 . Overall , Douglas ranked 43rd out of 43 , falling behind 42nd place finalist Adil Mohammad of the United Arab Emirates by 27 points , and behind gold medalist Paul Goodison of Great Britain by 236 points .
Men
M
= Medal race ; EL =
Eliminated – did not advance into the medal race ; CAN = Race cancelled ;
= = Swimming = =
Qualifiers for the latter rounds of swimming events were decided on a time only basis , therefore positions shown are overall results versus competitors in all heats .
Bradley Ally was the only Barbadian swimmer at the Beijing Olympics who competed in multiple events . Born in Barbados in 1986 , Ally was involved in the Pine Crest Swim Team in Fort Lauderdale , a city in southern Florida . His first appearance at the Olympics was the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece , when he represented Barbados in the men 's 100 meters breaststroke ; the men 's 200 meters breaststroke ; the men 's 200 meters individual medley ; and the men 's 400 meters individual medley . He was 17 years old at the time . Ally returned to the Olympics as a 21 @-@ year @-@ old . One of the events to which he returned was the men 's 200 meters individual medley . During the course of the men 's 200 meters IM , Ally was placed in the fourth heat of the August 13 preliminary round . He competed against seven other athletes in this heat . Completing the event in 1 : 58 @.@ 57 , Ally placed third ahead of British swimmer Liam Tancock ( 1 : 59 @.@ 79 ) and behind Japan 's Ken Takakuwa ( 1 : 58 @.@ 51 ) . The heat itself was led by Hungary 's László Cseh ( 1 : 58 @.@ 29 ) . Of the 46 athletes who finished their races in this round , Ally ranked fifth . He advanced to the next round .
The event 's semifinal round took place later on August 13 . Ally was placed in the second heat , which included seven other athletes again . During this race , he finished with a time of 1 : 59 @.@ 53 , placing fourth in the heat . Great Britain 's James Goddard ranked ahead ( 1 : 59 @.@ 63 ) , while Japan 's Takuro Fujii ( 1 : 59 @.@ 59 ) ranked behind . The heat 's headers included American swimmer Ryan Lochte ( 1 : 57 @.@ 69 ) and Brazil 's Thiago Pereira ( 1 : 58 @.@ 06 ) . 16 swimmers competed in the semifinal round ; Ally ranked ninth , falling one position short of advancing to the final round .
Bradley Ally also returned to compete in the men 's 400 meters individual medley , an event in which he had participated while at the Athens Olympics in 2004 . He competed in the preliminary round on August 9 , when he was placed in the second heat against seven other athletes . Ally finished the event in 4 : 14 @.@ 01 , placing third ; Italy 's Allesio Boggiatto placed ahead ( 4 : 10 @.@ 68 ) , while Israel 's Gal Nevo placed behind ( 4 : 14 @.@ 03 ) . László Cseh of Hungary led the heat ( 4 : 09 @.@ 26 ) . 29 competitors participated in this round of the event . Ally placed tenth , and did not advance to the final round , which occurred later that day .
Andrei Cross participated for Barbados as a swimmer while the nation participated in the Beijing Olympics . Born on Barbados , Cross was affiliated with TeamBath , the sports organization of England 's University of Bath . He was 24 years old when he participated at the Beijing Olympics in the men 's 100 meters breaststroke event . He had not previously competed at any Olympic games . During the course of the August 9 preliminary round , Cross was placed in the third heat against seven other athletes . He finished the race in 1 : 04 @.@ 57 , ending up in seventh place ; he defeated Uzbekistan 's Ivan Demyanenko ( 1 : 05 @.@ 14 ) , but fell behind Argentina 's Sergio Andres Ferreyra ( 1 : 03 @.@ 65 ) . The heat was led by Puerto Rican swimmer Daniel Velez ( 1 : 01 @.@ 80 ) and India 's Sandeep Sejwal ( 1 : 02 @.@ 19 ) . 65 athletes participated in the preliminary round , and 63 finished their races . Cross ranked 55th . He did not advance to later rounds .
Martyn Forde also swam on Barbados ' behalf at the Beijing Olympics . Born in Canada in 1985 , Forde was 23 years old when he made his appearance at the Beijing Olympics . He participated in the men 's 50 meters freestyle , which marked the first time he ever participated in an Olympic games . The preliminary round of his event took place on August 14 . Forde was placed in the seventh heat against seven other athletes . Finishing the race in 23 @.@ 08 seconds , the Barbadian swimmer placed sixth ahead of Josh Laban of the United States Virgin Islands ( 23 @.@ 28 seconds ) but behind Kazakhstan 's Stanislav Kuzmin ( 22 @.@ 91 seconds ) . The heat was led by Chile 's Oliver Elliot ( 22 @.@ 75 seconds ) and Romania 's Norbert Trandafir ( 22 @.@ 80 seconds ) . 97 athletes participated in the preliminary round of the event , with Forde ranking 51st . He did not advance to later rounds .
Terrence Haynes represented Barbados in the men 's 100 meters freestyle while at the Beijing Olympics . He was born in Canada in 1984 , and first participated on Barbados ' behalf as a 19 @-@ year @-@ old in the Athens Olympics of 2004 . During the 2004 Olympics , Haynes raced in the men 's 50 meters freestyle and ranked 56th in the preliminary round . He returned to the Olympics as a 23 @-@ year @-@ old . During the preliminary round of the men 's 100 meters freestyle , which took place on August 12 , Haynes competed in the third heat against six other athletes . He finished the race in 50 @.@ 50 seconds , placing third . Alexandr Sklyar of Kazakhstan placed behind him ( 51 @.@ 24 seconds ) , while Latvia 's Romans Miloslavskis placed ahead ( 50 @.@ 40 seconds ) . India 's Virdhawal Khade led the heat ( 50 @.@ 07 seconds ) . Of the 64 athletes who finished the preliminary round races , Haynes ranked 47th . He did not advance to later rounds .
Men
Legend : Q - Qualified
= 500 euro note =
The five hundred euro note ( € 500 ) is the highest @-@ value euro banknote and has been used since the introduction of the euro ( in its cash form ) in 2002 . It is one of the highest value circulating banknotes in the world , worth around 551 USD , 3 @,@ 677 CNY , 58 @,@ 254 JPY , 543 CHF or 417 GBP . The note is used in the 23 countries which have the euro as their sole currency ( with 22 legally adopting it ) , with a population of about 338 million .
It is the largest note measuring 160 × 82 mm and has a purple colour scheme . The five hundred euro banknotes depict bridges and arches / doorways in modern architecture ( around the late 20th century ) .
The five hundred euro note contains several complex security features such as watermarks , invisible ink , holograms and microprinting that make counterfeiting very difficult . Initially the high denomination notes were introduced very rapidly so that in first 7 years ( by Dec 2008 ) there were 530 @,@ 064 @,@ 413 five hundred euro banknotes in circulation . Subsequently rate of increase was radically slowed . In January 2016 there were 611 @,@ 833 @,@ 416 in circulation .
The European Central Bank announced on 4 May 2016 that it would phase out the 500 euro note by the end of 2018 . “ Authorities increasingly suspect that they ( € 500 notes ) are being used for illegal purposes , an argument that we can no longer ignore , ” according to a high @-@ ranking bank official , Benoît Cœuré .
= = History = =
The euro was founded on 1 January 1999 , when it became the currency of over 300 million people in Europe . For the first three years of its existence it was an invisible currency , only used in accountancy . Euro cash was not introduced until 1 January 2002 , when it replaced the national banknotes and coins of the countries in eurozone 12 , such as the Luxembourgish franc .
Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007 , Cyprus and Malta in 2008 , Slovakia in 2009 , Estonia in 2011 , Latvia in 2014 and Lithuania joined on 1 January 2015 .
= = = The changeover period = = =
The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months , going from 1 January 2002 until 28 February 2002 . The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state . The earliest date was in Germany , where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001 , though the exchange period lasted for two months more . Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender , they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from ten years to forever .
= = = Changes = = =
Notes printed before November 2003 bear the signature of the first president of the European Central Bank , Wim Duisenberg , who was replaced on 1 November 2003 by Jean @-@ Claude Trichet , whose signature appears on issues from November 2003 to March 2012 . Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the third president of the European Central Bank , incumbent Mario Draghi .
As of June 2012 , current issues do not reflect the expansion of the European Union . Cyprus is not depicted on current notes as the map does not extend far enough east and Malta is also missing as it does not meet the current series ' minimum size for depiction . The European Central Bank is currently introducing a new series of Euro @-@ banknotes . The 500 euro denomination , however , will not be included in the new series as it was decided to phase out issuance of 500 euro banknotes .
= = Design = =
The five hundred euro note measures at 160 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) × 82 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) with a purple colour scheme . All bank notes depict bridges and arches / doorways in a different historical European style ; the five hundred euro note shows Modern architecture ( around the 20th century ) . Although Robert Kalina 's original designs were intended to show real monuments , for political reasons the bridge and art are merely hypothetical examples of the architectural era .
Like all euro notes , it contains the denomination , the EU flag , the signature of the president of the ECB and the initials of said bank in different EU languages , a depiction of EU territories overseas , the stars from the EU flag and twelve security features as listed below .
= = = Security features = = =
The five hundred euro note is protected by :
Colour changing ink used on the numeral located on the back of the note , that appears to change colour from purple to brown , when the note is tilted .
A see through number printed in the top corner of the note , on both sides , appear to combine perfectly to form the value numeral when held against the light .
A glossy stripe , situated at the back of the note , showing the value numeral and the euro symbol .
A hologram , used on the note which appears to see the hologram image change between the value and a window or doorway , but in the background , it appears to be rainbow @-@ coloured concentric circles of micro @-@ letters moving from the centre to the edges of the patch .
A EURion constellation ; the EURion constellation is a pattern of symbols found on a number of banknote designs worldwide since about 1996 . It is added to help software detect the presence of a banknote in a digital image .
Watermarks , which appear when held up to the light .
Raised printing in the main image , the lettering and the value numerals on the front of the banknotes will be raised .
Ultraviolet ink ; the paper itself does not glow , fibres embedded in the paper do appear , and be coloured red , blue and green , the EU flag is green and has orange stars , the ECB President 's , currently Mario Draghi 's , signature turns green , the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map , a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow .
Microprinting , on various areas of the banknotes there is microprinting , for example , inside the " EYPΩ " ( EURO in Greek characters ) on the front . The micro @-@ text is sharp , but not blurred .
A security thread , embedded in the banknote paper . The thread will appear as a dark stripe when held up to the light . The word " EURO " and the value is embedded in tiny letters on the thread .
Perforations in the hologram which will form the euro symbol . There are also small numbers showing the value .
A matted surface ; the note paper is made out of pure cotton , which feels crisp and firm , but not limp or waxy .
Barcodes ,
A serial number .
= = Crime = =
The value of the note is several times greater than many of the largest circulating notes of other major currencies , such as the United States 100 dollar bill . Thus a large monetary value can be concentrated into a small volume of notes . This facilitates crimes that deal in cash , including money laundering , drug dealing , and tax evasion . There have been calls to withdraw the note for this reason . However , some of the currencies the Euro replaced had widely used high @-@ value notes , including the 10 @,@ 000 Belgian francs ( € 247 @.@ 89 ) , 5 @,@ 000 Austrian schillings ( € 363 @.@ 36 ) , and 1 @,@ 000 Dutch guilders ( € 453 @.@ 78 ) , although these did not exceed the value of the € 500 note . Two exceptions were the 1 @,@ 000 Deutsche Marks , which had an equivalent value of € 511 @.@ 29 , and 500 Latvian lats , which had an equivalent value of € 711 @.@ 44 . But while these national currency banknotes had similar face value , the numbers of banknotes circulated was considerably smaller . For instance approx 93 million of the German 1000 DEM banknotes was circulating in the year 2000 , far fewer than the over five hundred million 500 Euro banknotes circulating in less than 7 years after the Euro banknotes were introduced .
In particular , Spain had a quarter of all these high @-@ value bills within its borders in 2006 . This concentration of € 500 notes is far greater than expected for an economy of Spain 's size , as prior to Euro conversion the largest banknote was 10 @,@ 000 Spanish peseta worth ~ € 60 . These notes are rarely seen in every @-@ day commerce – they have been nicknamed " Bin Ladens " by the populace ( as the presence and appearance of the notes are well @-@ known , but the notes themselves are very difficult to find ) . British and Spanish police are using the bills to track money laundering .
As of 20 April 2010 , money exchange offices in the United Kingdom stopped selling € 500 notes due to their use in money laundering . The Serious Organised Crime Agency claimed that " 90 % of all € 500 notes sold in the UK are in the hands of organised crime " , revealed during an eight @-@ month analysis . The € 500 note is worth in the region of £ 400 , depending on exchange rates ( more than eight times the value of the Bank of England 's largest publicly circulated note ) , and had become the currency choice for gangs to hide their profits .
In fact , historical banknotes of the UK had higher values than the € 500 note , even up to £ 1000 in civil hands circulation . In the case of other banknotes , such as dollars ( which generally have lower value notes ) , it doesn 't prevent money laundering , as in the case of Mexico City , where a cash total of $ 207 million was found . Also , nowadays bank accounts and modern money laundering schemes show that removing cash from the market does not guarantee stopping crime altogether .
The EU directive 2005 / 06 / EC on the prevention of the use of the financial system for the purpose of money laundering and terrorist financing tries to prevent such crime by requiring banks , real estate agents and many more companies to investigate and report usage of cash in excess of € 15 @,@ 000 .
= = Circulation = =
As of December 2015 , there were approximately 613 @,@ 559 @,@ 542 € 500 banknotes in circulation around the Eurozone , therefore it is the second @-@ least circulated banknote in the Eurozone . That is approximately € 306 @,@ 779 @,@ 771 @,@ 000 worth of € 500 banknotes . The European Central Bank closely monitors the stock and circulation of euro notes and coins . It is the Eurosystem ’ s task to ensure an efficient and smooth supply of euro notes and to maintain their integrity .
= = Legal information = =
Legally , both the European Central Bank and the central banks of the eurozone countries have the right to issue the 7 different euro banknotes . In practice , only the national central banks of the zone physically issue and withdraw euro banknotes . The European Central Bank does not have a cash office and is not involved in any cash operations .
= = Tracking = =
There are several communities of people at European level , most of which is EuroBillTracker , that , as a hobby , it keeps track of the euro banknotes that pass through their hands , to keep track and know where they travel or have travelled . The aim is to record as many notes as possible to know details about its spread , like from where and to where they travel in general , follow it up , like where a ticket has been seen in particular , and generate statistics and rankings , for example , in which countries there are more tickets . EuroBillTracker has registered over 155 million notes as of May 2016 , worth more than € 2 @.@ 897 billion .
= Tropical Storm Bret ( 1981 ) =
Tropical Storm Bret made a rare landfall on the Delmarva Peninsula in June 1981 . The fifth tropical cyclone and second named storm of the season , Bret developed as a subtropical storm from a large area of frontal clouds near Bermuda on June 29 . Moving westward , the subtropical storm intensified while producing deep convection , and was consequently reclassified as a tropical storm early on June 30 . Around that time , Bret peaked with sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The storm then began weakening and struck near Oyster , Virginia as a minimal tropical storm early on July 1 . Upon moving inland , Bret weakened to a tropical depression and subsequently accelerated prior to dissipating over northern Virginia that same day .
In its early stages , Bret dropped light rainfall on Bermuda , peaking at 3 @.@ 34 inches ( 85 mm ) . Impact in the United States was generally minor . In Virginia , the storm produced up to 4 @.@ 48 inches ( 114 mm ) of rain in Big Meadows section of Shenandoah National Park . Along the coast , minor beach erosion occurred due to tides up to 0 @.@ 9 feet ( 0 @.@ 27 m ) above normal . In western Pennsylvania , locally heavy rainfall flooded some streets and basements . Elsewhere , Bret dropped 1 to 3 inches ( 25 to 76 mm ) of precipitation to several states . One fatality was confirmed after a woman
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scorer , as Hartlepool were in the promotion hunt until a late spell of bad form sent them down the table to ninth . He hit 19 goals in 38 games in 1981 – 82 to become the club 's top @-@ scorer for a fourth consecutive season . However , having scored 65 goals in 170 league appearances , Houchen wanted a move to a bigger club at a higher division ; he regularly handed in transfer requests , but all were ignored by the club .
= = = Leyton Orient = = =
Hartlepool United were in dire financial straits by March 1982 , and were £ 60 @,@ 000 in debt to the Inland Revenue . This crisis at the club allowed Leyton Orient manager Ken Knighton to take Houchen to Brisbane Road for a bargain price of £ 25 @,@ 000 . He signed a four @-@ year contract on £ 225 a week with a £ 1 @,@ 000 signing on fee . He scored one goal against Chelsea in 14 appearances , as the " O 's " finished in last place and were relegated out of the Second Division in 1982 . He missed the start of the 1982 – 83 campaign due to injury , but managed to hit ten goals in 38 games by the end of the season . His ten goals included one against Sheffield United on the last day of the season , in a win which kept Orient in the Third Division . He scored ten goals in 34 games in 1983 – 84 , but was not highly rated by new boss Frank Clark . For his part , Houchen said that Clark " would shout , and rant and rave , and tactically he wasn 't particularly brilliant . " He handed in a transfer request , which was accepted .
= = = York City = = =
On 22 March 1984 , York City manager Denis Smith signed Houchen for a £ 15 @,@ 000 fee , later saying that " anybody who could score sixty @-@ five goals playing for Hartlepool must have something " . He signed a two @-@ year contract on £ 225 a week . He scored on his debut against Aldershot at the Recreation Ground , despite missing a penalty ; he replaced Steve Senior in the second half , who had broken his leg . The " Minstermen " went on to win the Fourth Division championship by a 16 @-@ point margin , with Houchen featuring mostly as a substitute in the final seven games . With John Byrne and Keith Walwyn forming an effective striking partnership , Houchen played as an attacking midfielder . He hit a hat @-@ trick in a 7 – 1 thrashing of Gillingham at Bootham Crescent , and also converted a penalty that he had won to knock Arsenal out of the FA Cup at the Fourth Round . He scored a total of 18 goals in 45 appearances in 1984 – 85 to become the club 's top scorer . However injuries helped to limit him to eight goals in 38 games in 1985 – 86 , and he decided to accept a move back down to the Fourth Division .
= = = Scunthorpe United = = =
He was sold on to Scunthorpe United for £ 40 @,@ 000 in March 1986 , signing a contract of £ 250 a week and receiving a car and an ex gratia payment of £ 10 @,@ 000 . Houchen later said that " it was the only time I ever gave up ... it wasn 't the right club because it wasn 't going anywhere ... I said to Yvonne , ' I 'm just going to take the money ' " . In doing so he rejected moves to Preston North End and Third Division Bury . He quickly regretted the move , and despite getting along well with manager Frank Barlow he found himself hating everything at the club , from the supporters to the Old Showground itself .
= = = Coventry City = = =
After 97 days with the " Iron " he moved on to Coventry City for a £ 60 @,@ 000 fee , after impressing in a reserve team game between the two clubs . The management team of George Curtis and John Sillett offered Houchen £ 350 a week , £ 50 an appearance , a £ 10 @,@ 000 signing @-@ on fee , as well the chance to play First Division football . He struggled with injuries at the start of the 1986 – 87 campaign , but recovered to ensure his name went down in the club 's history for his exploits in the FA Cup . He bagged five goals in their 1986 – 87 cup @-@ winning run , the first being the winning goal away at Old Trafford against Alex Ferguson 's Manchester United . He then scored two against Sheffield Wednesday in the quarter @-@ finals , and one against Leeds United in the semi @-@ finals , both games being held at Hillsborough . The final and most famous goal of the run came in the 1987 FA Cup Final in front of 98 @,@ 000 spectators at Wembley Stadium in a 3 – 2 win over Tottenham Hotspur . However Houchen almost missed the match after catching food poisoning from a trout caught by reserve goalkeeper Jake Findlay . The goal came from a Dave Bennett cross and was an instinctive full @-@ stretch diving header that was impossible for Ray Clemence to save . It levelled the score at 2 – 2 on 63 minutes , and an own goal from Gary Mabbutt in extra time won the game for Coventry . As well as his FA Cup winning medal , Houchen 's header also earned him the BBC Match of the Day 's Goal of the Season award for the 1986 – 87 season . This was due to the acrobatic effort involved and partly due to the incredible run he had made from deep midfield to meet the crossed ball . It is generally considered as one of the most famous goals scored at Wembley , and certainly the best headed goal .
" I never took my eyes off the ball . I ran looking over my shoulder , watching the ball on the turn , running , running , so if it came , that was where I went ... I couldn 't honestly say to you that I was consciously thinking that if the ball comes in I can dive and head it – it 's all instinct . I think all football is instinct and the only way I could get on the end of the ball was to throw myself . It all finishes up as perfect timing – the perfect ball , the perfect run – but in a lot of ways it 's a fluke . When it is all perfect timing , it is like a dance – it all comes together . I do remember actually heading it . I knew I was getting it , I knew I was going to get a good head on it , and you do think in the split second , ' Don 't head it wide , don 't head it over , don 't miss @-@ head it . ' ... I headed right past him [ Clemence ] , right in the corner . It was past him before he could move , so it was just the perfect header . "
Ironically , manager John Sillett spent much of the money from Coventry 's FA Cup run ( £ 750 @,@ 000 ) on Chelsea striker David Speedie , who would replace Houchen in front of goal . Sillett 's one consolation to Houchen was that he would play him in the 1987 FA Charity Shield , which ended in a 1 – 0 defeat to Everton . The 1987 – 88 season was poor for both club and player , as illness , injury and competition from Speedie , Gary Bannister and Cyrille Regis restricted Houchen to just three goals and 24 appearances . On 14 August 1988 , he was selected by Graham Taylor to represent the Football League in a game against Scunthorpe United to celebrate the opening of Glanford Park ; Houchen scored once in a 6 – 1 victory . He scored just twice in sixteen appearances in 1988 – 89 , though one of these goals was the winner against Midlands rivals Aston Villa in a 2 – 1 Boxing Day victory at Highfield Road . He also featured as a substitute in the infamous 2 – 1 defeat to Conference club Sutton United at Gander Green Lane . The result was all the more remarkable considering that Coventry went on to finish seventh in the league and that Houchen was one of ten Coventry players that day who had won the FA Cup less than two years previously .
= = = Hibernian = = =
In March 1989 , he took a £ 325 @,@ 000 transfer to Scottish Premier Division side Hibernian , banking a £ 65 @,@ 000 signing @-@ on fee . He had come close to signing for Queens Park Rangers , but was not willing to move to London following his experience with Orient . He scored on his debut , in a 2 – 1 defeat to Edinburgh rivals Hearts at Tynecastle . A further goal against Aberdeen gave him two goals in eight games at the end of the 1988 – 89 campaign . He hit 12 goals in 39 games to become the club 's top scorer in 1989 – 90 , including two in wins over Rangers at Easter Road and Ibrox , and one in Europe against Hungarian side Videoton . " Hibs " exited the UEFA Cup at the Second Round following defeat to Belgian club R.F.C. de Liège . Already riled by a telling off from manager Alex Miller , Houchen had a run in with his own supporters following a defeat to Raith Rovers at Stark 's Park . Following this confrontation he was singled out for abuse at Easter Road . He made his last appearance for the club in a Scottish Cup game against St Johnstone , during which he was sent off for kicking Tommy Turner . Houchen later said that he liked Scotland but did not enjoy Scottish football , and was particularly critical of the standard of refereeing ; referees were unwilling to punish fouls from defenders but quick to brandish cards for attackers who reacted poorly to being kicked .
= = = Port Vale = = =
In August 1991 he returned to England with a £ 100 @,@ 000 move to Port Vale ; he was one of three new arrivals , along with Peter Swan ( who took him in as a lodger ) and Martin Foyle . He scored a brace against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on 3 September , but tore his hamstring later in the month . He finished 1991 – 92 with five goals in 24 games , and went on to help the " Valiants " to win the TNT Tournament in the summer . The club finished bottom of the Second Division , though the introduction of the Premier League meant that they were demoted to the Third Division , which was immediately re @-@ branded as the Second Division . He scored six goals in 28 league games in 1992 – 93 , and did not feature in the League Trophy final or the play @-@ off final . He fell out with manager John Rudge and the two stopped speaking to each other , and Houchen later admitted that " I should have knocked on the door and said , ' This is stupid ' " .
= = = Return to Hartlepool = = =
He left Vale Park on a free transfer in June 1993 and turned down a move to Cyprus outfit AC Omonia to return to former club Hartlepool United . Injury meant he did not play for the man who signed him , Viv Busby , and instead he made his second debut for the club under John MacPhail . Houchen went on to score eight goals in 37 games as Hartlepool were relegated into the bottom tier of the Football League in 1993 – 94 , finishing a massive 17 points behind Blackpool , who were one point above the relegation zone . MacPhail was quickly sacked and replaced by David McCreery ; MacPhail blamed the fact that the club was sometimes unable to pay the player 's wages as a reason for poor results on the field . Houchen was a coach at the club , but quickly fell out with temporary ' advisory coach ' Sandy Clark . Houchen scored a hat @-@ trick against Bury , though was later sent off in the match for allegedly swearing at referee Kevin Lynch ; at the time of the incident Houchen was receiving treatment for knee ligament damage which would keep him out of action for six weeks . McCreery resigned on 20 April 1995 , and chairman Harold Hornsey appointed Houchen as his replacement ; he became the 23rd manager at the club in 38 years . He appointed his former boss Billy Horner as youth team coach and also employed Brian Honour and Mick Tait . His first game in charge was a 4 – 0 home win over Hereford United , and a 3 – 0 defeat at Preston North End and a final day 3 – 2 victory over Mansfield Town ensured Hartlepool an 18th @-@ place finish . As a player , he was the club 's top scorer with 14 goals in 39 appearances in 1994 – 95 , and was voted Player of the Year by the club 's supporters .
The 1995 – 96 season was to be his only full season as a manager . He scored six goals in 41 games , leading " Pools " to a 20th @-@ place finish on a budget of £ 260 @,@ 000 a year . His team were beaten 8 – 0 by Arsenal over two legs in the League Cup and – more worryingly – were beaten 8 – 0 by Crewe Alexandra in the Football League Trophy . He sold Nicky Southall to Grimsby Town for £ 40 @,@ 000 and spent the same amount on striker Joe Allon . He proved a disappointment , and both Allon and Houchen were sent off against Gillingham on 28 October . Houchen 's final career goal came in a 3 – 0 win over Bury on New Year 's Day .
He released goalkeeper Brian Horne , who he described as a " fat slob " ; this proved to be an unpopular move with " a lot of nasty people who support Hartlepool ... who purport to support this club [ but ] would rather back fat professional players than people who really care about Hartlepool United " . As his replacement he signed Stephen Pears from Liverpool , as well as young defenders Glen Davies and Chris McDonald , teenage winger David Clegg , Exeter City midfielder Mark Cooper , and Blackpool midfielder Chris Beech . Hartlepool started the 1996 – 97 campaign with wins over Colchester United and Fulham , but his playing career came to an end after the fifth game of the season , against Wigan Athletic , when he retired due to a persistent knee injury . He continued to bemoan referring decisions which seemed to consistently go against Hartlepool . This in turn led to continued punishments from the FA over his use of foul language towards officials . With his team on a poor run of results at the foot of the table , he left the club by mutual consent on 4 November 1996 . His assistant Mick Tait led the club to a 20th @-@ place finish , and organised a benefit match for Houchen against Middlesbrough , which raised £ 23 @,@ 000 .
" I had to walk away from all that nonsense . I didn 't deserve it . I 'd put too much into the club to be treated like that . I 'd put in so many hours . I 'd tried and tried to get it going . I thought , ' I just can 't stand it . ' ... The whole ground was singing ' Houchen Out ' . I was standing behind the dug @-@ out and thinking , ' I don 't need this ' ... I felt very , very let down by the supporters of Hartlepool United Football Club ... There are a lot of shit people following every club . They are everywhere , that type , with brains the size of a pea . I wouldn 't keep the players they wanted , players who were patently not good enough and were really , really bad professionals ... the majority of them [ supporters ] are nasty people . There are more of them at Hartlepool than elsewhere – without a shadow of doubt . "
= = Style of play = =
Houchen was a big 6 ft 1 in ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) centre @-@ forward who had strength and power . Early in his career he broke his ribs and backbone , but learned the tricks of the trade , such as interlinking arms with opposition players to prevent them from jumping . Billy Horner compared him with Malcolm Poskett , and stated the only quality missing in Houchen 's game was aggression . Horner and his coaching team of George Smith and Willie Maddren taught Houchen how to protect himself from the highly physical centre @-@ halves that dominated the division , and the youngster learned how to hold the ball up and bring other players into the attack .
= = Personal life and post @-@ retirement = =
He married wife Yvonne on 17 July 1982 ; the couple had two children : Cara and Ross ( born 19 April 1987 ) . They now live in Thirsk , North Yorkshire . After retiring as a player , Houchen spent his time coaching at schools and at the Middlesbrough Academy , collecting football statistics for the Press Association , and renting out properties .
He was a supporter of Margaret Thatcher . He appeared as one of the players selected for the new Wembley Stadium 's ' Walk of Fame ' prior to the venue 's first FA Cup final in May 2007 . A 256 @-@ page biography of his footballing career entitled A Tenner and a Box of Kippers , written by Jonathan Strange , was published in 2006 . After reading the book , Houchen admitted that his comments about Hartlepool United came across as " a bit harsh " .
= = Career statistics = =
Source :
= = Managerial statistics = =
= = Honours = =
York City
Football League Fourth Division champion : 1983 – 84
Coventry City
FA Cup winner : 1987
FA Charity Shield runner @-@ up : 1987
Port Vale
TNT Tournament winner : 1992
Individual
Match of the Day 's Goal of the Season Award : 1986 – 87
Hartlepool United F.C. Player of the Year : 1994 – 95
= Bad Elk v. United States =
John Bad Elk v. United States , 177 U.S. 529 ( 1900 ) , was a case in which the United States Supreme Court held that an individual had the right to use force to resist an unlawful arrest and was entitled to a jury instruction to that effect . In 1889 , a tribal police officer , John Bad Elk , shot and killed another tribal police officer who was attempting to arrest Bad Elk without a warrant , on a misdemeanor charge , for a crime allegedly committed outside of the presence of the arresting officer . The Supreme Court reversed his conviction , noting that a person had the right to resist an unlawful arrest , and in the case of a death , murder may be reduced to manslaughter . The Supreme Court held the arrest to be unlawful due , in part , to the lack of a valid warrant . This case has been widely cited on the internet , but is no longer considered good law in a growing number of jurisdictions . Most states have , either by statute or by case law , removed the unlawful arrest defense for resisting arrest . The case also received negative treatment in 532 U.S. 318 ( 2001 ) holding that an arrest without a warrant , even for a misdemeanor , is lawful .
= = Background = =
= = = Common law history = = =
The English common law has long recognized the right of an individual to resist with reasonable force an attempt of a police officer to make an unlawful arrest . This offered a complete defense if nonlethal force was used , and would reduce a murder charge to manslaughter if a death ensued . In Hopkin Huggett 's case , English officials illegally seized a man to serve in the King 's army . Huggett and others observed this and fought to free the man . In the course of the fight one of the King 's men , John Barry , was killed and Huggett was put on trial for murder . The English court ruled that since the officer was making an unlawful arrest , the most that could be charged was manslaughter . In 1709 , in Queen v. Tooley , the English court again found that when resisting an unlawful arrest , the death of an individual would result in a manslaughter charge instead of a murder charge . When the United States separated from England , the common law was adopted by the new American courts and the right to resist unlawful arrest was clearly recognized .
= = = Death of John Kills Back = = =
On March 8 , 1899 , John Bad Elk fired several shots from his pistol from or near his home on the Pine Ridge Reservation . At the time Bad Elk was employed as a tribal police officer for the Oglala Lakota Sioux tribe . Captain Gleason , who was in charge of that part of the reservation , heard the shots and asked Bad Elk to stop by his office to discuss the matter , but Bad Elk did not show up . Gleason then ordered several other tribal police officers to arrest Bad Elk and to take him to the Pine Ridge Agency , about 25 miles away . Three officers contacted Bad Elk , who refused to go with them , telling them that he would go in the morning . The officers then tried to arrest Bad Elk , who shot and killed John Kills Back . Bad Elk claimed that Kills Back had reached for his pistol and that Bad Elk fired in self @-@ defense . Kills Back and the other officers did not have an arrest warrant , nor was the offense one that they could arrest for without a warrant .
= = = Trial = = =
In April 1899 at Sioux Falls , Bad Elk was tried in the United States Circuit Court for the District of South Dakota for murder . At trial , Bad Elk requested a jury instruction allowing the jury to consider that he had a right to resist an unlawful arrest . Instead , the court gave a jury instruction that stated that Bad Elk did not have the right to resist an arrest and that Bad Elk only had the right to resist if the arresting officers used excessive force in making the arrest . The jury convicted Bad Elk and sentenced him to death . His execution date was set at June 16 , 1899 .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Justice Rufus Wheeler Peckham delivered the opinion of a unanimous court . Peckham noted that the prosecution 's case and the defendant 's case varied in their presentation of the facts . First he noted that the prosecution did not show and the court could not find a legal basis for the arrest , that at most the firing of the pistol was a misdemeanor if it were a crime at all . An officer could arrest for a felony without a warrant , but to arrest for a misdemeanor , the crime had to have occurred in the officer 's presence . They ruled that the captain also did not have the authority to order the arrest . The court noted that at common law , an individual had a right to use reasonable force to resist an unlawful arrest . Peckham said that the requested jury instruction was therefore material and that it was error for the trial court not to allow it . The court stated :
At common law , if a party resisted arrest by an officer without warrant and who had no right to arrest him , and if in the course of that resistance the officer was killed , the offense of the party resisting arrest would be reduced from what would have been murder if the officer had had the right to arrest , to manslaughter . What would be murder if the officer had the right to arrest might be reduced to manslaughter by the very fact that he had no such right . So an officer , at common law , was not authorized to make an arrest without a warrant , for a mere misdemeanor not committed in his presence .
The decision of the lower court was reversed and the case remanded for either a new trial or dismissal .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Scholarly response = = =
The first response to the common law rule appeared in 1924 , when it was questioned in a law review note which advocated abrogating the rule . In 1942 , Harvard Law professor Sam Bass Warner , in his support of the Uniform Arrest Act , proposed that a citizen had a duty to submit to arrest , legal or not , if he reasonably believed that the arresting individual was a peace officer . Warner 's explanations and reasoning appear to have been " accepted without question by subsequent courts ... " In 1969 , during the height of the Civil Rights Movement , Paul Chevigny of the New York branch of the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) responded that an unlawful arrest was a trespass against the person and was not consistent with Warner 's explanations .
= = = Common and statutory law = = =
In the 1960s , courts began to limit the right to resist an unlawful arrest , apparently influenced by Warner and by the Model Penal Code , which had eliminated the right . In 1965 , the first court struck down the right in New Jersey .
Although a few states adopted the Uniform Arrest Act , a majority of the states did not . The Model Penal Code in 1962 eliminated the right to resist an unlawful arrest on two grounds . First , there were better alternative means of resolving the issue ; second , resistance would likely result in greater injury to the citizen without preventing the arrest . By 2012 , only fourteen states allowed a citizen to resist an unlawful arrest .
= = = Internet meme and myths = = =
The case has also been cited on various internet sites as giving citizens the authority to resist unlawful arrest . This claim is normally put forth in connection with a misquoted version of Plummer v. State . The most commonly quoted version is :
" Citizens may resist unlawful arrest to the point of taking an arresting officer 's life if necessary . ” Plummer v. State , 136 Ind . 306 [ sic ] . This premise was upheld by the Supreme Court of the United States in the case : John Bad Elk v. U.S. , 177 U.S. 529 . The Court stated : “ Where the officer is killed in the course of the disorder which naturally accompanies an attempted arrest that is resisted , the law looks with very different eyes upon the transaction , when the officer had the right to make the arrest , from what it does if the officer had no right . What may be murder in the first case might be nothing more than manslaughter in the other , or the facts might show that no offense had been committed . "
Modern sources citing Plummer and Bad Elk have tended to discuss the issue as defense against unlawful force ; under contemporary law in most jurisdictions , a person may not use force to resist an unlawful arrest . The Plummer quote has been noted to be a fabrication , not appearing in the text of the opinion .
= Ctenophora =
Ctenophora ( / tᵻˈnɒfərə / ; singular ctenophore , / ˈtɛnəfɔːr / or / ˈtiːnəfɔːr / ; from the Greek κτείς kteis ' comb ' and φέρω pherō ' carry ' ; commonly known as comb jellies ) is a phylum of invertebrate animals that live in marine waters worldwide . Their most distinctive feature is the ‘ combs ’ – groups of cilia which they use for swimming – they are the largest animals that swim by means of cilia . Adults of various species range from a few millimeters to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) in size . Like cnidarians , their bodies consist of a mass of jelly , with one layer of cells on the outside and another lining the internal cavity . In ctenophores , these layers are two cells deep , while those in cnidarians are only one cell deep . Some authors combined ctenophores and cnidarians in one phylum , Coelenterata , as both groups rely on water flow through the body cavity for both digestion and respiration . Increasing awareness of the differences persuaded more recent authors to classify them as separate phyla .
Ctenophores also resemble cnidarians in having a decentralized nerve net rather than a brain . Genomic studies have suggested that the neurons of Ctenophora , which differ in many ways from other animal neurons , evolved independently from those of the other animals .
Almost all ctenophores are predators , taking prey ranging from microscopic larvae and rotifers to the adults of small crustaceans ; the exceptions are juveniles of two species , which live as parasites on the salps on which adults of their species feed . In favorable circumstances , ctenophores can eat ten times their own weight in a day . Only 100 – 150 species have been validated , and possibly another 25 have not been fully described and named . The textbook examples are cydippids with egg @-@ shaped bodies and a pair of retractable tentacles fringed with tentilla ( " little tentacles " ) that are covered with colloblasts , sticky cells that capture prey . The phylum has a wide range of body forms , including the flattened , deep @-@ sea platyctenids , in which the adults of most species lack combs , and the coastal beroids , which lack tentacles and prey on other ctenophores by using huge mouths armed with groups of large , stiffened cilia that act as teeth . These variations enable different species to build huge populations in the same area , because they specialize in different types of prey , which they capture by as wide a range of methods as spiders use .
Most species are hermaphrodites — a single animal can produce both eggs and sperm , meaning it can fertilize its own egg , not needing a mate . Some are simultaneous hermaphrodites , which can produce both eggs and sperm at the same time . Others are sequential hermaphrodites , in which the eggs and sperm mature at different times . Fertilization is generally external , although platyctenids ' eggs are fertilized inside their parents ' bodies and kept there until they hatch . The young are generally planktonic and in most species look like miniature cydippids , gradually changing into their adult shapes as they grow . The exceptions are the beroids , whose young are miniature beroids with large mouths and no tentacles , and the platyctenids , whose young live as cydippid @-@ like plankton until they reach near @-@ adult size , but then sink to the bottom and rapidly metamorphose into the adult form . In at least some species , juveniles are capable of reproduction before reaching the adult size and shape . The combination of hermaphroditism and early reproduction enables small populations to grow at an explosive rate .
Ctenophores may be abundant during the summer months in some coastal locations , but in other places they are uncommon and difficult to find . In bays where they occur in very high numbers , predation by ctenophores may control the populations of small zooplanktonic organisms such as copepods , which might otherwise wipe out the phytoplankton ( planktonic plants ) , which are a vital part of marine food chains . One ctenophore , Mnemiopsis , has accidentally been introduced into the Black Sea , where it is blamed for causing fish stocks to collapse by eating both fish larvae and organisms that would otherwise have fed the fish . The situation was aggravated by other factors , such as over @-@ fishing and long @-@ term environmental changes that promoted the growth of the Mnemiopsis population . The later accidental introduction of Beroe helped to mitigate the problem , as Beroe preys on other ctenophores .
Despite their soft , gelatinous bodies , fossils thought to represent ctenophores , apparently with no tentacles but many more comb @-@ rows than modern forms , have been found in lagerstätten as far back as the early Cambrian , about 515 million years ago . The position of the ctenophores in the evolutionary family tree of animals has long been debated , and the majority view at present , based on molecular phylogenetics , is that cnidarians and bilaterians are more closely related to each other than either is to ctenophores . A recent molecular phylogenetics analysis concluded that the common ancestor of all modern ctenophores was cydippid @-@ like , and that all the modern groups appeared relatively recently , probably after the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago . Evidence accumulating since the 1980s indicates that the " cydippids " are not monophyletic , in other words do not include all and only the descendants of a single common ancestor , because all the other traditional ctenophore groups are descendants of various cydippids .
= = Distinguishing features = =
Ctenophores form an animal phylum that is more complex than sponges , about as complex as cnidarians ( jellyfish , sea anemones , etc . ) , and less complex than bilaterians ( which include almost all other animals ) . Unlike sponges , both ctenophores and cnidarians have : cells bound by inter @-@ cell connections and carpet @-@ like basement membranes ; muscles ; nervous systems ; and some have sensory organs . Ctenophores are distinguished from all other animals by having colloblasts , which are sticky and adhere to prey , although a few ctenophore species lack them .
Like sponges and cnidarians , ctenophores have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly @-@ like material , which is called the mesoglea in cnidarians and ctenophores ; more complex animals have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly @-@ like layer . Hence ctenophores and cnidarians have traditionally been labelled diploblastic , along with sponges . Both ctenophores and cnidarians have a type of muscle that , in more complex animals , arises from the middle cell layer , and as a result some recent text books classify ctenophores as triploblastic , while others still regard them as diploblastic .
Ranging from about 1 millimeter ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) to 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in size , ctenophores are the largest non @-@ colonial animals that use cilia ( " hairs " ) as their main method of locomotion . Most species have eight strips , called comb rows , that run the length of their bodies and bear comb @-@ like bands of cilia , called " ctenes , " stacked along the comb rows so that when the cilia beat , those of each comb touch the comb below . The name " ctenophora " means " comb @-@ bearing " , from the Greek κτείς ( stem @-@ form κτεν- ) meaning " comb " and the Greek suffix -φορος meaning " carrying " .
= = Description = =
For a phylum with relatively few species , ctenophores have a wide range of body plans . Coastal species need to be tough enough to withstand waves and swirling sediment particles , while some oceanic species are so fragile that it is very difficult to capture them intact for study . In addition oceanic species do not preserve well , and are known mainly from photographs and from observers ' notes . Hence most attention has until recently concentrated on three coastal genera – Pleurobrachia , Beroe and Mnemiopsis . At least two textbooks base their descriptions of ctenophores on the cydippid Pleurobrachia .
Since the body of many species is almost radially symmetrical , the main axis is oral to aboral ( from the mouth to the opposite end ) . However , since only two of the canals near the statocyst terminate in anal pores , ctenophores have no mirror @-@ symmetry , although many have rotational symmetry , in other words if the animal rotates in a half @-@ circle it looks the same as when it started .
= = = Common features = = =
= = = = Body layers = = = =
Like those of cnidarians , ( jellyfish , sea anemones , etc . ) , ctenophores ' bodies consist of a relatively thick , jelly @-@ like mesoglea sandwiched between two epithelia , layers of cells bound by inter @-@ cell connections and by a fibrous basement membrane that they secrete . The epithelia of ctenophores have two layers of cells rather than one , and some of the cells in the upper layer have several cilia per cell .
The outer layer of the epidermis ( outer skin ) consists of : sensory cells ; cells that secrete mucus , which protects the body ; and interstitial cells , which can transform into other types of cell . In specialized parts of the body the outer layer also contains colloblasts , found along the surface of tentacles and used in capturing prey , or cells bearing multiple large cilia , for locomotion . The inner layer of the epidermis contains a nerve net , and myoepithelial cells that act as muscles .
The internal cavity forms : a mouth that can usually be closed by muscles ; a pharynx ( " throat " ) ; a wider area in the center that acts as a stomach ; and a system of internal canals . These branch through the mesoglea to the most active parts of the animal : the mouth and pharynx ; the roots of the tentacles , if present ; all along the underside of each comb row ; and four branches round the sensory complex at the far end from the mouth – two of these four branches terminate in anal pores . The inner surface of the cavity is lined with an epithelium , the gastrodermis . The mouth and pharynx have both cilia and well @-@ developed muscles . In other parts of the canal system , the gastrodermis is different on the sides nearest to and furthest from the organ that it supplies . The nearer side is composed of tall nutritive cells that store nutrients in vacuoles ( internal compartments ) , germ cells that produce eggs or sperm , and photocytes that produce bioluminescence . The side furthest from the organ is covered with ciliated cells that circulate water through the canals , punctuated by ciliary rosettes , pores that are surrounded by double whorls of cilia and connect to the mesoglea .
= = = = Feeding , excretion and respiration = = = =
When prey is swallowed , it is liquefied in the pharynx by enzymes and by muscular contractions of the pharynx . The resulting slurry is wafted through the canal system by the beating of the cilia , and digested by the nutritive cells . The ciliary rosettes in the canals may help to transport nutrients to muscles in the mesoglea . The anal pores may eject unwanted small particles , but most unwanted matter is regurgitated via the mouth .
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. " In 1960 , " one band gave up without a fight " : the Trinity Tiger Band opted to sit instead of perform and gave the Aggie Band the entire halftime to perform .
During Adams ' tenure , the college acquired a new mascot , the first since the original Reveille died in 1944 . Reveille II , like the original Reveille , was cared for and attended to by band members . During halftime performances , the young dog was allowed to be on the field with the band without her leash . During these breaks where she could get out and run , she had a tendency to " do her business " on Kyle Field 's playing surface . This didn 't bother the band members much , as Reveille stayed away from the band , but Adams discovered a gambling scheme whereby cadets were taking bets on what yardline the dog would defecate . He quickly ended the practice and turned the responsibility of caring for Reveille over to Company E @-@ 2 , which has since been called the Mascot Company .
On October 7 , 1967 , the first meeting of the Aggie Band Association took place to support the band . The organization , composed of former members and supporters , continue to assist the band through fundraising , scholarships , instrument repair , and general welfare of the cadets in the band . In 1970 , Adams acquired funds and built a new band hall which was named in his honor .
= = = Modernization and expansion = = =
Colonel Joe T. Haney took over the band in 1973 . He felt his obligation was , " not to build up the band ... [ but ] to keep it at its already exceptional level " . During Haney 's years , the band expanded to include a concert band , a symphonic band , the Aggieland Orchestra , and a Drum and Bugle Corps , and the names of the two subunits reverted to their earlier designations of Infantry and Artillery Bands .
This simple philosophy was tested as Texas A & M transitioned from an all @-@ male military college to a coeducational research university . The addition of women to the Corps presented some challenges , including one high @-@ profile lawsuit and fierce resistance from former Corps and Band members . When women were finally admitted to the band under court order ( Fall Semester , 1985 ) ; the first three women had to be housed in a separate dorm until accommodations could be made within the band dorms . Reporters were relentless and Haney finally called an open press conference with the three young ladies . The female cadets refused pictures unless their fish buddies ( members of their freshman class in their unit ) were included in the photos . With a band dropout rate of 33 % the odds were against all of the female cadets succeeding , only Andrea Abat remained in the band through her senior year . Haney realized the separate living conditions were not conducive to good order and discipline and integrated the dorms , grouping females at one end of the dorm and designating one bathroom for exclusive female use .
Amidst these drastic changes , large proportions of the freshmen classes ( some as high as 30 % ) contained all @-@ state high school band members . As the band 's experience and musical talents grew , the quality of the music improved dramatically . Haney even rewrote the drills to include a portion where the band stopped moving and played to the audience . This innovation was well received and became a staple of the band 's repertoire . In 1975 , at a televised game versus the University of Arkansas , the Aggie Band was repeatedly asked to play music during lulls in the game . By the fourth quarter , the Aggie Band had played on TV during every break and Colonel Haney , trying his best to be fair , told the cameraman that they really should let the Razorback Band play a little too . The cameraman called up to the broadcast booth to get guidance and then replied , " The director doesn 't want to hear the Arkansas band , he wants to hear the Aggie Band . "
The drills became even more complicated as Haney added formations and maneuvers never before seen . The excellence shown on the field belied its heavy dependence on precision . On October 24 , 1981 the band suffered a serious misstep during the halftime show at Rice University when four members of a lead element turned early and , before anyone could make a correction , colliding band members ground the drill to a halt . With so many members doing exactly what the person in front of them does with mere inches of clearance , the cascade effect was unrecoverable and the band simply stopped and left the field . Although it was first rumored that the collision was intended to mock the Rice Marching Owl Band , and later that Rice students were using whistles to throw off the band 's response to drum major whistle commands , all of the rumors proved to be unsubstantiated . Thereafter the band performed all drills in Houston without whistle commands .
The following weekend the band attempted their most complicated drill and performed flawlessly . Each subsequent week , the drills became more complicated . The Bryan @-@ College Station Eagle 's editor opined , " A & M is probably the only school anywhere that throws in a free football game with its performance . One of these days , I fully expect the band to be invited to a bowl game — and to be told it can bring along its football team if it wants to . "
= = = Into a new millennium = = =
Lieutenant Colonel Ray E. Toler , a Texas Christian University graduate , replaced Haney when he stepped down in 1989 . As a veteran of many Air Force Bands and with a Grammy Award nomination under his belt , Toler was quick to realize the potential and traditions of the Aggie Band and quickly set about publicizing it . Under his direction , the Aggie Band began a weekly television show ( the " Texas Aggie Band Show " ) that showcased the band , the Corps of Cadets , and the daily life of a band member . As of 2007 , the Aggie Band is the only university or college band with its own weekly television show . The Aggie Band was recognized nationally as the 2001 recipient of the Louis Sudler Trophy for collegiate marching bands , administered by the John Philip Sousa Foundation . During Toler 's leadership of the Aggie Band , its presence was personally requested by President @-@ elect George W. Bush for his inauguration parade .
During Toler 's tenure , many of the Aggie drills and music were written by Dr. Timothy Rhea , who succeeded Toler as Director of Bands in 2002 . Rhea actively arranges and composes music , which has been published by TRN Music Publisher , RBC Music Publisher , and Arranger 's Publishing Company .
= = Cadet life = =
The members of the band are called BQs and , since the band 's inception , are part of the Corps of Cadets . All BQs are assigned to one of six units : A @-@ Battery , B @-@ Battery , C @-@ Battery , A @-@ Company , B @-@ Company or C @-@ Company . C @-@ Company and C @-@ Battery were reactivated on August 23 , 2013 . The band is a major unit within the Corps , comparable in size to a Brigade or a Wing . Due to its status as a Senior Military College all cadets are required to take ROTC classes at least their first two years , though follow @-@ on military service is not required .
The Aggie Band is unique among college bands ; no other band eats and lives together as a military unit , even at the Service Academies and military colleges . Bandsmen wear their cadet uniforms to class , drill , meetings , and other functions on campus . As a requested component of football away games , they perform at more football games than any other band . As of 1993 , the band performed at 125 of the last 131 football games , including a streak of 42 straight from 1981 to 1984 . Demand is extremely high for the band and one person , upon finding out the Aggie Band would not be performing at the local football game versus A & M , returned and requested a refund for 40 tickets .
The Aggie Band performs a new show each week during the football season and does not generally repeat drills from week to week . During the fall semester , the Aggie Band practices one to three hours every weekday morning and on Saturdays every week with a football game . In addition , some components of the band also practice on Sunday afternoons and planning of the drills takes place throughout the fall semester . During weeks with complicated drills , extra practice and planning time is sometimes also done on weekday afternoons . All told , drills can take up to 40 hours per week on top of a full academic schedule and Corps / ROTC activities .
All seniors in the Corps of Cadets wear distinctive cavalry riding boots with their uniforms . These boots usually cost more than US $ 1 @,@ 000 and are generally made at Victor 's or Holick 's , formerly owned by the family of Joseph Holick , the first Band Director .
= = = Leadership = = =
Unlike many bands , the drum majors are not in charge of the band as a whole . Since the band is part of the Corps , it has its own unit commander , a Cadet Colonel . Due to necessity for military functions , the Band Commander is accorded the privilege of the first file in bugle rank ( the lead rank of the band ) . During formal military ceremonies , the commander carries a sabre instead of a bugle , as do all other commanders . Subordinate to the Band Commander are the commanders of the Artillery and Infantry bands , each a Cadet Lieutenant Colonel ; and the unit commanders of A @-@ Battery , B @-@ Battery , C @-@ Battery , A @-@ Company , B @-@ Company , and C @-@ Company . The Batteries are called the Artillery Band and the Companies the Infantry Band . The two bands perform together for halftime shows , but are often split for minor performances such as local parades and functions where the entire band is not needed . Furthermore , the band is composed of three different ROTC programs and appoints commanders to manage and train the cadets within their respective ROTC affiliations .
On the field , the band is led by three drum majors and the twelve members of bugle rank . Each drum major carries a mace and directs the band based on its movements and whistle commands during a drill . The head drum major is a Cadet Lieutenant Colonel , while the two side drum majors , the Infantry Band Drum Major and the Artillery Band Drum Major , are Cadet Majors .
Bugle rank consists of the Band Commander and eleven other senior cadets who are well respected in the band and have impeccable marching abilities . Each bugle rank member carries a bugle with a banner , but are never played during a performance . Together , the drum majors and bugle rank lead the band through the maneuvers on the field . In addition to their primary functions within the band , the bugles and maces also serve a military ceremonial function and are used to salute commissioned officers , much as a rifleman would salute with a rifle or a commander would salute with a sabre .
= = = Composition = = =
The band has approximately 420 members with more than 90 trumpets and cornets , 70 trombones , 30 mellophones , 30 baritones , 45 bass horns , 50 drummers , and 80 assorted woodwinds , though the actual composition varies annually . There are no flutes in the Aggie Band , as their position while being played would hinder the intricate marching maneuvers . Piccolos are used instead . All members of the band must have high school marching experience , an audition during the spring semester leading into the first fall semester of attendance to include major scales and sight reading , and an individual interview with the band director . Prospective members are also encouraged to participate in the Spend the Night with the Corps program to better understand the rigors of life in the Corps of Cadets .
= = Marching = =
= = = Complex maneuvers = = =
The repertoire of the Aggie Band 's maneuvers is designed by the directors and drum majors and can include obliques , flanks , countermarches , and other Army marching maneuvers . The Band is generally led by the bugle rank with each person following the person in front of them , also known as follow @-@ the @-@ leader . Space between band members during countermarches is less than six inches ( 15 cm ) and during other maneuvers even less . This space is insufficient for the bass horns and some members must turn their horns to complete the maneuver . According to an article in The Battalion , " some of the Aggie band 's maneuvers are so complex that some drill @-@ charting software says that the drills are impossible because they require multiple people to be in the same place at the same time . " This is also discussed in a video by The Association of Former Students of Texas A & M University .
The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band has performed at inauguration parades for many Presidents of the United States in Washington , D.C. , including at the personal request of President @-@ elect George H. W. Bush . Other events in which the band has participated include inauguration parades for Governors of Texas , major annual parades across the country , and the dedication ceremony for the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library .
= = = Typical halftime drill = = =
The halftime drill always begins with the band running into place at the command of the drum major 's whistle . The announcer ( Lieutenant Colonel Jay Brewer ) then states , usually in unison with the crowd , " Now forming at the north end of Kyle Field , the nationally famous Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band . " A whoop and cheers come from the audience . The drum majors then march out in front of the band and the head drum major calls the band to attention and vocally gives directions to the band , referencing the composition of the Aggie War Hymn , by shouting , " Recall ! Step off on Hullabaloo ! " ( Recall is a traditional Army bugle call – the first 34 notes , and intro of the Aggie War Hymn . " Hullabaloo " is the first word sung in the Aggie War Hymn . ) These directions are not amplified in any way , but can be heard across the entire stadium . After another whoop , the drum majors signal for the horns to be lifted into playing position with two quick whistle blasts and the bugle rank does a flourish .
The drill then begins with the band playing the opening notes of the War Hymn and stepping off into the initial formation . At some point in the drill , the band converts from Spread formation to Block formation . With no cessation of the music until the band leaves the field , the drill continues and often stops with the band playing the last stanza in place in the center of the field before moving into the signature " Block T " or " Block ATM " . When done playing , the band runs off the field . Specific maneuvers in the drill can include :
The Criss Cross : the band files split into two halves and march through each other at 90 ° angles
The Four @-@ way Cross : The band splits into four groups of three files and march through each other from each of the corners of the field ( this maneuver is one of the more popular among fans , due to its difficulty )
Minstrel Turns : band members pass through each other by stepping between each other 's feet .
Spread @-@ to @-@ Block : the band moves from being 30 files wide ( i.e. , across the width of the football field ) by 12 ranks deep ( i.e. , along the length of the football field ) to 12 files wide by 30 ranks deep
Block @-@ to @-@ Spread : the opposite of Spread @-@ to @-@ Block
Continuous Countermarch : the bugle rank leads two successive countermarches following the back of the band through the maneuver
Wheel Turns ( also known as a Gate Turn ) : A turn of a block of the band where the people on the inside of the turn reduce their step size . This is only done during parades when going around corners .
= = Music = =
As a military marching band , the Aggie Band exclusively plays traditional marches . Among many other marches , its primary repertoire includes :
Fightin ' Texas Aggie War Hymn
Spirit of Aggieland : The school 's alma mater
The Noble Men of Kyle : The group 's signature march ; also a nickname for the band
Ballad of the Green Berets
The main theme from the movie Patton
When Johnny Comes Marching Home
Strategic Air Command March
The Aggie Band frequently performs a number of standard military and circus marches :
The Trombone King
Stars and Stripes Forever
Bravura
National Emblem
Them Basses
Washington Post
Many contemporary works are also commonly played by the band , several of them arranged by Dr. Rhea . These include movie marches ( Theme from 1941 , Parade of the Charioteers ) , concert marches ( The Sinfonians ) , and even symphonic and orchestral music ( " Cathedral Chorus " from Russian Christmas Music , Great Gate of Kiev ) .
= Crucifixion darkness =
The Crucifixion darkness is an episode in three of the Canonical Gospels in which the sky becomes dark in daytime during the crucifixion of Jesus .
Ancient and medieval Christian writers treated this as a miracle , and believed it to be one of the few episodes from the New Testament which were confirmed by non @-@ Christian sources . Pagan commentators of the Roman era explained it as an eclipse , although Christian writers pointed out that an eclipse during Passover , when the crucifixion took place , would have been impossible ; a solar eclipse cannot occur during a full moon .
Modern scholarship , noting the way in which similar accounts were associated in ancient times with the deaths of notable figures , sees the phenomenon as a literary invention that attempts to convey a sense of the power of Jesus in the face of death , or a sign of God 's displeasure with the Jewish people . Scholars have also noted the ways in which this episode appears to draw on earlier biblical accounts of darkness from the Book of Amos and the Book of Exodus .
= = Biblical account = =
The oldest biblical reference to the crucifixion darkness is found in the Gospel of Mark , written around the year 70 . In its account of the crucifixion , on the eve of Passover , it says that after Jesus was crucified at nine in the morning , darkness fell over all the land , or all the world ( Greek : γῆν gēn can mean either ) from around noon ( " the sixth hour " ) until 3 o 'clock ( " the ninth hour " ) . It adds , immediately after the death of Jesus , that " the curtain of the temple was torn in two , from top to bottom " .
The Gospel of Matthew , written around the year 85 or 90 , and using Mark as a source , has an almost identical wording : " From noon on , darkness came over the whole land [ or , earth ] until three in the afternoon . " The author adds dramatic details , including an earthquake and the raising of the dead , which were stock motifs from Jewish apocalyptic literature : " The earth shook , and the rocks were split . The tombs also were opened , and many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were raised . "
The Gospel of Luke , written around the year 90 and also using Mark as a source , has none of the details added in the Matthew version , moves the tearing of the temple veil to before the death of Jesus , and explains the darkness as a darkening of the sun :
It was now about noon , and darkness came over the whole land [ or , earth ] until three in the afternoon , while the sun 's light failed [ or , the sun was eclipsed ] ; and the curtain of the temple was torn in two .
It appears that the Luke Gospel originally explained the event as an eclipse . The majority of manuscripts of the Gospel of Luke have the Greek phrase " eskotisthe ho helios " ( " the sun was darkened " ) , but the earliest manuscripts say " tou heliou eklipontos " ( " the sun 's light failed " or " the sun was in eclipse " ) . This earlier version is likely to have been the original one , amended by later scribes to correct what they assumed was an error , since they knew that an eclipse was impossible during Passover . One early Christian commentator even suggested that the text had been deliberately corrupted by opponents of the Church to make it easier to attack .
The account of the crucifixion given in the Gospel of John is very different . It takes place on the day of Passover , the crucifixion does not take place until after noon , and there is no mention of darkness , the tearing of the veil , or the raising of the dead .
= = Later versions = =
= = = Apocryphal writers = = =
A number of accounts in apocryphal literature built on the accounts of the crucifixion darkness . The Gospel of Peter , probably from the second century , expanded on the canonical gospel accounts in creative ways . As one writer puts it , " accompanying miracles become more fabulous and the apocalyptic portents are more vivid " . In this version , the darkness which covers the whole of Judaea leads people to go about with lamps believing it to be night . The fourth century Gospel of Nicodemus describes how Pilate and his wife are disturbed by a report of what had happened , and the Judeans he has summoned tell him it was an ordinary solar eclipse . Another text from the fourth century , the purported Report of Pontius Pilate to Tiberius , claimed the darkness had started at the sixth hour , covered the whole world , and during the subsequent evening the full moon resembled blood for the entire night . In a fifth- or sixth @-@ century text by Pseudo @-@ Dionysius the Areopagite , the author claims to have observed a solar eclipse from Heliopolis at the time of the crucifixion .
= = = Ancient historians = = =
No contemporary references to this darkness have been found outside of the New Testament . Later commentators speculated about a reference in a work by the chronicler Thallus . In the ninth century , the Byzantine historian George Syncellus quoted from the third @-@ century Christian historian Sextus Julius Africanus , who remarked that " Thallos dismisses this darkness as a solar eclipse " . It is not known when Thallus lived , and it is unclear whether he himself made any reference to the crucifixion . Tertullian , in his Apologeticus , told the story of the crucifixion darkness and suggested that the evidence must still be held in the Roman archives .
Until the Enlightenment era , the crucifixion darkness story was often used by Christian apologists because they believed it was a rare example of the biblical account being supported by non @-@ Christian sources . When the pagan critic Celsus claimed that Jesus could hardly be a God because he had performed no great deeds , the third @-@ century Christian commentator Origen responded , in Against Celsus , by recounting the darkness , earthquake and opening of tombs . As proof that the incident had happened , he referred to a description by Phlegon of Tralles of an eclipse , accompanied by earthquakes felt in other parts of the Empire during the reign of Tiberius ( probably that of 29 CE ) .
In his Commentary on Matthew , however , Origen offered a different approach . Answering criticisms that there was no mention of this incident in any of the many non @-@ Christian sources , he insisted that it was local to Palestine , and therefore would have gone unnoticed outside . To suggestions it was merely an eclipse , Origen pointed out that this was impossible and suggested other explanations , such as heavy clouds , drawing only on the accounts given in Matthew and Mark , which make no mention of the sun .
= = Explanations = =
= = = Miracle = = =
Because it was known in ancient and medieval times that a solar eclipse could not take place during Passover ( solar eclipses require a new moon while Passover only takes place during a full moon ) it was considered a miraculous sign rather than a naturally occurring event . The astronomer Johannes de Sacrobosco wrote , in his The Sphere of the World , " the eclipse was not natural , but , rather , miraculous and contrary to nature " . Modern writers who regard this as a miraculous event tend either to see it as operating through a natural phenomenon — such as volcanic dust or heavy cloud cover — or avoid explanation completely . The Reformation Study Bible , for instance , simply states " This was a supernatural darkness . "
= = = Naturalistic explanations = = =
The Gospel of Luke account appears to describe the event as an eclipse , and some non @-@ Christian writers dismissed it in these terms . However , the biblical details do not accord with an eclipse : a solar eclipse could not have occurred on or near the Passover , when Jesus was crucified , and would have been too brief to account for three hours of darkness . The maximum possible duration of a total solar eclipse is seven minutes and 31 @.@ 1 seconds . The only total eclipse visible in Jerusalem in this era fell later in the year , on 24 November 29 CE at 11 : 05 AM . Around the Sea of Galilee , it would have been visible for just one minute and forty @-@ nine seconds , and would have been apparent only to those indoors .
In 1983 , Colin Humphreys and W. G. Waddington argued that the darkness could be accounted for by a partial lunar eclipse that had taken place on that day : lunar eclipses can last much longer than solar ones . Astronomer Bradley E. Schaefer , on the other hand , pointed out that the eclipse would not have been visible during daylight hours . Humphreys and Waddington speculated that the reference in the Luke Gospel to a solar eclipse must have been the result of a scribe wrongly amending the text , a claim historian David Henige describes as " indefensible " .
Some writers have explained the crucifixion darkness in terms of sunstorms , heavy cloud cover , the aftermath of a volcanic eruption , or a khamsin dust storm that tends to occur from March to May . A popular work of the nineteenth century described it as an ' oppressive gloom ' and suggested this was a typical phenomenon related to earthquakes .
= = = Literary creation = = =
A common view in modern scholarship is that the account in the synoptic gospels is a literary creation of the gospel writers , intended to heighten the importance of what they saw as a theologically significant event . Burton Mack describes it as a fabrication by the author of the Gospel of Mark , while G. B. Caird and Joseph Fitzmyer conclude that the author did not intend the description to be taken literally . W. D. Davies and Dale Allison similarly conclude " It is probable that , without any factual basis , darkness was added in order to wrap the cross in a rich symbol and / or assimilate Jesus to other worthies " .
The image of darkness over the land would have been understood by ancient readers as a cosmic sign , a typical element in the description of the death of kings and other major figures by writers such as Philo , Dio Cassius , Virgil , Plutarch and Josephus . Géza Vermes describes the darkness account as " part of the Jewish eschatological imagery of the day of the Lord . It is to be treated as a literary rather than historical phenomenon notwithstanding naive scientists and over @-@ eager television documentary makers , tempted to interpret the account as a datable eclipse of the sun . They would be barking up the wrong tree " .
= = Interpretations = =
This sequence plays an important part in the gospel 's literary narrative . The author of Mark 's gospel has been described as operating here " at the peak of his rhetorical and theological powers " . One suggestion is that the darkness is a deliberate inversion of the transfiguration ; alternately , Jesus 's earlier discourse about a future tribulation mentions the sun being darkened , and can be seen as foreshadowing this scene . Striking details such as the darkening of the sky and the tearing of the temple veil may be a way of focusing the reader away from the shame and humiliation of the crucifixion ; one professor of biblical theology concluded , " it is clear that Jesus is not a humiliated criminal but a man of great significance . His death is therefore not a sign of his weakness but of his power . "
When considering the theological meaning of the event , some authors have interpreted the darkness as a period of mourning by the cosmos itself at the death of Jesus . Others have seen it as a sign of God 's judgement on the Jewish people , sometimes connecting it with the destruction of the city of Jerusalem in the year 70 ; or as symbolising shame , fear , or the mental suffering of Jesus . Fitzmyer compares the event to a contemporary description recorded in Josephus ' Antiquities of the Jews , which recounts " unlawful acts against the gods , from which we believe the very sun turned away , as if it too were loath to look upon the foul deed " .
Many writers have adopted an intertextual approach , looking at earlier texts from which the author of the Mark Gospel may have drawn . In particular , parallels have often been noted between the darkness and the prediction in the Book of Amos of an earthquake in the reign of King Uzziah of Judah : " On that day , says the Lord God , I will make the sun go down at noon , and darken the earth in broad daylight " . Particularly in connection with this reference , read as a prophecy of the future , the darkness can be seen as portending the end times .
Another likely literary source is the plague narrative in the Book of Exodus , in which Egypt is covered by darkness for three days . It has been suggested that the author of the Matthew Gospel changed the Marcan text slightly to more closely match this source . Commentators have also drawn comparisons with the description of darkness in the Genesis creation narrative , with a prophecy regarding mid @-@ day darkness by Jeremiah , and with an end @-@ times prophecy in the Book of Zechariah .
Roman literary sources have also been postulated , namely those on the apotheosis of the mythical king Romulus , and about the death of Julius Caesar .
= = Iconography = =
In traditional artistic representations of the crucifixion , the sun and moon sometimes appear above and to either side of the cross , in allusion to the darkening of the skies .
= Sleight of hand =
Sleight of hand ( also known as prestidigitation or legerdemain ) refers to fine motor skills when used by performing artists in different art forms to entertain or manipulate . It is closely associated with close @-@ up magic , card cheating , card flourishing and stealing .
Because of its heavy use and practice by magicians , sleight of hand is often confused as a branch of magic , but is in reality a separate genre of entertainment , as many artists practice sleight of hand without the slightest interest in magic .
Sleight of hand pioneers with worldwide acclaim include Dan and Dave , Ricky Jay , David Blaine , David Copperfield , Yann Frisch , Dai Vernon and Tony Slydini .
= = Etymology and history = =
The word sleight , meaning " the use of dexterity or cunning , especially so as to deceive " , comes from the Old Norse . The phrase sleight of hand means " quick fingers " or " trickster fingers " . Common synonyms from the Latin language include prestidigitation and legerdemain . Seneca the Younger , philosopher of the Silver Age of Latin literature , famously compared rhetoric techniques and illusionist techniques .
= = Association with close @-@ up magic = =
Sleight of hand is often used in close @-@ up magic , where the sleights are performed with the audience close to the magician , usually in physical contact or within 3 to 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) . This close contact eliminate theories of fake audience members and the use of gimmicks . It makes use of everyday items as props , such as cards , coins , rubber bands , paper , phones and even saltshakers . A well @-@ performed sleight looks like an ordinary , natural and completely innocent gesture , change in hand @-@ position or body posture . In addition to manual dexterity , sleight of hand in close @-@ up magic depends on the use of psychology , timing , misdirection , and natural choreography in accomplishing a magical effect .
= = Association with stage magic = =
Sleight of hand during stage magic performances is not common , as most magic events and stunts are performed with objects visible to a much larger audience , but is nevertheless done occasionally by many stage performers . The most common magic tricks performed with sleight of hand on stage are rope manipulations and card tricks , with the first typically being done with a member of the audience to rule out the possibility of stooges and the latter primarily being done on a table while a camera is live @-@ recording , allowing the rest of audience to see the performance on a big screen . Worldwide acclaimed stage magician David Copperfield often include illusions featuring sleight of hand in his stage shows .
= = Association with card cheating = =
Although being mostly used for entertainment and comedy purposes , sleight of hand is also notoriously used to cheat at casinos and gambling facilities throughout the world . Common ways to professionally cheat at card games using sleight of hand include palming , switching , ditching , and stealing cards from the table . Such techniques include extreme misdirection and years of practice . For these reasons , the term sleight of hand frequently carries negative associations of dishonesty and deceit at many gambling halls , and many magicians known around the world are publicly banned from casinos , such as British mentalist and close @-@ up magician Derren Brown , who is banned from every casino in Britain .
= = Association with cardistry = =
Unlike card tricks done on the streets or on stage and card cheating , cardistry is solely about impressing without illusions , deceit , misdirection and other elements commonly used in card tricks and card cheating . Cardistry , or card flourishes , are always intended to be visually impressive and appear extremely difficult to perform . Card flourishing is often associated with card tricks , but many sleight of hand artists perform flourishing without considering themselves magicians or having any real interest in card tricks .
= = Association with card throwing = =
The art of card throwing generally consist of throwing standard playing cards with excessively high speed and accuracy , powerful enough to slice fruits like carrots and even melons . Like flourishing , throwing cards are meant to be visibly impressive and does not include magic elements . Magician Ricky Jay popularized throwing cards within the sleight of hand industry with the release of his 1977 book entitled Cards as Weapons , which was met with large sales and critical acclaim . Some magic tricks , both close @-@ up and on stage , are heavily connected to throwing cards .
= = = Printed = = =
Henry , Hay ( 1975 ) . Cyclopedia of Magic . Dover Publications . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 21808 @-@ 3 .
Hugard , Jean ; Braué , Frederick , eds . ( 2012 ) . The Royal Road to Card Magic . Courier Corporation . ISBN 978 @-@ 0486156682 .
Jones , Jessica ( 2007 ) . The Art of Cheating : A Nasty Little Book for Tricky Little Schemers and Their Helpless Victims . Simon and Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 1416571384 .
Jay , Joshua ( 2008 ) . Magic : The Complete Course . Workman Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0761159681 .
Longe , Robert ( 2003 ) . Clever Close @-@ up Magic . Sterling Publishing Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 1402700279 .
Ostovich , Helen ; Hopkins , Lisa , eds . ( 2014 ) . Magical Transformations on the Early Modern English Stage . Ashgate Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1472432865 .
Scarne , John ( 2003 ) . Scarne 's Magic Tricks . Courier Corporation . ISBN 978 @-@ 0486427799 .
Tarr , William ( 1976 ) . Now You See It , Now You Don 't ! Lessons in Sleight of Hand . Vintage Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 72202 @-@ 7 .
Whaley , Barton ; Bell , John , eds . ( 1991 ) . Cheating and Deception . Transaction Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1412819435 .
= = = Online = = =
Jones , Finn @-@ Olaf ( 22 April 2006 ) . " Houdini in the Desert " . Forbes . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
Singer , Mark ( 5 April 1993 ) . " Ricky Jay 's Magical Secrets " . The New Yorker . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
" Sleight " . Oxford Dictionary . 2015 . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
Wells , Dominic ( 26 January 2008 ) . " The Derren Brown Factor " . The Times . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
= Southern Rhodesia in World War I =
When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany at the start of World War I in August 1914 , settler society in Southern Rhodesia , then administered by the British South Africa Company , received the news with great patriotic enthusiasm . The Company administrator , Sir William Milton , wired the UK government , " All Rhodesia ... ready to do its duty " . Although it supported Britain , the Company was concerned about the possible financial implications for its chartered territory should it make direct commitments to the war effort , particularly at first , so most of the colony 's contribution to the war was made by Southern Rhodesians individually — not only those who volunteered to fight abroad , but also those who remained at home and raised funds to donate food , equipment and other supplies .
Starting immediately after the outbreak of war , parties of white Southern Rhodesians paid their own way to England to join the British Army . Most Southern Rhodesians who served in the war enlisted in this way and fought on the Western Front , taking part in many of the major battles with an assortment of British , South African and other colonial units , most commonly the King 's Royal Rifle Corps , which recruited hundreds of men from the colony , and created homogenous Rhodesian platoons . Troopers from Southern Rhodesia became renowned on the Western Front for their marksmanship , a result of their frontier lifestyle . Some of the colony 's men served in the Royal Flying Corps , one of the two predecessors of the Royal Air Force . The Rhodesia Regiment , the Rhodesia Native Regiment and the British South Africa Police served in the African theatre of the conflict , contributing to the South @-@ West African and East African campaigns .
Though it was one of the few combatant territories not to raise fighting men through conscription , proportional to white population , Southern Rhodesia contributed more manpower to the British war effort than any other dominion or colony , and more than Britain itself . White troops numbered 5 @,@ 716 , about 40 % of white men in the colony , with 1 @,@ 720 of these serving as commissioned officers . The Rhodesia Native Regiment enlisted 2 @,@ 507 black soldiers , about 30 black recruits scouted for the Rhodesia Regiment , and around 350 served in British and South African units . Over 800 Southern Rhodesians of all races lost their lives on operational service during the war , with many more seriously wounded .
The territory 's contributions during the First World War became a major entry in many histories of the colony , and a great source of pride for the white community , as well as for some black Rhodesians . It played a part in the UK government 's decision to grant self @-@ government in 1923 , and remained prominent in the national consciousness for decades . When the colonial government unilaterally declared independence from Britain in 1965 , it deliberately did so on Armistice Day , 11 November , and signed the proclamation at 11 : 00 local time . Since the territory 's reconstitution and recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980 , the modern government has removed many references to the war , such as memorial monuments and plaques , from public view , regarding them as unwelcome vestiges of white minority rule and colonialism . The Zimbabwean cultural memory has largely forgotten the First World War ; the country 's war dead today have no official commemoration , either there or overseas .
= = Background = =
At the time of World War I ( also known as the First World War or the Great War ) , Southern Rhodesia was administered by the British South Africa Company , which had controlled it and Northern Rhodesia since acquiring them through diplomacy and conquest during the 1890s . The white population in Southern Rhodesia stood at 23 @,@ 606 in 1911 ( a minority of 3 % ) , while Northern Rhodesia had about 3 @,@ 000 white settlers ( less than half of 1 % ) . With the Company 's charter due to expire in late 1914 , most Southern Rhodesian public attention was focused on this issue before the outbreak of war . The settlers were split between those who backed continued administration by the Chartered Company and those who advocated responsible government , which would make Southern Rhodesia a self @-@ governing colony within the British Empire . Still others favoured the integration of Southern Rhodesia into the Union of South Africa , which had been formed in 1910 . Following the intervention of the war , the charter was renewed for 10 years in early 1915 .
Before 1914 , Southern Rhodesia 's police force was the British South Africa Police ( BSAP ) , first raised in 1889 and reconstituted into a more permanent form in 1896 . This paramilitary , mounted infantry force was theoretically also the country 's standing army . Organised along military lines , it served in the First and Second Matabele Wars of the 1890s , operated on Britain 's side in the Anglo @-@ Boer War of 1899 – 1902 ( alongside the specially @-@ raised Rhodesia Regiment ) , and by 1914 comprised about 1 @,@ 150 men ( including officers ) . Reserves existed in the form of the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers , an all @-@ white amateur force with a paper strength of 2 @,@ 000 intended for mobilisation against local uprisings . Few doubted the Volunteers ' enthusiasm , but they were not extensively trained or equipped ; though perhaps useful in a Rhodesian bush skirmish , most observers agreed they would be no match for professional soldiers in a conventional war . In any case , the Volunteers ' enlistment contracts bound them for domestic service only .
= = Outbreak of war = =
= = = Announcement and reception = = =
When Britain declared war on Germany at 23 : 00 Greenwich Mean Time on 4 August 1914 , the British Empire 's dominions and colonies automatically became involved as well . Word of this reached the Southern Rhodesian capital Salisbury during the night . Early on 5 August , the Company administrator Sir William Milton wired Whitehall : " All Rhodesia united in devoted loyalty to King and Empire and ready to do its duty . " A few hours later he officially announced to the populace that Southern Rhodesia was at war . The Rhodesia Herald and Bulawayo Chronicle newspapers published special editions the same day to spread the news ; it took about half a week for word to reach the whole country , but jingoistic demonstrations began in the major towns almost immediately .
In the words of the historian Peter McLaughlin , the Southern Rhodesian settlers " seemed to out @-@ British the British " in their patriotic zeal , so it was to the frustration of many of them that the Company did not immediately commit to any martial action . While it sent supportive messages to Whitehall , the Company felt it could not raise any kind of expeditionary force without first considering the implications for its administrative operations ; as a commercial concern , it was possible for the Company to go bankrupt . Who would foot the bill for war expenditure , its hierarchy pondered : the Company itself , the Rhodesian taxpayers or the British government ?
As the local newspapers filled with letters from readers clamouring for Rhodesian troops to be mustered and despatched to Europe post @-@ haste , the administration limited its initial contribution to posting a section of BSAP troopers to the Victoria Falls Bridge to guard against possible German attack from South @-@ West Africa though the Caprivi Strip . In early September , an indignant letter to the Rhodesia Herald from Colonel Raleigh Grey , a major figure in local business , politics and military matters , accused the Company of bringing " a slur on a British country " by doing so little .
= = = Rhodesian Reserves = = =
A few days after the war began , the Chartered Company formed the Rhodesian Reserves , an amorphous entity intended to accommodate the many white men who were keen to put on uniform , as well as to make a start towards organising what might eventually become an expeditionary force . Eminent citizens and elected leaders formed their own platoons , each bringing 24 volunteers ; three or four of these 25 @-@ man troops made a company . Units representing the Caledonian Society , the Lancashire and Yorkshire Society , the Legion of Frontiersmen and other local organisations mirrored the Pals battalions in Britain . Volunteers could opt to serve overseas , within Rhodesia or only locally ; around 1 @,@ 000 had volunteered in all by 13 August .
The Company suggested to the UK government that it might despatch 500 troopers from the Rhodesian Reserves to Europe to act as an all @-@ Southern Rhodesian unit on the Western Front ( in Belgium and France ) , but the War Office in London replied that such an expeditionary force would be more practically deployed in Africa , within the South African forces . When the Company relayed this idea south , the South Africans said they were happy to take the Southern Rhodesians , but only if they enlisted independently in existing Union regiments . The Company found itself in the unusual position of having a prospective expeditionary force that nobody wanted . Unwilling to wait , some Southern Rhodesian would @-@ be soldiers made their own way to England to join the British Army directly , as individuals or in groups . By the end of October 1914 , about 300 were on their way .
= = Europe = =
= = = Western Front = = =
In terms of fighting manpower , Southern Rhodesia 's main contribution to World War I was in the trenches of the Western Front . As the white Southern Rhodesians in this theatre joined the British Army separately , at different times and under their own steam ( or were already connected to specific units as reservists ) , they were spread across dozens of regiments , including the Black Watch , the Coldstream Guards , the Grenadier Guards , the Royal Engineers and the Royal Marines , as well as many South African units and others . During the war 's opening months , Southern Rhodesian volunteers who could not afford to travel to England were assisted by a private fund set up by Ernest Lucas Guest , a Salisbury lawyer and Anglo @-@ Boer War veteran who also organised an accompanying recruitment campaign for European service . Guest stopped recruiting at the Company 's request after it created the 1st Rhodesia Regiment , an expeditionary force to South and South @-@ West Africa , in October 1914 .
A link developed during the war with the King 's Royal Rifle Corps ( KRRC ) , whose Southern Rhodesian contingent — numbering a few hundred , chiefly in its 2nd and 3rd Battalions — was the largest on the Western Front . The connection with this particular corps began as the result of a chance conversation aboard the ship that took the first batch of Southern Rhodesians from Cape Town to Southampton in late 1914 . The 16th Marquess of Winchester , who had links with Rhodesia dating back to the 1890s , was also aboard the ship , returning from a visit to the colony . Encountering Captain John Banks Brady , the officer of Irish origin who led the volunteers , the Marquess asked where his party was headed . Brady enthusiastically replied that they were going to war together in France . The Marquess suggested to Brady that since it might be difficult to prevent his men from being split up during the enlistment process , it might be a good idea for the Rhodesians to join the KRRC , where he could keep an eye on them through his connections with the Winchester @-@ based regiment . The Southern Rhodesian contingent duly mustered into the KRRC . A designated Rhodesian platoon , widely referred to thereafter as " the Rhodesian Platoon " , was formed under Brady at the KRRC training camp at Sheerness , on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent .
As a rule , the white Rhodesians overseas combined stridently pro @-@ British attitudes with an even stronger pride in Rhodesia . Many of them saw participation in the war , particularly in distinct " Rhodesian " formations , as a step towards forging a distinctive national identity , like those of Australia and the other more mature British dominions , and building a case for Southern Rhodesian self @-@ government . The existence of an explicitly Rhodesian Platoon in the KRRC endeared the regiment to the Southern Rhodesian public , and attracted many of the colony 's volunteers who arrived in England later in the war ; in time , the KRRC formed further Rhodesian platoons from additional personnel . While the average Rhodesian colonial , living on the frontier of the Empire , was at least casually acquainted with rifles , most Englishmen had never held one . At Sheerness , Brady 's Rhodesian Platoon won a reputation for fine sharpshooting , and set a regimental record score at the shooting range .
Once posted to France in December 1914 , the Rhodesian Platoon almost immediately began suffering regular heavy casualties . Southern Rhodesian volunteers continued to arrive piecemeal in England throughout the conflict , so Rhodesian formations on the Western Front received regular reinforcements in small batches , but because casualties were usually concentrated in far larger groups it often took a few months for a depleted Southern Rhodesian unit to return to full numerical strength . A cycle developed whereby Rhodesian platoons in Belgium and France were abruptly decimated and then gradually built up again only to suffer the same fate on returning to action . When the KRRC 's Rhodesian platoons took part in British offensives , they were easily recognised by a distinctive battle cry that their men shouted as they went over the top . Sometimes the British and German positions were so close that troopers on each front line could hear what was said in the opposite trench ; one group of Southern Rhodesians avoided being understood in this situation by speaking a mixture of Shona and Sindebele ( two African languages ) instead of English .
Trench warfare was a dreadful ordeal for soldiers , and the Southern Rhodesians , coming from the open veld of southern Africa , had a particularly difficult time getting used to the cold and the mud . Brady reported that some of his men had contracted frostbite within 48 hours of reaching the trenches . Despite this , the KRRC 's Rhodesians acquitted themselves well in the eyes of their superiors ; Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Sir Edward Hutton , who wrote a history of the KRRC , commented that the Southern Rhodesian contingent " earned for itself great reputation for valour and good shooting " . Southern Rhodesians became especially valuable to the KRRC as designated snipers , grenadiers , Lewis Gunners and other specialists . While discussing a KRRC sniper section , Hutton singles its Southern Rhodesian members out for their fine marksmanship , commenting that " accustomed to big game shooting , [ they ] particularly excelled in this system of ' snipers ' , and inflicted continual losses upon the enemy " . In their 2008 history of sniping , Pat Farey and Mark Spicer highlight the prowess of South African and Rhodesian sharpshooters on the Western Front , and claim that one group of 24 southern African colonials collectively accounted for over 3 @,@ 000 German casualties and fatalities .
So many Southern Rhodesians were withdrawn from the trenches for officer training that in mid @-@ 1915 Brady appealed through the Salisbury and Bulawayo presses for more volunteers to replace those who had been commissioned . A platoon of Southern Rhodesians with the 2nd Battalion , KRRC took part in the " big push " of 1 July 1916 , the first day of the Battle of the Somme , charging German positions elsewhere on the line early that morning . There were 90 Rhodesians on the eve of the attack and only 10 alive and unwounded afterwards . On the Somme battlefield itself , Rhodesians were among those at Delville Wood , which began on 14 July . This was the South African 1st Infantry Brigade 's first engagement , and some of the colonials blacked up and imitated Zulu battle cries and war dances . Despite suffering casualties of catastrophic proportions — about 80 % of the brigade 's personnel were killed , wounded or captured — they took the Wood and held it as ordered until they were relieved on 20 July . By the time of its withdrawal , the South African Brigade , originally numbering 3 @,@ 155 ( 123 officers and 3 @,@ 032 other ranks ) , had been reduced to 19 officers and 600 men . Delville Wood was later described by Sir B H Liddell Hart as " the bloodiest battle hell of 1916 " . " God knows I never wish to see such horrible sights again , " a Southern Rhodesian veteran of the battle wrote home ; " at times I wished it would come fast , anything to get out of that terrible death @-@ trap and murderous place . "
German gas attacks were among the most traumatic experiences for the Southern Rhodesians in Europe . One Rhodesian survivor of a gas attack described the sensation as like " suffocation , [ or ] slow drowning " . The Germans used both disabling agents , such as tear gas and the more severe mustard gas , and lethal chemicals like chlorine and phosgene . Though generally not fatal , gas attacks caused extreme physical discomfort and pain , often to the point where soldiers lost consciousness . Mustard gas in particular caused blistering of the skin , vomiting and internal and external bleeding . The British Army issued gas masks , but according to Brady these did little to help the men . Injuries sustained to the eyes , lungs and nasal passages in gas attacks were often extremely debilitating and lasting , remaining with the men for years after the war .
In July 1917 , a KRRC Rhodesian platoon received lofty praise from a senior British officer , who described the colonials as " absolutely first @-@ class soldiers and great gentlemen , every bit as good as soldiers ... as our old Expeditionary Force " . Around the same time , a platoon of Southern Rhodesians in the KRRC took part in an engagement near Nieuwpoort in Flanders , where it and the Northamptonshire Regiment manned positions on the eastern banks of the river Yser . After a heavy artillery bombardment , German infantry and marines charged the British positions and surrounded the Rhodesian platoon . Brutal hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting ensued in which most of the Southern Rhodesians were killed and some were taken prisoner . The Bulawayo Chronicle ran a eulogy for them soon after , comparing their last stand to that of Allan Wilson 's Shangani Patrol in 1893 . Later in 1917 , a Rhodesian platoon in the KRRC fought in the Battle of Passchendaele , near Ypres in western Flanders .
The Western Front continued to receive Southern Rhodesian troops right up to the end of the war , including veterans of the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment 's campaign in East Africa . During the conflict 's latter stages , the British Army sent some of its Southern Rhodesian officers to the Western Front to promote the colony 's benefits , hoping to encourage emigration there by British servicemen after the war .
= = = Salonika = = =
The KRRC 's 3rd Battalion , including a platoon of 70 Rhodesians , was transferred from France to the Salonika Front in 1915 . On this comparatively quiet front , they were slowly whittled down over the course of the war : 26 of them remained in January 1917 , and by the end of the war so few were left that the platoon no longer existed . Most of the men had been killed in action , while others were prisoners of the Bulgarians .
= = = Aviators = = =
Some Southern Rhodesians mustered into the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) , which merged with the Royal Naval Air Service in April 1918 to form the Royal Air Force . Towards the end of the war , the service of airmen from the dominions and colonies was observed by the issuing of shoulder patches denoting the wearer 's country of origin : from October 1918 , Southern Rhodesians received labels marked " rhodesia " . One of the territory 's first military aviators was Lieutenant Arthur R H Browne , a fighter pilot from Umvuma in the Southern Rhodesian Midlands , who was attached to No. 13 Squadron , RFC . He was killed in action in a dogfight on 5 December 1915 ; his aircraft , donated by the people of Gatooma in western Mashonaland , was Gatooma No. 2 , one of five aeroplanes purchased by Southern Rhodesian public donations . From Dryden Farm , near the south @-@ western border town of Plumtree , came Lieutenant Frank W H Thomas , an RFC combat pilot who won the Military Cross , as well as the French Croix de Guerre ( with palms ) , before he died on 5 January 1918 from wounds attained on operational service .
Lieutenant Daniel S " Pat " Judson , born in Bulawayo in 1898 , became the first Rhodesia @
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, who becomes obsessed with the fictional British children 's television series " Jolly Farm Revue " . He decides to run away from home to become part of the cast and his anthropomorphic dog Brian decides to chase him down in an attempt to bring him back home . Meanwhile , Peter and Lois go to a Kiss concert , where Lois reveals she knows nothing about the band , much to Peter 's embarrassment .
" Road to Europe " was written by Daniel Palladino and directed by Dan Povenmire . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and its many cultural references . The episode featured Kiss members Gene Simmons , Paul Stanley , Ace Frehley , and Peter Criss . It also featured guest voices by comedian Andy Dick , actor and director Jon Favreau , actor Sean Flynn , actress and singer Lauren Graham , actress Michelle Horn , and voice actor Wally Wingert .
= = Plot summary = =
Stewie is entranced by a British television program entitled Jolly Farm Revue , a colorful children 's show featuring several imaginary characters . Lamenting his future in Quahog , Stewie decides to travel to " Jolly Farm " and live there forever . Desperate , he goes to the local airport and sneaks aboard a transatlantic flight , intending to travel to London , and to find the BBC studios where Jolly Farm Revue is filmed . Brian tries to stop Stewie from leaving Rhode Island , and follows him on board the plane . When he finally finds Stewie , the flight takes off and lands in the Middle East . Brian begins to search for a way to get back to the United States , but Stewie refuses to leave with him and insists they travel to London . Brian and Stewie search for a camel to use as transportation , and they perform a musical number as a diversion in order to steal one . They begin their journey , but the camel dies in the middle of the desert . They soon find a nearby Comfort Inn , however , in which to stay . They steal a hot air balloon from the hotel premises and make their way to the Vatican City , then traveling by train from Switzerland to Munich , and end up in Amsterdam . Upon finally arriving at the BBC Television Centre , Stewie is horrified to learn that the farm is a set , and his beloved characters are merely jaded actors . Disillusioned , Stewie decides to travel back home with Brian to Quahog after getting back the Mother Maggie actress for kicking him by defecating in her shoes . This ordeal also caused Stewie to lose interest in the show .
Meanwhile , Peter is overjoyed to hear about Kiss @-@ stock , a five @-@ night set of concerts in New England by his favorite band , Kiss . He and his wife , Lois , dress in face paint and leather to look like Kiss band members , as does the rest of the crowd , and they manage to stand only a few feet from the stage . When Gene Simmons points the microphone at Lois , encouraging her to sing the next line in the chorus of " Rock and Roll All Nite " , Peter is ashamed to discover that she does not know the lyrics . Deeply saddened by this , Gene and Paul Stanley leave the stage , leaving Ace Frehley and Peter Criss to perform " Chattanooga Choo Choo " to cheer the audience . After the concert , Peter accuses Lois of only pretending to be a Kiss enthusiast , and they leave the concert venue in disgrace . Later that night , Peter and Lois stop at a Denny 's on the way home from the concert . The members of Kiss are seated at another table , and Lois recognizes Gene without his makeup as Chaim Witz ( Gene 's birth name ) , an old classmate . Peter is amazed to discover that Lois had dated Gene when they were in school . Peter 's faith in Lois is then restored , and he proudly shares the news on public @-@ access television that his wife " did " Kiss .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Daniel Palladino , his first official episode for the series , an executive producer for the show . In addition , the episode was directed by series regular Dan Povenmire , in his fourth episode directing for the season ; the first three being " One If by Clam , Two If by Sea " , " To Love and Die in Dixie " , and " Brian Wallows and Peter 's Swallows " .
" Road to Europe " is the second episode of the " Road to ... " hallmarks of the series , which have aired throughout various seasons of the show , and is the second " Road to ... " episode to be directed by Povenmire . The episodes are a parody of the seven Road to ... comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour . The episode was inspired by the 1941 film Road to Morocco , including its musical number " ( We 're off on the ) Road to Morocco " , which was previously parodied by the two characters , then with alternate lyrics , in the Family Guy episode " Road to Rhode Island " . Fans originally believed that the original title of this episode was " Road to Baghdad " , but in an interview with IGN MacFarlane stated that it was not the case .
In addition to the regular cast , the episode featured guest appearances by comedian Andy Dick , actor and director Jon Favreau , actor Sean Flynn , actress and singer Lauren Graham , actress Michelle Horn and voice actor Wally Wingert . It also guest starred Kiss members Gene Simmons , Paul Stanley , Ace Frehley , and Peter Criss as themselves .
= = Cultural references = =
Every member in the rock band Kiss guest starred in the episode as themselves . " Road to Europe " features several cultural references . Brian compares Stewie 's look with Charlie Brown ; Stewie responds by comparing him with Charlie Brown 's dog Snoopy ; both these characters are from the comic strip Peanuts . At the Kiss concert , the song that the band plays , and the one that Lois does not know the lyrics to , is the single " Rock and Roll All Nite " . In the song Stewie and Brian sing , the Marquis de Sade , singer Ricky Martin and actress Phylicia Rashad are mentioned . Brian also uses Triumph , the Insult Comic Dog 's catch phrase , " For me to poop on " to insult Stewie .
While riding a tour bus in Germany , Brian looks at a history book that has no information regarding German history from 1939 – 1945 ; the years on which World War II started and ended . Brian questions the tour guide about the dates when Germany invaded Poland , but the guide denies that it happened . Brian keeps insisting until the guide yells " Sie werden sich hinsetzen ! Sie werden ruhig sein ! Sie werden nicht beleidigen Deutschland ! " , literally meaning " You will sit down ! You will be quiet ! You will not insult Germany ! " while making the Nazi salute with his left hand . The last sentence is grammatically incorrect , as the proper German statement would be , " Sie werden Deutschland nicht beleidigen ! " At the beginning of the episode , the credits are presented with title cards containing images of Brian and Stewie passing by various iconic places in Europe . These include France 's Eiffel Tower , Italy 's Leaning Tower of Pisa and a venetian gondola , the United Kingdom 's Stonehenge and Greece 's Parthenon . Other iconic items shown include the Union Flag and the Pope .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of the episode by television critics were mostly positive . Critic Ahsan Haque of IGN placed " Road to Europe " in the top ten of Stewie and Brian 's Greatest Adventures , ranking it fifth . Haque noted that the episode is not as entertaining as many of the other Stewie and Brian adventures , but the song included in the episode , " You and I Are So Awfully Different " made it worthy of an appearance on the list . " Road to Europe " is the lowest ranked Road to ... episode on the list with " Road to Germany " at number four , " Road to Rupert " at number three , " Road to the Multiverse " at number two and " Road to Rhode Island " ranked as the best . Television critic Ramsey Isler , also of IGN , commented positively about the episode in his review of the eighth season episode " Go Stewie , Go " , which contained an American version of " Jolly Farm Revue " . Isler went on to note , " for the most part the Jolly Farm concept is much less interesting than it was in the much more amusing and classic Family Guy episode , " Road to Europe " . "
= Three Horses Beer =
Three Horses Beer ( better known locally as THB ) is a pale lager that has been brewed by Star Breweries of Madagascar since 1958 . It is the highest selling beer in Madagascar and has been described as emblematic of the country . THB is sold nationwide and since 2005 has been exported to such markets as France , Reunion Island , Comoros and Mayotte . The Malagasy beer is produced at two breweries in Madagascar , the first centrally located in Antsirabe and the other in the northern city of Antsiranana . THB Pilsener , the most common variant of THB , has a light taste and is produced from mostly local barley , corn and hops . Star Breweries also produces THB Fresh ( a shandy with less than 1 % alcohol ) , THB Special ( 6 @.@ 2 % alcohol ) , and THB Lite ( 1 % alcohol ) . Recent investments in Star Brewery infrastructure have allowed a 20 % increase in production since 2011 .
After advertising alcohol in the media was banned under President Marc Ravalomanana , Star Breweries has increasingly promoted THB through unconventional means . These have included sponsoring the THB Champions League , Madagascar 's national football championship , and holding annual beer festivals . In addition , THB is a regular sponsor of local musicians through major annual festivals and tours . Star Breweries has also hired musicians to perform in music videos specifically created to promote the beer . In 2014 the THB label was significantly redesigned , and in 2015 a new slogan , " THB eo foana e ! " ( " THB always ! " ) was promoted alongside the beer 's longstanding trademark Soa Ny Fiarahantsika ( " The Pleasure of Being Together " ) . The beer is regularly promoted by Malagasy musical stars and other public figures .
= = History = =
In 1953 the French company Rochefortaise launched Société Tananarivienne d ’ Articles Réfrigérés ( STAR ) ( Antananarivo Company of Refrigerated Products ) and its associated factory in Antananarivo , Madagascar , for the exclusive production and distribution of Coca @-@ Cola in Madagascar . In 1957 , a brewer was recruited to develop a local beer . After developing 17 different recipes , he travelled throughout the island to test each one using primarily local ingredient ; the best of these was a pilsener chosen as the recipe to be produced at a Star brewery to be established in Antsirabe . The company first began producing Three Horses Beer ( THB ) in 1958 .
In 1968 Star Breweries opened a factory in Antsiranana for the production and distribution of THB as well as Coca @-@ Cola and other carbonated beverages throughout the island 's northern region . In 1980 , Star Breweries became partly state owned ; in 1989 Rochefortaise sold Star Breweries to Groupe Fraise , and the company obtained fully privatized status one year later . In 2005 , the production of THB in cans began at the Star brewery in Antsirabe . In 2011 Groupe Fraise sold Star Breweries to French brewer Castel .
= = Production = =
THB Pilsener , the oldest and most popular THB beer , is a 5 @.@ 4 % abv pale lager light in color with a medium body , thin head and balanced , mildly bitter flavor . THB Pilsener is sold in two sizes of returnable brown bottles : 33 centilitres ( 12 imp fl oz ; 11 US fl oz ) and 65 centilitres ( 23 imp fl oz ; 22 US fl oz ) . The pilsener is also sold in 33 centilitres ( 12 imp fl oz ; 11 US fl oz ) and 50 centilitres ( 18 imp fl oz ; 17 US fl oz ) aluminum cans , and has been available on tap at commercial establishments in Madagascar since 2006 . Star Breweries also produces THB Fresh , a shandy ( locally called panaché ) , with less than 1 % alcohol . It is only sold in 65 centilitres ( 23 imp fl oz ; 22 US fl oz ) glass bottles . The original Fresh shandy , which has a lemon taste , has also temporarily been offered in several other flavors , including mint , raspberry and apple . Other variants include THB Special , with 6 @.@ 2 % alcohol , and THB Lite , a low alcohol beer ( 1 % ) .
THB is produced in two breweries in Madagascar : the original brewery , located in Antsirabe , and a second in Antsiranana . Since its inception , THB has been sold in glass bottles tinted brown to protect the contents from the ultraviolet rays of the sun . The Antsirabe factory produces 100 million bottles and 100 @,@ 000 cans of THB per year . Antsirabe was selected for the original brewery because the water there is low in calcium and other minerals , lending itself well to beer production . Ingredients for the production of THB are sourced throughout the island . Barley grown in nearby Betafo and Fianarantsoa is blended with corn and hops from Toliara to produce the beer . Over 2 @,@ 500 tonnes of malt and 3 @,@ 500 tonnes of corn are grown annually in the surrounding Vakinankaratra region for the production of THB . The MALTO collective of 7 @,@ 000 farmers was formed around 1980 in Antsirabe to grow barley and transform it into malt for Star Breweries beer production . Certain special malts are used to produce variants on the original THB recipe , such as THB Special .
Fermentation of THB beer requires approximately eight hours for each mash of 130 hectoliters . The mash is a blend of malt ( sprouted barley ) and corn in an 80 / 20 ratio to which water and hops are added . The mash is heated in a vat for around two hours to support fermentation . The product is filtered and then heated to 100 degrees Celsius to concentrate and sterilize it . The beer is then decanted and cooled for an hour at 10 degrees Celsius . Finally , a type of mushroom is added as a leavening and fermenting agent ; the beer is allowed to ferment for a full week , and excess carbon dioxide produced by the process is collected for the production of soft drinks and other carbonated beverages at the factory . The beer is allowed to rest in vats for several more days before being filtered once more and then bottled and pasteurized at 62 degrees Celsius for three minutes . The automated bottling process yields crates of THB that are ready for shipment to regional wholesale distribution points .
Star Breweries invested over four million euros into improving its factories in the 2009 @-@ 11 period , resulting in a 20 % increase in production capacity . These improvements included refurbishing the production line equipment , including higher performing mixers and belts and a new bottle conveyor system . The Coca @-@ Cola Company issued international HACCP certification to Star Breweries in 2010 , confirming its adherence to international quality standards in beverage production . In 2011 , Coca @-@ Cola also awarded Star Breweries the Gold Medal among 27 competing African countries for the company 's standards of quality and environmental protection in the production of its beer and other beverages . Frequent brownouts resulting from the overtaxed national power grid produce power cuts to the THB breweries that have negatively affected the volume and cost effectiveness of production since the early 2000s .
= = Distribution = =
Star Breweries distributes THB through a network of regional wholesalers , who provide the product to local vendors . Orders are typically sent to the factories on a weekly basis and are filled within two weeks . In 2005 Star Breweries shifted manufacturing of THB in aluminum cans from Mauritius to Antsirabe in order to export the beer to international markets with high Malagasy expatriate populations , including France , Reunion Island , Comoros and Mayotte . All exported THB beer was packaged in aluminum cans manufactured at the Antsirabe brewery ; canned THB was also made available alongside the traditional glass bottles in markets in Madagascar that same year . In 2006 the Star Brewery , which employs 1 @,@ 500 staff , was producing 700 @,@ 000 hectoliters of beer annually out of the total market share of 800 @,@ 000 ; 550 @,@ 000 hectoliters were produced at the Antsirabe Star Brewery alone . The Antsiranana factory employs 140 staff and produced 180 @,@ 000 hectoliters of beer ( 24 million bottles ) in 2010 .
= = Marketing = =
To create the original label for THB , Star Breweries opted to copy an existing label for a Dutch beer brand called The Holland Beer , which featured the image of three horses . This was done in part because of the association between Antsirabe and its history of horse breeding ; the brand took the name Three Horses Beer based on this design . The label also features the brand 's slogan , Soa Ny Fiarahantsika ( " The Pleasure of Being Together " ) . The labels were originally printed in the Netherlands and shipped to Madagascar before eventually being produced on the local market ; THB coasters continue to be produced in Europe . The bottle color and shape and its label have undergone adjustments over time . In 2005 , the label was enlarged and the colors brightened . The band around the neck of the bottle was also broadened with the addition of the image of a medal , in honor of the beer 's first international award in 2004 . A new logo was adopted for the canned THB before being expanded in 2014 to the 33 cl bottled THB . The new logo features three stylized , outlined white horses , now facing right to represent a focus on the future . Red remains the predominant color .
Advertising alcohol on television and in the press was outlawed under president Marc Ravalomanana . In order to maximize brand recognition of THB , the company altered the label for its Fresh shandy , which was exempt from this ban due to its low alcohol content , to match the THB Pilsener design but using a green background instead of the pilsener 's red . The pilsener is advertised in a variety of non @-@ traditional ways , such as through celebrity promotion in music videos and music and sporting event sponsorship . THB is considered by the public as a promoter of Malagasy culture and identity , particularly through its sponsorship of its annual THB Tour traveling music festival and the THB fête de la bière ( beer festival ) . Three Horses Beer sponsors the THB Champions League , the national football championship . Many popular musical artists have advertised THB , including superstars Jerry Marcoss , AmbondronA , Samoëla , Tsiliva , Tence Mena and Jaojoby .
THB launched its first website in 2008 . In 2015 , in honor of the 55th anniversary of national independence , Star Breweries launched a new campaign to promote the beer . The company announced a new slogan , " THB eo foana e ! " ( THB always ! ) to be promoted alongside its historic slogan . A song by the same name , written and performed by BIG MJ and the group Tambour Gasy , and an accompanying music video , will promote the beer and the new slogan .
= = Reception = =
In the Malagasy market , THB Pilsener remains the most popular Malagasy brand of beer , and the most popular of any brand of beer sold in Madagascar . It is estimated that four liters per person are sold each year in Madagascar . THB has been described as an " emblem " of the country and a " national symbol " . One Malagasy journalist described THB as symbolic of Fihavanana Malagasy , a cultural value that emphasizes the importance of brotherhood and friendship .
THB won its first ever international award in 2004 at the Monde Sélection de Bruxelles international beverage competition in Brussels , Belgium . In 2010 , THB Pilsener was again recognized at this event , receiving the silver medal . THB Pilsener won a gold medal at the same competition in 2012 , and the silver medal in 2015 . THB Fresh also won a gold medal at the Monde Sélection de Bruxelles in 2012 .
= George Headley =
George Alphonso Headley OD ( 30 May 1909 – 30 November 1983 ) was a West Indian cricketer who played 22 Test matches , mostly before the Second World War . Considered one of the best batsmen to play for West Indies and one of the greatest cricketers of all time , Headley also represented Jamaica and played professional club cricket in England . West Indies had a weak cricket team through most of Headley 's playing career ; as their one world @-@ class player , he carried a heavy responsibility and the side depended on his batting . He batted at number three , scoring 2 @,@ 190 runs in Tests at an average of 60 @.@ 83 , and 9 @,@ 921 runs in all first @-@ class matches at an average of 69 @.@ 86 . He was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1934 .
Headley was born in Panama but raised in Jamaica where he quickly established a cricketing reputation as a batsman . He soon gained his place in the Jamaican cricket team , and narrowly missed selection for the West Indies tour of England in 1928 . He made his Test debut in 1930 , against England in Barbados , and was instantly successful . Further successes followed in series against Australia and in three more against England , as Headley dominated the West Indian batting of the period . Following his tour of England in 1933 , Headley signed as a professional at Haslingden in the Lancashire League , where he played until the outbreak of war in 1939 .
The war interrupted Headley 's career ; although he returned to Tests in 1948 he was hampered by injuries and did not achieve his previous levels of success . Even so , he was chosen as West Indies captain in 1948 against England , the first black player to be appointed to the position , although a combination of injuries and politics meant he only led his team for one Test match . He did not play Tests between 1949 and 1953 , but resumed his career in English league cricket , first in Lancashire and later in the Birmingham League . His playing career ended in 1954 on his return to Jamaica , after a public subscription paid his fare from England . After retiring as a player , Headley was employed as a cricket coach by the Jamaican government until 1962 . He lived until 1983 ; his son Ron and his grandson Dean each played Test match cricket , for West Indies and England respectively .
= = Early life = =
Headley was born in Colón , Panama on 30 May 1909 , the son of DeCourcy Headley and Irene Roberts . Neither of Headley 's parents was from Panama ; his father was from Barbados and his mother from Jamaica , but they had moved to Panama while DeCourcey worked on the construction of the Panama Canal . By the time Headley was five years old the Canal was complete , and the family moved to Cuba in search of further employment . In 1919 , concerned by the amount of Spanish being spoken by her son , Headley 's mother took him to Jamaica so he could be educated in an English @-@ speaking school .
Headley moved in with his mother 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Mrs Clarence Smith , in Rae Town , Kingston , and remained with her until her death in 1933 . His mother returned to Cuba , but regularly exchanged letters with her son . He attended Calabar Elementary School , where he played for the school cricket team as a wicket @-@ keeper , although a meagre sporting budget meant he had to do so without gloves . Later , he continued his education at Kingston High School . Taking part in all @-@ day cricket matches at the local Crabhole Park , Headley began to attract local attention , and aged 16 , he joined Raetown Cricket Club . In 1925 he scored his first century , batting at number three in the batting order in a match for Raetown against Clovelly .
On leaving school , Headley was appointed as a temporary clerk in a magistrate 's court ; this enabled him to play competitive cricket for the St Andrew 's Police side in 1926 , in a cup competition . Some impressive performances for the club earned him an invitation to practice with the Jamaica Colts team . However , his job made it impossible to attend , and he was not considered for the Jamaican side against Lord Tennyson 's English touring side in 1927 . That year , Headley began working for Keeling – Lindo Estates , in St Catherine . The firm were enthusiastic cricket patrons , allowing employees time off to play in matches , so that Headley was able to attend practice with the Jamaica team on a regular basis . He also moved to the St Catherine Cricket Club , captained by his immediate superior in Keeling – Lindo . To generate more income , Headley took a second job , working for the Jamaica Fruit and Shipping Company , but he wanted a secure profession . To this end , he planned to move to America to pursue a career in dentistry . However , he was now on the verge of the Jamaica team and a delay in the arrival of the application forms for his American work permit allowed him to make his first @-@ class debut for Jamaica against another touring team led by Lord Tennyson .
= = Early career = =
Headley made his Jamaica debut against Lord Tennyson 's XI at Sabina Park on 9 February 1928 , in a match won easily by the home team . Batting at number three , his first innings yielded 16 runs , but in the second innings , he scored 71 , reaching fifty runs in as many minutes . In the second game against Lord Tennyson 's XI which began in Kingston on 18 February , Headley scored his maiden first @-@ class century . Having scored 22 not out after the first day 's play , he reached 50 runs by playing very carefully but subsequently played more adventurous shots . He hit the bowling of Alan Hilder for four consecutive fours and twice hit Lord Tennyson for three fours in a row . At one point , thirteen of his scoring shots in a row went for four . He was finally out for 211 , the highest score at the time by a West Indian batsman against an English team . After the innings , Tennyson compared Headley to Victor Trumper and Charlie Macartney , batsmen considered among the best who ever played . Headley concluded the series against Tennyson 's team with innings of 40 and 71 , to give him an aggregate of 409 runs at an average of 81 @.@ 80 . He also took his maiden first class wicket .
Following his success , Headley abandoned his prospective career in dentistry . Although some critics expected his selection for the West Indies tour of England in 1928 , Headley was not chosen . While West Indies played their inaugural Test series during that tour , Headley continued to play for St Catherine 's . He had another opportunity against English opposition in 1929 , when a team led by Julien Cahn arrived to play two first @-@ class games . Jamaica 's distance from other Caribbean islands made it difficult for their cricketers to gain good @-@ quality playing experience , so the frequent visits by English sides were important to the development of Jamaican cricket . These tours also served to build Headley 's reputation . In the first match , Headley played a slow , defensive innings of 57 , but he did not reach fifty in his other three innings . Even so , he was chosen by the Jamaican selectors for a West Indies XI , which included players from other islands , to play Cahn 's team in their final tour match . The home side lost the toss and had to bat in very difficult conditions following rain . Headley found the fast bowlers difficult , but survived the period when the pitch was most difficult to bat on before he was out for 44 . In the second innings , he attacked from the start and used a wide range of shots to reach 143 before he was run out . In three matches against the tourists , Headley scored 326 runs , averaging 54 @.@ 33 .
A change in the location of his job meant that Headley moved to the Lucas Cricket Club in 1929 . He visited America and played some exhibition matches for the Jamaican Athletic Club in New York , scoring a century against a touring team from Bermuda ; his parents had moved to America by then , which enabled Headley to combine the cricket with his first visit to his parents in ten years .
= = Test match career = =
= = = Debut and first Test series = = =
In 1930 the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) undertook a tour of the West Indies which included four Test matches — the first Tests to be played in the West Indies . The MCC side was not at full international strength ; it included players who were either just beginning or just ending their international careers , and several star English bowlers were missing . The first Test was played in Barbados and Headley was selected , making his debut for the West Indies on 11 February 1930 — to the disapproval of some Barbadians who thought his place should have gone to a local player . Batting at number three , he played aggressively in the first innings but the crowd barracked him and he was bowled for 21 . However , in the second innings he scored 176 , becoming the first West Indian to score a century on his Test debut and only their second centurion overall . He shared century partnerships with both Clifford Roach and Frank de Caires , but these were insufficient to force victory , and the match was drawn . Headley remained in the Test side for the rest of the series , the only home player other than Roach to appear in all four Tests . In Trinidad , during the second Test , Headley found the unfamiliar conditions difficult — Trinidad was the only Test match ground in the Caribbean which was played on a pitch made from matting instead of grass . Headley scored eight and 39 as West Indies lost the match . The home side levelled the series with their first ever Test victory in the third match of the series , played in British Guiana . In this match Headley became the first West Indian , and only the fifth cricketer of any nation , to score two separate hundreds in a Test match . His first innings of 114 was played mainly in support of Roach , who scored a double century . In the second innings , Headley scored 112 as West Indies batted with a big first innings lead , attacking defensive English bowling .
While en route to the final Test in Jamaica , the West Indies team stopped in Panama and Costa Rica where official functions were held in Headley 's honour . In Jamaica , where there was widespread jubilation , Headley attended several receptions and celebrations . When the cricket resumed , Headley scored 64 , 72 and 55 in three innings against MCC for Jamaica . With the Test series level , it was agreed that the final match of the series would be played until one team won , regardless of how long it took — the other Tests had been limited to four days each . On the first three days , England scored 849 . In reply West Indies could only manage 286 , with Headley out for ten runs . England batted again , to set West Indies an eventual victory target of 836 . This time , Headley batted for 390 minutes , faced 385 balls and hit 28 fours while scoring 223 . He and Karl Nunes added 227 for the second wicket . Headley played the hook very effectively and hit many short deliveries for runs . When Headley was stumped , he had made what was at the time the fourth highest individual score in all Test cricket and the highest in a second innings . When West Indies still needed 428 runs , rain fell for two days and the match had to be abandoned after its ninth scheduled day . Headley ended the series with 703 runs at an average of 87 @.@ 87 .
= = = Australian tour = = =
Headley was selected for the West Indian tour of Australia in the 1930 – 31 season , under the captaincy of Jackie Grant . After a brief visit to New Zealand where they played a non @-@ first @-@ class match against Wellington , the tourists arrived in Sydney . Headley made a good start to the tour and attracted praise from the press in Australia and West Indies . The first match of the Australian leg was against New South Wales , where the West Indians were bowled out for 188 and Headley was stumped for 25 . However , his runs came in less than two overs and Learie Constantine later rated this as one of Headley 's best innings . In the second innings , Headley made 82 , the top score , but could not prevent the tourists losing . The next match was also lost , as Bert Ironmonger took thirteen wickets in the match for Victoria . In the first innings , Headley scored 131 out of 212 , regarded by one critic as one of the best centuries scored on the ground , and top @-@ scored again with 34 in the second innings . By this stage the Australian bowlers had realised that Headley excelled when hitting the ball through the off side , and they began to alter their tactics accordingly . In the final match before the Test series began , against South Australia , Headley had problems playing the Australian bowlers , particularly the leg spin of Clarrie Grimmett . The Australians bowled at Headley 's leg stump with fielders concentrated on the leg side , making it difficult for him to score runs . Headley scored 27 and 16 as his team were heavily defeated . These bowling tactics were used in subsequent matches , and Headley found difficulty in countering them .
At the beginning of the first Test , West Indies were bowled out 296 as Grimmett took seven wickets , including Headley first ball . In the second innings , with West Indies 80 behind , Grimmett again attacked Headley 's leg stump . After having his scoring restricted , Headley lost patience and after scoring 11 was stumped , trying to hit Grimmett . Bowled out for 249 , West Indies lost by ten wickets . After scoring only three in the following tour match against Tasmania , Headley contributed 14 and two in an innings defeat in the second Test . After two heavy Test defeats for the tourists , some critics believed that the series was too one @-@ sided and that some of the five Tests should be cancelled . Headley 's poor run of form continued in the West Indian victory over Queensland and , having put on weight , he was also struggling with his fitness . In an effort to overcome Australia 's leg stump attack Headley had altered his batting stance ; instead of standing at right angles to the bowler , he turned his body more front @-@ on , to enable him to improve his placement of the ball on the leg side . His quick footwork enabled him to alter his position if necessary to play the ball on the off side . He also eliminated from his strokes a risky cover drive he had developed on Caribbean pitches . During the third Test at Brisbane , Headley made his first substantial contribution to the series , after Australia scored 558 batting first . Facing Grimmett 's leg side tactics , Headley managed to score freely , and forced Grimmett to alter to an off stump attack . With ten fours in total , Headley became the first West Indian to score a century against Australia , and was left 102 not out when West Indies were bowled out for 193 . Forced to follow @-@ on , West Indies were dismissed for 148 of which Headley made 28 , the highest score of the innings . Ironmonger tricked him into playing the leg glance and he was caught by the wicket @-@ keeper who had moved across in anticipation of the shot .
Headley maintained his good form in matches against Victoria and South Australia after the third Test , scoring 77 and 113 in the first match and 75 and 39 in the second . Although neither match was won , the West Indians needed to take only one more wicket to win the first match when it ended drawn , and lost the second by a single wicket . However , the fourth Test was lost by an innings as Ironmonger again caused difficulties for the West Indies batsmen . Headley top @-@ scored with 33 out of the first innings total of 99 but made only 11 on his second attempt , being dismissed both times by Ironmonger . By now the tour was making a financial loss , forcing the tourists to take economy measures such as travelling by tram . In conversation with a member of the Australian Board of Control , Headley , Constantine and fellow tourist Tommy Scott suggested the authorities should produce faster pitches to enable the public to see more attacking cricket . It seems this advice may have been heeded ; the pitch was faster in a match against New South Wales , won by the West Indians , in which Headley scored 70 and two . In the fifth Test , West Indies won the toss and batted first , which proved an advantage in a match plagued by uncertain weather . Headley and fellow Jamaican Frank Martin scored centuries on the first day despite bowling from the Australians which the Jamaican newspaper Daily Gleaner described as good . Headley , playing Grimmett comfortably by now , batted for 146 minutes , and hit 13 fours . In the course of the innings he achieved the rare feat in Australia of reaching 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs on the tour . Grant , the West Indies captain , declared the innings closed after rain had fallen to make the pitch more difficult for batting . Australia were then bowled out for 224 , 126 runs behind West Indies . The tourists scored 124 more runs in their second innings , of which Headley made 30 , before more rain fell and Grant declared for the second time in the match . Subsequently , the bowlers dismissed Australia for 220 to give West Indies their first win over Australia , although the series ended 4 – 1 to the home side . Headley scored 336 runs in the Test matches at an average of 37 @.@ 33 , and 1 @,@ 066 runs at 44 @.@ 41 in all first @-@ class games .
On their return home , the West Indian players were well received by the public and officials ; Headley received praise and once again attended functions arranged in his honour . In Australia Donald Bradman , the star Australian batsman , praised Headley , particularly for the way in which he had overcome his problems against Grimmett . C. L. R. James , the writer and historian , later wrote that Headley 's success demonstrated his mastery of batting . Headley arrived in Australia as a primarily off @-@ side player which accounted for his difficulty against the Australian bowlers ' tactics . However , James notes : " What he did , under fire , so to speak , was to reorganise his batting to meet the new attack . " So successful was Headley that he was described by Grimmett as the best on @-@ side batsman against whom the bowler had played .
= = = Tour by Lord Tennyson 's team = = =
Headley resumed playing for Lucas on his return to Jamaica , attracting great crowds and high expectations . Once the cricket season ended , he embarked on another trip to America to play exhibition matches , visiting his parents on the journey . On his return for the 1931 – 32 season , he was appointed captain of Lucas and began preparing for the forthcoming tour of Jamaica by another team led by Lord Tennyson . In addition to his regular practice , Headley began a programme of running and swimming to improve his overall fitness . After performing well in the trial matches for Jamaica , he was selected in the first match against the tourists . Jamaica made an uncertain start , losing five wickets by the time their score reached 215 but Headley had scored 130 . He then shared a partnership of 487 for the sixth wicket with Clarence Passailaigue ; 236 not out after the first day 's play , Headley went on to score an unbeaten 344 , after batting for 407 minutes and hitting 39 fours . Jamaica totalled 702 , and won the match by an innings . During his innings , Headley passed the previous highest score by any West Indian batsman , 304 not out by Percy Tarilton in 1920 , and the highest score in the West Indies by any batsman , Andy Sandham 's 325 in 1930 . His partnership with Passailaigue took 248 minutes , and as of 2015 remains a world record for the highest sixth wicket partnership in a first @-@ class match . The success of two home batsmen led to celebrations in Jamaica and praise from the English bowlers for Headley 's batting . Headley continued his success in the second game , opening the batting and top @-@ scoring with 84 in the first innings . In the second innings , opening again , he made 155 not out to guide West Indies to their victory target of 363 . In the final match , Headley scored his third century of the series after returning to number three , accumulating 140 of Jamaica 's total of 561 . Jamaica won the match to win the series 3 – 0 ; Headley scored 723 runs at an average of 361 @.@ 50 . In the remainder of the season , Headley led Lucas to victory in the Senior Cup , scoring a century in the final .
= = = 1933 tour of England = = =
After playing in two trial matches , Headley was selected to tour England in 1933 under the continuing captaincy of Jackie Grant . The English press speculated on Headley 's ability to cope with English conditions , while expecting him to perform to a high standard . In the event , Wisden believed he justified the expectations and increased his reputation . In the first match of the tour he scored 52 out of a total of 129 against Northamptonshire , in difficult batting conditions on a wet pitch . He scored fifties in each of his next three matches before scoring a century against the MCC during his first appearance at Lord 's Cricket Ground . In the second innings of this match , a short ball from Bill Bowes struck Headley on the chest , and as a result of this injury he missed three games , but when he returned to the team he scored 129 against Glamorgan and 224 not out against Somerset . A quieter match followed against Middlesex , but Headley reached his second double century of the tour in the match against Derbyshire , which took him past 1 @,@ 000 runs for the season . Despite Headley 's contributions , the West Indians won only one of these matches and subsequently lost the first Test against England by an innings . Headley scored 13 in the West Indies first innings , and his 50 was the highest score when West Indies followed @-@ on . Critics were impressed by Headley 's second innings performance , in which he scored his runs out of 64 added while he was batting . Between the first and second Tests , in matches where conditions were difficult for batting and ideal for spin bowlers , Headley scored three fifties and achieved his side 's highest score in each of four innings .
West Indies drew the second Test , avoiding defeat for the first time in a Test in England . Headley scored 169 in 375 minutes with 18 fours , sharing a partnership of 200 in 205 minutes with Ivan Barrow — who became the first West Indian to score a Test century in England , minutes before Headley became the second . When the innings ended , Headley was still not out and the crowd gave him an excellent reception . Wisden described Headley 's batting as magnificent , displaying " a ready adaptability and perfection of timing . " The West Indies bowlers used Bodyline tactics in the England innings ; England 's Nobby Clark used the tactic in the West Indian second innings , in which Headley scored 24 runs . He was one of the few of his side 's batsmen able to resist the bowling tactics .
After scoring an unbeaten 257 in a minor match against Norfolk , Headley scored 89 in his team 's victory over Glamorgan and 182 against Warwickshire . However , he failed in the third and final Test , scoring nine and 12 as West Indies were defeated by an innings . The tourists thus lost the series 2 – 0 ; in the three Tests Headley 's aggregate was 277 runs at an average of 55 @.@ 40 , the best figures for the team . After the Test matches were over , Headley had an operation to remove a sebaceous cyst from his forehead and missed several games , before returning for an end @-@ of @-@ season festival match in which he scored 167 against an England XI . When the tour concluded , Headley had scored 2 @,@ 320 runs with seven hundreds , at an average of 66 @.@ 28 . This was over 1 @,@ 000 runs more than any other tourist and placed him third in the English first @-@ class batting averages for the season . Ivan Barrow believed Headley reached his batting peak during the tour . He recalled how many bowlers tried to hit his pads with the ball but Headley simply flicked the ball away . Headley 's performances earned him selection as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The accompanying article called his tour " almost a triumphant march " and described him as " the best batsman the West Indies have ever produced . " Wisden editor Sydney Southerton also described him as a giant in the team and wrote : " From what we had been told by English players who had been to the West Indies , we were fully prepared for Headley 's success , but even so , he astonished most of us . " Headley bowled more than he had previously : prior to the tour , he had taken three first class wickets , but took 21 wickets in England at an average of 34 @.@ 33 , bowling off spin .
During the tour , Headley received news that his aunt had been killed by floods in Kingston which had also destroyed his home . Headley was greatly affected by the news , particularly the nature of her death . Although not able to attend the funeral , he wanted to leave England on an earlier ship than the rest of the team , but this could not be arranged in time .
= = = Lancashire League = = =
Following his success in England in 1933 , Headley was offered a two @-@ year contract to play professional cricket for Haslingden in the Lancashire League for £ 500 per season , the highest of several offers . The money was far more than he was earning from working as a fruit picker in Jamaica , and after consulting the Jamaican Cricket Board , who advised him to accept , he signed with the club on 8 September 1933 . There was a special provision which allowed Headley to be released to play for West Indies . Living in Haslingden where there were few , if any , other black people , Headley faced some prejudice from residents . However , he was generally welcomed and accepted . His first season was in 1934 and his first match was against Nelson , for whom Headley 's West Indian Test colleague Learie Constantine played . Headley had a difficult match . As the professional , he was expected to open the bowling although , as a spinner , he would normally have bowled later in an innings . When he batted he was run out for a duck by Constantine after facing one delivery , and Haslingden lost the match . After this poor start , Headley scored 1 @,@ 063 runs in the season at an average of 50 @.@ 62 , with three centuries . He changed his bowling style to medium pace and took 59 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 59 . In 1935 he scored over 900 runs at an average of 61 @.@ 13 , and took 34 wickets ; his contract was renewed for another two years . In 1936 he again scored over 900 runs , and took 54 wickets . In 1937 he broke the record for most runs scored by any player in a Lancashire League season , accumulating 1 @,@ 360 at an average of 97 @.@ 15 , with five centuries ; he also took 41 wickets . Headley 's final two @-@ year contract with the club covered the seasons 1938 and 1940 , since he was expected to tour England with the West Indies team in 1939 . The war prevented him playing in 1940 , so his last season with Haslingden was 1938 . Although in that year his overall batting performance declined , to 677 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 61 , he took 76 wickets at 9 @.@ 70 and had success in the Worsley Cup competition , including one innings of 189 not out in a match played over five evenings .
= = = Career in mid @-@ 1930s = = =
Headley did not play any first @-@ class cricket in the West Indies in 1933 – 34 , but returned to Jamaica in readiness for the 1934 – 35 MCC tour . The visiting team , under the captaincy of Bob Wyatt , was stronger than English teams that had previously toured the Caribbean ; despite some shortcomings , Wisden and other critics considered it strong enough for the task in hand .
The first Test in Barbados was badly affected by rain which made the pitch almost impossible to bat on . West Indies batted first and were bowled out for 102 ; Headley 's 44 was the highest score of the match . In reply , England had scored 81 for seven when Wyatt declared in an attempt to make West Indies bat while the pitch was difficult . In the second innings , Headley was out for a duck and Jackie Grant declared when West Indies had scored 51 for six , so that England required 73 to win ; they did so after losing six wickets . In the second Test , Headley scored 25 in his first innings ; in the second , he adopted a cautious approach as his team led by 44 , hitting 93 in 225 minutes . West Indies subsequently bowled out England to win the match and level the series . The rain @-@ affected third Test was drawn , with Headley 's 53 his side 's top score .
The MCC went to Jamaica for the final leg of their tour . Headley played two matches for Jamaica against the tourists ; he failed in the first game but scored 127 in the second . The teams went into the fourth and final Test with the series still level at one win apiece . West Indies batted first , facing accurate bowling . The local press criticised the West Indies batsmen for slow batting on the first day , but Headley scored 132 . The Daily Gleaner noted that Headley maintained the controlled approach he had established in the season . On the second day , he took his score to 270 not out , and the Gleaner described him as " the genius we all know , scoring with all his old freedom and audacity . " In total , he batted for 495 minutes and hit 30 fours , recording the highest score by a West Indian batsman . It remained a West Indian record until Garfield Sobers scored 365 not out in 1958 , and was the team 's highest against England until Lawrence Rowe scored 302 in 1974 . West Indies scored 535 for seven and bowled out England twice to record their first victory in a Test series . Headley contributed 485 runs at an average of 97 @.@ 00 .
Headley returned to England to play for Haslingden in the 1935 English season , and played a single first @-@ class game , scoring a century for Sir L Parkinson 's XI against Leicestershire . In the 1935 – 36 season , the Yorkshire team toured Jamaica , playing three first @-@ class matches , winning one and drawing the others . The touring county considered Headley the key batsman , and targeted him by bowling defensively in an attempt to frustrate him . Headley lost his wicket through impatience in the first match , although he scored a pair of fifties , but scored a century in the third game . In total , he scored 266 runs at an average of 53 @.@ 20 , but Yorkshire won the series after winning the first game , Jamaica 's first defeat at home in a first @-@ class game for ten years . The matches were played in a very competitive atmosphere , but scoring was slow and Yorkshire played attritional cricket . During the series , Headley demanded expenses , which were not normally granted to the players . The Jamaican Board were reluctant to pay but Headley pointed out that , as a professional cricketer , he was entitled to the same treatment as the Yorkshire players , whose expenses were provided . The Board eventually relented before the series ended .
= = = Second tour of England = = =
In 1936 Headley returned to England , and played no more first @-@ class cricket until the two trial matches for the 1939 tour of England . These matches were played in Trinidad where it was believed the matting pitches would most closely replicate English conditions ; Jamaica played Trinidad and a combination team . When Jamaica 's captain , Crab Nethersole , withdrew from the tour due to political commitments , Headley led Jamaica in both matches and scored 160 and 103 . Subsequently , he was chosen for his second tour of England , under the captaincy of Rolph Grant . Headley opened his tour with fifties in his first two matches and by the time the Test series started , although the tourists had lost three matches , he had scored three centuries — 103 against Cambridge University , 116 not out in a victory over Essex and 227 as the tourists defeated Middlesex .
In the first Test , West Indies suffered their only defeat of the series . However , Norman Preston , the editor of Wisden , wrote : " the match provided a personal triumph for Headley " , as he became only the second cricketer after Herbert Sutcliffe to make two hundreds in the same Test match on two separate occasions , having previously done so against England in 1930 . He became the first player to score two hundreds in a Lord 's Test , a feat not repeated until 1990 . In the first innings , Headley scored 106 with 13 fours . After sharing a big partnership with Jeff Stollmeyer , he received little help from the other batsmen . He played cautiously during his 250 @-@ minute innings , as he was aware that his team were relying on his success . By the time West Indies batted again , England had established a lead of 127 . Headley again batted defensively to score 107 , taking two hours to reach 50 , as West Indies needed to bat for a long time to secure a draw . However , he scored runs from any loose bowling and batted in all for 230 minutes , hitting eight fours . Preston , writing in Wisden , believed the West Indians relied too much on Headley 's batting . He also noted that Headley had to play cautiously for his team and although he hit powerful shots , " he was not the same dashing batsmen that England knew in 1933 . " Headley had scored three centuries in consecutive Test innings , but he could not prevent England winning this first Test by eight wickets . He continued to score heavily in the tour matches , making an unbeaten 234 in an innings win over Nottinghamshire , followed by 61 against Yorkshire on a sticky wicket , one of the best innings Neville Cardus had seen .
The second Test was drawn , after being badly affected by rain . Headley , although troubled by the English bowling on a difficult pitch , top @-@ scored with 51 in West Indies ' first innings but the other batsmen contributed little . Headley scored just five in West Indies ' brief second innings , bringing to an end a sequence of six fifties in successive Test innings . After the Test , Headley scored 93 against Surrey but failed to reach fifty in his next three games , which included three single figure scores . West Indies needed to win the final Test to level the series and the team established a first @-@ innings lead of 146 . Headley played cautiously for 140 minutes , attempting to tire out the bowlers , but was run out for 65 in a misunderstanding with Vic Stollmeyer . The remaining batsmen played well , attacking the English bowling . Preston believed this match demonstrated West Indies ' ability to compete at the highest level . However , England were able to bat long enough to secure a draw . In the Test series , Headley scored 334 runs at an average of 66 @.@ 80 , but did not play again on the tour after the final Test , as the team were advised to abandon the last seven matches because of the deteriorating political situation in Europe . They arrived in Canada on the day that Britain declared war on Germany . In all first @-@ class matches during the tour , Headley scored 1 @,@ 745 runs at 72 @.@ 70 , placing him at the top of the season 's first @-@ class averages .
Wisden judged Headley to be the best batsman of the 1939 season , while other critics rated him among the best batsmen in the world , with favourable comparisons to Bradman . C. B. Fry , a former England captain turned journalist , wrote that Headley 's " middle name should be Atlas " , suggesting that he carried the team on his shoulders .
= = Later career = =
= = = After the war = = =
Following the outbreak of war , the Lancashire League clubs cancelled professionals ' contracts , meaning Headley did not complete his final year with Haslingden . Having returned to Jamaica , he worked in the Labour Department for the government and played cricket for Lucas , enjoying batting success and captaining his team to victory in the Senior Cup on three occasions . Headley continued to play for the team until 1947 , when he left to play for the Kensington Club . Unlike other Caribbean teams , Jamaica did not take part in inter @-@ island competition , and although Headley played some exhibition matches in America in 1945 , it was not until June 1946 that he took part in his next first @-@ class match . Trinidad played three matches in Jamaica and Headley scored 52 in the second game but only reached his best form when he scored 99 in the third . However , he was successful as a bowler , taking five for 33 in the first game , the only five wicket return of his career . This included a spell of three wickets without conceding a run in 14 deliveries , prompting a pitch invasion by the crowd . Headley also captained Jamaica in the final two matches of the series against Trinidad after the official captain was injured during the home team 's win in the first match — the other two were drawn .
Prior to a visit by Barbados in March 1947 , Headley was officially appointed as Jamaican captain . Previous captains of island teams had been almost exclusively white . Around this time , Headley requested the Jamaican board provide support for low income players with their kit and transport costs . In the first game against Barbados , Headley scored 203 not out and 57 not out , took four for 40 in the tourists ' first innings and another wicket in the second . Although the game was drawn , he had recorded Jamaica 's highest score in a match between the Caribbean islands . The second match was also drawn ; Headley made 79 before he had to retire when he fell and injured his knee . Another American tour followed , in which Headley was accompanied by promising young players , before he led the Jamaican team to British Guiana in October 1947 . He played only two innings in the two matches , scoring 36 and 4 not out . A thumb injury in the first match meant he could not bat , although he bowled 44 overs in the game . Headley was verbally abused by a section of the crowd , who disapproved of a black captain ; he was also dissatisfied with the impartiality of the umpires . Crab Nethersole , the Jamaican manager for the tour , reported that injuries to key players and the poor attitude of the crowd made the tour difficult , although Headley 's captaincy was universally praised .
= = = Resumption of Test career = = =
For reasons related to class and race , it had been unthinkable before the war for the West Indies to appoint a black Test captain , but the postwar world saw social and political changes in the Caribbean . Although opinion was still divided over the merits of a black captain , Headley was appointed as one of the West Indian captains for the series against the England team which toured the Caribbean in 1948 . Crab Nethersole , the former Jamaican captain and member of the Board of Control for cricket , argued Headley should be outright captain but a compromise was reached . Headley was scheduled to captain the first and fourth Test matches , played in Barbados and Jamaica , and the white players Gerry Gomez and John Goddard were given the captaincy of the second and third matches . In the event , Headley only played in the first Test . In the first innings , he scored 29 but strained his back while fielding . Batting towards the end of West Indies ' second innings , he scored seven not out . Rain helped England to draw the match . Headley 's back caused him to miss the second and third Tests , but he was fit enough to play for Jamaica when the tourists arrived there to play two games against the island before the fourth and final Test . After the first island game , in which he scored 65 , Headley 's request to miss the second match to rest his back was refused by the Jamaican Board . He scored 36 not out , but aggravated his back pains and he withdrew from the final Test . West Indies won this game under the captaincy of Goddard , who had earlier led West Indies to victory in the third Test . He was subsequently chosen to captain West Indies in India in 1948 – 49 , despite Headley 's availability and apparently superior claims to the position .
Selected for the Indian tour after a specific request by the Indian cricket authorities , Headley did not have much success in the early matches and in the drawn first Test he scored only two in a total of 631 . West Indies then moved to Pakistan ; in a non first @-@ class game Headley took six wickets as a bowler , but then in a match against a representative Pakistan XI he fell and injured his side while attempting to take a catch . He batted in discomfort , scoring 57 not out . This injury meant that he played no further part in the five @-@ match Test series against India . Although he continued to travel with the team , he was unable to play in any further matches until the final game of the tour , when he scored 100 against Ceylon Schools as the tourists travelled home via Ceylon .
Headley played for the Kensington Club until 1950 , when he resumed league cricket in England ; he returned for a final season with Kensington in 1955 before retiring from Senior Cup cricket . Meanwhile , he took a new job as an insurance agent . This affected his availability for cricket as he was no longer able to take leave when playing for a team ; if he did not work , he received no wages . Consequently , he did not accept the captaincy of Jamaica during the Test trials for the 1950 tour of England and did not travel with the team . Press reaction was unfavourable towards Headley but the West Indies Board still wanted to select him for the tour . However , Headley accepted a contract with Bacup in the Lancashire League , to replace Everton Weekes who was in the touring party .
For Bacup Headley scored 909 runs and took 20 wickets in 1950 , before signing to play for Dudley in the Birmingham League in 1951 . He and his family moved to Birmingham , and in each the next four seasons Headley averaged over 65 with the bat and under 17 with the ball . In his second season , the club topped the league . In total , he scored 2 @,@ 878 runs for Dudley and , resuming off spin bowling , took 102 wickets . While in England during this time , he played several first @-@ class matches for a Commonwealth XI against an England XI ; he scored 20 in 1951 and accumulated 98 and 61 in 1952 .
= = = End of Test career = = =
Headley 's success for Dudley was watched keenly in Jamaica and commentators began to discuss his availability for the 1954 series against England . A public subscription to finance his travel to Jamaica , opened by the Daily Gleaner , raised over £ 1 @,@ 000 , and despite his reservations , Headley returned to Jamaica . Playing in a fund @-@ raising match , he sustained a hand injury and playing for the Combined Parishes in a minor match against the MCC , a short ball from Fred Trueman struck Headley 's arm . The latter injury kept him out of the first @-@ class match between Jamaica and the MCC , but he played in the second where , although hampered by his injury , he scored 53 not out . The Test selectors had seen enough to include Headley in the team for the first Test . Reaction among critics was mixed , and Headley , nearing his 45th birthday , remains the oldest man as of 2015 to play a Test match for West Indies . Headley batted at number six , and it appeared that England , under the captaincy of Len Hutton , let Headley score an easy run to begin his innings , which Hutton later confirmed to be the case . However , Headley later argued that the run was given to ensure that he was batting at the beginning of the next over , so that England could try to get him out before he settled down .
Headley scored 16 and 1 in the match , his final Test appearance . He used his experience to influence the captain , Jeff Stollmeyer , advising him not to enforce the follow on and to use leg theory bowling to slow down the tourists ' scoring . These tactics helped West Indies to a 140 @-@ run win in a match they might have lost ; Stollmeyer followed a similar approach in the following match . In 22 Tests , Headley scored 2 @,@ 190 runs at an average of 60 @.@ 83 .
Headley finished his career at Dudley at the end of 1954 ; his son Ron played for the club from 1957 , having already played for its second team in 1952 as a 13 @-@ year @-@ old . After his final Test match appearance , Headley 's only other first @-@ class match was in the Commonwealth XI fixture in 1954 , when he scored 64 in his final first @-@ class innings . In a career total of 103 first @-@ class games he aggregated 9 @,@ 921 runs at 69 @.@ 86 , with 33 centuries , and took 51 wickets at 36 @.@ 11 .
= = Style , technique and legacy = =
Headley is regarded by critics as one of the best batsmen from the Caribbean and one of the greatest batsmen of all time . In his history of West Indies cricket , Michael Manley described Headley as " the yardstick against whom all other West Indian batsmen are measured " . In 1988 , The Cricketer magazine placed him in an all @-@ time West Indian team , as did a panel of judges for another such team in July 2010 , while in 2004 , another panel of experts named him among the top five West Indian players . He was given the nicknames " the Black Bradman " and " Atlas " by commentators , and was the first world @-@ class batsman from the West Indies who was black . According to historian Gideon Haigh , his role was made harder by the weakness of his colleagues , as few outstanding players find it easy to play in teams which lose frequently . Although he was a naturally attacking player , Headley felt the need to play cautiously owing to the way his team depended on him . C. L. R. James believed that no other great batsman had to carry such a burden for so long . In the years before the war , Headley scored 25 @.@ 61 % of the runs scored in Tests by West Indies , more than twice as many as the next best batsman , and two @-@ thirds of the team 's centuries , scoring ten of the team 's first fourteen centuries in Test cricket . Headley usually batted at number three and as the opening batsmen were often dismissed quickly , he frequently began his innings early .
As of 2014 , Headley 's average in Test matches of 60 @.@ 83 is third highest among those with 2 @,@ 000 runs , behind Bradman and Graeme Pollock , and but for the Tests he played after the war , he would have been above Pollock . In all first @-@ class matches , he has the third highest average with 69 @.@ 86 , behind Bradman and Vijay Merchant among those who played 50 innings . He averaged a century every fourth innings in which he batted , second again to Bradman , and did not suffer a poor series in his career before the war .
Manley describes Headley as just under medium height with sloping shoulders . His movements were precise and economical on the cricket field ; his cap was usually at a slight angle and his sleeves were buttoned down to the wrist . Wisden noted in 1933 that his timing and placement of the ball was perfect . Exceptionally quick on his feet , he watched the ball onto the bat more than any other batsman . According to Wisden , all his shots were equally good but most notable was his on drive played from the back foot . He hit the ball hard and was very difficult to get out . He faced criticism for playing off the back foot so often , but R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow believed his square cut , late cut , and hook were exceptionally good . Headley was particularly effective on bad batting wickets . C. L. R. James calculated that Headley averaged 39 @.@ 85 and passed fifty on seven occasions in thirteen innings on difficult wickets . According to James 's reckoning , Bradman in similar conditions passed fifty once , and averaged 16 @.@ 66 in fifteen innings . Headley himself preferred batting when the odds favoured the bowlers as he had to go for his shots and play his natural attacking game . He stated : " On a bad wicket , it was you and the bowler ... no nonsense . "
Beyond cricket , Headley 's success was regarded as important . Of Headley 's meeting with the king of England in 1939 , the West Indian writer Frank Birbalsingh said : " That one of us — a black man — could shake the hand of a king introduced possibilities formerly undreamt of in our colonial backwater of racial inferiority , psychological subordination and
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the Beaver Wars . The Iroquois tribes had developed and five nations formed a political league in the 1500s , adding their sixth nation in the early 18th century . The Erie area became controlled by the Seneca , " keeper of the western door " of the Iroquois , who were largely based in present @-@ day New York .
Europeans first arrived as settlers in the region when the French constructed Fort Presque Isle near present @-@ day Erie in 1753 , as part of their effort to defend New France against the encroaching British colonists . The name of the fort refers to the peninsula that juts into Lake Erie , now protected as Presque Isle State Park . The French term " presque @-@ isle " means peninsula ( literally , " almost an island " ) . When the fort was abandoned by the French in 1760 during the French and Indian War ( Seven Years ' War ) , it was the last post they held west of Niagara . The British established a garrison at the fort at Presque Isle that same year , three years before the end of the French and Indian War .
Present @-@ day Erie is situated in what was the disputed Erie Triangle , a triangle of land that was claimed after the American Revolutionary War by the states of New York , Pennsylvania , Connecticut ( as part of its Western Reserve ) , and Massachusetts . It officially became part of Pennsylvania on March 3 , 1792 , after Connecticut , Massachusetts and New York relinquished their claims to the federal government , which in turn sold the land to Pennsylvania for 75 cents per acre or a total of $ 151 @,@ 640 @.@ 25 in Continental currency . The Iroquois released the land to Pennsylvania in January 1789 for payments of $ 2 @,@ 000 from Pennsylvania and $ 1 @,@ 200 from the federal government . The Seneca Nation separately settled land claims against Pennsylvania in February 1791 for the sum of $ 800 .
The General Assembly of Pennsylvania commissioned the surveying of land near Presque Isle through an act passed on April 18 , 1795 . Andrew Ellicott , who completed Pierre Charles L 'Enfant 's survey of Washington , D.C. and helped resolve the boundary between Pennsylvania and New York , arrived to begin the survey and lay out the plan for the city in June 1795 . Initial settlement of the area began that year . Lt. Colonel Seth Reed and his family moved to the Erie area from Geneva , New York ; they were Yankees from Uxbridge , Massachusetts . They became the first European @-@ American settlers of Erie , settling at what became known as " Presque Isle " .
President James Madison initiated the construction of a naval fleet during the War of 1812 in order to gain control of the Great Lakes from the British . Daniel Dobbins of Erie and Noah Brown of Boston were notable shipbuilders who led construction of four schooner − rigged gunboats and two brigs . Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry arrived from Rhode Island and led the squadron to success in the historic Battle of Lake Erie .
Erie was an important shipbuilding , fishing , and railroad hub during the mid @-@ 19th century . The city was the site where three sets of track gauges met . While the delays required cargo troubles for commerce and travel , they provided much needed local jobs in Erie . When a national standardized gauge was proposed , those jobs , and the importance of the rail hub itself , were put in jeopardy . In an event known as the Erie Gauge War , the citizens of Erie , led by the mayor , set fire to bridges , ripped up track and rioted to try to stop the standardization .
On August 3 , 1915 , the Mill Creek ( Lake Erie ) flooded downtown Erie . A culvert , or a tunnel , was blocked by debris , and collapsed . A four @-@ block reservoir , caused by torrential downpours , had formed behind it . The resulting deluge destroyed 225 houses and killed 36 people . After the flood , Mayor Miles Brown Kitts had the Mill Creek directed into another larger culvert , constructed for more than 2 miles under the city , before emptying into Presque Isle Bay on the city 's lower east side .
Downtown Erie continued to grow for most of the 20th century , based on its manufacturing base . It attracted numerous new waves of European immigrants for industrial jobs . Erie 's economy began to suffer in the later part of the 20th century as industrial restructuring took place and jobs moved out of the area ; it was considered part of the Rust Belt . The importance of American manufacturing , US steel and coal production , and commercial fishing began to gradually decline. before taking a major population downturn in the 1970s .
With the advent of the automobile age after World War II and government subsidies for highway construction , thousands of residents left Erie for suburbs such as Millcreek Township , which now has over 50 @,@ 000 people . This caused a decline in retail businesses , some of which followed to the suburbs .
Erie won the All @-@ America City Award in 1972 , and was a finalist in 1961 , 1994 , 1995 and 2009 .
= = Geography = =
Erie is situated in northwestern Pennsylvania at 42 ° 6 ′ 52 ″ N 80 ° 4 ′ 34 ″ W ( 42 @.@ 114507 , -80.076213 ) , on the southern shore of Lake Erie across from the Canadian province of Ontario . It is 100 miles ( 160 km ) northeast of Cleveland , Ohio , 90 miles ( 140 km ) southwest of Buffalo , New York , and 128 miles ( 206 km ) north of Pittsburgh . Erie 's bedrock is Devonian shale and siltstone , overlain by glacial tills and stratified drift . Stream drainage in the city flows northward into Lake Erie , then through Lake Ontario into the St. Lawrence River , and out to the Atlantic Ocean . South of Erie is a drainage divide , beyond which most of the streams in western Pennsylvania flow south into the Allegheny or Ohio rivers .
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 19 @.@ 3 square miles ( 49 @.@ 9 km2 ) , with 19 @.@ 1 square miles ( 49 @.@ 4 km2 ) being land and the remaining 0 @.@ 2 square miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) , or 1 @.@ 03 % , being water . Presque Isle State Park ( known to the locals as " The Peninsula " ) , juts into Lake Erie just north of the city limits and has 7 miles ( 11 km ) of public beaches , wetlands , and fishing sites .
Erie is laid out in a grid surrounding Perry Square in the downtown area . The downtown buildings are separated from the waterfront by the Bayfront Parkway . The tallest structure in Erie is St. Peter Cathedral at 265 feet ( 81 m ) , and the tallest building is Renaissance Centre at 198 feet ( 60 m ) . Erie has generally small ethnic neighborhoods including a Little Italy . South of 38th Street , the grid gives way to curvilinear roads of post @-@ 1970 suburban development . Millcreek Township and upper Peach Street in Summit Township include the Erie metropolitan area 's newer developments .
Most of the cityscape includes renovated and refurbished factory buildings , mid − rise housing , single family homes , and office buildings . Erie 's waterfront includes the Burger King Amphitheater and surrounding parkland , which hosts numerous festivals . The Bayfront Convention Center is on Sassafras Pier next to Dobbins Landing . The Bicentennial Tower is centrally located in the skyline when viewed from Presque Isle State Park , with the high @-@ rise and mid @-@ rise buildings flanking the higher ground behind and to the east and west sides . On the east end of the waterfront , the Erie Maritime Museum and the city 's main library , and third largest in Pennsylvania , host the USS Niagara . Docks and marinas fill the freshwater shoreline in between .
= = = Climate = = =
The climate of Erie is typical of the Great Lakes . Erie is located in the snow belt that stretches from Cleveland to Syracuse and Watertown ; accordingly , its winters are typically cold , with heavy lake effect snow , but also with occasional stretches of mild weather that cause accumulated snow to melt . Erie lies on the typical humid continental zone ( Köppen Dfa ) . The city experiences a full range of weather events , including snow , ice , rain , thunderstorms and fog . The city 's lakeside location helps to temper summer heat , with an average of only 3 @.@ 8 days of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) + highs annually , and the highest temperature ever recorded was 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) on June 25 , 1988 ; there is an average of 2 @.@ 5 days with lows of 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) or colder annually , and the lowest temperature ever recorded was − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) on January 19 , 1994 and February 16 , 2015 .
Erie is 6th on The Daily Beast list of snowiest places in the United States , averaging 78 @.@ 7 inches ( 200 cm ) ; however , the 1981 – 2010 normal seasonal snowfall is 100 @.@ 8 in ( 256 cm ) . The adverse winter conditions caused USAir Flight 499 to overrun the runway at Erie International Airport in 1986 , as well as causing whiteouts that were responsible for a 50 car pile @-@ up on Interstate 90 .
Erie was determined to be the snowiest city in the US in the 2013 @-@ 2014 snow season . Erie received 138 @.@ 4 inches of snow that season . According to the National Weather service , Erie was just ahead of Syracuse , NY by 6 inches of snow .
= = Demographics and religion = =
As of the 2010 United States Census , there were 101 @,@ 786 people , 40 @,@ 913 households , and 22 @,@ 915 families residing in the city . There were 44 @,@ 790 housing units at an average vacancy rate of 8 percent . Erie has long been declining in population due to the departure of factories and dependent businesses . The city has lost approximately 40 @,@ 000 people since the early 1960s , allowing Allentown to claim the position as Pennsylvania 's third @-@ largest city behind Philadelphia and Pittsburgh .
Erie 's population was spread evenly among all age groups , with the median being 34 . About 13 % of families and 19 % of the population were below the poverty line . Most of the people who reside in Erie are of European descent .
Since the mid @-@ 1990s , the International Institute of Erie ( IIE ) , founded in 1919 , has helped with the resettlement of refugees from Bosnia , Eritrea , Ghana , Iraq , Kosovo , Liberia , Nepal , Somalia , Sudan , the former Soviet Union , and Vietnam . The inclusion of refugees in Erie 's community augments religious diversity and prompts community events such as cultural festivals .
In the early 20th century , Erie had a significant Russian immigrant community , many of whom worked in the shipbuilding plants along the bayfront . Unusual for a Great Lakes city , a substantial number of these Russian immigrants were priestless ( Bespopovtsy ) Old Believers . In 1983 , most of this community united with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia and became an Old Ritualist priest within the canonical Orthodox Church . Even today , the gold @-@ domed Church of the Nativity , on the bayfront near the former heart of the Russian community , is an Old Ritualist church and home parish to the famed iconographer Fr . Theodore Jurewicz .
Erie has a Jewish community that is over 150 years old . Temple Anshe Hesed , a member of the Union for Reform Judaism , is served by its spiritual leader , Rabbi John L. Bush . Congregation Brith Sholom ( The Jewish Center ) is affiliated with the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism , and Rabbi Leonard Lifshen has been its spiritual leader since 1989 .
Erie is home to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Erie , covering 13 counties — at 9 @,@ 936 square miles ( 25 @,@ 734 km2 ) , it is the largest in the state . Its diocesan seat is the Saint Peter Cathedral in Erie , which has a 265 feet ( 81 m ) central tower flanked by two 150 feet ( 46 m ) towers . Lawrence Thomas Persico is Bishop of Erie , since October 1 , 2012 ; Donald Trautman is Bishop Emeritus of the diocese .
According to the Association of Religion Date Archives , Erie County had a total population of 280 @,@ 843 people in 2000 , of which 103 @,@ 333 claimed affiliation with the Catholic Church , 40 @,@ 301 with mainline Protestant houses of worship , and 12 @,@ 980 with evangelical Protestant churches .
= = Economy = =
Erie is the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 's primary access point to Lake Erie , the Great Lakes , and the Saint Lawrence Seaway . The city emerged as a maritime center after the American Revolution , then as a railroad hub during the great American westward expansion . Erie became an important city for iron and steel manufacturing during the Industrial Revolution and thrived well into the 20th century with big industry .
While only General Electric diesel @-@ electric locomotive building remains from the ranks of the large manufacturers in the early 21st century , a more diverse mix of mid @-@ sized industries has emerged . This broader economic base includes not only smaller and more agile steel and plastic plants , but also a vigorous service sector : health , insurance and tourism . As of December 2010 , Erie 's unemployment rate was 8 @.@ 9 percent , as compared to rates for Pennsylvania and the United States at 8 @.@ 5 and 9 @.@ 4 percent , respectively .
Erie is the corporate headquarters of the Erie Insurance Group , and Marquette Savings Bank . Lord Corporation was founded and has major operations in Erie . Along with GE and Erie Insurance , major employers in the county , and consequently , the city include the County , State and Federal governments , as well as the Erie City School District .
Over 10 percent of the USA 's plastics are manufactured or finished in Erie @-@ based plastics plants . Erie is an emerging center for biofuels and environmental research , producing over 45 million U.S. gallons of biofuel a year . Tourism plays an increasingly important role in the local economy with over 4 million people visiting Presque Isle State Park and other attractions . Shoppers from Ohio , New York , and the Canadian province of Ontario frequent the Millcreek Mall and Peach Street stores and attractions as a result of Pennsylvania 's tax exemption on clothing .
Both UPMC Hamot and Saint Vincent Health System are also major employers in Erie . Although both of these hospitals had been stand @-@ alone Erie entities , Hamot merged with the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center in 2011 , and St. Vincent joined became affiliated with the Cleveland Clinic in 2012 . , followed by Highmark 's Allegheny Health Network in 2013 . The United States Department of Veterans Affairs operates the Erie Veterans Affairs Medical Center on East 38th Street . The Shriners International operates Shriners Hospital for Children in Erie since 1927 .
= = Utilities = =
The Erie Water Works , which was incorporated in 1865 as the Erie Water and Gas Company , includes a reservoir , two water treatment plants , and an elaborate water works and pipe network that provides water for most of the city and suburbs . Penelec , a subsidiary of FirstEnergy , supplies electricity to the region , as well as the Northwestern Pennsylvania Rural Electric Cooperative . Time Warner Cable became the region 's cable television provider , after taking over Adelphia , and also provides digital phone and high @-@ speed internet to the region . Local telephone and high speed internet service is also provided by Verizon .
Sewage service in Erie is provided by the Erie Sewer Authority , and many outlying townships have partnerships with the Sewer Authority for service . The Authority cleans about 30 − 40 million US gallons ( 150 @,@ 000 m3 ) of wastewater every day .
The time and temperature number in Erie is 452 @-@ 6311 and was originally discontinued by Verizon in October 2008 before being restarted by a private individual two years later . The city of Erie and northwest Pennsylvania is located in area code 814 . On December 16 , 2010 , the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission ( PUC ) voted to split the area code , which was to take effect February 1 , 2012 . The North American Numbering Plan decided that northwest Pennsylvania would receive the new code of 582 . A local grassroots coalition began organizing an opposition to the plan , and generated numerous petitions for reconsideration . The PUC immediately voted to review their decision and ordered additional public input hearings and technical conferences as a response to the strong public outcry . In January 2011 , the PUC announced that it was placing the entire area code split plan on hold as NEUSTAR pushed the projected exhaustion date back two years to 2015 .
= = Arts and culture = =
Erie is home to several professional and amateur performing @-@ arts groups . The most significant is the Erie Philharmonic , in continuous existence since 1913 ( with the exception of an interregnum during World War II ) . This group of professional musicians also has a full chorus and a Junior Philharmonic division that tours the area . The Lake Erie Ballet is a professional company that performs well @-@ known programs throughout the year . The Erie Civic Music Association attracts , sponsors , and books performances by professional musicians , singers , entertainers , and ensembles from around the world .
The Erie Art Museum is the city 's main art gallery , located in the Old Customshouse on State Street . Its collection has an emphasis on folk art and modern art and it hosts a popular blues and jazz concert series . The Erie Art Museum also works on public art projects in an effort to revitalize and improve the city . In 2000 , the Erie Art Museum created a project entitled GoFish , similar to CowParade . 95 fiberglass fish were decorated by Erie artists and placed throughout the city . Patrons paid $ 3 @,@ 000 for a fish and the proceeds went to Gannon University 's Scholarship Fund and the Erie Public Art Endowment Fund . The Erie Art Museum created a similar public art project in 2004 that involved frogs rather than fish . In 2012 , the Erie Art Museum began a project to create forty artistic and functional bike racks , designed and created by local artists . The Museum 's intentions are to add color and interest to downtown Erie and to promote bicycling , encouraging healthy lifestyles and environmental awareness .
Downtown Erie 's historic and ornate Warner Theatre hosts a range of performances . Renovated in the 1980s and again in 2007 , the Warner is the hub of Erie 's Civic Center . The downtown area is the home of the Erie Playhouse , one of the leading community theaters in the country , and the third oldest community theater in the U.S. . Since 2007 , the annual Roar on the Shore motorcycle rally has taken place in Erie .
Along West 6th Street is Millionaires Row , a collection of 19th century Victorian mansions . The John Hill House is one of the notable residences . The Erie Land Light stands at the foot of Lighthouse Street . The lighthouse was built in 1818 and replaced in 1867 .
The Bicentennial Tower , on Dobbins Landing at the foot of State Street , was built in 1995 − 96 to celebrate the city 's bicentennial . It is 187 feet ( 57 m ) tall and gives a panoramic view of Lake Erie and downtown . The Blasco Library and Erie Maritime Museum are its neighbors to the east . Presque Isle Downs opened on February 28 , 2007 , and was the fourth slots parlor in the state and the first in Western Pennsylvania . Table games opened at the casino on July 8 , 2010 .
Erie has also been the location for many movies , including the hometown for fictional band " The Wonders " in That Thing You Do ! featuring Tom Hanks . It is also mentioned in the film Wall Street as the location of the fictional company Anacott Steel . Erie is the hometown of Train lead singer , Patrick Monahan . Erie is also the hometown of Marc Brown , the author and illustrator of Arthur books and TV series .
= = Media = =
Erie is served by Erie Times @-@ News , the city 's only daily newspaper . The Nielsen Company ranks Erie as 144 out of the 210 largest television market in the United States , as of the 2010 − 2011 report . The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including WICU @-@ TV ( NBC ) , WJET @-@ TV ( ABC ) , WFXP ( FOX ) , WSEE @-@ TV ( CBS ) , and WSEE @-@ DT2 ( CW ) . WQLN is a member of Public Broadcasting Service and also broadcasts in London , Ontario . Cable companies available for Erie include Time Warner Cable , DirecTV , and Dish Network . Erie is also served by several AM and FM radio stations based in the city , and dozens of other stations are received from elsewhere .
= = Sports = =
Erie plays host to a number of semi @-@ pro and professional sports teams . The Erie SeaWolves play AA baseball in the Eastern League as an affiliate of the Detroit Tigers . The Erie Otters play hockey in the Ontario Hockey League . The Erie BayHawks are a member of the NBA Development League . The Erie Illusion is a member of the United States Women 's Football League . Hockey and basketball games are played at Erie Insurance Arena , while Minor League Baseball games are held at Jerry Uht Park .
Gannon University , Mercyhurst University , Edinboro University , and Penn State Behrend have active NCAA collegiate sports programs . The local high schools compete in PIAA District 10 sporting events . Additionally , Cathedral Preparatory School hosts the annual high school basketball tournament featuring top national teams ; called the Burger King Classic since 2010 . Scholastic and intramural sports are held at school and park facilities around the city . The Mercyhurst Ice Center , the JMC Ice Arena , Family First Sports Park , and Erie Veterans Memorial Stadium are many sports arenas and stadiums available in and around the city .
The Lake Erie Speedway , a 3 ⁄ 8 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) NASCAR sanctioned race track is located in Greenfield Township . Horse racing is found at the Presque Isle Downs and Casino located near Summit Township .
= = Recreation = =
Erie 's location along the shores of Lake Erie provides a plethora of outdoor activities throughout the year . The region 's largest attraction is Presque Isle State Park , drawing over four million visitors a year . The region grows grapes and produces the third largest amount of wine in the United States .
Downtown Erie is surrounded by Presque Isle State Park , a National Natural Landmark . The Seaway Trail runs through downtown Erie along the lakefront . The Tom Ridge Environmental Center , at the foot of Presque Isle , features 7 @,@ 000 square feet ( 650 m2 ) of exhibit space .
Other tourist destinations include the Bayfront Convention Center ; the Bicentennial Tower that overlooks Lake Erie ; Dobbins Landing , a pier in downtown Erie ; the Erie Land Light , and the Erie Maritime Museum , the home port of the Niagara . The 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 240 @,@ 000 m2 ) Millcreek Mall , one of the largest shopping malls in the United States , is located on Peach Street in nearby Millcreek Township . The indoor waterpark Splash Lagoon , in Summit Township , is the largest indoor waterpark on the East Coast and third largest in the United States . Waldameer Park , located at the base of Presque Isle , is the fourth oldest amusement park in Pennsylvania , and the tenth oldest in the United States .
= = Government = =
The city of Erie is incorporated as a 3rd class city under Pennsylvania law . Incorporated under an " optional charter " , the city is governed by a mayor – council government . The government consists of a mayor , treasurer , controller and a seven @-@ member city council . All of whom are elected to four @-@ year terms , with the terms of the council designed to be overlapping . The mayor is chief executive ; the city council prepares legislation and conducts oversight . The city council meets in Mario S. Bagnoni Council Chambers at City Hall . Joseph E. Sinnott ( D ) is the mayor of the city of Erie and was first elected in 2005 . As of July 2016 , the Erie City Council consists of :
Robert Merski Council President
Sonya M. Arrington
David Brennan
Curtis Jones , Jr .
Casimir Kwitowski
James Winarski
Melvin Witherspoon
In exchange for tax revenue , the city of Erie provides its residents with police and fire protection . For separate quarterly payments , the city provides garbage , recycling , water and sewer services . The Erie Police Department provides law enforcement in the city and currently has a complement of 173 sworn personnel under the direct supervision of Chief of Police Randy Bowers . The City of Erie Fire Department is a full @-@ time career fire department and employs around 150 uniformed personnel . These employee 's are under the direct supervision of Chief Tony Pol . The City currently operates out of six fire houses and protects approximately 20 square miles ( 52 km2 ) . The city has six engines , two towers and one water rescue unit . The city provides mutual aid to fire departments of Millcreek Township , Summit Township and East County .
Erie is the largest city in Pennsylvania 's 3rd congressional district and is currently represented in Congress by Republican Mike Kelly , who was elected in 2010 . Republican Jane M. Earll of the 49th District has represented Erie in the Pennsylvania State Senate since 1997 . Senator Earll declined to run for a fifth term in 2012 and was succeeded by Democrat Sean D. Wiley . The city of Erie is split by the 1st and 2nd Districts of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives and is represented by Democrats Patrick Harkins and Florindo Fabrizio , respectively .
= = Education = =
Erie Public Schools enroll 12 @,@ 527 students in primary and secondary grades . The district has 23 public schools including elementary , middle , high , and one charter school . Other than public schools , the city is home to more than 40 private schools and academies . Bethel Christian School is in Erie .
The City of Erie is served by four city high schools , Central Tech High School , East High School , Northwest Pennsylvania Collegiate Academy , Strong Vincent High School , three Catholic high schools Cathedral Preparatory School , Mercyhurst Preparatory School , Villa Maria Academy , and nearby McDowell High School and Iroquois High School in adjacent Millcreek Township and Lawrence Park Township , respectively .
Erie is home to several colleges and universities . Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine ( LECOM ) , a large medical school , with branch campuses in Bradenton , Florida and Greensburg , Pennsylvania , has the largest enrollments of medical students in the country , with over 3 @,@ 000 .
Penn State Behrend offers more than 40 degrees at the associate , bachelor 's and master 's levels . It has an enrollment of 4400 , with housing for 1800 on campus .
Other notable colleges in the Erie area include Gannon University , a Catholic university , situated in downtown Erie . Another Catholic institution , Mercyhurst University , is in the southeast part of the city .
Ranking Erie city and county officials , as well as officials of the Erie School District , began looking into the need for a community college in the Erie area in 2006 . As of January 2008 , county officials and representatives of Penn State @-@ Behrend , Mercyhurst and Gannon were in serious discussions expected to lead to the creation of Northwest Pennsylvania Community College by September 2009 . Besides accreditation issues , officials must resolve whether to use local four @-@ year educational institutions or to build a separate site in Summit Township for community college classes .
Erie is also home of the Barber National Institute and its Elizabeth Lee Black School , which provides services and education for children and adults with mental disabilities . Erie is home to its main campus , and it provides services in Philadelphia and Pittsburgh . The Achievement Center also serves the needs of children from birth to age 21 with physical and mental health disabilities.The public libraries in Erie are part of the Erie County library system . The Raymond M. Blasco , M. D. Memorial Library , named for its benefactor , opened in 1996 . It is the third largest library in Pennsylvania . It is connected to the Erie Maritime Museum , both of which are part of a bayfront improvement project that includes the Bayfront Convention Center and the Bicentennial Tower on Dobbins Landing .
= = Transportation = =
Erie is well connected to the Interstate Highway System . There are six " Erie exits " along Interstate 90 , a major cross @-@ country thoroughfare running from Boston to Seattle . Erie is the northern terminus of Interstate 79 , which travels south to Pittsburgh and , ultimately , West Virginia . The western terminus for Interstate 86 , also called the " Southern Tier Expressway , " is at Interstate 90 between Erie and North East , Pennsylvania . Interstate 86 continues east through New York to Binghamton . The Bayfront Connector runs from Interstate 90 in Harborcreek to the Bayfront Parkway and downtown Erie , along the east side of the city , then connects to Interstate 79 on the west side of the city . Major thoroughfares in the city include 12th Street , 26th Street , 38th Street and Peach Street . Peach is also a part of U.S. Route 19 , whose northern terminus is in Erie and continues south eventually reaching the Gulf of Mexico . Other major routes running through Erie are Pennsylvania Route 5 , known as the Seaway Trail and is made up of parts of 6th Street , 8th Street , 12th Street , and East Lake Road in the city , U.S. Route 20 , which is 26th Street in the city . The city is divided between east and west by State Street .
The Erie Metropolitan Transit Authority ( EMTA ) operates the city 's transit bus system , known as the ' e ' . Buses run seven days a week in the city , with trips out to other parts of the county occurring a couple times a week . Intercity buses providing transportation between Buffalo , Cleveland and Pittsburgh are operated by Greyhound Lines . Service between Buffalo and Cleveland is also provided by Lakefront Lines . Both companies operate out of the Intermodal Transportation Center , which opened in 2002 at the foot of Holland Street .
The former " Water Level Route " of the New York Central Railroad travels directly through Erie . It is now the mainline for CSX freight trains . The mainline of the Norfolk Southern Railway , originally built by the Nickel Plate Railroad , also travels through Erie . At one time Norfolk Southern trains ran down the middle of 19th Street , but were removed in 2002 . Passenger rail service is provided by Amtrak 's Lake Shore Limited out of Union Station at 14th and State Streets . The Lake Shore Limited stops twice daily — one eastbound towards New York City , and one westbound towards Chicago .
Erie International Airport / Tom Ridge Field ( IATA code : ERI ; IACO code : KERI ) is located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of the city and hosts general aviation , charter , and airline service . Destinations with non @-@ stop flights out of Erie include Chicago O 'Hare International Airport via United Airlines , Philadelphia International Airport via US Airways and Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport via Delta Air Lines . Erie International is in the midst of a $ 80 @.@ 5 million runway extension . The extension is slated to increase the runway 's length by 1 @,@ 920 feet ( 590 m ) , for a total runway length of 8 @,@ 420 feet ( 2 @,@ 600 m ) , " to meet safety requirements " as well as allowing the airport to accommodate larger aircraft .
The Port of Erie is located on Presque Isle Bay , a natural harbor formed by Presque Isle . It offers some of the finest port facilities for cargo shipping on the Great Lakes , with direct rail access . The Erie − Western Pennsylvania Port Authority provides water taxi service in the summer months between Dobbins Landing and Liberty Park in downtown Erie , and the Waterworks ferry landing on Presque Isle .
= = Sister cities = =
Erie has four official sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International :
Dungarvan , Ireland ( 2007 )
Lublin , Poland ( 1999 )
Mérida , Yucatán , Mexico ( 1973 )
Zibo , Shandong , China ( 1985 )
= Sid Luckman =
Sidney Luckman ( November 21 , 1916 – July 5 , 1998 ) was an American football quarterback for the Chicago Bears of the National Football League ( NFL ) from 1939 through 1950 . During his twelve seasons with the Bears he led them to four NFL championships .
Luckman was the first modern T @-@ formation quarterback and is considered the greatest long range passer of his time . He was named the NFL 's Most Valuable Player in 1943 , and Pulitzer prize winning sports writer Ira Berkow wrote that Luckman was " the first great T @-@ formation quarterback " . Following his retirement from playing , Luckman continued his association with football by tutoring college coaches , focusing on the passing aspect of the game .
Luckman was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 , and in 1988 he was declared a joint winner of the Walter Camp Distinguished American Award .
= = Early life = =
Luckman was born in Brooklyn , New York , to Jewish immigrants from Germany . His father sparked his interest in football at age eight , by giving him a football to play with . He and his parents lived in a residence near Prospect Park and it was here as a youngster that Sid first started throwing the football around .
He played both baseball and football for Erasmus Hall High School , with his football skills impressing recruiters from about 40 colleges . Luckman chose Columbia University after meeting Lions coach Lou Little during a Columbia / Navy game at the university 's Baker Field athletic facility . Luckman was not admitted to Columbia College ; instead , he attended the New College for the Education of Teachers , an undergraduate school , which was within Teachers College at Columbia . He competed on the football team from 1936 until the New College closed in 1939 , when he transferred to Columbia College . Coach Little had a problem of getting good high school athletes because of the entrance requirements at Columbia , and Columbia didn ’ t have any physical education undergraduate program , and so , when New College was started Lou Little was happy because they had a P. E. Department . In fact , the 1936 varsity football squad had five other New College students , Hubert Schulze , Edward Stanzyk , Oscar Bonom , Harry Ream , and Antoni Mareski .
At Columbia Luckman was a member of the Zeta Beta Tau fraternity . Keen to remain in Columbia to stay close to his family , he took on jobs such as dish @-@ washing , baby @-@ sitting , and messenger delivery around the campus . At Columbia , as a part of the football team , he completed 180 of 376 passes for 2 @,@ 413 yards and 20 touchdowns and finished third in the 1938 Heisman Trophy voting , behind Davey O 'Brien and Marshall Goldberg .
= = Chicago Bears = =
= = = Draft = = =
Hearing of Sid Luckman 's exploits as a single @-@ wing tailback at Columbia University , Chicago Bears owner and coach George Halas believed Luckman had the ability to become an effective T @-@ formation quarterback , and traveled to New York to watch him play . Halas then convinced the Pittsburgh Pirates ( later the Steelers ) to draft Luckman second overall and then trade him to the Bears because he was interested in using Luckman 's skills to help him restructure the offensive side of the game . However , despite his successes at Columbia University , Luckman initially declined any further interest in pro football , instead preferring to work for his father @-@ in @-@ law ’ s trucking company . Halas went to work on convincing him otherwise . After gaining an invitation to Luckman 's tiny apartment for a dinner which Luckman 's wife Estelle prepared , Halas produced a contract for $ 5 @,@ 500 ( $ 92 @,@ 500 today ) which Luckman immediately signed . At that time both at the college and pro levels , offenses were a drab scrum of running the ball with only occasional passes . In what was then the predominant single @-@ wing formation , the quarterback was primarily a blocking back and rarely touched the ball . Most passing was done by the tailback , and then usually only on third down with long yardage to go . Halas and his coaches , primarily Clark Shaughnessy , invented a rather complex scheme building on the traditional T @-@ formation , but needed the right quarterback to run it properly .
Upon starting with Halas , Luckman mastered an offense that revolutionized football , and became the basis of most modern professional offenses . Eventually , Luckman tutored college coaches across the Big Ten , Notre Dame and West Point in the intricacies of the passing game .
= = = T @-@ formation = = =
In 1940 , during his second season with the Bears , Luckman took over the offense and led the Bears to the title game against Sammy Baugh and the Washington Redskins . The Redskins had beaten the Bears , 7 – 3 , during the regular season . Using the " man @-@ in @-@ motion " innovation to great advantage , the Bears destroyed the Redskins , 73 – 0 , stated to be " the most one @-@ sided game in the history of the sport " . Luckman passed only six times , with four completions and 102 yards in the rout .
From 1940 to 1946 the Bears displayed their dominance in the game , playing in five NFL championship games , winning four , and posted a 54 – 17 – 3 regular season record . In 1942 , the Bears posted a perfect 11 – 0 record and outscored their opponents , 376 – 84 , however they lost the championship game to the Redskins . Although the T @-@ formation had been used many years before Luckman joined the Chicago Bears , he was central to Chicago 's successful use of this style of play because of his game @-@ sense and versatility . Perfecting Halas ' complex offensive scheme of fakes , men in motion , and quick hitting runs , Luckman added the dimension of accurate downfield throwing . He was instrumental in his team 's record @-@ setting 73 – 0 win over the Washington Redskins in the 1940 NFL championship game . Sportscaster Jimmy Cannon once said in reference to Luckman 's years at Columbia , " You had to be there to realize how great Sid was . " Luckman later became a sought @-@ after tutor and instructor for universities wishing to install the T @-@ formation as an offense .
= = = Service with the Merchant Marine = = =
In 1943 , as soon as the season had ended , Luckman volunteered as an ensign with the U. S. Merchant Marine . He was stationed stateside and while he could not practice with the team , he did receive permission to play for the Bears on game days during the following seasons . He returned again to the Bears , as a full @-@ time occupation , in 1946 and led them to a fifth NFL championship .
= = = Numbers and accomplishments = = =
During his career , Luckman completed 51 @.@ 8 % of his passes for 14 @,@ 686 yards and 137 touchdowns with 132 interceptions . He averaged 8 @.@ 4 yards per attempt , second all @-@ time only to Otto Graham ( 8 @.@ 6 ) , and also has a career touchdown rate ( percentage of pass attempts that result in touchdowns ) of 7 @.@ 9 percent .
In 1943 , Luckman completed 110 of 202 passes for 2194 yards and 28 touchdowns . His 13 @.@ 9 % touchdown rate that year is the best ever in a single @-@ season , while his 10 @.@ 9 yards per attempt is second all @-@ time . During one game that year , Luckman threw for 443 yards and seven touchdowns , still tied for the most passing touchdowns in one game ; it was also the first 400 @-@ yard passing game in NFL history . His 28 touchdown passes in 1943 ( in only 10 games ) was a record that lasted for many years .
Luckman led the NFL in yards per attempt an NFL record seven times , including a record five consecutive years from 1939 to 1943 , and led the NFL in passing yards three times . Luckman was a five @-@ time All @-@ NFL selection , was named the National Football League 's Most Valuable Player Award in 1943 , and led the " Monsters of the Midway " to championships in 1940 , 1941 , 1943 , and 1946 . Despite the fact that his career ended in 1950 , Luckman still owns several Bears ' passing records .
= = Career statistics = =
Bold text indicates career best
= = Later years = =
After retiring from the NFL , Luckman went to work for Cel @-@ U @-@ Craft , a Chicago @-@ based manufacturer of cellophane products , eventually becoming its president . The company was a part of the Rapid American Corporation of which he also obtained shares . In 1969 , RAC was the subject of an IRS investigation over the payment of these shares and dividends , a case that Luckman and his wife appealed .
Luckman 's wife Estelle Morgolin died of cancer in 1981 , and he underwent a triple heart bypass operation the following year . Luckman eventually retired to Aventura , Florida where he died on July 5 , 1998 at the age of 81 . He is survived by a son , Bob , and two daughters , Gale and Ellen .
= = List of honors = =
Joe F. Carr Trophy – National Football League Most Valuable Player in 1943 .
College Football Hall of Fame in 1960
Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 .
Walter Camp Distinguished American of the Year Award in 1988 .
Columbia University Athletics Hall of Fame in 2006 .
= Battle of Gospić =
Battle of Gospi
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020 km2 ) , of which 391 square miles ( 1 @,@ 010 km2 ) is land and 2 @.@ 2 square miles ( 5 @.@ 7 km2 ) ( 0 @.@ 6 % ) is water .
Juniata County is located between two major metropolitan areas . One is State College , which is northwest of the county . The other is Harrisburg , which is to the southeast of the county . U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , which is a four @-@ lane highway , leads from the county to these metropolitan areas .
Parts of Juniata County are fairly flat , but there are areas in the county with slopes of 25 % or greater . However , most development in the county is confined to areas with slopes of 15 % or less . Many of the county 's steepest slopes , with grades of 25 % of more , are located on the edges of the county . These slopes are generally found on mountainous ridges . However , there are some similarly steep slopes in the middle of the county . All four boroughs in the county have slopes with a grade of 25 % or more near them . Slopes of 15 % to 25 % can be found throughout the county .
Much of Juniata County is hilly . Mountains occupy many of the county 's borders . Tuscarora Mountain forms the county 's border with Perry County . Shade Mountain runs from Snyder County through Juniata County and into Huntingdon County .
There are two locations in Juniata County that the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan describes as " outstanding and unique scenic features " . These are Hawstone Overlook and the Concord Narrows . Hawstone Overlook is an overlook in Milford Township on Pennsylvania Route 333 , from which the Juniata River between Shade Mountain and Blue Mountain can be seen , as well as the Lewistown Narrows . The Concord Narrows are a narrow water gap where the Juniata River flows past Tuscarora Mountain . Quartizite from the Silurian Period can be found in this water gap .
= = = Rivers and watersheds = = =
There are several major streams and rivers in Juniata County . These include the Susquehanna River , the Juniata River , Tuscarora Creek , Cocolamus Creek , West Branch Mahantango Creek , Licking Creek , and Lost Creek .
112 @,@ 000 acres , or 45 % of Juniata County 's area is in the Tuscarora Creek watershed , including the borough of Port Royal . 59 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 % of the county 's area ) is in the Juniata River watershed . This area includes parts of all four of the boroughs in the county . 26 @,@ 000 acres of Juniata County are in the Cocolamus Creek watershed and a similar amount of the county is in the watershed of Lost Creek . 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 % of the counties area ) are in the West Branch Mahantango Creek watershed .
= = = Land use = = =
Residential land makes up more than 50 @,@ 000 acres , or one fifth , of Juniata County 's area . The bulk of residential land is single @-@ family dwellings , but seasonal homes and mobile homes also make up significant portions of it . The county 's residential land is concentrated along in its boroughs , but occurs along roads and in villages throughout the county . Multi @-@ family residential land is comparatively rare . Less than 1 % of the county 's land ( 430 acres ) is used for manufacturing purposes . Only approximately 370 acres are used for transportation and utilities . Roughly 300 acres are used for transportation and communication and 70 acres are used for other utilities . Businesses make up 0 @.@ 21 % of the county 's land , or 525 acres . 490 acres are devoted to retail businesses , while 35 acres are devoted to wholesale businesses . Services occupy 0 @.@ 67 % of the county 's area .
Land devoted to recreation in Juniata County makes up 0 @.@ 5 % , or 1000 acres , of its area . Agricultural land comprises 41 % ( 101 @,@ 000 acres ) of the county . A total of 167 @,@ 500 acres , or approximately two thirds of the county 's area , is forested land . Large portions of the southwestern part of the county are forested . 34 % of the county 's land is undeveloped , most of which ( 60 @,@ 000 acres ) is unused land .
The vast majority of Juniata County is rural land . However , there are a few rural hamlets and villages ( which have one to four housing units per acre ) scattered throughout the county . There is also an area termed a " high growth area " by the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan near the boroughs of Mifflin and Mifflintown . It has between 8 and 17 housing units per acre . The Juniata County Comprehensive Plan also designates areas near Thompsontown and Port Royal as " rural growth area [ s ] " . These areas have three to six housing units per acre .
= = = Adjacent counties = = =
Juniata County borders Mifflin County , Pennsylvania to the northwest , Snyder County , Pennsylvania to the north , Northumberland County , Pennsylvania to the northeast , Dauphin County , Pennsylvania to the southeast , Perry County , Pennsylvania to the south , and Huntingdon County , Pennsylvania and Franklin County , Pennsylvania to the southwest .
= = Geology = =
Juniata County lies over 16 different rock formations , some of which contain limestone . These rock formations come from the Ordovician Period , the Silurian Period , and the Devonian Period . The northernmost part of the county contains rocks of the Juniata Formation , the Bald Eagle Formation , and undivided Juniata and Bald Eagle formations . All of these formations primarily consist of sandstone . South of these formations lie the Bloomsburg and Mifflintown Formation undivided , the Clinton Group , and the Tuscarora Formation . The first two of these consist mainly of shale , while the third is composed of quartzite . The rock formations in the southwestern part of the county include the Brallier and Harrell Formations undivided , the Hamilton Group , the Irish Valley member of the Catskill Formation , and others . The eastern part of the county lies almost entirely over the Hamilton Group , the Tuscarora Formation , and the Irish Valley member of the Cataskill Formation .
Other rock formations found in Juniata County include the Keyser through Mifflintown Formation undivided , the Keyser and Tonoloway Formation undivided , the Onondaga and Old Port Formations undivided , the Reedsville Formation , the Trimmers Rock Formation , the Wills Creek Formation , and the Wills Creek Formation through Mifflintown Formation undivided .
Four of the rock formations found in Juniata County come from def Ordovician Period , seven come from the Silurian Period , and seven come from the Devonian Period .
There are seven soil associations in Juniata County . One of these is the Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association . It is a deep and fairly well @-@ drained soil that is found in 24 % of the county . It is mostly found in the county 's forested areas . The Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Bedington Association is also found in the county . It is found in 33 % of the county 's area and is not as deep as the Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association , but is well @-@ drained . The soil is mostly found in agricultural lands and some forested areas . Another soil association in the county is the Edon @-@ Opequon @-@ Weikert Association , which is a well @-@ drained soil that occupies 17 % of the county . The Elliber @-@ Kreamer @-@ Mertz Association is a deep and well @-@ drained soil that makes up 12 % of the county . The Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly Association and the Morrison @-@ Hazelton @-@ Clymer Association make up 7 % and 6 % of the county , respectively . They are both deep and occur on gentle slopes . However , the former is poorly drained , while the latter is well @-@ drained . The Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association is well @-@ drained and makes up 1 % of the county 's area .
There are 51 different soil types in Juniata County , of which 18 are considered prime farmland . There area few agricultural soils on the northern and southern edges of the county .
The main rock formations in the boroughs of Mifflin and Mifflintown are the undivided Keyser and Tonoloway Formations and the Irish Valley Member of the Catskill Formation . The same rock formations are found in the borough of Port Royal , along with the Clinton Group and the Hamilton Group to the northwest and southeast of the borough , respectively . The Hamilton Group , the Keyser and Tonoloway Formations , and the Irish Valley Member of the Catskill Formation are found in or near the borough of Thompsontown .
= = Climate = =
Juniata County is in the Humid Continental climatic region . In the summer , highs are generally in between 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) and 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , but on occasion exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) . The lows in the summer are typically slightly below 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) . High temperatures in the winter are usually between 30 ° F ( − 1 ° C ) and 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) .
On average , Juniata County receives 38 inches ( 97 cm ) of precipitation per year . An average of 28 inches ( 71 cm ) of snow fall on the county each winter . The county rarely experiences long @-@ term droughts , but does experience short @-@ term droughts often .
= = Demographics = =
At the 2010 census , there were 24 @,@ 636 people , 9 @,@ 476 households , and 6 @,@ 839 families residing in Juniata County . The projected population of the county for 2020 is 26 @,@ 071 . The population density was 63 people per square mile ( 24 / km ² ) . There were 10 @,@ 978 housing units at an average density of 28 per square mile ( 10 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the county was 96 @.@ 8 % White , 0 @.@ 6 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 1 % Native American , 0 @.@ 3 % Asian ( 0 @.@ 1 % Indian , 0 @.@ 1 % Chinese , and 0 @.@ 1 % Korean ) , 1 @.@ 1 % from other races , and 1 % from two or more races .
There are eight Filipino people , five Vietnamese people , and two Samoans in Juniata County .
2 @.@ 5 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . These include 195 Puerto Ricans , 77 Mexicans , and 2 Cubans . The highest percentage of Hispanic people in any township or borough in the county is 8 @.@ 71 % , in Mifflintown . Between 1990 and 2000 , the Hispanic population in the county increased by 653 % . In 2000 , 45 @.@ 4 % of the population of Juniata County were of German , 20 @.@ 2 % American , 5 @.@ 7 % Irish and 5 @.@ 0 % English ancestry according to Census 2000 . 3 @.@ 95 % reported speaking Pennsylvania German , German , or Dutch at home ; 1 @.@ 63 % speak Spanish .
The housing density and population density of Juniata County is considerably below average for a Pennsylvania county .
The administrative subdivisions of Juniata County with the highest population density are Mifflintown ( with a density of 6 @,@ 184 @.@ 9 people per square mile ) , Mifflin ( with a density of 3506 @.@ 9 people per square mile ) , and Thompsontown ( with a density of 2193 @.@ 1 people per square mile ) . The township with the highest population density in the county is Monroe Township , with 104 @.@ 0 people per square mile . The highest density of housing units in the county is in Mifflintown ( 2 @,@ 837 @.@ 4 per square mile ) , followed by Mifflin ( 1 @,@ 454 @.@ 2 per square mile ) and Thompsontown ( 1 @,@ 144 @.@ 4 per square mile ) . Greenwood Township has the third lowest population density of any administrative division in Juniata County : 27 @.@ 9 people per square mile . The second lowest density is in Tuscarora Township ( 24 @.@ 5 people per square mile ) and the lowest density is in Lack Township ( 13 @.@ 2 people per square mile ) . The lowest density of housing units in the county is in Lack Township ( 10 @.@ 0 per square mile ) , the second @-@ lowest density is in Greenwood Township ( 11 @.@ 3 per square mile ) , and the third @-@ lowest density is in Tuscarora Township ( 13 @.@ 7 per square mile ) .
Between 1940 and 2005 , the population of Juniata County was proportionally the third fastest @-@ growing population of any county in Pennsylvania , with only Snyder County 's and Perry County 's populations growing faster . In this time period , the county 's population has increased by 50 @.@ 69 % , or 7 @,@ 792 people . In the 1980s , the county 's rate of population growth was more than 50 times higher than the rate of population growth in Pennsylvania . The county 's rate of population growth in the 1970s was even higher .
Susquehanna Township 's population was the fastest @-@ growing population of any administrative division in Juniata County between 1990 and 2005 , with an increase of 35 @.@ 42 % . Other fast @-@ growing populations in the county include those of Milford Township ( 22 @.@ 53 % ) and Thompsontown 20 @.@ 1 % ) . The populations of Mifflin and Mifflintown are the only administrative divisions in the county whose populations decreased in that time period ( at a rate of -7.42 % and -3.7 % , respectively ) . However , between 2000 and 2005 , eight administrative divisions experienced decreasing populations . Between 1990 and 2000 , every borough and township in the county experienced an increase in population .
At the 2010 census , the average household size in Juniata County was 2 @.@ 57 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 01 . 23 @.@ 0 % of the county 's households were inhabited by a single individual .
In 2000 , there were 11 @,@ 353 males and 11 @,@ 468 females in Juniata County , or 98 @.@ 99 males per 100 females . The highest percentage of males in any administrative division in the county was 52 @.@ 07 % , in Beale Township . The highest percentage of females in any township or borough in the county was 52 @.@ 95 % , in Fermanagh Township .
At the 2010 census , the population in Juniata County was spread out with 6 @.@ 3 % under 5 years of age , 6 @.@ 8 % from 5 to 9 years of age , and the same percentage from 10 to 14 years of age . 6 @.@ 5 % of the county 's inhabitants were 15 to 19 years of age , 5 @.@ 4 % were 20 to 24 years old , 5 @.@ 3 % were 25 to 29 years old , and 5 @.@ 5 % were 30 to 34 years old . People of 35 to 39 years of age comprised 6 @.@ 1 % of the population , 40- to 44 @-@ year @-@ olds comprised 6 @.@ 6 % of the population , and 7 @.@ 6 % of the population consisted of 50- to 54 @-@ year @-@ olds . People of 55 to 59 years of age made up 7 @.@ 6 % of the population , people of 60 to 54 years of age comprised 6 @.@ 0 % of it , and 65- to 69 @-@ year @-@ olds made up 4 @.@ 9 % of the population . People of 70 to 74 years of age make up 3 @.@ 9 % of the county 's population , people of 75 to 79 years of age make up 3 @.@ 2 % of the population , people of 80 to 84 years old make up 2 @.@ 5 % of the population , and people older than 85 years make up 2 @.@ 3 % of the population .
= = Infrastructure , industry , and economy = =
In 2000 , the agricultural , hunting / fishing , forestry , and mining industries made up 5 @.@ 46 % of the industry in Juniata County . Livestock farming was more popular in the county than crop cultivation . In 2002 , the egg and poultry industry in the county generated $ 32 million in sales ( the 7th highest of the Pennsylvania counties ) and the dairy industry generated $ 17 million in sales ( the 23rd highest of the Pennsylvania counties ) . The hog and pig industry generated $ 7 million and the cattle industry generated $ 4 million in sales ( the 10th and 27th highest of Pennsylvania counties , respectively ) . The county 's grain industry generated $ 1 million ( the 35th highest of Pennsylvania counties ) . The county is the fourth most prolific poultry @-@ producing county in Pennsylvania . In addition to the aforementioned industries , there are also small @-@ scale clothing manufacturing businesses in the county .
There were 801 farms in Juniata County in 1997 , occupying a total of 96 @,@ 312 acres of farmland . By 2002 , there were only 644 farms and 86 @,@ 203 acres of farmland .
There is one public library in Juniata County : the Juniata County Library in Mifflintown . It has approximately 64 @,@ 000 materials and an annual circulation of 131 @,@ 940 materials . It will be celebrating its 50th anniversary in 2016 .
There are no hospitals in Juniata County . The county is served by a hospital in Lewistown , which was established in 1905 . The county has six emergency medical services units and eight fire companies , all of which are volunteer fire departments . As the county does not have its own police force , it is served by the Pennsylvania State Police .
There are more than 100 cemeteries in Juniata County .
= = = Economic and employment statistics = = =
In 2000 , the most common occupation in Juniata County was manufacturing . 23 @.@ 6 % of employed people over 16 years old in the county performed manufacturing jobs . 10 @.@ 5 % of employed people older than 16 worked in health services , 9 @.@ 5 % worked in other services , 9 @.@ 3 % each work in construction and retail , 6 @.@ 2 % worked in public administration , and 6 @.@ 1 % worked in transportation . 5 @.@ 6 % had an occupation in the field of education , and a similar number worked in finance , insurance , and real estate . 5 @.@ 5 % worked in agriculture , fishing , forestry , or mining , 3 @.@ 5 % worked in wholesale trade , 1 @.@ 7 % worked in communications , utilities , and related fields .
In 2000 , a total of 1 @,@ 955 households in Juniata County made less than $ 20 @,@ 000 per year and 3036 households made $ 20 @,@ 000 to $ 39 @,@ 999 per year . 1 @,@ 940 households made $ 40 @,@ 000 to $ 59 @,@ 999 per year , 1 @,@ 308 households made $ 60 @,@ 000 to $ 99 @,@ 999 per year , and 216 households made $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 149 @,@ 999 per year . 125 households made more than $ 150 @,@ 000 per year . In 1999 , the median household income for the county was $ 34 @,@ 698 per year and the median family income was $ 39 @,@ 757 per year . Both of these figures are lower than the average for Pennsylvania . The per capita income in the county was $ 16 @,@ 142 per year in 1999 and $ 14 @,@ 539 in 1989 . The county 's poverty rate , 9 @.@ 5 % , is below the average poverty rate for Pennsylvania , which is 11 % . In 1999 , Mifflin had the highest poverty rate of any township or borough in the county , 17 @.@ 54 % . Greenwood Township had the lowest poverty rate , 6 @.@ 99 % . The county 's unemployment rate was 5 @.@ 3 % in 1999 and 5 @.@ 4 % in 2008 . According to the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan , the economic situation in the county " suggests a fairly healthy county economy " .
Of the boroughs and townships in Juniata County , Beale Township had the highest household and family income in 1999 : $ 41 @,@ 458 and $ 43 @,@ 625 , respectively . The borough of Mifflin had the lowest household and family income in 1999 : $ 26 @,@ 438 and $ 28 @,@ 750 , respectively .
94 @.@ 32 % of the houses in Juniata County have full plumbing facilities . This is below Pennsylvania 's average ( 98 @.@ 51 % ) , which may be due to the presence of cabins and other houses that are not permanently inhabited . Mifflin has the highest percentage of houses with full plumbing facilities of any township or borough in the county ( 100 % ) . Lack Township has the lowest percentage of houses with full plumbing facilities ( 72 @.@ 31 % ) . There are six public sewer companies in the county , the largest of which , the Twin Boroughs Sanitary Authority , is used at a rate of 450 @,@ 000 gallons per day . The county also has five public water companies , including the Port Royal Municipal Authority and the Mifflintown Municipal Authority . The Mifflintown Municipal Authority is the most @-@ used water company in the county , serving 465 @,@ 000 gallons of water per day .
On average , Juniata County generates 32 tons of solid waste per day .
Nine townships and all four boroughs in Juniata County receive electricity from Pennsylvania Power and Light . The remaining townships are given electricity by First Energy and Valley Rural Electric Cooperative , Inc .. Nittany Media Inc. and Dish and Direct TV provide cable services to the county .
= = = Housing = = =
In 2000 , 28 @.@ 70 % of the houses in Juniata County were built before 1939 , 6 @.@ 51 % were built in the 1940s , and 8 @.@ 26 % were built in the 1950s . 8 @.@ 53 % of the county 's houses were built in the 1960s , 17 @.@ 99 % were built in the 1970s , and 14 @.@ 18 % were built in the 1980s . 15 @.@ 82 % of the houses were built in the 1990s or in 2000 . The majority of the houses in Mifflin and Mifflintown were built before 1939 .
In 2000 , 14 @.@ 43 % of the houses in Juniata County were vacant . 9 @.@ 42 % of the county 's houses were vacant for seasonal or recreational reasons . The county 's vacancy rate is higher than average for Pennsylvania . Mifflintown had the lowest vacancy rate of any township or borough in the county ( 5 @.@ 18 % ) . Lack Township had the highest vacancy rate ( 48 @.@ 77 % ) . 66 @.@ 49 % of the county 's houses are occupied by their owner and 19 @.@ 08 % are occupied by a renter . Many of the houses in the southwestern part of the county are seasonally occupied .
13 @.@ 11 % of the houses in Juniata County cost less than $ 50 @,@ 000 and 51 @.@ 07 % cost $ 50 @,@ 000 to $ 99 @,@ 999 . 17 @.@ 51 % of the county 's houses cost $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 124 @,@ 999 and 9 @.@ 74 % cost from $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 149 @,@ 999 . 4 @.@ 62 % of the houses cost between $ 150 @,@ 000 and $ 174 @,@ 999 and 1 @.@ 21 % cost between $ 175 @,@ 000 and $ 199 @,@ 999 . 1 @.@ 92 % of the houses in the county cost between $ 200 @,@ 000 and $ 249 @,@ 999 , 0 @.@ 39 % cost between $ 250 @,@ 000 and $ 299 @,@ 999 , and 0 @.@ 43 % cost more than $ 300 @,@ 000 . Of the administrative divisions in the county , Fermanagh Township has the highest percentage of houses costing over $ 300 @,@ 000 ( 1 @.@ 34 % ) and numerous townships and boroughs in the county do not have any houses costing over $ 300 @,@ 000 . Mifflin has the highest percentage of houses costing less than $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 56 @.@ 48 % ) and Delaware Township has the lowest percentage of such houses ( 4 @.@ 73 % ) .
In 1990 , the median house value in Juniata County was $ 51 @,@ 500 . This rose to $ 87 @,@ 000 by 2000 .
= = = Crime = = =
The most common crimes committed in Juniata County between 2005 and November 2007 were property crimes , with 996 recorded offenses . Other common crimes in the county are assaults , with 383 offenses between 2005 and 2007 and alcohol @-@ related crimes , with 306 offenses between 2005 and 2007 . Rarer crimes in the county include drug violations ( 71 offenses between 2005 and 2007 ) , sex offenses ( 64 offenses between 2005 and 2007 ) and arson , with only 12 offenses between 2005 and 2007 . There were no homicides in the county in these years .
= = = Recreation = = =
There are municipal parks in all four boroughs of Juniata County . There are also five boat launches in the county , all of which are on or near the Juniata River . There are two golf courses in the central part of the county and one campground in the southern part of the county .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Roads = = =
The main roads in the eastern part of Juniata County are Pennsylvania Route 235 , Pennsylvania Route 35 , Pennsylvania Route 104 , and U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 . The main roads in western Juniata County are U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , Pennsylvania Route 74 , Pennsylvania Route 850 , and Pennsylvania Route 333 . U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 experiences the most traffic . It and U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 are considered major arterial roads . Pennsylvania Route 75 and Pennsylvania Route 35 northeast of U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 are minor arterial roads . Major rural collector roads in the county include Pennsylvania Route 850 Pennsylvania Route 74 , Pennsylvania Route 235 , and Pennsylvania Route 35 southwest of U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 . Minor rural collector roads include Pennsylvania Route 333 and numerous less prominent roads . There are also many local roads throughout the county , most of which are in its northeastern and central parts .
There are approximately 735 miles ( 1 @,@ 183 km ) of roads in Juniata County 's road system . 372 @.@ 6 miles ( 599 @.@ 6 km ) of the roads are locally owned , 354 @.@ 9 miles ( 571 @.@ 2 km ) are owned by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation , and 8 @.@ 0 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) are owned by Pennsylvania or the United States . 508 @.@ 3 miles ( 818 @.@ 0 km ) are local roads , 89 @.@ 7 miles ( 144 @.@ 4 km ) are minor collector roads , 68 @.@ 7 miles ( 110 @.@ 6 km ) are major collector roads , 46 @.@ 8 miles ( 75 @.@ 3 km ) are minor arterial roads , and 21 @.@ 4 miles ( 34 @.@ 4 km ) are major arterial roads .
The daily traffic of Juniata County 's arterial roads ranges from several dozen to several thousand vehicles per day . Pennsylvania Route 75 carries 50 vehicles per day in the southwestern part of the county and 7 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in the northeastern part of the county . Pennsylvania Route 104 carries 2 @,@ 900 vehicles per day in the county . The most heavily traveled road there , however , is U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , which carries 11 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . The least @-@ trafficked major rural connector road is State Route 2026 , which is used by 350 vehicles per day and the most @-@ trafficked major rural connector road is Pennsylvania Route 35 , which gets up to 7100 vehicles per day . Traffic on minor rural collector roads ranges from 100 vehicles per day on Academia Road to over 1000 vehicles per day on several roads . The volume of vehicle traffic in the county has changed little since the late 1990s .
U.S. Route 11 and U.S. Route 15 allow Juniata County residents to access numerous locations in New York , Pennsylvania , and Maryland . It receives approximately 12 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in the county . Pennsylvania Route 35 allows access to Mifflin and Mifflintown from other locations in the county . Pennsylvania Route 75 is used by trucks in the county to access the Pennsylvania Turnpike .
There are 21 road intersections in Juniata County that were the site of five or more crashes between January 1 , 2002 , and December 31 , 2006 .
= = = Bridges = = =
There are 254 state @-@ owned bridges in Juniata County , of which 77 are considered structurally deficient by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation .
The longest bridge in Juniata County is the First Street Bridge over the Juniata River in Port Royal . It is 1 @,@ 087 feet ( 331 m ) long and was built in 1937 . The second @-@ longest bridge in the county crosses the Juniata River at Thompsontown Station and is 808 @.@ 1 feet ( 246 @.@ 3 m ) long . It was built in 1994 . All other bridges in the county are less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) long .
= = = Other transportation = = =
For air travel , Juniata County is served by the privately owned Mifflintown Airport and the Stottle Memorial Heliport in Tuscarora Township .
The BicyclePA Route J runs through Juniata County on U.S. Route 11 and U.S. Route 15 .
= = Education = =
= = = Schools and school districts = = =
There are two public school districts in Juniata County : the Juniata County School District and the Greenwood School District . Both of these are K @-@ 12 schools . The Greenwood School District serves Greenwood Township and parts of Perry County and the Juniata County School District serves the rest of Juniata County .
The Juniata County School District has nine elementary schools , one junior high school , and two high schools . In the 2006 – 2007 school year , there were 3 @,@ 123 students in the school district . The largest high school in the district is the Juniata High School , with 637 students . The largest elementary school in the district is the Fermanagh @-@ Mifflintown Elementary School , with 238 students and the smallest one is the Susquehanna Township Elementary School , with 63 students .
The Greenwood School District has an elementary school , a middle school , and a high school . They have 449 , 137 , and 278 students , respectively .
Additionally , there are 12 private schools in Juniata County , most of which are religious schools run by groups such as the Amish or other types of Mennonites . Nearly all are based in Mifflintown , McAlisterville , or Thompsontown , although one is based in Port Royal . In May 2014 , the largest private school in the county was the Juniata Mennonite School , which had 220 students , and the smallest private school was the Breezy Hollow Amish School , which had 18 students .
There are no colleges in Juniata County , although there are twelve in the county 's general vicinity .
= = = Statistics = = =
In 1990 , 16 @.@ 91 % of Juniata County residents over 25 years of age had less than a ninth @-@ grade education . 17 @.@ 93 % of residents over 25 years of age had a ninth @-@ grade education to a twelfth @-@ grade education and 46 @.@ 35 % had graduated from high school . 7 @.@ 80 % of the residents had attended college , but did not have a degree and 3 @.@ 76 % had an associate degree . 4 @.@ 67 % of Juniata County residents aged 25 years or more had a bachelor 's degree and 2 @.@ 59 % had a graduate or professional degree .
By 2000 , the percentage of people with less than a ninth @-@ grade education had decreased to 5 % and the percentage with a ninth @-@ grade to twelfth @-@ grade education had decreased to 13 % . The percentage of people who graduated high school decreased to 38 % , but the percentage of people who attended college but did not get a degree increased to 16 % . The percentage of people with an associate degree increased to 6 % , the percentage of people who had a bachelor 's degree increased to 14 % , and the percentage of people with a graduate or professional degree increased to 8 % .
Of the townships and boroughs in Juniata County , Lack Township has the highest percentage of people without a high school diploma ( 42 @.@ 43 % ) . Spruce Hill Township has the lowest percentage of people without a high school diploma ( 18 @.@ 00 % ) . Mifflintown has the highest percentage of people with a higher education .
= = Biology = =
There are five areas in Juniata County that are protected by the Central Pennsylvania Conservancy : the Baker Easement , the Brady Bryner Preserve , the Gregory Alan Grening Preserve , the Grening Preserve Addition , the McLaughlin Easement , and the Port Royal Wetlands . The combined area of these lands is 415 acres . There are State Game Lands in the northwestern part of the county and state forests in the county 's northern and southern portions .
Four streams in Juniata County are considered high @-@ quality coldwater fisheries . There are also some Class A Wild Trout Waters in the northern and western parts of the county .
The Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory lists 59 natural heritage sites in Juniata County . 11 are considered " exceptional significance " , 19 are considered " high significance " , 12 are considered " notable significance " , and 17 are considered " local significance " . Sites on the inventory are found in every township in the county except for Greenwood Township .
The largest remaining intact wetland in Juniata County may be the Cedar Spring Run Wetland , which is in Walker Township . The Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory considers it to be an " exceptional significance " site . Numerous wetland plants that are rare in the area inhabit this wetland , including Quercus shumardii . The wetland is a red maple @-@ black ash palustrine forest community . Another wetland on the Natural Heritage Inventory 's list of exceptional significance sites is the Locust Run Wetlands , which is in Walker Township and Delaware Township . These wetlands consist of two large groups of temporary pools and several permanent ones . The West Branch Mahantango Creek Vernal Pools are also in the county . This system consist of dozens of temporary pools that are inhabited by Leucothoe racemosa . The Slim Valley Wetlands are in Fayette Township and Fermanagh Township . They contain spotted pondweed and serve as a breeding ground for amphibians .
There are four sites on Tuscarora Creek and its tributaries on the " exceptional significance " list in the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory . The Doyle Run Floodplain is located on the creek in Beale Township . It contains a silver maple floodplain forest and is home to Ranunculus flabellaris and many species that are rare in Pennsylvania . Barton Hollow , a tributary of Tuscarora Creek in Lack Township , is home to plant species such as Carex careyana and Pinus echinata and animal species such as the Emperor Butterfly and a mussel species known as the Triangle Floater . Tuscarora Creek supports Carex shortiana downstream of Blair Hollow in Lack Township , as well as 350 plant species and 50 animal species . The creek 's valley downstream of Pennybaker Island in Lack Township is home to Samolus parviflorus and Quercus shumardii .
A woodland known as the Kurtz Valley Woodland is located in Delaware Township , Juniata County . It is listed as an " exceptional significance " site on the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory and contains a red cedar – redbud shrubland community , which is rare in Pennsylvania . The McAlister Limestone Glade is another " exceptional significance " site in the county . It is located in Fayette Township and contains a side @-@ oats grama calcareous grassland , which is described as a " very important " natural feature . The Westfall Prairie is also located in Fayette Township and is home to a number of rare species .
Allegheny Woodrats live on the slopes of the Lewistown Narrows in Milford Township , Juniata County and Northern Myotis bats feed there . The Lewistown Narrows are an " exceptional significance " site according to the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory .
= = Communities = =
Under Pennsylvania law , there are four types of incorporated municipalities : cities , boroughs , townships , and , in at most two cases , towns .
= = = Boroughs = = =
Boroughs in Juniata County include :
Mifflin
Mifflintown ( county seat )
Port Royal
Thompsontown
= = = Townships = = =
Townships in Juniata County include :
= = = Census @-@ designated places = = =
Census @-@ designated places are geographical areas designated by the U.S. Census Bureau for the purposes of compiling demographic data . They are not actual jurisdictions under Pennsylvania . CDPs in Juniata County include :
East Salem
East Waterford
McAlisterville
Mexico
Richfield
= = = Population ranking = = =
The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Juniata County .
† county seat
= Olivia Shakespear =
Olivia Shakespear ( born Olivia Tucker ; 17 March 1863 – 3 October 1938 ) was a British novelist , playwright , and patron of the arts . She wrote six books that are described as " marriage problem " novels . Her works sold poorly , sometimes only a few hundred copies . Her last novel , Nurse Harry , is considered her best . She wrote two plays in collaboration with Florence Farr .
Olivia was the daughter of a retired Adjutant General , and had little formal education . She was well @-@ read however , and developed a love of literature . In 1885 she married London barrister Henry Hope Shakespear , and in 1886 gave birth to their only child , Dorothy . In 1894 her literary interests led to a friendship with William Butler Yeats that became physically intimate in 1896 . He declared that they " had many days of happiness " to come , but the affair ended in 1897 . They nevertheless remained lifelong friends and corresponded frequently . Yeats went on to marry Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees , Olivia 's step @-@ niece and Dorothy 's best friend .
Olivia began hosting weekly salon frequented by Ezra Pound and other modernist writers and artists in 1909 , and became influential in London literary society . Olivia 's daughter Dorothy Shakespear married Pound in 1914 , despite the less than enthusiastic blessing of her parents . After their marriage , Pound would use funds received from Olivia to support T. S. Eliot and James Joyce . When Dorothy gave birth to a son , Omar Pound , in France in 1926 , Olivia assumed guardianship of the boy . He lived with Olivia until her death on 3 October 1938 .
= = Early life and marriage = =
Olivia 's father , Henry Tod Tucker ( b . 1808 ) , was born in Edinburgh and joined the British Indian Army as an ensign at age 16 . He rose to the rank of Adjutant General in Bengal , but retired in 1856 at age 48 owing to ill health . Within a year of returning to Britain he married Harriet Johnson ( b . 1821 ) of Bath . The couple moved to the Isle of Wight where their two daughters were born : Florence in 1858 and Olivia on 17 March 1863 . Soon after they relocated to Sussex where their third child , Henry , was born in 1866 . In 1877 the family moved to London and raised their daughters in a social world that encouraged the pursuit of leisure . Olivia often visited her many Johnson relatives in the country , and became particularly fond of her cousin Lionel Johnson — the only one of many uncles and cousins not to join the military — who went on to become a poet and friend to W. B. Yeats . It is likely that Olivia received little formal education ; she may have been educated by tutors , and appears to have become well @-@ read as a young woman .
In 1885 Olivia married Henry Hope Shakespear , a man described by Terence Brown in The Life of W.B. Yeats : A Critical Biography as " worthy " but " dull " . Born in India in 1849 , he was descended from 17th @-@ century East London ropemakers and , like Olivia , came from a military family , although of less prestige and wealth than the Tuckers and Johnsons . John Harwood , Olivia 's biographer and author of Olivia Shakespear and W. B. Yeats : After Long Silence believes Henry probably saw an opportunity to increase his social standing and annual income in wedding Olivia . He had attended Harrow , studied law , and joined a law practice in 1875 . The couple were married on 8 December 1885 , and honeymooned in Boulogne and Paris . Olivia 's father endowed them with a comfortable income in the form of a trust . Nine months after the wedding their only child , Dorothy , was born on 14 September 1886 ; they likely discontinued physical relations after the honeymoon , and Olivia realised quite soon that the marriage was devoid of passion . Yeats ' biographer Alexander Jeffares writes , " she was unselfcentered , unselfish , deeply imaginative and sympathetic and , until she met Yeats , she seems to have accepted the fact of her unhappy loveless marriage " .
Shakespear dissolved his legal partnership in the late 1880s — his partner may have been embezzling from clients ' trusts — and formed his own practice . Harwood writes that Shakespear 's attitude to the situation showed a certain amount of " timidity " on his part and a definite " dislike of scenes " . During this period Olivia moved from socialising with military wives to literary women : Valentine Fox ( unhappily married to a Kent brewer ) and Pearl Craighie , a divorced American writer who published as John Oliver Hobbes .
= = W. B. Yeats = =
= = = Friendship = = =
Accompanied by Pearl Craighie , on 16 April 1894 Olivia attended a literary lunch to launch The Yellow Book . Olivia was seated opposite W. B. Yeats . Recently returned from visiting Maud Gonne in Paris , Yeats was in London for the production of his play The Land of Heart 's Desire . The two were not introduced that evening but Yeats , probably through Lionel Johnson ( who became disruptively drunk at the dinner ) , enquired about the woman seated opposite . Yeats was deeply affected , later writing in his memoirs of the encounter : " I noticed opposite me .... a woman of great beauty ... She was exquisitely dressed ... and suggested to me an incomparable distinction . " Soon after Olivia attended a showing of The Land of Heart 's Desire , and found herself moved by the performance . She wanted to meet the " tall and black haired " poet and asked Johnson to invite Yeats to tea on 10 May 1894 , adding in her handwriting to the invitation , " I shall be so glad to see you " . In his Memoirs Yeats referred to her as " Diana Vernon " , writing , " In this book I cannot giver her real name — Diana Vernon sounds pleasantly in my ears and will suit as well as any other " .
They quickly established a strong friendship , with Olivia listening sympathetically to his obsessive love for Maud . When Yeats later described their friendship , he wrote , " I told her of my love sorrow , indeed it was my obsession , never leaving by day or night " . Writing in The Last Courtly Lover , Gloria Kline suggests Olivia and Yeats began a friendship based on the discussion of literature and his willingness to review her work . John Unterecker , writing in " Faces and False Faces " , sees friendship as the most important aspect in the relationship , explaining , " she found in Yeats , as he in her , a person who could discuss literature and ideas ... she was one of the few persons with whom he could be completely relaxed " . Comparing the difference between Maud and Olivia he writes , " Maud Gonne offered Yeats subject matter for poetry , the ' interesting ' life he had hoped for , and Olivia Shakespear offered him repose " . According to Kline , Yeats compared Olivia to Diana and Maud to Helen ; he was attracted to dark coloured women , describing Olivia 's skin as " a little darker than a Greek 's would have been and her hair was very dark " . Literary scholar Humphrey Carpenter writes that Yeats ' impression of Olivia was one of a woman with " a profound culture , a knowledge of French , English , and Italian and seemed always at leisure . Her nature was gentle and contemplative , and she was content , it seems , to have no more of life than leisure and the talk of her friends " . Nevertheless she was working on her third novel , Beauty 's Hour , and it is likely that Yeats read the manuscript , suggested revisions , and may have contributed to the characterisations . Kline believes the two began a friendship based on the discussion of literature and his willingness to review her work ; Yeats biographer Foster adds they were drawn together by a mutual interest in the occult . For Yeats , then aged 30 , an important aspect of their friendship was the opportunity it presented for a sexual relationship with a woman , something he had not then experienced .
In August Yeats returned to Ireland , continuing his correspondence with Olivia , writing to her about Maud who had recently given birth to a daughter , Iseult . In her letters Olivia may have been honest about her feelings toward him ; in April 1895 he wrote to her , " I no more complain of your writing of love , than I would complain of a portrait painter keeping to portraits " .
= = = Love affair = = =
Yeats delayed visiting Olivia in London a month later ; he instead tended to Johnson who was involved in the Wilde case and descending into the alcoholism that would kill him . Yeats appeared to have persuaded himself that Olivia and her cousin shared a flaw , writing , " here is the same weakness I thought ... Her beauty ... dark and still , had the nobility of defeated things , and how could it help but wring my heart . I took a fortnight to decide what I should do " . He constructed a plan to reconcile his desire with what he believed to be her wickedness : he would ask that she leave her husband to live with him . Until then their friendship would remain platonic .
Yeats finally visited Olivia at her Porchester Circle home a few weeks later to present his well @-@ thought out intentions but , to his bewilderment , Olivia declared her love for him . Unsure of himself , he took another absence , during which he decided that if Maud was unattainable , or unavailable due to circumstances , he would have Olivia , writing " but after all if I could not get the woman I loved it would be a comfort for a little while to devote myself to another " . For Yeats , Olivia was willing to lose her daughter , financial security , social standing , and the goodwill of her family . Although her husband had grounds to sue Yeats and consequently destroy his reputation , her best hope against complete ruin was Shakespear 's strong dislike of public scenes . Then Yeats lost his nerve again , suggesting instead each seek advice from a friend ( a " sponsor " ) . He probably chose Florence Farr to be his sponsor while Olivia chose Valentine Fox — Harwood speculates that the sponsors advised the two to go ahead with the affair , perhaps to Yeats ' discomfort . On 15 July 1895 , Yeats and Olivia travelled to Kent to visit Valentine Fox ; the trip Harwood says " would have been , emotionally speaking a highly charged outing " . Of the railway trip , Yeats wrote in his memoirs , " when on our first railway journey together — we were to spend the day at Kent — she gave the long passionate kiss of love , I was startled & a little shocked " . They went on to share more passionate kisses in art galleries and at her home .
Still distressed about Lionel , Yeats turned to Arthur Symons for companionship , moving into a room adjacent to his in October 1895 . One day while preoccupied and thinking about Maud he locked himself out for a visit just before Olivia and her sponsor arrived to visit ; as soon as she left he stayed up all night telling Symons about Maud . She arrived in London a few weeks later for a brief visit . Yeats was ambivalent about Olivia despite the advice of the sponsors ; with no money to support her , he suggested she seek a legal separation ( instead of a divorce ) , sparing her social ostracism and financial ruin . Ezra Pound biographer Jay Wilhelm suggests Shakespear knew that Olivia loved Yeats but seemed more concerned about the loss of social status in the event of divorce , causing Yeats and Olivia to decide that " it was kinder to simply deceive him than totally abandon him " . In January 1896 Yeats moved again , into a small flat in Woburn Place , so as to be nearer to her . Finally after a charged bed @-@ buying session , with Yeats describing " an embarrassed conversation upon the width " , and his nervousness preventing them at first from becoming lovers , he eventually wrote in January 1896 , " at last she came to me in my thirtieth year .... and we had many days of happiness " . Yeats ' happiness is apparent in the poems he wrote at that period , and for the duration of their affair , Olivia appears to have acted as a muse to the poet .
Six months later he was in back in Ireland , and in August Olivia was visiting Valentine Fox with her husband where she received news of her father 's death . She left for an extended stay in Torquay where she stayed until September before leaving for a visit to Scotland with her husband . Yeats left Ireland for Paris to visit Maud in November , and did not return to London until January 1897 , with Maud following close behind and arriving in London in February . Yeats wrote of Maud 's visit : " Maud wrote to me ... she was in London & would I come to dine . I dined with her & my trouble increased — she certainly had no thought of the mischief she was doing – & at last one morning .... [ Olivia ] found my mood did not answer hers and & burst into tears — ' There is someone else in your heart ' she said . It was the breaking between us for many years " . The affair ended that spring when Yeats again returned to Ireland . Olivia did not visit him again at Woburn Place for many years , according to Yeats biographer Richard Ellmann .
= = Pembroke Mansions = =
Olivia 's life is not well documented between 1897 and 1908 . It is known that she visited her cousin Lionel for the last time in 1897 before he was isolated by his alcoholism . He died alone of a cerebral haemorrhage in 1902 . In 1899 the family suffered an unspecified financial setback that forced them to move into an apartment in Bayswater to Pembroke Mansions , which a friend described by as " an uninviting Bayswater slum " . A few months later Olivia 's mother died . Within a week Olivia received a letter of condolence from Yeats , which may have been the first letter she received from him in two years , since 1897 . Several scholars and biographers speculate that they resumed their love affair at some point between 1903 and 1910 ; Pound biographer Wilhelm believes they reconciled as early as 1903 , while Yeats biographers Jeffares and Ross suggest the affair likely reignited for a period in 1906 .
For a short time in 1901 Olivia held a position as a book reviewer for The Kensington Review , a small literary magazine , until it succumbed to poor sales . After , she dabbled in the occult and became friendly with prominent London occultists . In 1902 she co @-@ wrote with Florence Farr — who for a time led the Order of Golden Dawn — two plays on the occult , The Beloved of Hathor and The Shrine of the Golden Hawk , which were subsequently published as a pair .
Although the family received an inheritance from Olivia 's mother , they continued to live in Bayswater . For a period Dorothy was at boarding school , after which she was sent to a finishing school in Geneva . To save money , the family often left London during the summer , to take long visits to relatives in the country , in particular her brother Henry Tucker . Not until 1905 did the family lease a house in Brunswick Gardens , near Kensington Palace , when Dorothy returned home to live with her parents .
= = Dorothy and Ezra Pound = =
Records of Olivia 's life resume through Dorothy 's letters and diaries surrounding the arrival of the American poet Ezra Pound in London in 1909 . Following her friends in Kensington society , Olivia opened her home once a week for a salon , beginning an important period in her life . When Yeats returned to London that year , Olivia became the centre of a blossoming literary movement . Yeats held a Monday evening salon ; those who attended usually also visited Olivia 's . She hosted , and became a nexus for , much of the pre @-@ war literary activity in London . Notable attendees included Pound , H.D. ( Hilda Doolitle ) , Yeats , Wyndham Lewis , Henri Gaudier @-@ Brzeska , Walter Morse Rummel , Richard Aldington , William Carlos Williams , T. E. Hulme and John Cournos . The gatherings were held in her drawing room , a place Pound described in a letter as " full of white magic " . Olivia was by now a well @-@ known occultist and hosted séances in her drawing room . She became well @-@ versed in astrology and palmistry , passing on what she knew to Dorothy who shared her interest . Both read grimoires ; Olivia was an expert at " drawing occult symbols " and quite familiar with the symbology of the occult .
Olivia met Pound in January 1909 at a Kensington salon hosted by a friend ; she invited him for tea on 16 February 1909 , and at his insistence introduced Pound to Yeats in May 1909 . Yeats had recently returned to London and began a thorough investigation of spiritualism and the occult , turning to Olivia for advice . She took the young American poet to Yeats ' rooms at Woburn Place , fostering their relationship .
Dorothy soon fell in love with Pound . In late 1909 and early 1910 Olivia and Dorothy attended his lectures at the London Polytechnic Institution ; in June 1910 they joined him in Sirmione , Italy . For reasons unclear to biographers Olivia forbade the two from writing to each other during his extended visit to New York from 1910 to 1911 . Despite the restriction Dorothy seems to have considered herself engaged to Pound , although uncertain whether he intended to stay in New York or return to London .
In 1910 Yeats thought his horoscope suggested a return to Olivia ; he distanced himself from Maud and in June began to see Olivia more frequently . Pound was fond of Olivia , which may have caused Yeats some jealousy as when , for example , Pound met the two at the theatre and took them afterward to tea — an occasion when Yeats was extremely rude to Pound . A year later , Olivia introduced Yeats to Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees , her 18 @-@ year @-@ old step @-@ niece and Dorothy 's best friend , whom Yeats eventually married .
Pound returned from America in 1911 and resumed his visits to Olivia and Dorothy , adhering to Olivia 's restrictions . That October Pound formally asked to marry Dorothy ; her father refused on the basis of Pound 's meagre income . Neither Dorothy nor Pound gave up : he again asked for permission to marry her in March 1912 but was again rejected . In Dorothy 's mind they continued to be engaged , although they were only allowed short visits in the Family drawing room once a week or every two weeks .
Olivia became concerned about her daughter after Hilda Doolittle , who also believed she was engaged to Pound , arrived in London in 1911 . Olivia welcomed H.D. to her home , but she witnessed the interactions between Dorothy , Pound , H.D. and Richard Aldington , whom H.D. married in 1913 . In September 1912 Olivia wrote a stern letter to Pound , in which she pointedly told him to break off his friendship with Dorothy :
You told me you were prepared to see less of Dorothy this winter . I don 't know if you wd rather leave it to me to say I don 't think it advisable she should see so much of you etc. or whether you wd rather do it in your own way .... I don 't know if she still considers herself engaged to you — but she obviously can 't marry you — it 's hardly decent ! There 's another point too — which is the personal inconvenience & bother to myself — I had all last winter , practically to keep 2 days a week for you to come & see her ... She must marry — She & I can 't possibly go on living this feminine life practically à deux for ever , & we haven 't money enough to separate ... You ought to go away — Englishmen don 't understand yr American ways , & any man who wanted to marry her wd be put off by the fact of yr friendship ( or whatever you call it ) with her . If you had ₤ 500 a year I should be delighted for you to marry her !
In 1913 , Olivia introduced Pound to vorticist sculptor Henri Gaudier @-@ Brzeska at an art exhibition at the Albert Hall . At the same exhibition the sculptor met Nina Hamnett , whom he subsequently used as a model for a series of nudes bronzes , one of which Olivia bought . In 1914 Olivia translated a grimoire for Yeats and Pound , who spent November 1913 to January 1914 in the countryside at Stone Cottage in Ashdown Forest — Pound acting as secretary to Yeats — researching the occult . They read several grimoires , and Olivia provided for them a translation of the Abbot of Villar 's 1670 grimoire Le Comte de Gabalis . Her translation was serialised in the literary magazine The Egoist later that year .
By 1914 Olivia seems to have realised that Dorothy was determined to marry Pound , and finally consented ; ironically Pound was then earning less than he had in 1911 . Hope Shakespear relented when the couple agreed to a church wedding rather than a civil ceremony , which took place on 20 April 1914 . Olivia gave them two early circus drawings by Pablo Picasso .
= = Later life and death = =
After Dorothy 's wedding much of the documentation of Olivia 's life ceases . She moved out of Brunswick Gardens in 1924 , throwing away personal correspondence and giving away hundreds of books . Hope Shakespear died on 5 July 1923 ; within months Olivia moved to an apartment in West Kensington , taking with her two maids who had been with the family for decades . Her life continued unchanged , filled with social events . In September 1926 , Dorothy gave birth to a son , Omar Pound , who in 1927 was brought from France to be raised in England . Olivia became his guardian and Dorothy spent summers with her mother and son .
In 1926 Yeats spent several weeks in London , likely visiting Olivia frequently . He showed regret for his behaviour in 1897 , writing to her , " I came across two early photographs of you yesterday ... Who ever had a like profile ? — a profile from a Sicilian coin . One looks back to one 's youth as to a cup that a mad man dying of thirst left half tasted . I wonder if you feel like that ? " The two maintained their correspondence , as they had for many years .
Olivia continued to socialise and had many friends , one of whom , Wyndham Lewis , painted her portrait ; he enjoyed her company despite finding it difficult to relate to others . She stopped writing but remained an avid reader , turning to detective stories for light relief although she also kept up with literary authors . She became friendly with Thomas MacGreevy , whom she invited for tea , later writing to him , " WBY has given me the new edition of Reveries and the Veil , & I am re @-@ reading it all . It is very beautifully done . He was about 29 when I first knew him " . McGreevy told Yeats that Olivia was " always a symbol of elegance , a kind of gold and ivory image " . Harwood writes of her , " Olivia Shakespear was avant @-@ garde in literature , agnostic in religion , and conservative in politics , at least later in life " .
Olivia 's correspondence with Pound continued throughout the 1920s and 1930s , when she acted in part as his agent in London . In 1924 , at Pound 's request , she welcomed George Antheil into her social circle , procured artwork and books that were sent on to Dorothy and Ezra in Rapallo , and mediated in a dispute between Pound and Lewis . She was uninterested in Pound 's politics and economic views and particularly disliked his later Cantos . After her husband 's death , Olivia 's income was sufficient to support a comfortable lifestyle . During the 1920s and 1930s she gradually increased Dorothy 's income ( which was also increased by various family bequests ) , and in the 1930s she made investments in Dorothy 's name , sending the proceeds to Dorothy and Pound . In a very real sense , according to Harwood , Olivia Shakespear is the " unsung heroine " of the modernist period , because much of the money Ezra Pound generously used to support struggling writers such as T.S. Eliot and James Joyce came from her .
Olivia died of complications brought on by gall bladder disease on 3 October 1938 . The day before her death she wrote in a letter to Dorothy : " On Monday I was taken suddenly ill with gall bladder trouble — awful pain — sent for Doctor Barnes — he gave me dope & an injection and pain gradually went ... He says I am going on all right , but of course I feel rather a wreck " . She died the following day of a heart attack . John Unterecker believes Olivia 's death shattered Yeats , who died only months later , because she added warmth to his life . Yeats wrote of her death :
Olivia Shakespear has died suddenly . For more than forty years she has been the centre of my life in London and during all that time we have never had a quarrel , sadness sometimes but never a difference . When I first met her she was in her late twenties but in looks a lovely young girl . When she died she was a lovely old woman ... She came of a long line of soldiers and during the last war thought it her duty to stay in London through all the air raids . She was not more lovely than distinguished — no matter what happened she never lost her solitude ... For the moment I cannot bear the thought of London . I will find her memory everywhere .
Dorothy was ill when her mother died , unable to travel to London . She sent Pound to organise the funeral and to clear out the house . Ezra sorted through Olivia 's correspondence and returned to Yeats many of her letters . Unterecker writes that Yeats made an effort to keep the correspondence private : " Shortly before his death he methodically destroyed a large group of letters to Olivia Shakespear . These , returned to him after her death ... Yeats wanted no one to read " .
= = Novels : description and reception = =
Olivia had six novels published between 1894 and 1910 , which as described by Foster are about women unhappy in love , with insipid and uninspiring male characters . The heroines — frequently orphaned , educated by elderly tutors , and depicted in country house libraries — fall in love with much older men in the later novels .
The first two novels were published in 1894 to mixed reviews . Love on a Mortal Lease ( title from George Meredith ) was released in June , followed in November by The Journey of High Honour , at 30 @,@ 000 words considerably shorter than the 355 pages of Love on a Mortal Lease . Each novel sold only a few hundred copies . Harwood describes the early work such as Love on a Mortal Lease as showing stylistic similarities to contemporary women novelists such as Craighie and Rhonda Broughton , with witty dialogue in Craighie 's style , although he thinks Olivia brought a more serious voice to her work . He describes Love on a Mortal Lease as a work in which the heroine is well @-@ characterised but the background is weak .
She dedicated The False Laurel , published in 1896 , to Lionel Johnson . The plot features a poetess who falls in love with and marries an insipid young poet , giving up her own writing to attend to his needs . She becomes bored , writes a successful play , and then goes mad . The False Laurel was the least successful of her books , selling fewer than 200 copies . It received a poor review from The Bookman but a good one from The Athenaeneum .
Rupert Armstrong was published in 1899 by Harper and Brothers , dedicated to Valentine Fox . In this , the fourth of her novels , Harwood believes her writing and voice became more original . The complicated plot — a mother and daughter struggle for " possession of the [ father 's ] artistic soul " — shows hints of incestuous love , a theme found in her later work . Written during the affair with Yeats , Harwood sees the characters presented " in a precise , bitter intensity unlike anything in the earlier work " .
The Devotees was published by Heinemann in December 1900 . Like Rupert Armstrong , the plot of The Devotees depicts a mildly incestuous love : a young man and girl , raised together since childhood , devote themselves for decades to his drug @-@ addicted mother before they marry . The reviews were mostly unkind .
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Olivia 's final novel , Uncle Hilary , was published in 1910 and is considered her best work . Of Uncle Hilary Jane Eldridge Miller writes in Rebel Women : Feminism , Modernism , and the Edwardian Novel , " Shakespear demonstrates the ways in which that ideal leads to disillusionment and resentment " . In the complicated plot a young woman unwittingly marries her stepfather , leaves him , and accepts a marriage proposal from her guardian . Harwood believes her loveless marriage , the love affair with Yeats , the frustration with Dorothy , and Pound 's unfaithfulness to Dorothy , built in her a strength and acceptance of life that bordered on the spiritual and she no longer needed to write . Miller writes that in the novel Olivia explores " marriage laws , divorce , and bigamy " , with a focus on the nature of romantic love — rejected in favour of spiritual and intellectual pursuits . Leon Surette writes in The Birth of Modernism , Olivia 's Uncle Hilary highlights the ties between spiritualism , occultism and feminism , seeing Uncle Hilary as a feminist novel which he describes as " quite readable " .
Jane Miller characterises the works as " marriage problem " novels in which the wife confronts the reality of marriage , its restrictions , and the need to achieve independence . By finding interests outside marriage the wife loses the overwhelming need for love within the marriage . Miller writes that in Uncle Hilary Olivia examines issues such as marriage laws , divorce , and bigamy , while focusing on the nature of romantic love . It was in Uncle Hilary that Olivia wrote of love : " Love is the worst slavery that exists ... it is the most persistent of illusions " .
= = List of works = =
Novels
Love on a Mortal Lease ( 1894 )
Beauty 's Hour ( 1894 )
The Journey of High Honour ( 1894 )
The False Laurel ( 1896 )
Rupert Armstrong ( 1898 )
The Devotees ( 1904 )
Uncle Hilary ( 1909 )
Plays
The Beloved of Hathor ( 1902 )
The Shrine of the Golden Hawk ( 1902 )
= Coelurus =
Coelurus ( / sᵻˈljʊərəs / si @-@ LEWR @-@ əs ) is a genus of coelurosaurian dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period ( mid @-@ late Kimmeridgian faunal stage , 153 – 150 million years ago ) . The name means " hollow tail " , referring to its hollow tail vertebrae ( Greek κοιλος , koilos
= hollow + ουρα , oura =
tail ) . Although its name is linked to one of the main divisions of theropods ( Coelurosauria ) , it has historically been poorly understood , and sometimes confused with its better @-@ known contemporary Ornitholestes . Like many dinosaurs studied in the early years of paleontology , it has had a confusing taxonomic history , with several species being named and later transferred to other genera or abandoned . Only one species is currently recognized as valid : the type species , C. fragilis , described by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1879 . It is known from one partial skeleton found in the Morrison Formation of Wyoming , United States . It was a small bipedal carnivore with elongate legs .
= = Description = =
Coelurus is known from most of the skeleton of a single individual , including numerous vertebrae , partial pelvic and shoulder girdles , and much of the arms and legs , stored at the Peabody Museum of Natural History ; however , the relative completeness of the skeleton was not known until 1980 . The fossils were recovered from Reed 's Quarry 13 at Como Bluff , Wyoming . Additionally , two arm bones possibly belonging to this genus are known from the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah . It was not a large dinosaur . Its weight has been estimated at around 13 to 20 kilograms ( 29 to 44 lb ) , with a length of about 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) and a hip height of 0 @.@ 7 meters ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) . From reconstructions of the skeleton , Coelurus had a relatively long neck and torso due to its long vertebrae , a long slender hindlimb due to its long metatarsus , and potentially a small slender skull .
The skull is unknown except for possibly a portion of lower jaw found at the same site as the rest of the known Coelurus material . Although it has the same preservation and coloring as the fossils known to belong to the Coelurus skeleton , it is very slender , which may mean it does not belong to the skeleton ; this bone is 7 @.@ 9 centimeters long ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) but only 1 @.@ 1 centimeters tall ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) . In general , its vertebrae were long and low , with low neural spines and thin walls to the bodies of the vertebrae . Its neck vertebrae were very pneumatic , with numerous hollow spaces on their surfaces ( pleurocoels ) ; these hollows were not evenly distributed among the vertebrae and varied in size . The neck vertebrae were very elongate , with bodies four times longer than wide , and they articulated with concave faces on both ends ( amphicoely ) . The back vertebrae were not as elongate , lacked surface hollows , and had less developed concave faces and bodies that were hourglass @-@ shaped . The tail vertebrae also lacked surface hollows .
The only bone known from the shoulder girdle is a fragment of scapula . The upper arm had a distinct S @-@ shaped curve in side view and was slightly longer than the forearm ( 11 @.@ 9 centimeters [ 4 @.@ 7 in ] versus 9 @.@ 6 centimeters [ 3 @.@ 8 in ] ) . The wrist had a semilunate carpal † similar to that of Deinonychus , and the fingers were long and slender . The only bone known from the pelvic girdle is paired and fused pubis bones , which had a prominent , long " foot " at the end . The thigh bones had an S @-@ shape when viewed from the front . The metatarsals were unusually long and slender , nearly the length of the thigh bones ( the best preserved thigh bone is about 21 centimeters long [ 8 @.@ 3 in ] ) .
= = = Coelurus , Ornitholestes , and Tanycolagreus = = =
The three best @-@ known small theropods of the Morrison Formation — Coelurus , Ornitholestes , and Tanycolagreus — were generalized coelurosaurs , and they have been mistaken for each other at various times . Now that Coelurus and Ornitholestes have been more fully described , it is possible to distinguish them by various characteristics of their anatomy . For example , they had visibly different proportions : Coelurus had a longer back and neck than Ornitholestes , and longer , more slender legs and feet . Coelurus and Tanycolagreus are more similar , but differ in a variety of details . Such details include the shape of the upper arm , forearm , and thigh bones ; the location of muscle attachments on the thigh bone , proportionally longer back vertebrae ; and , again , the very long metatarsus of Coelurus .
= = Classification = =
Since the growth of phylogenetic studies in the 1980s , Coelurus has usually been found to be a coelurosaurian of uncertain affinities , not fitting with the better @-@ known clades of the Cretaceous . Along with several other generalized coelurosaurians such as the compsognathids , Ornitholestes , and Proceratosaurus , it has had multiple placements around the base of Coelurosauria . The phylogenetic analysis conducted by Rauhut ( 2003 ) and Smith et al . ( 2007 ) found that Coelurus was more closely related to compsognathids than to other coelurosaurs . Oliver Rauhut ( 2003 ) proposed that Coeluridae was composed of Coelurus plus the compsognathids , but he and others have not since found the compsognathids to group with Coelurus . However , a work published by Phil Senter in 2007 following the description of Tanycolagreus found it and Coelurus to be closely related at the base of Tyrannosauroidea . Senter proposed that Coelurus and Tanycolagreus were the only coelurids and were actually tyrannosauroids , but the phylogenetic analysis of Turner et al . ( 2007b ) found that Coelurus was a basal coelurosaur , although more derived than the tyrannosaurids . Zanno in 2010 recovered Coelurus as a basal maniraptoran . Coelurus is sometimes put into its own family , Coeluridae , although the membership of the family has not been stable .
Before the use of phylogenetic analyses , Coeluridae and Coelurosauria were taxonomic wastebaskets used for small theropods that did not belong to other groups ; thus , they accumulated many dubious genera . As late as the 1980s , popular books recognized over a dozen " coelurids " , including such disparate forms as the noasaurid Laevisuchus and the oviraptorosaurian Microvenator , and considered them descendants of the coelophysids . A wastebasket Coeluridae lingered into the early 1990s in some sources ( and appears in at least one 2006 source ) but since then it has only been recognized in a much reduced form . Coeluridae received a formal phylogenetic definition in 2015 , when it was defined as all species more closely related to Coelurus fragilis than to Proceratosaurus bradleyi , Tyrannosaurus rex , Allosaurus fragilis , Compsognathus longipes , Ornithomimus edmontonicus , or Deinonychus antirrhopus by Hendrickx , Hartman and Mateus . It remains unclear whether or not this group contains any species other than Coelurus itself , and while Tanycolagreus is often included , support for this relationship has been weak in most of the studies that recovered it .
Below is a cladogram placing Coelurus in Coelurosauria by Cau et al. in 2015 .
= = History = =
Coelurus was described in 1879 by Othniel Charles Marsh , an American paleontologist and naturalist known for his " Bone Wars " with Edward Drinker Cope . At the time , he only described what he interpreted as vertebrae from the back and tail , found at the same location as the type specimen of his new genus and species Camptonotus dispar ( later renamed Camptosaurus because Camptonotus was already in use for a cricket ) . Marsh was impressed with the hollow interiors of the thin @-@ walled vertebrae , a characteristic that gave the type species its name : Coelurus fragilis . He thought of his new genus as an " animal about as large as a wolf , and probably carnivorous " . Coelurus would prove to be the first named small theropod from the Morrison Formation , although at the time Marsh was not certain that it was a dinosaur . He returned to it in 1881 and provided illustrations of some bones , along with putting it in a new order ( Coeluria ) and family ( Coeluridae ) .
From there , the story becomes more complex . Apparently , the skeleton was scattered throughout the quarry , with the remains being recovered from September 1879 to September 1880 . Marsh elected to place some of the material in a new species , C. agilis , on the strength of a pair of fused pubic bones he thought belonged to an animal three times the size of C. fragilis . He returned to the genus in 1888 to add C " . gracilis , based on unknown remains only represented today by a single claw bone pertaining to a small theropod from the Early Cretaceous Arundel Formation of Maryland . This species is not currently accepted as representing Coelurus in reviews of the genus , but has not been given its own genus .
Despite their professional animosity , Cope also assigned species to Coelurus ; in 1887 , he named fossils from the Late Triassic of New Mexico as C. bauri and C. longicollis . He later gave them their own genus , Coelophysis .
In 1903 , Henry Fairfield Osborn named a second genus of small theropod from the Morrison Formation , Ornitholestes . This genus was based on a partial skeleton from Bone Cabin Quarry , north of Como Bluff . Ornitholestes became intertwined with Coelurus in 1920 , when Charles Gilmore , in his influential study of theropod dinosaurs , concluded that the two were synonyms . This was followed in the literature for decades . The two genera were not formally compared , however , nor was there a full accounting of what actually belonged to Coelurus , until John Ostrom 's study in 1980 .
Gilmore had suspected that C. fragilis and C. agilis were the same , but Ostrom was able to demonstrate this synonymy . This greatly expanded the known material pertaining to C. fragilis , and Ostrom was able to demonstrate that Ornitholestes was quite different from Coelurus . At the time , Dale Russell had proposed that C. agilis was a species of Elaphrosaurus based on the incomplete information then published ; Ostrom was also able to demonstrate that this was not the case . Additionally , he showed that one of the three vertebrae Marsh had illustrated for C. fragilis was actually a composite of two vertebrae , one of which was later shown to come from another quarry and belonged not to Coelurus but to another , unnamed small theropod . This unnamed genus would not be the last small theropod from the Morrison Formation to be confused with Coelurus ; a later discovery ( 1995 ) of a partial skeleton in Wyoming was first thought to be a new larger specimen of Coelurus , but further study showed it belonged to a different but related genus , Tanycolagreus .
= = = Species = = =
Only one species of Coelurus , the type species C. fragilis , is still recognized as valid today , although six other species have been named over the years . C. agilis , as discussed , was named by Marsh in 1884 for what turned out to be additional parts of the skeleton of C. fragilis . Cope 's C. bauri and C. longicollis , named in 1887 from Late Triassic fossils from New Mexico , were transferred by Cope in 1889 to his new genus Coelophysis . C. daviesi was named by Richard Lydekker in 1888 for Harry Seeley 's Thecospondylus daviesi , a neck vertebra from the Early Cretaceous of England , but this species was later transferred to its own genus , Thecocoelurus . C. gracilis , another Early Cretaceous species , was also named in 1888 . It was coined by Marsh for what seems to be an assortment of limb remains , but Gilmore could only find a single claw when he reviewed the species in 1920 . This species has been proposed as outside Coelurus since the 1920s ( when Gilmore assigned it to Chirostenotes ) , and has been regarded as a dubious species outside of Coelurus in recent reviews . Finally , during the period when Ornitholestes was thought to be the same as Coelurus , its type species was recognized as distinct by Steel , as C. hermanni .
= = Paleobiology and paleoecology = =
= = = Provenance and occurrence = = =
The type specimen of Coelurus agilis , YPM 2010 ( now considered a synonym of Coelurus fragilis ) was recovered in the Brushy Basin member of the Morrison Formation , in Albany County , Wyoming . The specimen was collected by Reed in gray sandstone and brown / green claystone that were deposited during the Kimmeridgian stage of the Jurassic period , approximately 157 to 152 million years ago . This specimen is housed in the collection of the Yale Peabody Museum in New Haven , Connecticut .
= = = Fauna and habitat = = =
The Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons , and flat floodplains . Vegetation varied from river @-@ lining forests of conifers , tree ferns , and ferns , to fern savannas with rare trees . It has been a rich fossil hunting ground , holding fossils of green algae , fungi , mosses , horsetails , ferns , cycads , ginkgoes , and several families of conifers . Other fossils discovered include bivalves , snails , ray @-@ finned fishes , frogs , salamanders , turtles such as Uluops , sphenodonts , lizards , terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans like Fruitachampsa , several species of pterosaur like Kepodactylus , numerous dinosaur species , and early mammals such as docodonts , multituberculates , symmetrodonts , and triconodonts . Such dinosaurs as the theropods Ceratosaurus , Allosaurus , Ornitholestes , and Torvosaurus , the sauropods Apatosaurus , Brachiosaurus , Camarasaurus , and Diplodocus , and the ornithischians Camptosaurus , Hesperosaurus , Drinker , Fruitadens , Dryosaurus , and Stegosaurus are known from the Morrison . Coelurus is regarded as a small terrestrial carnivore , feeding on small prey items like insects , mammals , and lizards . It is thought to have been a fast animal , certainly faster than the similar but shorter @-@ footed Ornitholestes . Coelurus is present in stratigraphic zones 2 and 5 of the Morrison Formation .
= Adam Gilchrist =
Adam Craig Gilchrist , AM ( / ˈɡɪlkrɪst / ; born 14 November 1971 ) , nicknamed " Gilly " or " Churchy " , is a former Australian cricketer and one of the most explosive batsmen in world cricket . He was the captain of Australia , and Middlesex . He is an attacking left @-@ handed batsman and record @-@ breaking wicket @-@ keeper , who redefined the role for the Australia national cricket team through his aggressive batting . He is widely regarded as the greatest wicket @-@ keeper – batsman in the history of the game . He held the world record for the most dismissals by a wicket @-@ keeper in One Day International ( ODI ) cricket until it was surpassed by Kumar Sangakkara in 2015 and the most by an Australian in Test cricket . His strike rate is amongst the highest in the history of both ODI and Test cricket ; his century against England at Perth in December 2006 is the fourth @-@ fastest century in all Test cricket . He is the first player to have hit 100 sixes in Test cricket . His 17 Test and 16 ODI centuries are the second most by a wicket @-@ keeper , only after Kumar Sangakkara . He holds the unique record of scoring at least 50 runs in successive World Cup finals ( in 1999 , 2003 and 2007 ) . His swashbuckling 149 off 104 balls against Sri Lanka in the 2007 World Cup final is rated one of the greatest World Cup innings of all time . He is one of only three players to have won three titles . Adam Gilchrist is also the first player to reach 1000 runs in the Indian Premier League . Gilchrist is renowned for walking when he considers himself to be out , sometimes contrary to the decision of the umpire . He made his first @-@ class debut in 1992 , his first One @-@ Day International appearance in 1996 in India and his Test debut in 1999 . During his career , he played for Australia in 96 Test matches and over 270 One @-@ day internationals . He was Australia 's vice @-@ captain in both forms of the game , captaining the team when regular captains Steve Waugh and Ricky Ponting were unavailable . He retired from international cricket in March 2008 .
In March 2013 , he announced that he would join the Caribbean Premier League , a Twenty20 tournament in the West Indies in July along with teammate Ricky Ponting .
= = Early and personal life = =
Adam Gilchrist was born in 1971 at Bellingen Hospital , in Bellingen , New South Wales , the youngest of four children . He and his family lived in Dorrigo , Junee and then Deniliquin where , playing for his school , Deniliquin South Public School , he won the Brian Taber Shield ( named after New South Wales cricketer Brian Taber ) . At the age of 13 , his parents , Stan and June , moved the family to Lismore where Gilchrist captained the Kadina High School cricket team . Gilchrist was selected for the state under @-@ 17 team , and in 1989 he was offered a scholarship by London @-@ based Richmond Cricket Club , a scheme he now supports himself . During his year at Richmond , he also played junior cricket for Old Actonians Cricket Club 's under 17 team , with whom he won the Middlesex League and Cup double . He moved to Sydney and joined the Gordon Club in Sydney Grade Cricket , later moving to Northern Districts .
Gilchrist is married to his high school sweetheart Melinda ( Mel ) Gilchrist ( née Sharpe ) , a dietitian , and they have three sons , Harrison , Archie and Ted , and a daughter , Annie Jean . His family came under the spotlight in the months leading up to the 2007 Cricket World Cup as Archie 's impending birth threatened his presence in the squad ; Archie was born in February and Gilchrist was able to take part in the tournament .
= = Domestic career = =
In 1991 , Gilchrist was selected for the Australia Young Cricketers , a national youth team that toured England and played in youth ODIs and Tests . Gilchrist scored a century and a fifty in the three Tests . Upon his return to Australia late in the year , Gilchrist was accepted into the Australian Cricket Academy . Over the next year , Gilchrist represented the ACA as they played matches against the Second XI of Australia 's state teams , and toured South Africa to play provincial youth teams .
Upon returning to Australia , Gilchrist scored two centuries in four matches for the state Colts and Second XI teams , and was rewarded with selection to make his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales during the 1992 – 93 season , although he played purely as a batsman , due to the presence of incumbent wicketkeeper Phil Emery . In his first season , the side won the Sheffield Shield , Gilchrist scoring an unbeaten 20 in the second innings to secure an easy win over Queensland in the final . Gilchrist made 274 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 44 in his debut season , a score of 75 being his only effort beyond fifty . He also made his debut in Mercantile Mutual limited overs competition . He struggled to keep his place in the side , playing only three first @-@ class matches in the following season . He scored on 43 runs at 8 @.@ 60 ; New South Wales won both competitions , but Gilchrist was overlooked for both finals and did not play a single limited overs match .
Due to a lack of opportunities in the dominant New South Wales outfit , Gilchrist joined Western Australia at the start of the 1994 – 95 , where he had to compete with former Test player Tim Zoehrer for the wicket @-@ keeper 's berth . Gilchrist had no guarantee of selection . However , he made a century in a pre @-@ season trial match and seized Zoehrer 's place . The local fans were initially hostile to the move , but Gilchrist won them over . He made 55 first @-@ class dismissals in his first season , the most by any wicketkeeper in Australian domestic cricket in 1994 – 95 . However , he struggled with the bat , scoring 398 runs at 26 @.@ 53 with seven single figure scores , although he recorded his maiden first @-@ class century in the latter stages of the season , with 126 against South Australia . Gilchrist was rewarded with selection in the Young Australia team that toured England in 1995 and played matches against the English counties . Gilchrist starred with bat , scoring 490 runs at 70 @.@ 00 with two centuries . His second season based in Perth saw him top of the dismissals again , with 58 catches and four stumpings , but , significantly , 835 runs at an impressive batting average of 50 @.@ 52 . The Warriors made it to the final of the Sheffield Shield , at the Adelaide Oval , where Gilchrist scored 189 not out in the first innings , from only 187 balls , including five sixes . The innings brought Gilchrist national prominence . The match ended in a thrilling draw as South Australia 's last @-@ wicket pair held on to fend off the visitors . The hosts thus took the title , having scored more points in the qualifying matches . Gilchrist also scored an unbeaten 76 to help Western Australia secure a narrow three @-@ wicket victory over New South Wales in the penultimate limited overs match of the season , which saw them into the final against Queensland , which was lost . Gilchrist 's form saw him selected for Australia A , a team comprising players close to national selection . At the start of the 1996 – 97 season , sections of the media advocated that he replace Ian Healy as the national wicket @-@ keeper , but Healy struck 161 in the First Test and maintained his position . Gilchrist continued to perform strongly on the domestic circuit he topped the dismissals count once again , with 62 , along with a batting average of just under 40 , although he failed to post a century . Team success came in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , where the Warriors won by eight wickets against Queensland in the March 1997 final ; Gilchrist was not required to bat .
The 1997 – 98 season ended with Gilchrist top of the dismissals chart for the fourth season in a row with an improved batting average of 47 @.@ 66 , despite playing in only six of the ten qualifying Shield matches due to his becoming a regular member of the national limited overs team . Gilchrist registered his maiden – first @-@ class double century with an unbeaten 203 against South Australia early in the season , before returning late in the season after his international commitments were over . He added 109 against Victoria , and played in the Sheffield Shield final victory over Tasmania , although he scored only eight . There was disappointment for the team in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , losing the semi @-@ final to Queensland . The following season saw Gilchrist 's domestic appearances diminish due to his international commitments : he made only a single appearance in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , but still managed to help Western Australia defend the Sheffield Shield , scoring a century in the qualifying rounds .
Gilchrist 's regular selection for Australia has meant that he is rarely available for domestic selection . He became the Test wicket @-@ keeper in late @-@ 1999 , and between 1999 and 2005 , he made only seven first @-@ class appearances for his state . He did not play in the 2005 – 06 Pura Cup and only appeared three times in the limited @-@ overs ING Cup .
= = International career = =
= = = Early one @-@ day seasons = = =
Gilchrist was called up for the Australian One Day International ( ODI ) team in 1996 , his debut coming against South Africa at Faridabad on 25 October 1996 as the 129th Australian ODI cap , after an injury to incumbent Ian Healy . While not particularly impressive with the bat on his debut , scoring 18 before being bowled by Allan Donald , Gilchrist took his first catch as an international wicketkeeper , Hansie Cronje departing for a golden duck from the bowling of Paul Reiffel . He was run out for a duck in his only other ODI on the tour . Healy resumed his place during the 1996 – 97 season . Gilchrist replaced Healy for the first two ODIs in the 1997 Australian tour of South Africa , after Healy was suspended for dissent . When Healy returned Gilchrist maintained his position in the team as a specialist batsman after Mark Waugh sustained a hand injury . It was during this series that Gilchrist made his first ODI half @-@ century , with an innings of 77 in Durban . He totalled 127 runs at 31 @.@ 75 for the series . Gilchrist went on to play in the Texaco Trophy later in 1997 in the 3 – 0 series loss against England , scoring 53 and 33 in two innings .
At the start of the 1997 – 98 Australian season , Healy and captain Mark Taylor were omitted from the ODI squad as the Australian selectors opted for Gilchrist and Michael di Venuto . Gilchrist 's elevation was made possible by a change in policy by selectors , who announced that selection for ODI and Test teams would be separate , with Test and ODI specialists selected accordingly , while Healy remained the preferred Test wicket @-@ keeper . This came after Australia failed to qualify for the previous season 's ODI triangular series final for the first time in 17 years . The new team was initially unconvincing , losing all four round robin matches against South Africa in the 1997 – 98 Carlton & United Series , with multiple players filling Taylor 's role as Mark Waugh 's opening partner without success . Gilchrist also struggled batting in the lower order at number seven , the conventional wicket @-@ keeper 's batting position , scoring 148 runs at 24 @.@ 66 in the eight qualifying matches . In the first final against South Africa at the Melbourne Cricket Ground Gilchrist was selected as Waugh 's opening partner . In a particularly poor start to the new combination , Waugh was run out after a mix @-@ up with Gilchrist . However , in the second final , Gilchrist struck his maiden ODI century , spearheading Australia 's successful run chase at the Sydney Cricket Ground , securing his position as an opening batsman . Australia won the third final to claim the title .
Touring New Zealand in February 1998 , Gilchrist topped that Australia averages with 200 runs at 50 @.@ 00 , including a match @-@ winning 118 in the first match . He also effected his first ODI stumping , the wicket of Nathan Astle in the Second ODI in Wellington . Australia then played two triangular tournaments in Asia . Gilchrist struggled in India , scoring 86 runs at 17 @.@ 20 . He went on to play in the Coca Cola Cup in Sharjah in April 1998 , a triangular tournament between Australia , India and New Zealand . Australia finished runners @-@ up in the tournament , with Gilchrist taking nine dismissals as wicketkeeper and averaging 37 @.@ 13 with the bat .
Gilchrist won a silver medal at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur , the only time cricket has been in the Commonwealth Games . The matches did not have ODI status , and after winning their first four fixtures , Australia lost the final to South Africa , Gilchrist making 15 . He then scored 103 and ended with 190 runs at 63 @.@ 33 as Australia took a rare 3 – 0 whitewash on Pakistani soil .
Gilchrist was in fine form ahead of the 1999 Cricket World Cup with a productive individual performance in the Carlton & United Series in January and February 1999 against Sri Lanka and England . He finished with 525 runs at a batting average of 43 @.@ 75 with two centuries — both against Sri Lanka — and a fifty , and a total of 27 dismissals in 12 matches . His 131 helped Australia set a successful run @-@ chase at the SCG , and he followed this with 154 at the MCG . The 1999 tour of the West Indies was Australia 's last campaign before the World Cup and continued to prove Gilchrist 's ability as a wicketkeeper @-@ batsman . Gilchrist , with a batting average of 28 @.@ 71 and a strike rate of nearly 90 @.@ 00 , and seven fielding dismissals in a seven @-@ match series which ended 3 – 3 with one tie .
= = = First World Cup success = = =
Gilchrist played in every match of Australia 's successful World Cup campaign , but struggled at first , with scores of 6 , 14 and 0 in the first three matches against Scotland , New Zealand and Pakistan . Australia lost the latter two matches and had to avoid defeat for six consecutive matches to reach the final . Gilchrist 's quick @-@ fire 63 runs in 39 balls against Bangladesh helped the Australians into the Super Six stage of the tournament , which was secured with a win over the West Indies , although Gilchrist made only 21 . Gilchrist continued to struggle in the Super Six phase , scoring 31 , 10 and 5 against India , Zimbabwe and South Africa . Australia won all three matches , the last in the final over , to scrape into the semifinals . Gilchrist made only 20 in the semifinal against South Africa , but completed the final act of the match . With the scores tied , South Africa were going for the winning run when Gilchrist broke the stumps to complete the run out of Allan Donald ; the match was tied , and Australia proceeded to the final as they had won the group stage match against South Africa . Gilchrist 's 54 in the final helped secure Australia 's first world title since 1987 with an eight wicket victory over Pakistan . It was a happy ending for Gilchrist , who had struggled through the tournament , with 237 runs at 21 @.@ 54 .
Success at the World Cup was followed by a defeat by Sri Lanka in the final of the Aiwa Cup in August 1999 , . Gilchrist was the most successful batsman and wicket @-@ keeper of the tournament , with 231 runs at 46 @.@ 20 . While the Test players battled against Sri Lanka , Gilchrist led Australia A in a limited overs series against India A in Los Angeles . He then scored 60 runs at 20 @.@ 00 as the Australians completed a 3 – 0 whitewash of Zimbabwe in October .
= = = Test debut = = =
Gilchrist made his Test match debut in the First Test against Pakistan at the Gabba in Brisbane in November 1999 becoming the 381st Australian Test cricketer . He replaced Healy , who was dropped after a run of poor form , despite the incumbent 's entreaties to the selectors to allow him a farewell game in front of his home crowd . Gilchrist 's entry into the Test arena coincided with a dramatic rise in Australia 's fortunes . Up to this point , they had played eight Tests in 1999 , winning and losing three .
Gilchrist 's icy reception at the Gabba did not faze him ; he took five catches , stumped Azhar Mahmood off Shane Warne 's bowling and scored a rapid 81 , mostly in partnership with ODI partner Waugh , in a match that Australia won comfortably by ten wickets . In his second Test match he made an unbeaten 149 to help guide Australia to victory in a game that looked well beyond their reach . Australia were struggling at 5 / 126 in pursuit of 369 for victory as he joined his Western Australian team @-@ mate , Justin Langer , but the pair put on a record @-@ breaking partnership of 238 to seal an Australian win . Gilchrist continued his strong run throughout his debut Test season , and ended the summer with 485 runs at 69 @.@ 28 in six matches , three each against Pakistan and India , adding two fifties against the latter .
Gilchrist was moderately successful in the following ODIs , the Carlton & United Series ; Australia defeated Pakistan 2 – 0 in a best @-@ of @-@ three final . Gilchrist scored 272 runs at 27 @.@ 20 ; his best effort was 92 in a 152 @-@ run victory over India on Australia Day . Gilchrist then scored 251 runs at 41 @.@ 66 in the ODIs during a tour of New Zealand . The highlight was a 128 in Christchurch that propelled Australia to a score of 6 / 349 . Gilchrist was named man of the match in two of the games .
In the Third Test against New Zealand in 2000 , Gilchrist recorded the third best Test performance ever by a wicketkeeper , and the best by an Australian , taking ten catches in the match . Although Gilchrist 's batting was modest , yielding 144 runs at 36 @.@ 00 , Australia took a 3 – 0 clean sweep . In two home and away ODI series against South Africa , Gilchrist had a quiet time , scoring 170 runs at 26 @.@ 66 . South Africa won three of the six matches , with one tie .
Later that year , he was handed the vice @-@ captaincy of the Australian team in place of Shane Warne , who had been plagued by a number of off @-@ the @-@ field controversies , including an altercation with some teenage boys , and a sex scandal with a British nurse .
The 2000 – 01 season saw a West Indian touring party and Gilchrist warmed up with consecutive first @-@ class centuries for Western Australia . Captaining his Test team for the first time in place of the injured Steve Waugh in the Third Test in Adelaide . Gilchrist scored only 9 and 10 not out , but a ten @-@ wicket haul from Colin Miller resulted in a hard @-@ fought five @-@ wicket victory for Australia . Gilchrist described the match as " the proudest moment of my career " . Waugh resumed the captaincy on his return to the team for the Fourth and Fifth Tests , with the series finishing in a 5 – 0 whitewash . Gilchrist scored 241 runs at 48 @.@ 20 with two fifties . In the ensuing ODI tournament , Gilchrist scored 326 runs at 36 @.@ 22 with a top @-@ score of 98 as the Australians won all ten matches .
Up to this point , Gilchrist had played in 14 Tests , all in Australasia , and all of which had been won . Australia 's run of 15 consecutive Test wins faced a steep challenge on the tour of India , where they had not won a Test series since 1969 – 70 .
Australia 's streak looked in danger during the First Test in Mumbai when they fell to 5 / 99 in reply to India 's 171 when Gilchrist came to the crease . He counterattacked savagely , scoring 122 in just 112 balls , and featuring in a 197 @-@ run partnership with Matthew Hayden in only 32 overs . This swung the momentum back to Australia , who reached 349 . Gilchrist took six catches and was named Man of the Match in a ten wicket victory , extending the world record run to 16 .
Gilchrist 's form dipped momentarily , with a rare king pair ( two golden ducks in the same match ) in the Second Test in Kolkata and just two runs in his two innings in Chennai . He was out LBW four consecutive times in the last two Tests , three of these to Harbhajan Singh , who took 32 wickets in the series to end Australia 's run by inflicting a 2 – 1 series loss . His one @-@ day form remained strong , with 172 runs at 43 @.@ 00 in the ODI series in India , as Australia bounced back to win the series 3 – 2 . During this series he captained the ODI team for the first time , winning all three of the matches under his captaincy .
= = = 2001 Ashes = = =
Gilchrist played a pivotal role in the 2001 Ashes series which Australia won 4 – 1 , with 340 runs at a batting average of 68 @.@ 00 and 26 dismissals in the five match series .
Gilchrist warmed up by putting his ODI struggles on English soil in 1999 behind him , scoring 248 runs at 49 @.@ 60 in the triangular tournament preceding the Tests , scoring an unbeaten 76 in the final win over Pakistan .
Gilchrist put the disappointment of India behind him in the First Test at Edgbaston , scoring 152 from only 143 balls . The allowed Australia to reach 576 in only 545 minutes , and set up an innings victory that set the tone for the series . Gilchrist then added 90 in the eight @-@ wicket win in the Second Test at Lord 's , before turning the tide in the Third Test at Trent Bridge . Australia slumped to 7 / 105 in reply to the hosts ' 185 , but Gilchrist 's 54 took the tourists to 190 before a seven @-@ wicket win resulted in the retention of the Ashes .
Gilchrist captained the team in the Fourth Test at Headingley after an injury to Steve Waugh . After persistent rain interruptions , Gilchrist declared with Australia four down at tea on the fourth day , leaving England with a target of 315 , which , despite losing two early wickets , they reached with six wickets to spare , ( Mark Butcher scoring an unbeaten 173 , including 24 boundaries ) . Gilchrist failed to pass 25 in the last two Tests , but it had been a productive season ; he scored centuries in both of Australia 's county matches .
Two home series followed in the 2001 – 02 season , a fully drawn ( 0 – 0 ) three match series against New Zealand and a whitewash over South Africa 3 – 0 . Gilchrist scored 118 in the First Test against New Zealand and an unbeaten 83 in the Third Test in Perth as the Australians held on for a draw with three wickets intact . However , Gilchrist did little in the triumph over South Africa , failing to pass 35 . He ended the summer Tests with 353 runs at 50 @.@ 42 .
In the ensuing ODIs , Gilchrist scored only 97 runs at 16 @.@ 16 . The Australian selectors sought to accommodate Hayden , who had been successful as a Test opener , into the ODI team by rotating him with Gilchrist and Waugh , but this appeared to unsettle the team . With a newly fragile top @-@ order , Australia failed to qualify for the finals , and the Waugh brothers were dropped from the team , ending Gilchrist 's four @-@ year partnership with Mark . Ricky Ponting was promoted to the captaincy ahead of vice captain Gilchrist .
The Australians then toured South Africa the next month and it was during the First Test in Johannesburg that Gilchrist broke the record for the fastest double century in Tests on 23 February , requiring 212 balls for the feat . This was eight balls quicker than Ian Botham 's innings against India at The Oval in 1982 . He ended unbeaten on 204 , having featured in a partnership of 317 with Damien Martyn at a run rate of 5 @.@ 5 . South Africa were demoralised and lost by an innings after being forced to follow on . The record lasted only one month , however , with New Zealand 's Nathan Astle taking 59 balls less to reach the milestone during an innings in March 2002 .
In the Second Test at Cape Town , Gilchrist struck 138 from 108 balls to set up a first innings lead and eventual four @-@ wicket win . He then top @-@ scored with 91 in the Third Test , and although Australia lost the match , Gilchrist ended the series with an astonishing 473 at 157 @.@ 66 from just 474 balls , in addition to 14 dismissals .
Gilchrist captained the ODI team , once again for a single match , against Kenya in Nairobi during the PSO Tri @-@ Nation Tournament . Despite Australia 's unbeaten run in the competition , the final , against Pakistan was abandoned due to rain , so the teams shared the trophy . During the six middle months of 2002 , Gilchrist played in 18 ODIs , scoring 562 runs at 31 @.@ 22 , including a century , recovering from his slump .
After scoring 122 runs at 40 @.@ 66 in the 3 – 0 Test series clean sweep over Pakistan in the United Arab Emirates , Gilchrist went on to help the Australians retain The Ashes 4 – 1 in 2002 – 03 , playing in all five matches of the series , finishing with 330 runs at 55 @.@ 50 and taking 25 dismissals as wicket @-@ keeper . After scoring fifties in the first two Tests , Gilchrist scored a counter @-@ attacking 133 from 121 balls in the Fifth Test at the SCG , but was unable to prevent Australia 's only loss of the series .
From the time of his debut up to the 2003 World Cup , Gilchrist 's played in 40 Tests in series . With the exception of the 2001 tour of India , when he averaged 24 @.@ 80 ( he made 124 runs in the series ; 122 of them came in one innings ) , his performances with the bat were such that he was described at the time as the " finest batsman @-@ wicketkeeper to have graced the game " . At one point in March 2002 , Gilchrist 's Test average was over 60 ; the second @-@ highest for any established player in Test history , and he topped the ICC Test batting rankings in May 2002 .
Gilchrist warmed up for the World Cup in South Africa by scoring 310 runs at 44 @.@ 28 in the triangular tournament in Australia against England and Sri Lanka . His performances over the past year were recognised with the Allan Border Medal .
= = = 2003 World Cup = = =
Gilchrist played in all but one of the matches in Australia 's successful defence of their World Cup title ; he was rested for the group match against the Netherlands . He finished the tournament with 408 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 80 at a strike rate of 105 . He scored four half @-@ centuries , and was run out against Sri Lanka in the Super Six stage just a single run short of a century . In the semi @-@ final , he scored 22 before being caught off an inside @-@ edge onto pad off the bowling of Aravinda de Silva . The umpire gave no reaction , however Gilchrist walked off the pitch after a moment 's pause . In 2009 it was described as an " astonishing moment " drawing criticism from England 's Angus Fraser , who " objected to him being canonised simply for not cheating " , and from others who " thought that he walked almost by accident ; that having played his shot he overbalanced in the direction of the pavilion . " His actions nevertheless drew praise from the majority . In the final , India elected to field first and Gilchrist hammered 57 from 48 balls , featuring in a century opening stand with Hayden to seize the initiative . This laid the foundation for Australia 's 2 / 359 and a crushing 125 @-@ run win , ending an unbeaten campaign . Gilchrist was also the competition 's most successful wicketkeeper , making 21 dismissals .
Success in the World Cup was followed up by a tour of the West Indies where Gilchrist was part of a side that won both the ODI and Test series . He scored 282 runs at 70 @.@ 50 with one century in the four Tests , and 212 runs at 35 @.@ 33 in the ODIs . The Australians then defeated a touring Bangladeshi cricket team in short series in both forms of the game . Gilchrist was only sporadically required with the bat .
= = = Decline and revival = = =
After scoring his first Test century at his home ground in Perth , an unbeaten 113 against Zimbabwe , Gilchrist 's Test form dipped again during the 2003 – 04 season , with only 120 runs coming in the next 10 innings , during the home series against India ( drawn 1 – 1 ) and the away series in Sri Lanka ( won 3 – 0 ) . However , he returned to form in the Second Test Kandy , scoring a quickfire 144 in the second innings to set up a 27 @-@ run win after Australia conceded a 91 @-@ run first innings lead .
However , he maintained high standards in ODIs during this period , including 111 against India in Bangalore , 172 against Zimbabwe , just one run short of Mark Waugh 's Australian record , and two further half @-@ centuries in the VB Series in Australia . His success in One @-@ day cricket was underlined by his rise to the top of the ICC ODI batting rankings in February 2004 . However , he was unable to maintain this form on the 2004 tours of Sri Lanka , Zimbabwe and the Champions Trophy in England , accumulating 253 runs at 28 @.@ 11 in 11 innings .
Gilchrist then scored 115 runs at 28 @.@ 75 in two Tests at home to Sri Lanka in mid @-@ 2004 , and captained in the First Test win in Darwin with Ponting absent . Australia won the series 1 – 0 .
A 104 in the First Test against India in October 2004 proved to be a false renaissance ; he scored only 104 runs in the remaining seven innings on the Indian tour and 139 runs in eight ODI innings towards the end of the 2004 – 05 season , which formed the lowest average period of Gilchrist 's career until 2007 . He took the captaincy of the Test team once again , in place of the injured Ricky Ponting , and led the Australian side to an historic 2 – 1 series victory in India , a feat last achieved in 1969 . Ponting recovered to lead the team in the Fourth Test , Australia 's only loss .
Gilchrist returned to form when New Zealand toured Australia at the start of southern hemisphere season . He scored 126 and 50 in the 2 – 0 Test series clean sweep and scored fifties in both ODIs . He then scored 230 runs at 76 @.@ 66 in three Tests against Pakistan , including a rapid 113 in the Third Test at the SCG as Australia won all five Tests during the summer . He made it three successive Test centuries with 121 and 162 in the first two Tests on the tour of New Zealand , before ending with an unbeaten 60 in the Third Test ; he totalled 343 runs at 114 @.@
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the United States .
The siege was the inspiration for the final scene in Alfred Hitchcock 's original 1934 version of The Man Who Knew Too Much , while the whole story was heavily fictionalised in the 1960 film The Siege of Sidney Street . The siege has also been the fictional inspiration for two novels , The Siege of Sidney Street ( 1960 ) by F Oughton and A Death Out of Season ( 1973 ) by Emanuel Litvinoff .
In September 2008 Tower Hamlets London Borough Council named two tower blocks in Sidney Street , Peter House and Painter House , even though Peter the Painter was only involved in a minor capacity in the events , and was not present at the siege . The name plaques on the buildings call Peter the Painter an " anti @-@ hero " . The decision angered the Metropolitan Police Federation , although a council spokesman said that " There is no evidence that Peter the Painter killed the three policemen , so we knew we were not naming the block after a murderer . ... but he is the name that East Enders associate with the siege and Sidney Street . " In December 2010 , on the centenary of the events at Houndsditch , a memorial plaque for the three murdered policemen was unveiled near the location . Three weeks later , on the anniversary of the siege , a plaque was unveiled in honour of Pearson , the fireman who died as the building collapsed on him .
= Delaware Route 41 =
Delaware Route 41 ( DE 41 ) is a highway in northwestern New Castle County , Delaware . Its southern terminus is at DE 2 and DE 62 in Prices Corner . From DE 2 , the road passes through suburban areas along Newport Gap Pike , intersecting DE 34 in Brandywine Springs and DE 48 in Hockessin . Its northern terminus is the Pennsylvania state line just north of Hockessin , and it continues on as Pennsylvania Route 41 ( PA 41 ) to Gap .
DE 41 was originally chartered as the Gap and Newport Turnpike in the 19th century . In the 1920s and 1930s , this road was upgraded to a state highway . DE 41 was designated by 1936 to run from U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 , now DE 9 / DE 273 ) in New Castle north to the Pennsylvania border in Hockessin . In the 1950s , DE 141 became concurrent with the route from New Castle to north of Newport . DE 41 was removed from the DE 141 concurrency in the 1970s and was realigned to follow DE 2 east to an interchange with DE 141 in the 1980s , with the old alignment south of DE 2 becoming DE 62 . In 2015 , the southern terminus was cut back to its current location , removing the concurrency with DE 2 .
= = Route description = =
DE 41 begins at an intersection with DE 2 in Prices Corner , heading northwest along Newport Gap Pike . South of DE 2 , Newport Gap Pike continues southeast as DE 62 . DE 41 is a two @-@ lane divided highway before it crosses the Wilmington and Western Railroad and the Red Clay Creek . The route becomes an undivided road and continues through a mix of residential neighborhoods and woodland . The road comes to an intersection with DE 34 ( Faulkland Road ) in Brandywine Springs . Past this junction , DE 41 continues northwest , with stretches alternating between divided and undivided highway , towards Hockessin .
In Hockessin , DE 41 meets the western terminus of DE 48 ( Lancaster Pike ) , onto which it merges . The Lancaster Pike alternates between a divided highway and a two @-@ lane undivided road . DE 41 turns to the west @-@ northwest and passes to the northeast of the Sanford School befoee it enters business areas and becomes a three @-@ lane divided highway with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes . The median turns into a center left @-@ turn lane as the road runs past more development and crosses the Wilmington and Western Railroad again . The southbound direction narrows to one lane at the Yorklyn Road intersection . The road briefly becomes a divided highway at the Valley Road junction . After leaving the center of Hockessin , the route becomes a three @-@ lane undivided road , with two northbound lanes and one southbound lane . The road passes homes , eventually narrowing back to two lanes . DE 41 reaches the Pennsylvania border , where Gap Newport Pike continues northwest as PA 41 .
DE 41 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 20 @,@ 665 vehicles at the Yorklyn Road intersection to a low of 12 @,@ 611 vehicles at the McKennans Church Road intersection . The entire length of DE 41 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 41 was originally chartered as the Gap and Newport Turnpike on January 30 , 1808 , an extension of the 1807 @-@ chartered turnpike in Pennsylvania that was to run from Gap , Pennsylvania southeast to Newport , Delaware . By 1920 , this road was maintained by the county . The road north of Lancaster Pike was proposed as a state highway four years later . A year later , a state highway was completed on what would become DE 41 between New Castle and Prices Corner . Plans were underway in 1927 to replace the outdated swing bridge over the Christina River in Newport . Contracts for this project were awarded the following year . The replacement bridge over the Christina River , a bascule bridge , opened on December 1 , 1929 . In 1927 , plans were made to replace the grade crossing at the Pennsylvania Railroad line ( now Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor ) in Newport with an underpass under the tracks . Work on this underpass began in 1929 . The crossing under the Pennsylvania Railroad was finished and opened to traffic in June 1930 . In 1929 , the Gap Road was upgraded to a state highway .
DE 41 was designated to run from US 40 ( now DE 9 / DE 273 ) in New Castle north to PA 41 at the Pennsylvania border in Hockessin by 1936 . It followed Basin Road north to Newport , James Street through Newport , and the Newport Gap Pike north of there . By 1952 , DE 141 was designated to run concurrent with DE 41 from New Castle to north of Newport . In 1954 , plans were made to replace the intersection with US 13 / US 40 in Basin Corner with a modified cloverleaf interchange in an effort to reduce traffic congestion . Construction on the interchange began in September of that year . The interchange between US 13 / US 40 and DE 41 / DE 141 was completed in 1956 .
In April 1954 , work began to improve DE 41 between the DE 48 intersection and the Pennsylvania border . These improvements constructed a bypass of Hockessin and added truck lanes on steep grades . This project was scheduled for completion in July 1955 . The new northbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 through the I @-@ 95 interchange opened in November 1962 , at which point construction on the southbound lanes began . The southbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 opened in June 1964 , enabling directional flow of DE 41 / DE 141 through the interchange .
The southern terminus of DE 41 was truncated to DE 141 north of Newport by 1971 , eliminating the concurrency with that route . By 1981 , DE 41 was realigned to follow DE 2 to end at an interchange with DE 141 , with DE 62 being designated along the former DE 41 south of DE 2 . In 2015 , the Delaware Department of Transportation proposed cutting back the southern terminus of DE 41 from the interchange with DE 141 to the intersection with DE 2 and Newport Gap Pike , eliminating the concurrency with DE 2 . This change was made in order to reduce sign clutter and also reduce truck traffic along the southern portion of DE 41 . A public workshop on the proposal was held and changes were made in summer 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= In Marge We Trust =
" In Marge We Trust " is the twenty @-@ second episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 27 , 1997 . It was written by Donick Cary and directed by Steven Dean Moore . The episode guest stars Sab Shimono as Mr. Sparkle , Gedde Watanabe as the factory worker , Denice Kumagai and Karen Maruyama as dancers , and Frank Welker as the baboons . In the episode , Marge replaces Reverend Lovejoy as the town 's moral adviser while Homer explores the mystery of why his face appears on a Japanese @-@ language detergent box .
= = Plot = =
Reverend Lovejoy 's sermon on " constancy " almost sends the entire congregation to sleep . After church Homer takes Bart and Lisa to the Springfield dump to dispose of their old Christmas tree , where they find a box of Japanese dishwasher detergent known as Mr. Sparkle . The face of the character on the box of the detergent strongly resembles Homer . Meanwhile , Marge becomes concerned with Lovejoy 's lack of enthusiasm about helping people . He explains to Marge that he was enthusiastic about the ministry and helping his fellow man when he first arrived in Springfield . However , his passion for helping people gradually degraded as he dealt with Ned Flanders and his constant complaints over trivial and common issues . Marge begins working for the Church as " The Listen Lady " , listening to people 's problems and helping solve them . Reverend Lovejoy soon realizes his inadequacy and begins to feel depressed . While he is alone in the church the stained glass images of saints appear and chastise him for doing little to inspire his congregation .
Homer , disturbed by the box of Mr. Sparkle , contacts the manufacturer in Hokkaidō , Japan for information . He is sent a promotional video for Mr. Sparkle , which consists of a TV commercial . At the end of the video , the mascot is shown to be a result of a joint venture between two large Japanese conglomerates , Matsumura Fishworks and Tamaribuchi Heavy Manufacturing Concern . Their mascots , a smiling anime fish and light bulb , merge to form Mr. Sparkle . Thus , Homer discovers the similarity was a mere coincidence .
Ned Flanders calls Marge for help . Jimbo , Dolph , and Kearney are hanging around outside the Leftorium , making Ned worried that they will start causing trouble . Marge suggests that he shoo them away . The trio are about to leave , but when he goes and asks them to , they decide to harass him instead . Ned calls Marge again , whilst he is standing on a chair with the three boys circling him on their minibikes , so she suggests that he " lay down the law " , and when one of the boys snips the phone cord , Marge assumes that Ned has hung up and that everything is fine .
The next morning , Maude informs Marge that Ned is missing , having been chased around by the boys throughout the night . Marge realizes that she may be partially responsible for his disappearance . Marge goes to Reverend Lovejoy for help , and the two of them track Ned to the zoo , where Japanese tourists think Homer is Mr. Sparkle . Jimbo , Dolph , and Kearney have abandoned their pursuit , but now Ned is trapped in the baboon exhibit . While the Simpson family looks on , Reverend Lovejoy rescues Ned in the baboons ' food cart . Now that he feels useful again , Reverend Lovejoy rediscovers his passion for his job , regaling his congregation with the tale of Ned 's rescue .
= = Production = =
By season 8 , the show had begun to explore episodes revolving around secondary characters . Reverend Lovejoy was selected for this episode because , aside from being noted as " the priest who didn 't care " , he had not had much character development . This was the first episode that Donick Cary wrote for The Simpsons . He was disappointed that his first story was about " Marge 's crisis with faith . " The trip to the dump was inspired by Donick Cary 's youth , in which he would often go " dump picking " . This led to the writers deciding to have Homer 's face on a discarded box , which became the Mr. Sparkle subplot . To help create the advertisement , the writers watched videos of many Japanese commercials . An original scene from Lovejoy 's flashback showed that Jasper Beardley preceded him as minister of the First Church of Springfield . The solution for how Mr. Sparkle resembles Homer was written by George Meyer , after hours of time had been spent trying to come up with a realistic ending . Matsumura Fishworks was named after Ichiro Matsumura , a friend of David X. Cohen .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " In Marge We Trust " finished 25th in ratings for the week of April 21 – 27 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 8 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files and King of the Hill . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said : " A rare case of both storylines being worthy of full episodes in their own right , this is a cracking episode which highlights the unduly neglected Rev. Lovejoy and makes you realize Homer isn 't the only one ready to kill Ned Flanders ! Great stuff . " In a 2000 Entertainment Weekly article , Matt Groening ranked it as his fifth favorite in the history of the show . Josh Weinstein described it as one of the best of the season , as well as being one of the most underrated episodes of all time . He also described the Mr. Sparkle commercial as his all @-@ time favorite sequence . The fake Fruity Oaty Bar commercial from the film Serenity was partially inspired by the Mr. Sparkle advertisement . Since 2009 , the show 's new opening sequence includes Mr. Sparkle detergent with Marge 's supermarket purchases .
= George Brett ( general ) =
George Howard Brett ( 7 February 1886 – 2 December 1963 ) was a United States Army Air Forces General during World War II . An Early Bird of Aviation , Brett served as a staff officer in World War I. In 1941 , following the outbreak of war with Japan , Brett was appointed Deputy Commander of a short @-@ lived major Allied command , the American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command ( ABDACOM ) , which oversaw Allied forces in South East Asia and the South West Pacific . In early 1942 , he was put in charge of United States Army Forces in Australia , until the arrival of Douglas MacArthur . Brett then commanded all Allied Air Forces in the Southwest Pacific Area . In November 1942 , he was appointed commander of the US Caribbean Defense Command and remained in this post for the rest of the war .
= = Early life = =
George Howard Brett was born in Cleveland , Ohio on 7 February 1886 , the second of five children of William Howard Brett , a notable librarian , and his wife Alice née Allen . George 's older brother Morgan graduated with the United States Military Academy at West Point class of 1906 , and served for many years as an ordnance officer , retiring in 1932 as a colonel . The family was unable to secure a second West Point appointment , so George Brett graduated from the Virginia Military Institute in 1909 and was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the Philippine Scouts on 22 March 1910 . While in the Philippines he transferred to the US Cavalry on 10 August 1911 , joining the 2nd Cavalry .
Brett returned to the United States in May 1912 and was first stationed at Fort Bliss . In December 1913 , he moved to Fort Ethan Allen where he became friends with a fellow lieutenant of the 2nd Cavalry , Frank M. Andrews , who was engaged to the daughter of Brigadier General James Allen . While serving as one of Andrews ' groomsmen , Brett met Mary Devol , one of the bridesmaids , and the daughter of another Army officer , Major General Carroll A. Devol . Brett married Mary Devol in Denver on 1 March 1916 . Influenced by Allen and Andrews , Brett transferred to the Aviation Section , U.S. Signal Corps on 2 September 1916 . He attended aviation school and on graduation in 1916 was assigned to the office of the Chief Signal Officer in Washington , D.C. where he was promoted to first lieutenant on 1 July 1916 and captain on 15 May 1917 .
= = World War I = =
Brett departed for the Western Front in November 1917 but suffered a case of appendicitis , resulting in the loss of his flight status . After making a partial recovery , he served in France as senior materiel officer under Brigadier General Billy Mitchell , attaining the temporary rank of major on 7 June 1918 . After briefly returned to the United States to serve in Office of the Director of Military Aeronautics in Washington , D.C. from 1 August to 23 September 1918 , Brett went to England to command the United States Army Air Service Camp at Codford .
= = Between the wars = =
Brett was posted to Kelly Field , Texas , in December 1918 , where he commanded the Aviation General Supply Depot until February 1919 , when he became the maintenance and supply officer at the Air Service Flying School . He commanded the Air Service depot in Morrison , Virginia for a month in October 1919 before being assigned to the office of the Director of the Air Service in Washington , DC , where his rank of major became permanent in 1920 . That year he took command of Crissy Field . His first son , the future United States Air Force Lieutenant General Devol " Rock " Brett , was born at nearby Letterman Army Hospital at the Presidio of San Francisco in 1923 .
From 1924 to 1927 Brett was stationed at the intermediate depot at Fairfield , Ohio , where he was the officer in charge of the field service section . Starting in June 1927 he attended the Air Corps Tactical School at Langley Field , Virginia , after which he was selected for the two @-@ year Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . He commanded Selfridge Field , Michigan for time before returned to Fort Leavenworth as an Air Corps instructor from 1933 to 1935 . After 16 years as a major , he was finally promoted to lieutenant colonel and was selected to attend the Army War College . On graduation , he became commander of the 19th Wing , then stationed in the Panama Canal Zone , with the temporary rank of brigadier general . While he was stationed there , his eldest daughter Dora married his aide , the future general , Bernard A. Schriever .
On his return from Panama , Brett reverted to his permanent rank of lieutenant colonel . He was briefly stationed in Menlo Park , California , before moving to Langley , Virginia , where he became chief of staff to his old friend Frank Andrews , now the commander of GHQ Air Force . In February 1939 Brett moved to Wright Field as assistant to the chief of the United States Army Air Corps , also serving as commandant of the Air Corps Engineering School and the chief of the Materiel Division . Once again he held the rank of brigadier general before being promoted to major general on 1 October 1940 .
= = World War II = =
= = = Middle East = = =
When his immediate superior , Major General Henry H. " Hap " Arnold , was temporarily transferred to the Army General Staff in November 1939 , Brett acted as Chief of the Air Corps . In May 1941 , he formally became Chief of the Air Corps for a four @-@ year term , but the June 1941 reorganisation that made Arnold the Chief of United States Army Air Forces made the post of Chief of the Air Corps somewhat redundant . Brett was sent to the United Kingdom to determine how the Army Air Forces could better support Royal Air Force Lend @-@ Lease requirements . His recommendation that American labor and facilities be established in the United Kingdom to handle the repair , assembly , and equipping of American aircraft created a stir on both sides of the Atlantic , and was ultimately disapproved by Arnold on the grounds that the personnel and equipment were not available . Brett next paid a visit to the Middle East where his outspoken criticism of arrangements there antagonised his hosts to the extent that the British Ambassador to Egypt , Sir Miles Lampson , complained about him to the Foreign Secretary , Sir Anthony Eden . Air Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder noted that " the charms of General Brett ’ s company were beginning to pall . After a talk with him on the afternoon of 25 September I wondered in my journal how he and all the American visitors could lay down the law about things of which they knew next to nothing . " As a result , Brett was ordered to return to the United States in December .
= = = East Indies = = =
The outbreak of war between the United States and Japan in December 1941 changed things and Brett received new orders . He first flew to Rangoon and then , in the company of the Sir Archibald Wavell , the British Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , India , on to Chungking where the two met with Generalissimo Chiang Kai @-@ shek . They obtained a promise of Chinese troops to assist in the defence of Burma . Near Rangoon , Wavell 's and Brett ’ s aircraft was attacked by Japanese aircraft and they were forced to make an emergency landing at a friendly aerodrome in Burma . The area was then bombed by the Japanese , but neither general was harmed . Brett was appointed Deputy Supreme Commander of the American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command ( ABDA ) , under Wavell , on 1 January 1942 , and was promoted to lieutenant general on 7 January 1942 . He arrived in Darwin on 28 December 1941 . In January he moved to Lembang in West Java , where Wavell established his headquarters . The rapid advance of Japanese forces through South East Asia had soon split the Allied @-@ controlled area in two . Brett departed Java for Australia on 23 February 1942 , reaching Melbourne the next day , where he resumed command of US Army Forces in Australia . ABDA was formally dissolved on 25 February .
= = = Australia = = =
Already , General Douglas MacArthur had also been ordered to Australia . Brett received warning from the Chief of Staff , General George Marshall that MacArthur would call on him to send a flight of long @-@ range bombers to Mindanao . The only aircraft that Brett could find were B @-@ 17s of the 19th Bombardment Group which had seen hard service in the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies campaigns . Brett approached Vice Admiral Herbert F. Leary , the commander of naval forces in the Anzac Area , to ask for a loan of some of twelve newly arrived navy B @-@ 17s . Leary refused . Brett therefore sent four of the 19th Bombardment Group 's old planes . Only one , a B @-@ 17 with no brakes piloted by Lieutenant Harl Pease , made it to Mindanao ; two turned back with engine trouble , while a fourth ditched in the sea , its crew managing to escape . MacArthur was incensed and sent a message to Marshall . A message from Washington , D.C. persuaded Leary to release four new B @-@ 17s to Brett and these aircraft reached Mindanao on 16 March 1942 and managed to bring MacArthur and his party to Australia . Despite the lack of brakes , Pease also made it back , carrying sixteen refugees .
It fell to Brett to telephone Prime Minister John Curtin and inform him of MacArthur 's arrival . Although Curtin was unaware of MacArthur 's impending arrival , and had expected that Brett would command American forces in Australia , he was persuaded to issue a recommendation that MacArthur be made Supreme Commander South West Pacific Area . While Brett considered that he was on " very friendly terms " with Curtin , Brett felt that Curtin was " more interested in keeping the party line on wages , hours and working conditions than in the threat posed by the Japanese . " General George Kenney later recalled that
I think he [ Brett ] made his initial mistake in sort of spurning this Labor government crowd and taking up with the conservative crowd , who had been ousted by the Labor Party and who were not going to get back into power . But Brett figured they were , so he accepted entertainment from them and entertained them in return and became quite close to them . They , in turn , kidded him along and told him they knew he was going to be the commanding general of all the Allied Forces in Australia ... Yes , and he believed it , which was too bad .
The April 1942 reorganisation that established the Southwest Pacific Area reduced the United States Army Forces in Australia to a supply and administrative organisation that would soon be renamed the Services of Supply . Brett instead became commander of Allied Air Forces , Southwest Pacific Area , with his headquarters in Melbourne . One of MacArthur 's first orders to Brett was for a bombing mission to the Philippines , an order which was delivered personally by MacArthur 's chief of staff , Major General Richard K. Sutherland . Brett protested that his planes were worn out , his men were tired , losses might be high , and the Philippines were lost anyway . Sutherland told him the MacArthur wanted the mission carried out . Brett delegated it to Brigadier General Ralph Royce , who led the mission in person . Brett awarded Royce the Distinguished Service Cross . Henceforth , communications with Sutherland would be handled by Brett 's chief of staff , Air Vice Marshal William Bostock . MacArthur personally wrote a reprimand to Brett . Further disagreements between MacArthur and Brett followed . On 6 July 1942 Marshall radioed MacArthur to offer him Major General George Kenney or Brigadier General Jimmy Doolittle as a replacement for Brett . MacArthur selected Kenney . Brett returned to the United States in his B @-@ 17 , " The Swoose " , on 4 August 1942 . The day before , General MacArthur awarded him the Silver Star " for gallantry in action in air reconnaissance in the combat zone , Southwest Pacific Area , during the months of May , June and July 1942 . "
= = = Panama = = =
After a time with no command , Brett was appointed commander of the US Caribbean Defense Command and the US Army 's Panama Canal Department in succession to Lieutenant General Frank M. Andrews in November 1942 . In 1945 , the Inspector General , Lieutenant General Daniel Isom Sultan , investigated a series of allegations against Brett regarding the misuse of Army funds and property . He reported to the General Marshall that most of the charges were distortions of mission @-@ related events and expenditures , that the remaining allegations had no basis in fact , and that no further action be taken . Brett requested voluntary retirement and retired on 30 April 1945 with the rank of major general , only to be immediately recalled to active duty the next day as a temporary lieutenant general and as Commanding General of the Caribbean Defense Command and Panama Canal Department . On 10 October 1945 , Brett handed over command to Lieutenant General Willis D. Crittenberger . For his service in Panama , Brett was awarded a second Distinguished Service Medal . The citation noted " his broad grasp of military strategy and superior knowledge of air and ground tactics " and that " he succeeded admirably in impressing the republics of Central and South America with the importance and necessity of hemispheric solidarity , imbued them with American ideals , coordinated their use of arms and equipment and indoctrinated them with American training methods — all of which fostered continued improvement in the relations between all America republics . " After spending time as a patient in Brooke General Hospital , he reverted to retired status on 10 May 1946 but was later advanced to the grade of lieutenant general on the United States Air Force retired list by an Act of Congress on 29 June 1948 .
= = Post @-@ war = =
The B @-@ 17D , " The Swoose " , which Brett used extensively for his personal transport during World War II , and which he often piloted , is today the oldest , intact , surviving B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress and the only " D " model still in existence . It was transferred from the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum to the National Museum of the United States Air Force on 15 July 2008 .
Brett served on several committees and Air Force boards , including Flying Pay Board , the Air Force Association Board , and the President 's Service Academy Board between 1949 and 1950 . When his son Rock Brett was deployed in the Korean War , George Brett took in his daughter @-@ in @-@ law and grandchildren and cared for them . Brett lived in Winter Park , Florida until his death at age 77 . He died of cancer on 2 December 1963 at the hospital at Orlando Air Force Base . Survived by his wife , children , and grandchildren , he was buried in Winter Park , Florida .
= Pale crag martin =
The pale crag martin ( Ptyonoprogne obsoleta ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family that is resident in northern Africa and in southwestern Asia east to Pakistan . It breeds mainly in the mountains , but also at lower altitudes , especially in rocky areas and around towns . Unlike most swallows , it is often found far from water . It is 12 – 13 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) long , with mainly brown plumage , paler @-@ toned on the upper breast and underwing coverts , and with white " windows " on the spread tail in flight . The sexes are similar in appearance , but juveniles have pale fringes to the upperparts and flight feathers . It was formerly considered to be the northern subspecies of the rock martin of southern Africa , although it is smaller , paler , and whiter @-@ throated than that species . The pale crag martin hunts along cliff faces for flying insects using a slow flight with much gliding . Its call is a soft twitter .
This martin builds a deep bowl nest on a sheltered horizontal surface , or a neat quarter @-@ sphere against a vertical rock face or wall . The nest is constructed with mud pellets and lined with grass or feathers , and may be built on natural sites under cliff overhangs or on man @-@ made structures such as buildings and bridges . It is often reused for subsequent broods or in later years . This species is often a solitary breeder , but small groups may breed close together in suitable locations . The two or three eggs of a typical clutch are white with brown and grey blotches , and are incubated by both adults for 16 – 19 days prior to hatching . Both parents then feed the chicks . Fledging takes another 22 – 24 days , although the young birds will return to the nest to roost for a few days after the first flight .
The pale crag martin is caught in flight by several fast , agile falcon species , such as hobbies , and it sometimes carries parasites , but it faces no major threats . Because of its range of nearly 6 million km2 ( 2 @.@ 3 million sq mi ) and a large and apparently increasing population , it is not seen as vulnerable and is assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Taxonomy = =
The pale crag martin was first formally described in 1850 by German ornithologist Jean Cabanis as Cotyle obsoleta , using a specimen collected from near Cairo , Egypt . It was moved to the new genus Ptyonoprogne , created by German ornithologist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach , in the same year . The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek ptuon ( φτυον ) , " a fan " , referring to the shape of the opened tail , and Procne ( Πρόκνη ) , a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow . The specific name obsoleta means " worn " in Latin .
The Ptyonoprogne species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are classed as members of the Hirundininae subfamily , which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA sequence studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . These groups are the " core martins " , including burrowing species like the sand martin ; the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities ; and the " mud nest builders " . The Ptyonoprogne species construct open mud nests and therefore belong to the last group . Hirundo species also build open nests , Delichon house martins have a closed nest , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel .
The genus Ptyonoprogne is closely related to the larger swallow genus Hirundo , and is sometimes included within it since the nests of the Ptyonoprogne crag martins resemble those of typical Hirundo species like the barn swallow . However , a DNA analysis showed that if Hirundo is enlarged to contain the crag martins , it should include all the mud @-@ builder genera . Conversely , if the Delichon house martins are considered to be a separate genus , as is normally the case , Cecropis , Petrochelidon and Ptyonoprogne should also be split off . The pale crag martin 's nearest relatives are the other members of the genus , the dusky crag martin P. concolor of southern Asia , the rock martin P. fuligula of Southern Africa , and the Eurasian crag martin P. rupestris .
The pale crag martin was formerly often treated as the small , pale northern subspecies of the rock martin , but it is now usually considered to be a separate species . The changes in size and colour are continuous , so the evidence for separate species is not strong , although some rock martins can weigh more than twice as much as the smallest subspecies of the pale crag martin . The average weight for P. o. fusciventris is 22 @.@ 4 g ( 0 @.@ 79 oz ) against 10 g ( 0 @.@ 35 oz ) for P. o. obsoleta . There do not appear to be any intermediate forms where pale crag martins and rock martin populations breed close to each other in Somalia and Ethiopia .
In areas of Pakistan where its range overlaps with that of the dusky crag martin , the pale crag martin breeds at a higher altitude . Its range does not overlap there with the Eurasian crag martin , which is found high in the Himalayas , but where both occur in Iran , the pale crag martin favours more arid habitats . In North Africa , the Eurasian species is again found at a higher level . The separation by altitude and aridity means that it is not known whether the closely related Ptyonoprogne martins could hybridise . If they were shown to do so , it would cast doubts on their specific distinctness .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are several subspecies differing in plumage shade or size , although the differences are clinal , and races interbreed where their ranges meet .
= = Description = =
The pale crag martin of the nominate subspecies P. o. obsoleta is 12 – 13 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) long with light brown upperparts , becoming paler on the lower back , and a short square tail that has small white patches near the tips of all but the central and outermost pairs of feathers . It has a pale grey throat , upper breast and underwing coverts , and the rest of the underparts are a dirty white . The eyes are brown , the small bill is mainly black , and the legs are brownish @-@ pink . The wing length averages 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 4 @.@ 55 in ) and the tail averages 4 @.@ 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) . The sexes are similar in appearance , but juveniles have pale edges to the upperparts and flight feathers . The other subspecies differ from the nominate form as detailed in the table above .
This martin moults early , with adults having completely replaced their feathers by late August . Juveniles moult somewhat later , and their old primary feathers are retained even when the body has mainly adult plumage .
The pale crag martin 's flight is slow , with rapid wing beats interspersed with flat @-@ winged glides , and it is more acrobatic than the larger Eurasian crag martin . It is a quiet bird ; the song is a muffled twitter , and other calls include a trrt resembling the call of the common house martin , a nasal vick , and a high pitched twee contact call .
The pale crag martin is much drabber than most African swallows , and confusion is unlikely except with other crag martins or with sand martins of the genus Riparia . It is 15 % smaller , paler and greyer than the Eurasian crag martin , and has smaller tail spots . It is smaller , paler , and has a more contrasting throat than the rock martin . In the far east of its range , the pale crag martin always has lighter underparts than the dusky crag martin . Although only slightly larger than the sand martin and brown @-@ throated sand martin , the pale crag martin is more robust , has white tail spots , and lacks a breast band . Separation of similar species in flight may be complicated by the difficulty of judging colours accurately in strong desert light , particularly with juveniles . The fast flight of the brown @-@ throated sand martin also makes identification more difficult .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The pale crag martin breeds in suitable habitats throughout northern Africa and through the Middle East as far as Afghanistan and Pakistan . It is largely resident apart from local movements or a descent to lower altitudes after breeding . In addition , there is some short @-@ range movement , including martins from southern Arabia crossing the Red Sea and wintering alongside the local breeding birds in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa , and non @-@ breeding P. f. spatzi and P. f. presaharica joining rock martins in Mali and Mauritania . In Pakistan , the breeding range of the subspecies P. f. peloplasta overlaps with that of the dusky crag martin , although that species breeds at much lower levels , and in North Africa P. f. obsoleta occupies desert habitats whilst the Eurasian crag martin is found in the mountains . The pale crag martin has been recorded as a vagrant in Bahrain , Qatar , Kuwait , and Sri Lanka , although its occurrence in the last country is treated as unproven in a 2011 field guide . The martin has been claimed to visit Turkey , but this is also disputed .
The natural breeding habitat is hilly or mountainous country with cliffs , gorges and caves up to 3 @,@ 700 m ( 12 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level , but this martin also breeds in lowlands , especially if rocks or buildings are available , and may be found far from water . This species readily uses man @-@ made structures as a substitute for natural precipices , and has bred on houses in southern Israel since the 1970s . In Egypt it may breed near monuments like Abu Simbel or in desert towns such as Aswan . It uses towns , bridges and cliffs in Ethiopia , and tower blocks in Arabia . In the breeding season , the martin needs mud or wet soil to construct its nests , and this is normally readily found near human habitations . This species appears to be scarce in some forested and coastal areas with high humidity , in which the red @-@ rumped swallow tends to be the common hirundine .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Pale crag martin pairs often nest alone , especially in the Sahara , although where suitable sites are available small loose colonies may form . This martin aggressively defends its nesting territory against conspecifics and other species . In Africa breeding dates vary geographically and with local weather conditions , but in northwest Africa February to April is normal , and in Asia nesting is from April to June . Two broods are common , and three have been raised in a season .
The nest , built by both adults over several weeks , is made from several hundred mud pellets and lined with feathers and soft , dry grass , hair , sheep ’ s wool or plant down . It may be a half @-@ cup when constructed under an overhang on a vertical wall or cliff , or shaped as a bowl like that of the barn swallow when placed on a sheltered ledge . The nest may be built on a rock cliff face , in a crevice or on a man @-@ made structure , and is re @-@ used for the second brood and in subsequent years . Caves are found in limestone formations and in the lava flows which cover much of western Saudi Arabia , and their ceilings are a favoured location for nesting pale crag martins , red @-@ rumped swallows , and the little swifts which may appropriate the hirundines ' nests . In buildings , nests are usually constructed against concrete , which provides adhesion similar to that of rock , but metal walls are sometimes used , and nests may be supported on beams or other horizontal supports . Birds sometimes breed in occupied buildings , and there is a record of a pair nesting in a busy restaurant kitchen . Artificial nests are readily used , and halved coconut shells have been successfully occupied in Abu Dhabi .
The clutch is usually two or three buff @-@ white eggs blotched with sepia or grey @-@ brown , particularly at the wide end . The average egg size for Asian birds was 19 @.@ 3 x 12 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 76 x 0 @.@ 51 in ) with a weight of 1 @.@ 7 g ( 0 @.@ 06 oz ) . Both adults incubate the eggs for 16 – 19 days prior to hatching and feed the chicks about ten times an hour until they fledge and for several days after they can fly . The fledging time can vary from 22 – 24 days to 25 – 30 days , though the latter estimates probably take into account fledged young returning to the nest for food . If a nest is destroyed , or the breeding attempt otherwise fails , a replacement clutch may be laid , typically with fewer eggs . Two nests in Arabia were used in spring and again in the autumn , but it is not known if the same pair were involved .
= = = Feeding = = =
The pale crag martin feeds mainly on insects caught in flight , although it will occasionally feed on the ground . Breeding birds often feed close to their nesting territory , flying back and forth along a rock face catching insects in their bills . Cliff faces
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1 @,@ 440 rounds for the 12 @-@ inch guns ( 120 per gun ) , 3 @,@ 600 rounds for the 6 @-@ inch ( 300 ) , 5 @,@ 600 rounds for the 4 @-@ inch ( 350 ) , and 16 torpedoes manufactured by Whitehead . To assist the main battery with targeting during a battle , the two ships were equipped with two Barr & Stroud rangefinders that were located above the conning towers .
Rivadavia and Moreno used Brown – Curtis geared steam turbines , powered by 18 Babcock & Wilcox boilers and connected to three propellers . With a total output of about 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) , the ships were designed to travel at a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) and may have been capable of slightly more . At speeds of 11 to 15 knots ( 20 to 28 km / h ; 13 to 17 mph ) , their endurance ranged from 11 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 20 @,@ 000 to 13 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 700 to 8 @,@ 100 mi ) , respectively . Their fuel was a coal – oil mix and the ships carried 3 @,@ 900 long tons ( 4 @,@ 000 t ) of the former and 590 long tons ( 600 t ) of the latter .
Typical of American @-@ designed dreadnoughts at the time , the Rivadavia class included substantial armor protection . A 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) belt was fitted amidships , covering 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the designed waterline , gradually decreasing towards the bow and stern to 5 inches ( 130 mm ) and 4 inches ( 100 mm ) , respectively . The gun turrets received heavy armor , including 12 inches ( 300 mm ) on the front , 9 inches ( 230 mm ) on the sides , 9 @.@ 5 inches ( 240 mm ) on the back , and 4 inches ( 100 mm ) on the top . Deck armor consisted of .5 inches ( 13 mm ) medium steel and 2 inches ( 51 mm ) nickel steel .
= = Endnotes = =
= Cyclogenesis =
Cyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere ( a low @-@ pressure area ) . Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for at least three different processes , all of which result in the development of some sort of cyclone , and at any size from the microscale to the synoptic scale .
Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity , and are warm core .
Extratropical cyclones form as waves along weather fronts before occluding later in their life cycle as cold core cyclones .
Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land , and can lead to tornado formation . Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones , but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear .
The process in which an extratropical cyclone undergoes a rapid drop in atmospheric pressure ( 24 millibars or more ) in a 24 @-@ hour period is referred to as explosive cyclogenesis , and is usually present during the formation of a nor 'easter . The anticyclonic equivalent , the process of formation of high pressure areas , is anticyclogenesis . The opposite of cyclogenesis is cyclolysis .
= = Meteorological scales = =
There are four main scales , or sizes of systems , dealt with in meteorology : the macroscale , the synoptic scale , the mesoscale , and the microscale . The macroscale deals with systems with global size , such as the Madden – Julian oscillation . Synoptic scale systems cover a portion of a continent , such as extratropical cyclones , with dimensions of 1 @,@ 000 @-@ 2 @,@ 500 km ( 620 @-@ 1 @,@ 550 mi ) across . The mesoscale is the next smaller scale , and often is divided into two ranges : meso @-@ alpha phenomena range from 200 @-@ 2 @,@ 000 km ( 125 @-@ 1 @,@ 243 mi ) across ( the realm of the tropical cyclone ) , while meso @-@ beta phenomena range from 20 – 200 km ( 12 @-@ 125 mi ) across ( the scale of the mesocyclone ) . The microscale is the smallest of the meteorological scales , with a size under two kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) ( the scale of tornadoes and waterspouts ) . These horizontal dimensions are not rigid divisions but instead reflect typical sizes of phenomena having certain dynamic characteristics . For example , a system does not necessarily transition from meso @-@ alpha to synoptic scale when its horizontal extent grows from 2 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 001 km ( 1 @,@ 243 mi ) .
= = Extratropical cyclones = =
= = = Norwegian Cyclone Model = = =
The Norwegian Cyclone Model is an idealized formation model of cold @-@ core cyclonic storms developed by Norwegian meteorologists during the First World War . The main concept behind this model , relating to cyclogenesis , is that cyclones progress through a predictable evolution as they move up a frontal boundary , with the most mature cyclone near the northeast end of the front and the least mature near the tail end of the front .
= = = Precursors for development = = =
A preexisting frontal boundary , as defined in surface weather analysis , is required for the development of a mid @-@ latitude cyclone . The cyclonic flow begins around a disturbed section of the stationary front due to an upper level disturbance , such as a short wave or an upper @-@ level trough , near a favorable quadrant of the upper level jet . However , enhanced along @-@ frontal stretching rates in the lower troposphere can suppress the growth of extratropical cyclones .
= = = Vertical motion affecting development = = =
Cyclogenesis can only occur when temperature decreases polewards ( to the north , in the northern hemisphere ) , and pressure perturbation lines tilt westward with height . Cyclogenesis is most likely to occur in regions of cyclonic vorticity advection , downstream of a strong westerly jet . The combination of vorticity advection and thermal advection created by the temperature gradient and a low pressure center cause upward motion around the low . If the temperature gradient is strong enough , temperature advection will increase , driving more vertical motion . This increases the overall strength of the system . Shearwise updrafts are the most important factor in determining cyclonic growth and strength .
= = = Modes of development = = =
The surface low could have a variety of causes for forming . Topography can force a surface low when dense low @-@ level high pressure system ridges in east of a north @-@ south mountain barrier . Mesoscale convective systems can spawn surface lows which are initially warm core . The disturbance can grow into a wave @-@ like formation along the front and the low will be positioned at the crest . Around the low , flow will become cyclonic , by definition . This rotational flow will push polar air equatorward west of the low via its trailing cold front , and warmer air will push poleward low via the warm front . Usually the cold front will move at a quicker pace than the warm front and “ catch up ” with it due to the slow erosion of higher density airmass located out ahead of the cyclone and the higher density airmass sweeping in behind the cyclone , usually resulting in a narrowing warm sector . At this point an occluded front forms where the warm air mass is pushed upwards into a trough of warm air aloft , which is also known as a trowal ( a trough of warm air aloft ) . All developing low pressure areas share one important aspect , that of upward vertical motion within the troposphere . Such upward motions decrease the mass of local atmospheric columns of air , which lower surface pressure .
= = = Maturity = = =
Maturity is after the time of occlusion when the storm has completed strengthening and the cyclonic flow is at its most intense . Thereafter , the strength of the storm diminishes as the cyclone couples with the upper level trough or upper level low , becoming increasingly cold core . The spin @-@ down of cyclones , also known as cyclolysis , can be understood from an energetics perspective . As occlusion occurs and the warm air mass is pushed upwards over a cold air airmass , the atmosphere becomes increasingly stable and the centre of gravity of the system lowers . As the occlusion process extends further down the warm front and away from the central low , more and more of the available potential energy of the system is exhausted . This potential energy sink creates a kinetic energy source which injects a final burst of energy into the storm 's motions . After this process occurs , the growth period of the cyclone , or cyclogenesis , ends , and the low begins to spin down ( fill ) as more air is converging into the bottom of the cyclone than is being removed out the top since upper @-@ level divergence has decreased .
Occasionally , cyclogenesis will re @-@ occur with occluded cyclones . When this happens a new low center will form on the triple @-@ point ( the point where the cold front , warm front , and occluded front meet ) . During triple @-@ point cyclogenesis , the occluded parent low will fill as the secondary low deepens into the main weathermaker .
= = Tropical cyclones = =
Tropical cyclones exist within a mesoscale alpha domain . As opposed to mid @-@ latitude cyclogenesis , tropical cyclogenesis is driven by strong convection organised into a central core with no baroclinic zones , or fronts , extending through their center . Although the formation of tropical cyclones is the topic of extensive ongoing research and is still not fully understood , there are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis : sea surface temperatures that are warm enough , atmospheric instability , high humidity in lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a pre @-@ existing low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . These warm core cyclones tend to form over the oceans between 10 and 30 degrees of the equator .
= = Mesocyclones = =
Mesocyclones range in size from mesoscale beta to microscale . The term mesocyclone is usually reserved for mid @-@ level rotations within severe thunderstorms , and are warm core cyclones driven by latent heat of its associated thunderstorm activity .
Tornadoes form in the warm sector of extratropical cyclones where a strong upper level jet stream exists . Mesocyclones are believed to form when strong changes of wind speed and / or direction with height ( " wind shear " ) sets parts of the lower part of the atmosphere spinning in invisible tube @-@ like rolls . The convective updraft of a thunderstorm is then thought to draw up this spinning air , tilting the rolls ' orientation upward ( from parallel to the ground to perpendicular ) and causing the entire updraft to rotate as a vertical column .
As the updraft rotates , it may form what is known as a wall cloud . The wall cloud is a spinning layer of clouds descending from the mesocyclone . The wall cloud tends to form closer to the center of the mesocyclone . It should be noted the wall clouds do not necessarily need a mesocyclone to form and do not always rotate . As the wall cloud descends , a funnel @-@ shaped cloud may form at its center . This is the first stage of tornado formation . The presence of a mesocyclone is believed to be a key factor in the formation of the strong tornadoes associated with severe thunderstorms .
= = Tornadoes = =
Tornadoes exist on the microscale or low end of the mesoscale gamma domain . The cycle begins when a strong thunderstorm develops a rotating mesocyclone a few miles up in the atmosphere , becoming a supercell . As rainfall in the storm increases , it drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft ( RFD ) . This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground , and drags the rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it .
As the mesocyclone approaches the ground , a visible condensation funnel appears to descend from the base of the storm , often from a rotating wall cloud . As the funnel descends , the RFD also reaches the ground , creating a gust front that can cause damage a good distance from the tornado . Usually , the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground ( becoming a tornado ) within minutes of the RFD reaching the ground .
= = Waterspouts = =
Waterspouts exist on the microscale . While some waterspouts are strong ( tornadic ) like their land @-@ based counterparts , most are much weaker and caused by different atmospheric dynamics . They normally develop in moisture @-@ laden environments with little vertical wind shear along lines of convergence , such as land breezes , lines of frictional convergence from nearby landmasses , or surface troughs . Their parent cloud can be as innocuous as a moderate cumulus , or as significant as a thunderstorm . Waterspouts normally develop as their parent clouds are in the process of development , and it is theorized that they spin up as they move up the surface boundary from the horizontal wind shear near the surface , and then stretch upwards to the cloud once the low level shear vortex aligns with a developing cumulus or thunderstorm . Weak tornadoes , known as landspouts , across eastern Colorado have been witnessed to develop in a similar manner . An outbreak occurred in the Great Lakes in late September and early October 2003 along a lake effect band . September is the peak month of landspout and waterspout occurrence around Florida and for waterspout occurrence around the Great Lakes .
= = Related terms = =
Cyclogenesis is the opposite of cyclolysis , which concerns the weakening of surface cyclones . The term has an anticyclonic ( high pressure system ) equivalent — Anticyclogenesis , which deals with the formation of surface high pressure systems .
= Tartu Offensive =
The Tartu Offensive Operation ( Russian : Тартуская наступательная операция ) , also known as the Battle of Tartu ( Estonian : Tartu lahing ) and the Battle of Emajõgi ( Estonian : Emajõe lahingud , German : Schlacht am Embach ) was a campaign fought over southeastern Estonia in 1944 . It took place on the Eastern Front during World War II between the Soviet 3rd Baltic Front and parts of the German Army Group North .
The Soviet tactical aim was to defeat the 18th Army and to capture the city of Tartu . The strategic goal was a quick occupation of Estonia . The Soviet command planned to reach the coast of the Gulf of Riga and trap the Army Detachment " Narwa " . The German side involved Estonian conscripts , which fought to defend their country against the looming Soviet annexation . The 3rd Baltic Front captured Tartu . The conquest caused the destruction of the Estonian National Museum and 40 million rubles worth of damage to the University of Tartu . Kampfgruppe " Wagner " stabilised the front at the Emajõgi River . The XXVIII Army Corps supported by Omakaitse militia stalled the front at the Väike Emajõgi and Gauja Rivers , preventing the 3rd Baltic Front from cutting off the " Narwa " .
= = Background = =
Attacks of the Leningrad Front had pushed the Army Group North to the west of Lake Peipus resulting in a series of operations around Narva . The German Command considered it important to maintain control over the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland , which eased the situation in Finland and kept the Soviet Baltic Fleet in its eastern bay . From a military economy viewpoint , the preservation of the oil shale reserves and oil shale industry in Ida @-@ Viru was also important . In the south , Soviet forces advanced towards the Baltic seacoast at the end of their Operation Bagration of June – August 1944 against the German Army Group Centre .
= = = Comparison of forces = = =
At the beginning of the Soviet Tartu Operation , the ratio of Soviet to German strength was 4 @.@ 3 : 1 for troops , 14 @.@ 8 : 1 for artillery and 4 @.@ 1 : 1 for armour . The German forces were mostly battle groups from various formations and smaller units from different branches . A significant proportion of the German side was constituted of Omakaitse militia battalions with poor weaponry and little fighting ability .
= = Combat activities = =
The main thrust of the Soviet operation was first aimed at the southern Petseri County . On 10 August , the Soviet 67th Army broke through the defence of the XXVIII Army Corps and captured the town of Võru on 13 August . The XXVIII Army Corps were forced to the banks of the Väike Emajõgi and Gauja Rivers in the west where they were supported by the Viljandi County Omakaitse militia battalion . While the defence prevented the 3rd Baltic Front from cutting off the retreat of the Army Detachment " Narwa " from Estonia , there was open ground towards the city of Tartu , the capital of Southeast Estonia . Army Group North created a Kampfgruppe ( an ad @-@ hoc combat formation ) , led by SS @-@ Brigadeführer Jürgen Wagner and manned by the army detachment , for the defence of the new line . The Soviet tank units forced a wedge between the Kampfgruppe and the XXVIIIth Army Corps ; Wagner had insufficient troops ahead of the city . On 16 August , Lieutenant General Alexey Grechkin 's group launched an amphibious assault over Lake Peipus behind the German left ( east ) flank , beating the Omakaitse defence and forming a bridgehead in the village of Mehikoorma . In fierce battles , a local border guard regiment stopped their advance .
The 3rd Baltic Front launched an artillery barrage at the positions of the 2nd Battalion , 45 Waffen SS Grenadier Regiment ( 1st Estonian ) covering the German right flank in the village of Nõo southeast of Tartu on 23 August . The Soviet 282nd Rifle Division backed by the 16th Single Tank Brigade and two self @-@ propelled artillery regiments bypassed the defence on the west side and captured the Kärevere Bridge across the Emajõgi River west of Tartu . Being one of only four bridges across the 100 kilometres long marshy floodplains of the river , it was of high strategic importance . After sappers failed to destroy the bridge , Sturmbannführer Leon Degrelle improvised a defence line of the 5th SS Volunteer Sturmbrigade Wallonien , avoiding a Soviet breakthrough to Tartu . As a result , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves .
A heavy German tank assault had been planned to attack behind the western flank of the Soviet lines in Elva on 24 August . On the night before the attack , the designated commander of the operation Brigadeführer Hyazinth von Strachwitz had a serious car accident . The Soviet tank squadrons repulsed the German attack on the following day . Four Soviet rifle divisions launched an attack at Tartu with the support of armour and artillery . After fierce street battles , the Soviet forces conquered the city and established a bridgehead on the north bank of the Emajõgi on 25 August . Due to " Wagner " ' s inability to hold back the Soviet offensive , the headquarters of the Army Group North turned over command of the Emajõgi Front to the II Army Corps , commanded by Infantry General Wilhelm Hasse . At the end of August , the III . Battalion , 1st Estonian Regiment was formed from the 1st Battalion of the Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 , recently returned to Estonia . As their largest operation , supported by Estonian Police Battalions No. 37 , 38 and Mauritz Freiherr von Strachwitz 's tank squadron , they destroyed the bridgehead of two Soviet divisions and recaptured Kärevere Bridge by 30 August . The operation shifted the entire front back to the southern bank of the Emajõgi and encouraged the II Army Corps to launch an operation attempting to recapture Tartu . The attack of 4 – 6 September reached the northern outskirts of the city but was repulsed by units of four Soviet rifle divisions . Relative calm settled on the front for the subsequent thirteen days .
= = Losses = =
The property of the University of Tartu suffered heavy losses in the campaign , accounting for 40 million rubles of damage ( equalling to the purchasing power of 90 million U.S. dollars in 2008 ) . The university lost fifteen buildings permanently . The damage done to the roofs , interiors , doors , windows , heating systems , study cabinets and laboratories was three times the damage to the ruined buildings . The Museum of Zoology lost all of its wet preparations . The interiors of the laboratories of chemistry , physics , pathology and dairy , and a large amount of instruments for the observatories of astronomy and geophysics were destroyed by shrapnel or looted . Bombing destroyed Raadi Manor the main building of the Estonian National Museum .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Baltic Offensive = = =
The 2nd Shock Army crossed Lake Peipus in 5 – 11 September and acquired command over the Emajõgi front . In the Riga Offensive Operation on 14 – 16 September , the 3rd Baltic Front attacked the German XXVIII Army Corps and the Omakaitse militia battalions in the front segment from the Valga railway junction to Lake Võrtsjärv . In fierce battles , the German and Estonian units held their positions .
The Soviet Tallinn Offensive of the 2nd Shock and 8th Armies commenced on the early morning of 17 September . The 2nd Shock Army forced its way through the II Army Corps divisional headquarters and artillery positions along the Emajõgi . The Army Detachment " Narwa " and the XXVIII Army Corps , the northernmost elements of Army Group North , were at risk of being encircled and destroyed . The headquarters of the Army Group North ordered the II Army Corps to abandon the defence of the Emajõgi line and to move quickly around the northern tip of Lake Võrtsjärv to Latvia .
The code name for the withdrawal of the Army Detachment " Narwa " from mainland Estonia was Operation " Aster " . Beginning on 17 September 1944 , a naval force under Vice @-@ Admiral Theodor Burchardi evacuated elements of the Army Detachment and Estonian civilians . Within six days , around 50 @,@ 000 troops , 20 @,@ 000 civilians and 1 @,@ 000 prisoners were evacuated . The remaining elements of the Army Detachment were ordered to withdraw into Latvia by way of Pärnu and Viljandi . The III SS ( Germanic ) Panzer Corps reached Pärnu by September 20 , while the II Army Corps retreated south of Viljandi to form the 18th Army 's rearguard . As they retreated , the Soviet 2nd Shock and 8th Armies advanced and took Tallinn on September 22 .
= = = Soviet reoccupation = = =
Soviet rule of Estonia was re @-@ established by force , and sovietisation followed , which was mostly carried out in 1944 – 1950 . The forced collectivisation of agriculture began in 1947 , and was completed after the mass deportation of Estonians in March 1949 . All private farms were confiscated , and farmers were made to join the collective farms . An armed resistance movement of ' forest brothers ' was active until the mass deportations . A total of 30 @,@ 000 participated or supported the movement ; 2 @,@ 000 were killed . The Soviet authorities fighting the forest brothers suffered also hundreds of deaths . Among those killed on both sides were innocent civilians . Besides the armed resistance of the forest brothers , a number of underground nationalist schoolchildren groups were active . Most of their members were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment . The punitive actions decreased rapidly after Joseph Stalin 's death in 1953 ; from 1956 – 58 , a large part of the deportees and political prisoners were allowed to return to Estonia . Political arrests and numerous other crimes against humanity were committed all through the occupation period until the late 1980s . After all , the attempt to integrate Estonian society into the Soviet system failed . Although the armed resistance was defeated , the population remained anti @-@ Soviet . This helped the Estonians to organise a new resistance movement in the late 1980s , regain their independence in 1991 , and then rapidly develop a modern society .
= Tropical Storm Gabrielle ( 1995 ) =
Tropical Storm Gabrielle caused moderate flooding in northeastern Mexico and southern Texas in August 1995 . The eighth tropical cyclone and seventh named storm of the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season , Gabrielle developed from a tropical wave in the west @-@ central Gulf of Mexico on August 9 . Initially a tropical depression , the system gradually intensified and by the following day , it became a tropical storm . Favorable conditions caused Gabrielle to continue to strengthen , with the storm nearly reaching hurricane status late on August 11 . However , it soon made landfall near La Pesca , Tamaulipas , thus halting further intensification . Once inland , Gabrielle rapidly weakened and dissipated by early on August 12 .
As Gabrielle was impacting the east coast of Mexico , Hurricane Flossie in the Eastern Pacific was brushing the Baja Peninsula . The storm produced torrential rainfall in northeastern Mexico , totaling to 19 @.@ 44 inches ( 494 mm ) . As a result , numerous reservoirs were filled , forcing dozens in southern Nuevo Leon to evacuate their homes . Additionally , highway infrastructure and streets in the region were affected . Damage in Mexico is unknown , though six fatalities were reported . Rainfall up to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) brought minor flooding to Texas , mainly damaging unharvested cotton . Three days after dissipation , the remnants of Gabrielle also produced heavy thunderstorms in New Mexico on August 15 .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean off the west coast of Africa during the last week of July . As it tracked across the Atlantic , it remained a well @-@ defined system , but never organized into a tropical cyclone . On August 8 , the system entered the Gulf of Mexico , and by the following day , it developed a weak low @-@ level circulation . The circulation became better defined later that day , and was confirmed by Reconnaissance aircraft that afternoon , when it was declared Tropical Depression Eight while east of Tamaulipas .
From the outset , the cyclone 's motion was altered by Hurricane Flossie off the Pacific coast of Mexico . Initially , deep convection fired up gradually as the depression slowly tracked westward in the Gulf of Mexico . At 1200 UTC on August 10 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Gabrielle , as the storm curved southward . Gabrielle then strengthened slowly over the warm sea surface temperatures in a low wind shear environment , although land interaction slowed the intensification somewhat . The storm shifted once again onto a west @-@ northwest course on August 11 , moving very slowly towards the coast .
The storm made landfall at 2000 UTC on August 11 , just south of La Pesca in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas , about 175 miles ( 280 km ) south of the United States @-@ Mexico border and about 90 miles ( 145 km ) north of Tampico . Simultaneously , Gabrielle attained its peak intensity with a maximum sustained wind speed of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 988 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) . After landfall , the storm rapidly weakened , deteriorating to tropical depression status by early on August 12 over northeast Mexico . Six hours later , the surface circulation of Gabrielle dissipated over the mountains of the Sierra Madre Oriental , although its cloud pattern transited Mexico intact , moving into the Gulf of California before it sheared across northwest Mexico on August 15 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Starting at 2100 UTC on August 9 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Baffin Bay , Texas to La Pesca , Tamaulipas while Gabrielle was still Tropical Depression Eight . By 0900 UTC on the following day , the warning was expanded to include areas south to Tampico , Tamaulipas and extended further to Tuxpan , Veracruz twelve hours later . As the latter was occurring , the tropical storm warning was discontinued for Texas . Early on August 12 , all the warnings in Mexico were discontinued , as the storm had already moved inland . 800 people were evacuated in Soto la Marina and San Fernando in Tamaulipas . People in poor villages in the Rio Grande Valley were given sandbags with Tropical Storm Gabrielle approaching .
Overall damage was generally minor . There were no reports of wind damage , although tropical storm @-@ force winds affected the northern coast of Tamaulipas . A newspaper in Mexico reported up to 24 inches ( 600 mm ) of precipitation across much of Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon ; this figure is in dispute , however , as the rainfall database maintained by Mexico 's National Weather Service shows the maximum amount to lie under 20 inches ( 508 mm ) . The heavy rainfall from the storm filled nearly half the reservoirs in Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas , which were almost empty due to drought conditions in the region . As a result , dozens in southern Nuevo Leon were forced to evacuation their homes . Rains from Gabrielle flooded streets and destroyed bridges and highways in northern Mexico . No storm surge recordings were taken in Mexico , although it is estimated by the National Hurricane Center that a surge of a few feet took place to the north of the track . Six fatalities were reported in Mexico as a result of Gabrielle .
In Texas , rainfall from the storm peaked at 6 @.@ 26 inches ( 159 mm ) in Weslaco , while many other areas in southern Texas reported only 1 to 3 inches ( 25 to 76 mm ) of precipitation . Gabrielle 's rain came after a drought , and some of it soaked in . The rains also damaged unharvested cotton . Otherwise , minor flooding occurred . Brownsville reported up to 4 inches ( 102 mm ) of rain in association with Gabrielle . In extreme southern Texas , minor beach flooding took place at some of the beaches in the region . The remains of Gabrielle produced heavy thunderstorms in New Mexico on August 15 .
= Connecticut Indian Land Claims Settlement =
The Connecticut Indian Land Claims Settlement was an Indian Land Claims Settlement passed by the United States Congress in 1983 . The settlement act ended a lawsuit by the Mashantucket Pequot Tribe to recover 800 acres of their 1666 reservation in Ledyard , Connecticut , sold in 1855 , allegedly in violation of the Nonintercourse Act that regulates commerce between Native Americans and non @-@ Indians .
The settlement act appropriated $ 900 @,@ 000 to buy the disputed lands and transferred those lands and the state reservation to the federal government in trust . The settlement act permits the state of Connecticut to exercise civil and criminal , but not regulatory , jurisdiction over the lands . This laid the foundation for the Mashantucket Pequot to create the Foxwoods Resort Casino , the largest casino in the world by revenue and floor space , and ( at one time ) the most profitable .
= = Background = =
The Pequot War ( 1634 – 1638 ) all but exterminated the Pequots , dividing the captives up between the Mohegan and Narragansett tribes who had allied with the settlers . In 1651 , John Winthrop the Younger persuaded the Connecticut Colony to create a 500 @-@ acre reservation for the Pequots in Noank , removing them from their previous places of residence . In 1666 , the Connecticut General Assembly voted to create a 2 @,@ 000 acre reservation for the " western " Pequots ( the group previously in the custody of the Mohegans ) in Ledyard , Connecticut ; the eastern Pequots were given 280 acres in present @-@ day North Stonington , Connecticut . By 1790 ( the year that Congress passed the first Nonintercourse Act ) , the reservation was only 1 @,@ 000 acres . In 1855 , Connecticut sold 800 of the remaining acres at $ 10 / acre , putting the money into a state administered trust account for the Pequots .
In the 1970s , David Crosby of Pine Tree Legal Assistance , a non @-@ profit law firm that was then litigating Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton in Maine , arrived on the Pequot reservation to discuss the possibility of a land claim . Advised by Crosby , the Pequots established a non @-@ profit corporation — Western Pequot Indians of Connecticut , Inc . — in 1974 . In April 1975 , Crosby finished his research and presented his findings to the Pequots .
= = Litigation = =
The Pequots filed suit in May 1976 in the United States District Court for the District of Connecticut . The case was assigned to Judge Mosher Joseph Blumenfeld . The named plaintiffs were the Western Pequot Tribe and Richard " Skip " Hawyard ( the leader of the Pequot tribe ) ; among the named defendants were Holdridge Enterprises and its president , David Holdridge . The 800 @-@ acre claim embraced only about a dozen to thirty @-@ five landowner defendants . The state of Connecticut was sued , and declined requests from the defendants to become involved in the litigation .
One of the lawyers for the defendants was Jackson King , a partner at Brown , Jacobson , Jewett & Laudone . King was first in his class at University of Connecticut School of Law and became involved in the case when one of the named defendants , who had served with him on a local land conservation commission , contacted him .
= = Federal recognition = =
HUD
The Pequots pursued federal recognition in parallel with their land claims litigation . They applied to the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development ( HUD ) to participate in HUD 's Indian housing assistance program . In March 1976 , Connecticut Governor Ella Grasso certified to HUD that the Pequots were " an autonomous unit or government " for the purposes of the revenue sharing program . At this time , there were thirty @-@ two tribal members .
BIA
On January 15 , 1979 , the Pequots filed a preliminary petition for federal tribal recognition with the Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ) . Historian Jack Campisi , who had previously worked as an expert witness with attorney Tom Tureen ( known for his role in Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton ( 1975 ) and other Nonintercourse Act claims ) , authored the petition . The Pequots did not submit a full recognition application to the BIA until mid @-@ 1983 .
= = Settlement Act = =
With the passage of the Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act in 1980 , attorney Tom Tureen turned his attention to the Mashantucket Pequot case .
In October 1981 , Tureen approached King ( the defendants ' lawyer ) regarding a federally legislated settlement . Tureen proposed that the state of Connecticut turn over the reservation to the federal government , and that the federal government pay the property owners fair market value to include their land in the federal reservation . As part of the deal , the state would retain civil and criminal , but not regulatory , authority of the reservation . The state approved the settlement in June 1982 .
The federal settlement bill included a $ 900 @,@ 000 appropriation , the appraisal value of the 800 acres , which the Pequots would use to buy the land from the landowner defendants . The legislation also provided that the landowners would not have to pay capital gains tax as long as they reinvested the money in real estate .
Senator Lowell P. Weicker , Jr . ( R @-@ CT ) delivered the draft bill to the Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs . Peter Taylor , the committee 's general counsel noticed that the bill did not limit the amount or location of the lands that the Pequots could buy with the settlement funds . Tureen and King prepared a map in accordance with Taylor 's wishes .
Senator William Cohen ( R @-@ ME ) , the chairman of the committee , began hearings on July 14 , 1982 . William Coldiron , the solicitor general of the Department of the Interior , testified against the bill , which he viewed as circumventing the BIA 's recognition process and as costing too much money . Cohen criticized Coldiron for lacking enough knowledge about the Pequots . Representative Sam Gejdenson ( D @-@ CT ) also supported the bill .
The House passed the bill , H.R. 6612 , on October 1 , 1982 , and the Senate passed a different version on December 21 . The compromise version was passed by the Senate on February 24 , 1982 by voice vote , and by the House on March 22 . However , President Ronald Reagan vetoed the bill , opining that the state should pay more of the cost and that the Pequots may not meet the BIA 's definition of a tribe . Tureen , King , Hayward , and Sandy Cadwalader of the Indian Rights Association began lobbying for a veto override . Once 67 Senators had committed to voting for the bill — enough to have been the first veto override of Reagan 's presidency — a compromise was proposed whereby Connecticut would contribute $ 200 @,@ 000 toward road improvements ( which became known as " the veto road " ) .
At a new set of hearings in July 1983 , Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs John W. Fritz declared that the administration would not object to the new bill . Reagan signed the new bill , S. 1499 , into law on October 18 , 1983 . Since 1983 , the Mashuntucket Pequots have appeared on every list of federally recognized tribes published by the Department of the Interior in the Federal Register .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Bingo = = =
On April 30 , 1984 , the Pequot corporate body voted 12 @-@ 1 with two abstentions to approve the construction of a high @-@ stakes bingo operation . Barry Margolin , Tureen 's law partner , took the lead in representing the Pequots in this matter . After Connecticut 's chief state criminal attorney wrote the tribe a letter threatening to shut down the bingo operation if opened as planned , the Pequots filed for a federal preliminary injunction , which Judge Peter C. Dorsey ( who , as a magistrate , had ruled favorably for the Pequots in their land claim ) granted . Dorsey granted a permanent injunction on January 9 , 1986 , holding that Connecticut 's bingo laws did not apply to the reservation . The bingo hall opened on July 5 , 1986 .
= = = Cabazon Band and the IGRA = = =
The Supreme Court 's decision in California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians ( 198
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inspired by Planet Earth , which featured similar concepts .
= = = Music and sound production = = =
Throughout development , Druckmann and Straley had been compiling various musical tracks that they found inspirational . When searching for a composer to work on the game 's music , they realised that many of the compiled tracks were composed by Gustavo Santaolalla . Straley described Santaolalla 's music as " organic instrumentation , minimalist , dissonance and resonance with the sounds " . As a result , Sony reached out to Santaolalla , who agreed to work on the game 's soundtrack . After hearing the game 's pitch , Santaolalla was excited to work on the game ; he previously wanted to work on video games , but refused to work on those without a focus on story and characters .
Due to Santaolalla 's stance on composing music — he lacks knowledge in reading and writing sheet music , preferring to simply record — he began working on The Last of Us early in development . To give Santaolalla a point to base his music , Druckmann simply told him about the story and themes , as opposed to giving specific instructions on composing ; Santaolalla appreciated this freedom , feeling it assisted in the composing . To compose , Santaolalla felt the need to " go into some more dark place , more textural and not necessarily melodic " . To challenge himself , Santaolalla used a variety of unique instruments he was unfamiliar with , giving a sense of danger and innocence . For The Last of Us , he used a detuned guitar , producing deep noise . To produce unique tunes , Santaolalla recorded in various rooms , including a bathroom and kitchen . The team wanted the game 's AI to affect the music . They also tried to make the music evoke a reaction from the player , as their familiarization with the sounds would trigger a previous emotion that they felt . Music manager Jonathan Mayer felt that the game 's action music was atypical of action music in other games , stating that it 's " relatively low @-@ key " , and that taking it out of context changes the immediate reaction to it . The game 's theme , " The Last of Us " , was the first piece of music that the team received , and they were very impressed .
The sound design team began working on the game early in development , in order to achieve the best results ; they immediately realised that it would be challenging . Early in development , Druckmann told the sound team to " make it subtle " , and underplay ideas . Audio lead Phillip Kovats was excited to completely create all sounds ; no sounds were carried across from previous games . The team looked at ways to create sounds from a naturalistic point @-@ of @-@ view , and how to introduce minimalism into a game . By doing so , they found that it added feelings of tension , loss and hope , and that the game appeared to be a typical " action game " without the minimalism approach . They used a high dynamic range , allowing them the opportunity to inform players on tactical information , and locations to explore . The game 's sound design was created to reflect a more " grounded " and subtle mood than Uncharted , particularly focusing on the lack of sound . Taking inspiration from No Country for Old Men , the team attempted to " do more with less " ; Kovats said that the team was trying to tell a story by " going for a reductive quality " . Straley stated that the audio is vital to some scenes in the game ; " It 's more about the psychology of what 's happening on the audioscape than what you 're seeing , " he stated . He felt that this decision allowed a more impactful and meaningful effect with sound occurred . The sound team also attempted to portray the game 's dark themes through sound . The team felt that it was important to let sounds play for as long as possible in the game , drawing tension . The team used a propagation technique to help players determine the exact locations of enemies , using this as a tactical advantage . This system , created by the team at Naughty Dog , is processed at random in the game engine . For the game 's audio , the engine throws out 1500 – 2500 ray casts per frame ; though most games avoid this , the game 's engine allowed it to work . The team spent a lot of time recording sounds for the game , namely doors , and rusty metal . Sound designer Neil Uchitel traveled to Rio de Janeiro , discovering locations to record sounds ; he recorded chickens , which were used in the game as the voices of rats . The team continued to add and change the game 's sounds until the end of development .
To create the sound of the Clickers , the third stage of the Infected , the team found inspiration from a report on the journalism show 20 / 20 ( 1978 – present ) about blind children using clicking noises to communicate . " We liked the idea of taking this benign sound and attributing it to something really scary , " said Druckmann . In addition , the team wanted to reflect the creature 's feeling of pain and suffering , attempting to balance it with a sense of creepiness . The sound team created the sound of the Clicker first , realising early that it was the most challenging . To create the sound , they hired voice actors to perform their renditions . When voice actress Misty Lee provided her own rendition , a noise that Kovats described as originating in the " back of the throat " , Kovats and senior sound designer Derrick Espino agreed that it was what they wanted . Kovats then emulated the sound to feature in the game .
= = Business = =
= = = Announcement = = =
In December 2011 , prior to the announcement of the game , an Easter egg was found in Uncharted 3 : Drake 's Deception referencing the concept of The Last of Us on an in @-@ game newspaper ; Naughty Dog retroactively stated that the reference was intended to be seen after the game 's reveal in June 2011 , but when the timing of the reveal itself was pushed forward , the team forgot to remove the reference . A few weeks before the game 's announcement , a billboard in Times Square teased the game , naming it a " PlayStation 3 exclusive you won 't believe " . Sony officially unveiled the game on December 10 , 2011 , at the Spike Video Game Awards . Shortly after the unveiling , Naughty Dog co @-@ president Evan Wells revealed details about the game :
The Last of Us is a genre @-@ defining experience that blends survival and action elements to tell a character @-@ driven tale about a modern plague decimating mankind . Nature encroaches upon civilization , forcing remaining survivors to kill for food , weapons and whatever they can find . Joel , a ruthless survivor , and Ellie , a brave young teenage girl who is wise beyond her years , must work together to survive their journey across what remains of the United States .
In February 2013 , Naughty Dog announced that The Last of Us would miss its intended release date of May 7 , 2013 , delaying it until June 14 , 2013 to allow for further polishing . " [ I ] nstead of cutting corners or compromising our vision , we came to the tough decision that the game deserved a few extra weeks to ensure every detail of The Last of Us was up to Naughty Dog ’ s internal high standards , " Naughty Dog stated in a press release .
= = = Release trailers = = =
The game was extensively marketed through video trailers . The game 's first trailer was released alongside the game 's full announcement , showcasing the game 's concept , characters and setting . For this trailer , the team held extended discussions concerning features of the gameplay to include . They initially planned to omit the Infected from the first trailer , in order to sharpen the focus on the characters ; they ultimately decided to include the Infected , as they felt that omitting them would arouse anticipation of their final reveal , trailing the focus away from the characters . For the final design of the trailer , the team attempted to incorporate as many gameplay features as possible , including human antagonism , melee implementation , stealth , and character relationships . The first game cinematic was released on May 15 , 2012 , depicting a scene in which Joel and Ellie are ambushed by hunters . This was followed by a second trailer titled " The Sky has Turned Grey " , released on May 16 . The trailer revealed a redesign of the character of Ellie ; Druckmann revealed that this was to make her look more similar to actress Ashley Johnson . A game cinematic , introducing the character of Bill , was shown during the game 's panel at San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , on July 13 .
A third trailer was released during Gamescom on August 14 , 2012 , showcasing more of the game 's environments and enemies . At the same event , a video was released , showcasing the process that cutscenes are developed , from the raw material to the final product . At PAX Prime 2012 , Naughty Dog showcased a video demonstration of the game , displaying gameplay . A story trailer for the game was later shown during the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards , on December 7 . A TV trailer for The Last of Us was broadcast following the third season finale of AMC 's The Walking Dead on March 31 , 2013 . A trailer for the game 's online multiplayer mode was released on June 4 , showcasing the factions elements to the mode . The final pre @-@ launch trailer was released on June 11 , during E3 2013 .
= = = Other marketing = = =
A demo for The Last of Us was included with all copies of God of War : Ascension , and was available from May 31 , 2013 until the game 's launch . To encourage pre @-@ order sales , Naughty Dog collaborated with several retail outlets to provide special edition versions of the game . The " Post @-@ Pandemic Edition " includes a unique case packaging , a statue of Joel and Ellie and unlock codes for additional content in the single @-@ player and multiplayer modes . The " Joel Edition " and " Ellie Edition " include similar contents , but contain some features that are often differentiated by the characters .
A four @-@ issue comic book miniseries , titled The Last of Us : American Dreams , was published by Dark Horse Comics . Written by Druckmann and illustrated by Faith Erin Hicks , the comics serve as a prequel to the game , chronicling the journey of a younger Ellie and another young survivor Riley . The first issue was published on April 3 , 2013 , and a reprint became available on May 29 , 2013 ; the second issue was published on the same day , followed by the third issue on June 26 , and the fourth issue on July 31 . All four issues were republished as a single package on October 30 . The game 's cover art was unveiled on December 9 , 2012 , featuring Ellie and Joel ; the team fought to feature Ellie on the front cover , despite attempts from external influences to move the image to the back . " I 've been in discussions where we 've been asked to push Ellie to the back and everyone at Naughty Dog just flat @-@ out refused , " said Druckmann .
= Ma Chengyuan =
Ma Chengyuan ( 3 November 1927 – 25 September 2004 ) was a Chinese archaeologist , epigrapher , and president of the Shanghai Museum . He was credited with saving priceless artifacts from destruction during the Cultural Revolution , and was instrumental in raising funds and support for the rebuilding of the Shanghai Museum . He was a recipient of the John D. Rockefeller III Award , and was awarded the Legion of Honour by French President Jacques Chirac .
Ma was an authority on ancient Chinese bronzes and published more than 80 books and academic papers , including a 16 @-@ volume encyclopedia of the bronzes . He was responsible for recovering ancient relics including the Jin Hou Su bells and Warring States period bamboo strips , which are now considered China 's national treasures .
Ma suffered from depression in his final years , and committed suicide in September 2004 .
= = Early life and career = =
Ma Chengyuan was born in 1927 in Shanghai . In 1946 , he joined an underground cell of the Communist Party of China , and graduated from the history department of Daxia University in Shanghai , a predecessor of East China Normal University , in 1951 . He worked for the education department of the Shanghai Municipal Government before joining the Shanghai Museum in 1954 . Ma was originally assigned to be a manager and Communist Party secretary of the museum , but he resigned from his political positions in 1956 to focus on academic work , and later became director of the bronze research department .
= = Cultural Revolution = =
As the Cultural Revolution erupted in 1966 , Chairman Mao Zedong called for the destruction of the Four Olds , and teenage Red Guards rampaged through people 's homes to destroy relics of pre @-@ Communist China . Desperate Shanghai collectors sought protection of their antiques at the Shanghai Museum , and Ma slept in his office to take phone calls and to dispatch museum employees around the clock .
Ma initially kept the Red Guards out of the museum by organizing his employees as fake Red Guards , and protected the relics by painting Maoist slogans over the display cases . However , some of his own staff were soon swept by the revolutionary fervour . The extremist faction of the museum workers seized Ma along with other senior officials , and imprisoned him in a storage room for nine months . Trying to coerce the officials into confessing that they were " traitors " , the extremists repeatedly lifted them up and dropped them onto the marble floor . Several of Ma 's colleagues died . Ma survived the torture , and was sent to a labour camp in Hubei province for five years .
In 1972 , after American President Richard Nixon 's historic visit to China , Ma was brought back to Shanghai to organize an exhibition of archaeological treasures to tour the United States . The Cultural Revolution ended after the death of Mao in 1976 .
= = Rebuilding the Shanghai Museum = =
In 1985 , Ma was appointed the Director of the Shanghai Museum . When the museum was omitted from Shanghai 's five @-@ year reconstruction plan in 1992 , Ma lobbied Mayor Huang Ju for its rebuilding . After seeing the dilapidated rooms of the Zhonghui Building where the museum was then housed , Huang agreed to allocate a prime site on the People 's Square , but the museum had to raise its own building funds . Ma raised US $ 25 million by leasing the old building to a Hong Kong developer . He also made many trips abroad to solicit donations , mainly from the Shanghai diaspora who had fled to Hong Kong after the Communist revolution , raising another US $ 10 million . The money still ran short , but he eventually persuaded the city government to allocate another 140 million yuan to complete the building .
The museum reopened on 12 October 1996 to wide acclaim , and Ma gained international fame . He won the John D. Rockefeller III Award from the Asian Cultural Council in that year . French President Jacques Chirac awarded Ma the Legion of Honour in 1998 , and invited Ma to accompany Chinese President Jiang Zemin to a private dinner with him in France . The South China Morning Post of Hong Kong commented that Ma seemed to have " willed [ the Shanghai Museum ] into existence . "
= = Recovering cultural relics = =
After the opening up of China from the 1980s , tomb robbery was rampant and many artifacts were looted and smuggled across the border to Hong Kong , then a British territory . Ma Chengyuan was active in recovering many of the items from the Hong Kong antique market . In 1992 , he purchased the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old Jin Hou Su bianzhong ( 晉侯穌鐘 ) , which were listed by the Chinese government as one of the first 64 national treasures forbidden to be exhibited abroad in 2002 .
In 1994 , Ma recovered more than 1 @,@ 200 Warring States period bamboo slips from the Kingdom of Chu , now known as the Shanghai Museum bamboo slips . Several ancient texts were written on the strips , including the Kongzi Shi Lun , a previously unknown commentary on the Confucian Classic of Poetry attributed to Confucius himself . The discovery caused a sensation in academia , and the texts have been the subject of intense studies by numerous scholars , including Ma himself .
= = Academics = =
Ma was an authority on ancient Chinese bronzes and published more than 80 books and academic papers . His book Ancient Chinese Bronzes , translated into English and published by Oxford University Press ( ISBN 9780195837957 ) , is highly influential and widely used as a university textbook . His 16 @-@ volume encyclopedia , Zhongguo Qingtongqi Quanji ( 中国青铜器全集 , " Complete Compilation of Chinese Bronzes " ) , is the most comprehensive book on Chinese bronzes ever published . He was also the chief editor of Shanghai Bowuguan cang Zhanguo Chu zhushu ( 上海博物馆藏战国楚竹书 , " Warring States Chu Bamboo Books of the Shanghai Museum " ) , a groundbreaking research on the Warring States bamboo strips recovered by Ma himself . Other books he published include Zhongguo Qingtongqi Yanjiu ( 中国青铜器研究 , " Research on Chinese Bronzes " ) , a collection of 40 of his academic papers , Yangshao Wenhua de Caitao ( 仰韶文化的彩陶 , " Painted Ceramics of the Yangshao Culture " ) , and Shang Zhou Qingtongqi Mingwen Xuan ( 商周青铜器铭文选 , " Selected Bronze Inscriptions of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties " ) .
In addition to his main position as Director of the Shanghai Museum , Ma also taught as a part @-@ time professor at Shanghai 's East China Normal University and Fudan University . He was also a council member of the Archaeological Society of China , and vice chairman of the China Museum Society .
= = Retirement and suicide = =
Ma retired in 1999 , but still served as an advisor to the Shanghai Museum . However , he had conflicts with the new management which became increasingly bitter . He was accused of misusing US $ 250 @,@ 000 donated by a Chinese @-@ American collector , but an investigation cleared him of wrongdoing . There were also rumours that some of the ancient bamboo strips he purchased for a high sum from public funds were fake .
In his final years , Ma allegedly suffered from high blood pressure and kidney problems , yet followed his doctor 's advice meticulously . It is also said that he suffered from depression , and committed suicide on 25 September 2004 . Official newspapers in China reported his death but did not initially disclose the cause . When President Chirac organized his visit to Shanghai in October , he insisted on meeting with Ma , without realizing that he had died .
= = Personal life = =
Ma Chengyuan was married to Chen Zhiwu . They had a daughter , who lived in Australia . Before Ma 's death , he invited his daughter to spend two weeks with him in Shanghai . He committed suicide three days after his daughter returned to Australia .
= Scotland under the Commonwealth =
Scotland under the Commonwealth is the history of Scotland between the declaration that the kingdom was part of the Commonwealth of England in February 1652 and the Restoration of the monarchy , and of Scotland 's position as an independent kingdom , in June 1660 .
After the execution of Charles I in 1649 , the Scottish Parliament declared his son Charles II to be King of Great Britain and Ireland . The English responded with an invasion led by Oliver Cromwell , resulting in defeats for the Scots at Dunbar and then at Worcester , opening the way for the English conquest of the country . Under the Tender of Union , Scotland was declared part of a Commonwealth with England and Ireland in 1652 , but despite repeated attempts , an act was not passed in Westminster to ratify the union until 1657 . Under the terms of the union , the Scots gained 30 members of parliament , but many posts were not filled , or fell to English agents of the government , and had very little say at Westminster . Initially the government was run by eight commissioners and adopted a policy of undermining the political power of the nobility in favour of the " meaner sort " . From 1655 it was replaced by a new Council of Scotland , headed by Irish peer Lord Broghill , and began attempts to win over the traditional landholders . The regime built a series of major citadels and minor forts at immense cost . The Scottish legal system was suspended , but some courts and institutions were gradually restored . Generally the regime was successful in enforcing law and order and suppressing banditry . There was a major Royalist rising in the Highlands in 1653 – 55 led by William Cunningham , Earl of Glencairn and John Middleton . After initial success , it suffered from internal divisions and petered out after defeat at the Battle of Dalnaspidal in 1654 .
The Commonwealth extended toleration to Protestants , including sectaries , but the only significant group were a small number of Quakers . The Kirk that had been established at the Reformation and had been largely united since the Declaration of the Covenant in 1638 , was divided into Resolutioners and more hard line Protesters by the issue of co @-@ operation with the crown . The regime tended to favour the Protestors giving them control over the universities . The country was relatively highly taxed , but gained access to English markets . The era was remembered as one of prosperity , but not everywhere benefitted from economic expansion . There was an attempt to create national symbols with the revival of the union flag and unite coin . After the death of Oliver Cromwell and the fall of his son Richard 's regime , General Monck marched the army in Scotland south and facilitated the Restoration of Charles II in 1660 .
= = Background = =
Having supported Parliament in the First English Civil War ( 1642 – 46 ) under the Solemn League and Covenant , the Covenanter government in Scotland came under the control of the Engagers . As part of a Second English Civil War , they invaded England in support of royalist risings , and were defeated by the New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell at Battle of Preston ( 1648 ) . With many of its leaders captured , the Engagement regime fell in the Whiggamore Raid and the radical Presbyterian Kirk Party returned to power . After the execution of Charles I in January 1649 , England was declared a Commonwealth . As soon as news of Charles I 's execution reached Scotland , his son was proclaimed king as Charles II of Great Britain by the Scottish Parliament . After the failure of an attempted Highland rising led by James Graham , Marquis of Montrose , Charles accepted the offer of conditional support from the Covenanters , arriving in June 1650 and signing the Covenants . The English responded with an army of 16 @,@ 000 under Cromwell , which crossed the border in July 1650 , while an English fleet acted in support . On 3 September 1650 the English army defeated the Scots under David Leslie at the Battle of Dunbar , taking over 10 @,@ 000 prisoners and then occupying Edinburgh , taking control of the Lowlands . Charles could now more easily make an alliance with the moderate Covenanters . He was crowned at Scone on 1 January 1651 and a new army was assembled . In June 1651 Cromwell advanced against the Scots under Leslie at Stirling . The Scots army with the King set off for England , but there was no rising in their favour , and the army was caught at Worcester by forces under Cromwell . On 3 September it was decisively defeated , bringing the civil wars to an end . Charles escaped to the continent , an English army under George Monck mopped up the remaining garrisons in Scotland and Cromwell emerged as the most important figure in the Commonwealth .
= = Constitutional status = =
Six days after the victory at Worcester , a committee of the English Rump parliament was established with the aim of drafting a bill that would declare " the right of the Commonwealth to so much of Scotland as is now under [ its ] force " . By December this plan for simple annexation had softened , considering " the good of this island " , for one in which Scotland would be incorporated into the " free state and Commonwealth of England " . This " Tender of Union " was proclaimed at the mercat cross in Edinburgh by eight trumpeters on 4 February 1652 . Three days later , the King 's arms were taken down from the cross and ceremoniously hanged from the public gallows . Eventually 29 out of 31 shires and 44 of the 58 burghs assented to the Tender and subscribed to the oath that " Scotland be incorporated into and made one Commonwealth with England " .
On 3 April 1652 a bill for an Act for incorporating Scotland into one Commonwealth with England was given a first and a second reading in the Rump Parliament , but it failed to return from its committee stage before the Rump was dissolved . A similar act was introduced into the Barebones Parliament , but it too failed to be enacted before that parliament was dissolved . On 12 April 1654 , the Council of State issued and Ordinance for uniting Scotland into one Commonwealth with England , which would be the " Commonwealth of England , Scotland and Ireland " , under the authority of the Instrument of Government that made Cromwell Lord Protector . This remained the legal basis of the union until the Ordinance became an Act of Union under the Second Protectorate Parliament on 26 June 1657 .
Under the terms of the union Scotland received thirty seats in the enlarged Westminster parliament , ten from the burghs and twenty from the shires . There were only five Scottish members out of 140 in the Barebones parliament and only twenty @-@ one were sent to the Protector 's first parliament ( 1654 – 55 ) . It was not until the Protector 's second parliament ( 1656 – 57 ) that thirty were sent . For Richard Cromwell 's parliament in 1658 – 59 , of the thirty elected only eleven were Scots and of the remainder ten were army officers . The Scots in Westminster were treated with general xenophobia and when not ignored they faced repeated motions to exclude them . One Englishman described them as " a wooden leg tied to a natural body .
= = Administration = =
Under the Tender of Union , the Scottish Parliament was removed , along with the monarchy , and no institution could meet except with the sanction of the Westminster parliament . Initially the country was run by eight English commissioners : Oliver St John , Sir Henry Vane , Richard Salwey , George Fenwick , John Lambert , Richard Deane , Robert Tichborne , and George Monck . In its early stages the regime deliberately attempted to break the influence of the Scottish nobility who had organised invasions of England in 1648 and 1651 . Many were in exile , prison , deprived of office or heavily burdened with fines and debt . Instead the Commonwealth attempted to promote what Cromwell called the " meaner sort " , particularly urban elites and small landholders . In 1655 the Irish peer Lord Broghill arrived in Scotland to act as President of the new Council in Scotland . This was part of an attempt to recast the government along civilian lines and to begin to win over the major landholders to the regime . The council was made up of six Englishmen , Monck , Samuel Disbrowe , Charles Howard , Adrian Scrope , Thomas Cooper and Nathaniel Whetham , and two Scots , John Swinton and William Lockhart , they were later joined by Sir Edward Rhodes as a ninth member .
From late 1651 , passes were needed to move from one area of the country to another . The ownership of firearms was restricted , necessitating a license . In the Highlands the administration fell back on the ancient expedient of making clan chiefs responsible for the conduct of their followers . The security of the regime depended on an armed force of never less than 10 @,@ 000 men . Citadels were built at Ayr , Perth and Leith and 20 smaller forts were built as far away as Orkney and Stornoway . Control of the Highlands was secured by strongpoints at Inverlocky and Inverness . These were built at a massive cost of money and manpower . The citadel at Inverness , begun in 1652 and using stone shipped from as far away as Aberdeen , had cost £ 50 @,@ 000 in 1655 , when it was still unfinished . Inverlocky had a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 and from 1654 became the centre for a new administrative region of Lochaber , made up of three of the most remote and lawless shires .
The Scottish legal system was effectively suspended after the English occupation . All courts that derived from " Charles Stuart " , including Sheriff 's Courts were suspended . Kirk sessions , however , continued to meet largely unhindered , neither sanctioned nor recognised by the Commonwealth . The legal functions of the Privy Council and Court of Session were taken over by seven commissioners , four Englishmen and three Scots . These proved more impartial than previous judges , probably because they were not tied to the major families and political factions by patronage and kinship . Local barony courts and heritable jurisdictions , in abeyance from 1651 , were officially abolished in 1657 . Sheriff 's courts were re @-@ established and Justices of the Peace returned in 1656 . The result was a small flood of witchcraft cases , with 102 between 1657 – 59 , which compares with over 600 after the Scottish courts were fully re @-@ established after 1660 . Generally the regime has been seen as successful in enforcing law and order , suppressing the banditry of moss @-@ troopers . In 1655 it was claimed that " a man may ride all over Scotland with £ 100 in his pocket , which he could not have done these five hundred years " .
= = Resistance = =
In 1653 – 55 there was a major Royalist rising in the Highlands led by William Cunningham , 9th Earl of Glencairn ( 1610 – 64 ) and former Covenanter soldier John Middleton ( 1608 – 74 ) . It was particularly threatening to the regime because it coincided with the First Dutch War ( 1652 – 54 ) . Glencairn was given command of the Royalist forces in Scotland by Charles II . He convened a meeting of Scottish notables at Lochearn in August 1653 . Among those present were John Murray , 1st Marquess of Atholl , Archibald Campbell , eldest son of the Marquis of Argyll , Lord Loin , Donald MacDonell of Glengarry , Ewen Cameron of Lochiel , John Graham of Duchray and Colonel Blackadder of Tullyallan . These notables then mustered their vassals and supporters to form a small army of about 60 horse , and a force of foot , made up of 60 – 80 Lowlanders and 150 Highlanders . The governor of Stirling Castle , Colonel Kidd , sallied out to suppress this force , but was defeated at Aberfoyle . This victory boosted morale and the rising gained some support from Lowland Scottish lords , forcing the Commonwealth government to adopt a more conciliatory attitude to these groups .
Although it gained recruits , the rising began to suffer from internal divisions , particularly between the Highlanders who made up the bulk of the forces and the Lowland nobles and officers who were their commanders . In early 1654 , nine months into the revolt , Middleton , a Lowland officer and a veteran of the Battle of Worcester , arrived with a commission to command from Charles II . Despite objections from his followers , Glencairn surrendered control over his forces , which had now reached 3 @,@ 500 foot and 1 @,@ 500 horse . That evening Sir George Munro , Middleton 's aide insulted Glencairn 's forces and the result was a duel in which Munro was wounded . Glencairn was arrested . He would eventually be released and retire from the conflict . A series of other disputes and duels undermined the leadership of the campaign for the remainder of the rising .
Middleton adopted a strategy of raid and harrying . Although successful in distracting the Commonwealth forces and causing disruption , it soon began to prove counter @-@ productive , as growing unpopularity led to a drying up of recruitment . With his return to Scotland after his brief naval command against the Dutch , Monck began a campaign against the rising , making forced marches of between 12 and 20 miles a day in difficult terrain . On 19 July 1654 a force from Monck 's command under Thomas Morgan caught Middleton 's army at Dalnaspidal . In the resulting battle the royalists were scattered and a wounded Middleton was forced to escape to the Highlands . The end of the Dutch War meant there was no possibility of foreign aid and government reinforcements were now available to combat the rising . As a result the Royalist military effort petered out . Eventually , Glencairn surrendered to Monck and Middleton escaped to the continent to join the court in exile .
The rising forced a change of policy by the regime , which instead of attempting to replace the landholding classes now looked for a reconciliation with former Royalists and Engagers . This resulted in the Act of Grace and Pardon , proclaimed in Edinburgh on 5 May 1654 . Instead of a blanket forfeiture among those implicated in resistance , it named 24 persons ( mainly from the nobility ) whose lands would be seized , and 73 other landholders who could retain their estates after paying a fine . Even then most of those names were treated with leniency and fines were remitted for confiscations , or were reduced , and some were abandoned .
= = Religion = =
The Kirk that had been established at the Reformation , had been largely united since the Declaration of the Covenant in 1638 . In the period after the defeat at Dunbar , it became divided , partly in the search for scapegoats for defeat . Different factions and tendencies produced rival resolutions and protests , which gave their names to the two major parties as Resolutioners , who were willing to make an accommodation with royalism , and more hard line Protesters who wished to purge the Kirk of such associations . Subsequently the divide between rival camps became almost irrevocable . After 1655 both groups appointed permanent agents in London .
The terms of the union promised that the Gospel would be preached and promised freedom of religion . The regime accepted Presbyterianism as a valid system , but did not accept that it was the only legitimate form of church organisation . The result was that , although civil penalties no longer backed up its pronouncements , Kirk sessions and synods functioned much as before . The administration tended to favour the Protesters , largely because the Resolutioners were more inclined to desire a restoration of the monarchy and because the General Assembly , where they predominated , claimed independence from the state . The act of holding public prayers for the success of Glencairn 's insurrection led in 1653 , to the largely Resolutioner members of the Assembly being marched out of Edinburgh by an armed guard . There were no more assemblies in the period of the Commonwealth and the Resolutioners met in informal " consultations " of clergy . The universities , largely seen as a training school for clergy , were relatively well funded and came under the control of the Protestors , with Patrick Gillespie being made Principal at Glasgow .
Toleration did not extend to Episcopalians and Catholics , but if they did not call attention to themselves they were largely left alone . It did extend to sectaries , but the only independent group to establish itself in Scotland in this period were a small number of Quakers . In general the period of the Commonwealth was looked back on as one where Protestantism flourished . Ministers , now largely barred from politics , spent more time with their flocks and placed an emphasis on preaching that emulated the sectaries . One Presbyterian noted that " there were more souls converted to Christ in that short period of time than in any season since the Reformation " .
= = Economy and taxation = =
Under the Commonwealth , the country was relatively highly taxed , but gained access to English markets . Under Charles I Scotland had paid about £ 17 @,@ 000 sterling a year in taxes . In 1656 the civil list alone cost £ 25 @,@ 000 . The sum of £ 10 @,@ 000 a month from the county assessment was demanded by the Cromwellian regime , which Scotland failed to fully supply and it was reduced to 6 @,@ 000 a year in 1657 . The total was never less than £ 90 @,@ 000 a year . In addition the country contributed about £ 35 @,@ 000 in excise a year . Despite this , there was an annual deficit of £ 130 @,@ 000 , which was covered by English revenues .
Scotland had suffered considerable economic disruption during the period of the civil wars , caused by loss of manpower to a dozen armies , free quarter ( the billeting of troops on civilians without payment ) , plunder and heavy taxation . A number of merchants , particularly moneylenders , were ruined by the wars . The east @-@ coast towns had probably lost about one fifth of their population from the outbreak of bubonic plague that occurred in 1645 . This was slow to recover and in 1651 rents in Edinburgh had to be reduced by a third . The free trade that was the major economic incentive of the union was not all beneficial , as Scotland now had to compete with the more highly developed English merchant fleet . The economy began to revive after 1650 , but the prosperity was not spread evenly across the country . While Glasgow and Aberdeen prospered , Dundee and the Fife ports continued to decline . The financing of military building and the spending of wages by so many soldiers did benefit some . New industries included glass production at Leith and Cromwell 's troops are traditionally credited with bringing north both the knitting of socks and the planting of kale . The good order imposed by the armed presence encouraged trade and manufacture . Alexander Burnet , later Archbishop of St. Andrews , commented that , " we always reckoned those eight years of usurpation a time of great peace and prosperity " .
= = Symbols = =
The creation of the union led to revival of the union flag sponsored by James VI and I , which had fallen into disuse after his death in 1625 . From 1654 it was used in the form of quarters , with 1st and 4th England , 2nd Scotland and an Irish harp as 3rd . Perhaps because this too clearly suggested the incorporation at the heart of the union , in 1658 it was replaced by the 1606 version of the flag favoured by James IV , with the crosses of St George and St Andrews melded and the Irish harp placed inescutcheon in the centre . The unite coin , originally struck under James VI , revived in the reign of Charles I and used by both sides in the Civil War , was again revived and struck between 1649 and 1660 . It bore the English text " The Commonwealth of England " and displayed only the Cross of St George and an Irish harp . A twenty @-@ shilling piece and a fifty @-@ shilling piece were also issued , with the image of the Lord Protector on one side , and the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew and Irish harp quartered on the other , as in the union flag . Despite these attempts to produce an iconography of union , Michael Lynch argues that the commonwealth largely lacked the symbols through which consent to a nation state could be expressed .
= = Fall of the regime = =
After the death of Cromwell in 1658 , Monck remained aloof from the political manoeuvring in London that led to the brief establishment of a regime under the protector 's son Richard Cromwell and after its fall the subsequent contest for power between the army leaders . When this proved incapable of producing a stable government in 1659 Monk opened negotiations with Charles II and began a slow march south with his army . After reaching London he restored the English Long Parliament that had existed at the beginning of the civil wars . This body , having received some assurances from Charles II , voted for a restoration of the monarchy in England and then dissolved itself . This created a de facto restoration of the monarchy in Scotland , but without any safeguards as to the constitutional position in the country . Scottish notables were in a weak position in negotiations with the crown as to what the settlement would be .
In the event Scotland regained its independent system of law , its parliament and its kirk , but also the Lords of the Articles ( through which the crown controlled parliamentary business ) and bishops . It also had a king who did not visit the country and ruled largely without reference to Parliament through a series of commissioners . These began with Middleton , now an earl , and ended with the king 's brother and heir , James , Duke of York ( known in Scotland as the Duke of Albany ) . Legislation was revoked back to 1633 , by the Rescissory Act 1661 , removing the Covenanter gains of the Bishops ' Wars , but the discipline of kirk sessions , presbyteries and synods were renewed . Only four Covenanters were excluded from the general pardon and were executed , the most prominent being the Marquis of Argyll , but also including the Protester James Guthrie .
= Dæmonen =
Dæmonen is a steel Floorless Coaster roller coaster at the Tivoli Gardens amusement park located in Copenhagen , Denmark . Designed by Bolliger & Mabillard , it reaches a height of 92 feet ( 28 m ) , is 1 @,@ 850 @.@ 4 feet ( 564 @.@ 0 m ) long , and reaches a maximum speed of 48 miles per hour ( 77 km / h ) . The roller coaster features a vertical loop , an immelmann loop , and a zero @-@ gravity roll . Dæmonen replaced Slangen , a family roller coaster , and officially opened on April 16 , 2004 . A record number of guests attended the park that year , but the public has since given the ride mixed reviews .
= = History = =
Slangen , Tivoli Gardens 's family roller coaster , closed on September 21 , 2003 to make room for Dæmonen . Once the roller coaster was demolished , construction for the new roller coaster commenced . By the beginning of December , most of the brake run and station portions of the track were erected . By the new year , the lift hill was topped off . The first drop was completed by the end of January 2004 and the last piece of track was placed in February .
The ride is currently sponsored by Mazda .
= = Ride experience = =
After riders have boarded and the station floor is retracted , the train begins to climb the 92 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 28 m ) chain lift hill . Once at the top , the train makes an approximate 180 @-@ degree downward left turn followed by an upward right turn . Following the turn , the train enters the main 65 @.@ 6 @-@ foot ( 20 @.@ 0 m ) drop reaching a top speed of 48 miles per hour ( 77 km / h ) leading directly into a vertical loop . The train then immediately goes through an immelmann loop . Next , the train makes a slightly banked right turn into a zero @-@ gravity roll . After an upward left turn , then another right turn , the train rises up leading into the final brake run . The train then makes a 180 @-@ degree left turn leading back to the station . One cycle of the ride lasts about 1 minute and 46 seconds .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Dæmonen is approximately 1 @,@ 850 @.@ 4 feet ( 564 @.@ 0 m ) long , and the height of the lift is 92 feet ( 28 m ) high . The track was designed by Bolliger & Mabillard and is filled with sand to reduce the noise made by the trains . Also , the track is painted red while the supports are silver .
= = = Trains = = =
Dæmonen operates with two steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has six cars that can seat four rides in a single row , for a total of 24 riders per train ; each seat has its own individual over the shoulder restraint . This configuration allows the ride to achieve a theoretical hourly capacity of 1 @,@ 200 riders per hour . The structure of the trains are colored orange ; the seats and restraints are black . Also , unlike traditional steel roller coasters , Dæmonen has no floor on its trains .
= = Reception = =
Mia Christensen and Andreas Veilstrup from BT said that the ride was fantastic and that it has lived up to its name . Ethan Williams from Daily Mail said , " the fun didn 't last long enough for me " , and gave Dæmonen two out of five for speed and surprise factor , three out of five for fear factor , and a three out of five overall .
After the first year of the roller coaster 's operation , Tivoli Gardens announced that a record 3 @,@ 346 @,@ 000 guests attended the park in the 2004 season ; however , attendance dropped 186 @,@ 000 the following year .
In 2004 , Dæmonen was voted the 98th best steel roller coaster in the world in Mitch Hawker 's Best Steel Roller Coaster Poll . The roller coaster peaked at 65th place in 2005 .
Dæmonen has never placed in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards .
= 1996 Football League Third Division play @-@ off Final =
The 1996 Football League Third Division play @-@ off final was a football match played at Wembley Stadium on 25 May 1996 , to determine the fourth and final team to gain promotion from the Third Division to the Second Division of the Football League in the 1995 – 96 season .
It was contested by Plymouth Argyle , who finished fourth in the Third Division table , and Darlington , who finished fifth . The teams reached the final by defeating Colchester United and Hereford United respectively in the two @-@ legged semi @-@ finals .
Plymouth Argyle won the match 1 – 0 thanks to a headed goal from Ronnie Mauge to gain promotion back to the third tier of English football one season after being relegated . For the club 's manager , Neil Warnock , it was his fourth success in the play @-@ offs as a manager , having achieved it twice with Notts County and once with Huddersfield Town . His counterpart , Jim Platt , would leave full @-@ time management at the end of that year .
= = Route to the final = =
Plymouth Argyle had finished the 1995 – 96 Football League season in fourth place in the Third Division , one place ahead of Darlington . Therefore , both missed out on the three automatic promotion places and instead took part in the play @-@ offs to determine who would join Preston North End , Gillingham , and Bury as the fourth promoted team . On the final day of the league season , Plymouth Argyle had the opportunity to finish third in the table and thereby clinch the final automatic promotion place but a 3 – 0 win at Home Park against Hartlepool United was not enough to overtake Bury , after they also won 3 – 0 at home to Cardiff City .
In the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals , Darlington were paired with sixth @-@ placed Hereford United and Plymouth Argyle with seventh @-@ place finishers Colchester United . Darlington won their first leg tie 2 – 1 at Edgar Street courtesy of goals from Robbie Blake and Sean Gregan . They also won the second leg by the same scoreline at Feethams with Matty Appleby and Robbie Painter on the scoresheet .
Plymouth Argyle lost the first leg of their semi @-@ final tie 1 – 0 at Layer Road after a goal from Mark Kinsella , but they responded in the second leg at Home Park . Goals from Michael Evans , Chris Leadbitter and Paul Williams were enough to secure a 3 – 1 win and a 3 – 2 victory on aggregate . The results set up a first visit to Wembley Stadium for the supporters of both clubs .
= = Match summary = =
The two teams were competing for promotion to the third tier of the English football league system , at the time called the Second Division , a familiar place for both sides . In its previous 68 seasons as a Football League club , Plymouth Argyle competed exclusively in the second and third tiers , exactly 34 seasons each . While Darlington had featured in the second tier just twice , competing in the third tier on 32 occasions and the fourth tier another 32 times . The official attendance of 43 @,@ 431 was a record for a play @-@ off final at that level , beating the previous record set in 1994 , until it was bettered a year later by 3 @,@ 373 spectators . There was also a significant disparity in the number of tickets sold to the supporters of the two clubs , with fewer than 10 @,@ 000 Darlington fans in attendance compared to 35 @,@ 000 fans representing Plymouth Argyle .
Plymouth Argyle manager Neil Warnock picked ten players who had started both of the club 's semi @-@ final matches , with Ronnie Mauge keeping his place in the team having replaced Chris Billy for the second leg . The match was to be goalkeeper Steve Cherry 's last for the club , having returned for a second stint with the club three months earlier . Darlington manager Jim Platt , who was taking charge of the team for the last time before the return of David Hodgson , made one change to the side that secured progress from the semi @-@ final stage with Tony Carss coming in at the expense of Matt Carmichael . The final would prove to be Man of the Match Matty Appleby 's last for Darlington .
= = = First half = = =
Darlington were the first to settle with Gary Bannister a prominent player in midfield , but Plymouth Argyle eventually found their rhythm and had the first real goalscoring opportunity after ten minutes . Adrian Littlejohn found space after a one @-@ two with Michael Evans , but his first touch let him down and the opportunity was not taken . Darlington 's main threat was coming from attacking full back Appleby and he had their best chance of the match mid @-@ way through the first half . He carved out the initial chance , having carried the ball half the length of the pitch , but team @-@ mate Steven Gaughan was unable to convert . The hasty clearance from Argyle found its way back to Appleby but he sent his shot over the crossbar with goalkeeper Cherry completely exposed .
Plymouth Argyle came close to making their opponents pay for their profligacy in front of goal with Evans lifting a volley over the crossbar . Darlington 's captain Andy Crosby was proving to be a formidable figure at the heart of his team 's defence , but Argyle fashioned another chance to open the scoring just before half @-@ time . A flick on by Evans presented Adrian Littlejohn with the opportunity to redeem his earlier miss , but he dragged his shot wide .
= = = Second half = = =
There were few clear @-@ cut chances at the start of the second half , but Plymouth Argyle were winning the midfield battle with Mauge and Chris Leadbitter leading by example with a number of forceful tackles . The pivotal moment arrived on 65 minutes after Martin Barlow had earnt a corner @-@ kick on the right @-@ hand side . Leadbitter played the ball short to full back Mark Patterson , whose well @-@ measured cross was met firmly by the unmarked Mauge to head into the back of the net . Darlington tried to force their way back into
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res , in order to provide for the Russian army 's needs . Accusations of widespread plunder were made by the French author Marc Girardin , who travelled in the region during the 1830s ; Girardin alleged that Russian troops had confiscated virtually all cattle for their needs , and that Russian officers had insulted the political class by publicly stating that , in case the supply in oxen was to prove insufficient , boyars were to be tied to carts in their place – an accusation backed by Ion Ghica in his recollections . He also recorded a mounting dissatifaction with the new rule , mentioning that peasants were especially upset by the continuous maneuvers of troops inside the Principalities ' borders . Overall , Russophilia in the two Principalities appears to have suffered a major blow . Despite the confiscations , statistics of the time indicated that the pace of growth in heads of cattle remained steady ( a 50 % growth appears to have occurred between 1831 and 1837 ) .
The Treaty of Adrianople , signed on September 14 , 1829 , confirmed both the Russian victory and the provisions of the Akkerman Convention , partly amended to reflect the Russian political ascendancy over the area . Furthermore , Wallachia 's southern border was settled on the Danube thalweg , and the state was given control over the previously Ottoman @-@ ruled ports of Brăila , Giurgiu , and Turnu Măgurele . The freedom of commerce ( which consisted mainly of grain exports from the region ) and freedom of navigation on the river and on the Black Sea were passed into law , allowing for the creation of naval fleets in both Principalities in the following years , as well as for a more direct contact with European traders , with the confirmation of the Moldavia and Wallachia 's commercial privileges first stipulated at Akkerman ( alongside the tight links soon established with Austrian and Sardinian traders , the first French ships visited Wallachia in 1830 ) .
Russian occupation over Moldavia and Wallachia ( as well as the Bulgarian town of Silistra ) was prolonged pending the payment of war reparations by the Ottomans . Emperor Nicholas I assigned Fyodor Pahlen as governor over the two countries before the actual peace , as the first in a succession of three Plenipotentiary Presidents of the Divans in Moldavia and Wallachia , and official supervisor of the two commissions charged with drafting the Statutes . The bodies , having for secretaries Gheorghe Asachi in Moldavia and Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei in Wallachia , had resumed their work while the cholera epidemic was still raging , and continued it after Pahlen had been replaced with Pyotr Zheltukhin in February 1829 .
= = Adoption and character = =
The post @-@ Adrianople state of affairs was perceived by many of the inhabitants of Wallachia and Moldavia as exceptionally abusive , given that Russia confiscated both of the Principalities ' treasuries , and that Zheltukhin used his position to interfere in the proceedings of the commission , nominated his own choice of members , and silenced all opposition by having anti @-@ Russian boyars expelled from the countries ( including , notably , Iancu Văcărescu , a member of the Wallachian Divan who had questioned his methods of government ) . According to the radical Ghica , " General Zheltukhin [ and his subordinates ] defended all Russian abuse and injustice . Their system consisted in never listening to complaints , but rather rushing in with accusations , so as to inspire fear , so as the plaintiff would run away for fear of not having to endure a harsher thing than the cause of his [ original ] complaint " . However , the same source also indicated that this behaviour was hiding a more complex situation : " Those who nevertheless knew Zheltukhin better … said that he was the fairest , most honest , and most kind of men , and that he gave his cruel orders with an aching heart . Many gave assurance that he had addressed to the emperor heart @-@ breaking reports on the deplorable state in which the Principalities were to be found , in which he stated that Russia 's actions in the Principalities deserved the scorn of the entire world " .
The third and last Russian governor , Pavel Kiselyov ( or Kiseleff ) , took office on October 19 , 1829 , and faced his first major task in dealing with the last outbreaks of plague and cholera , as well as the threat of famine , with which he dealt by imposing quarantines and importing grain from Odessa . His administration , lasting until April 1 , 1834 , was responsible for the most widespread and influential reforms of the period , and coincided with the actual enforcement of the new legislation . The earliest of Kiselyov 's celebrated actions was the convening of the Wallachian Divan in November 1829 , with the assurance that abuses were not to be condoned anymore .
Regulamentul Organic was adopted in its two very similar versions on July 13 , 1831 ( July 1 , OS ) in Wallachia and January 13 , 1832 ( January 1 , OS ) in Moldavia , after having minor changes applied to it in Saint Petersburg ( where a second commission from the Principalities , presided by Mihail Sturdza and Alexandru Vilara , assessed it further ) . Its ratification by Sultan Mahmud II was not a requirement from Kiselyov 's perspective , who began enforcing it as a fait accompli before this was granted . The final version of the document sanctioned the first local government abiding by the principles of separation and balance of powers . The hospodars , elected for life ( and not for the seven @-@ year term agreed in the Convention of Akkerman ) by an Extraordinary Assembly which comprised representatives of merchants and guilds , stood for the executive , with the right to nominate ministers ( whose offices were still referred to using the traditional titles of courtiers ) and public officials ; hospodars were to be voted in office by an electoral college with a confirmed majority of high @-@ ranking boyars ( in Wallachia , only 70 persons were members of the college ) .
Each National Assembly ( approximate translation of Adunarea Obștească ) , inaugurated in 1831 – 2 , was a legislature itself under the control of high @-@ ranking boyars , comprising 35 ( in Moldavia ) or 42 members ( in Wallachia ) , voted into office by no more than 3 @,@ 000 electors in each state ; the judiciary was , for the very first time , removed from the control of hospodars . In effect , the Regulament confirmed earlier steps leading to the eventual separation of church and state , and , although Orthodox church authorities were confirmed a privileged position and a political say , the religious institution was closely supervised by the government ( with the establishment of a quasi @-@ salary expense ) .
A fiscal reform ensued , with the creation of a poll tax ( calculated per family ) , the elimination of most indirect taxes , annual state budgets ( approved by the Assemblies ) and the introduction of a civil list in place of the hospodars ' personal treasuries . New methods of bookkeeping were regulated , and the creation of national banks was projected , but , like the adoption of national fixed currencies , was never implemented .
According to the historian Nicolae Iorga , " The [ boyar ] oligarchy was appeased [ by the Regulament 's adoption ] : a beautifully harmonious modern form had veiled the old medieval structure … . The bourgeoisie … held no influence . As for the peasant , he lacked even the right to administer his own commune , he was not even allowed to vote for an Assembly deemed , as if in jest , « national » . " Nevertheless , conservative boyars remained suspicious of Russian tutelage , and several expressed their fear that the regime was a step leading to the creation of a regional guberniya for the Russian Empire . Their mistrust was , in time , reciprocated by Russia , who relied on hospodars and the direct intervention of its consuls to push further reforms . Kiselyov himself voiced a plan for the region 's annexation to Russia , but the request was dismissed by his superiors .
= = Economic trends = =
= = = Cities and towns = = =
Beginning with the reformist administration of Kiselyov , the two countries experienced a series of profound changes , political , social , as well as cultural .
Despite underrepresentation in politics , the middle class swelled in numbers , profiting from a growth in trade which had increased the status of merchants . Under continuous competition from the sudiți , traditional guilds ( bresle or isnafuri ) faded away , leading to a more competitive , purely capitalist environment . This nevertheless signified that , although the traditional Greek competition for Romanian merchants and artisans had become less relevant , locals continued to face one from Austrian subjects of various nationalities , as well as from a sizeable immigration of Jews from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and Russia – prevented from settling in the countryside , Jews usually became keepers of inns and taverns , and later both bankers and leaseholders of estates . In this context , an anti @-@ Catholic sentiment was growing , based , according to Keith Hitchins , on the assumption that Catholicism and Austrian influence were closely related , as well as on a widespread preference for secularism .
The Romanian middle class formed the basis for what was to become the liberal electorate , and accounted for the xenophobic discourse of the National Liberal Party during the latter 's first decade of existence ( between 1875 and World War I ) .
Urban development occurred at a very fast pace : overall , the urban population had doubled by 1850 . Bucharest , the capital of Wallachia , expanded from about 70 @,@ 000 in 1831 to about 120 @,@ 000 in 1859 ; Iași , the capital of Moldavia , followed at around half that number . Brăila and Giurgiu , Danube ports returned to Wallachia by the Ottomans , as well as Moldavia 's Galați , grew from the grain trade to become prosperous cities . Kiselyov , who had centered his administration on Bucharest , paid full attention to its development , improving its infrastructure and services and awarding it , together with all other cities and towns , a local administration ( see History of Bucharest ) . Public works were carried out in the urban sphere , as well as in the massive expansion of the transport and communications system .
= = = Countryside = = =
The success of the grain trade was secured by a conservative take on property , which restricted the right of peasants to exploit for their own gain those plots of land they leased on boyar estates ( the Regulament allowed them to consume around 70 % of the total harvest per plot leased , while boyars were allowed to use a third of their estate as they pleased , without any legal duty toward the neighbouring peasant workforce ) ; at the same time , small properties , created after Constantine Mavrocordatos had abolished serfdom in the 1740s , proved less lucrative in the face of competition by large estates – boyars profited from the consequences , as more landowning peasants had to resort to leasing plots while still owing corvées to their lords . Confirmed by the Regulament at up to 12 days a year , the corvée was still less significant than in other parts of Europe ; however , since peasants relied on cattle for alternative food supplies and financial resources , and pastures remained the exclusive property of boyars , they had to exchange right of use for more days of work in the respective boyar 's benefit ( as much as to equate the corresponding corvée requirements in Central European countries , without ever being enforced by laws ) . Several laws of the period display a particular concern in limiting the right of peasants to evade corvées by paying their equivalent in currency , thus granting the boyars a workforce to match a steady growth in grain demands on foreign markets .
In respect to pasture access , the Regulament divided peasants into three wealth @-@ based categories : fruntași ( " foremost people " ) , who , by definition , owned 4 working animals and one or more cows ( allowed to use around 4 hectares of pasture ) ; mijlocași ( " middle people " ) – two working animals and one cow ( around 2 hectares ) ; codași ( " backward people " ) – people who owned no property , and not allowed the use of pastures .
At the same time , the major demographic changes took their toll on the countryside . For the very first time , food supplies were no longer abundant in front of a population growth ensured by , among other causes , the effective measures taken against epidemics ; rural – urban migration became a noticeable phenomenon , as did the relative increase in urbanization of traditional rural areas , with an explosion of settlements around established fairs .
These processes also ensured that industrialization was minimal ( although factories had first been opened during the Phanariotes ) : most revenues came from a highly productive agriculture based on peasant labour , and were invested back into agricultural production . In parallel , hostility between agricultural workers and landowners mounted : after an increase in lawsuits involving leaseholders and the decrease in quality of corvée outputs , resistance , hardened by the examples of Tudor Vladimirescu and various hajduks , turned to sabotage and occasional violence . A more serious incident occurred in 1831 , when around 60 @,@ 000 peasants protested against projected conscription criteria ; Russian troops dispatched to quell the revolt killed around 300 people .
= = Political and cultural setting = =
The most noted cultural development under the Regulament was Romanian Romantic nationalism , in close connection with Francophilia . Institutional modernization engered a renaissance of the intelligentsia . In turn , the concept of " nation " was first expanded beyond its coverage of the boyar category , and more members of the privileged displayed a concern in solving problems facing the peasantry : although rarer among the high @-@ ranking boyars , the interest was shared by most progressive political figures by the 1840s .
Nationalist themes now included a preoccupation for the Latin origin of Romanians and the common ( but since discarded ) reference to the entire region as Dacia ( first notable in the title of Mihail Kogălniceanu 's Dacia Literară , a short @-@ lived Romantic literary magazine published in 1840 ) . As a trans @-@ border notion , Dacia also indicated a growth in Pan @-@ Romanian sentiment – the latter had first been present in several boyar requests of the late 18th century , which had called for the union of the two Danubian Principalities under the protection of European powers ( and , in some cases , under the rule of a foreign prince ) . To these was added the circulation of fake documents which were supposed to reflect the text of Capitulations awarded by the Ottoman Empire to its Wallachian and Moldavian vassals in the Middle Ages , claiming to stand out as proof of rights and privileges which had been long neglected ( see also Islam in Romania ) .
Education , still accessible only to the wealthy , was first removed from the domination of the Greek language and Hellenism upon the disestablishment of Phanariotes sometime after 1821 ; the attempts of Gheorghe Lazăr ( at the Saint Sava College ) and Gheorghe Asachi to engender a transition towards Romanian @-@ language teaching had been only moderately successful , but Wallachia became the scene of such a movement after the start of Ion Heliade Rădulescu 's teaching career and the first issue of his newspaper , Curierul Românesc . Moldavia soon followed , after Asachi began printing his highly influential magazine Albina Românească . The Regulament brought about the creation of new schools , which were dominated by the figures of Transylvanian Romanians who had taken exile after expressing their dissatifaction with Austrian rule in their homeland – these teachers , who usually rejected the adoption of French cultural models in the otherwise conservative society ( viewing the process as an unnatural one ) , counted among them Ioan Maiorescu and August Treboniu Laurian . Another impetus for nationalism was the Russian @-@ supervised creation of small standing armies ( occasionally referred to as " militias " ; see Moldavian military forces and Wallachian military forces ) . The Wallachian one first maneuvered in the autumn of 1831 , and was supervised by Kiselyov himself . According to Ion Ghica , the prestige of military careers had a relevant tradition : " Only the arrival of the Muscovites [ sic ] in 1828 ended [ the ] young boyars ' sons flighty way of life , as it made use of them as commissioners ( mehmendari ) in the service of Russian generals , in order to assist in providing the troops with [ supplies ] . In 1831 most of them took to the sword , signing up for the national militia . "
The Westernization of Romanian society took place at a rapid pace , and created a noticeable , albeit not omnipresent , generation gap . The paramount cultural model was the French one , following a pattern already established by contacts between the region and the French Consulate and First Empire ( attested , among others , by the existence of a Wallachian plan to petition Napoleon Bonaparte , whom locals believed to be a descendant of the Byzantine Emperors , with a complaint against the Phanariotes , as well as by an actual anonymous petition sent in 1807 from Moldavia ) . This trend was consolidated by the French cultural model partly adopted by the Russians , a growing mutual sympathy between the Principalities and France , increasingly obvious under the French July Monarchy , and , as early as the 1820s , the enrolment of young boyars in Parisian educational institutions ( coupled with the 1830 opening of a French @-@ language school in Bucharest , headed by Jean Alexandre Vaillant ) . The young generation eventually attempted to curb French borrowings , which it had come to see as endangering its nationalist aspirations .
= = Statutory rules and nationalist opposition = =
In 1834 , despite the founding documents ' requirements , Russia and the Ottoman Empire agreed to appoint the first two hospodars ( instead of providing for their election ) , as a means to ensure both the monarchs ' support for a moderate pace in reforms and their allegiance in front of conservative boyar opposition . The choices were Alexandru II Ghica ( the stepbrother of the previous monarch , Grigore IV ) as Prince of Wallachia and Mihail Sturdza ( a distant cousin of Ioniță Sandu ) as Prince of Moldavia . The two rules ( generally referred to as Domnii regulamentare – " statutory " or " regulated reigns " ) , closely observed by the Russian consuls and various Russian technical advisors , soon met a vocal and unified opposition in the Assemblies and elsewhere .
Immediately after the confirmation of the Regulament , Russia had begun demanding that the two local Assemblies each vote an Additional Article ( Articol adițional ) – one preventing any modification of the texts without the common approval of the courts in Istanbul and Saint Petersburg . In Wallachia , the issue turned into scandal after the pressure for adoption mounted in 1834 , and led to a four @-@ year @-@ long standstill , during which a nationalist group in the legislative body began working on its own project for a constitution , proclaiming the Russian protectorate and Ottoman suzerainty to be over , and self @-@ determination with guarantees from all European Powers of the time . The radical leader of the movement , Ion Câmpineanu , maintained close contacts with Polish nobleman Adam Jerzy Czartoryski 's Union of National Unity ( as well as with other European nationalists Romantics ) ; after the Additional Article passed due to Ghica 's interference and despite boyar protests , Câmpineanu was forced to abandon his seat and take refuge in Central Europe ( until being arrested and sent back by the Austrians to be imprisoned in Bucharest ) . From that point on , opposition to Ghica 's rule took the form of Freemason and carbonari @-@ inspired conspiracies , formed around young politicians such as Mitică Filipescu , Nicolae Bălcescu , Eftimie Murgu , Ion Ghica , Christian Tell , Dimitrie Macedonski , and Cezar Bolliac ( all of whom held Câmpineanu 's ideology in esteem ) — in 1840 , Filipescu and most of his group ( who had tried in vain to profit from the Ottoman crisis engendered by Muhammad Ali 's rebellion ) were placed under arrest and imprisoned in various locations .
Noted abuses against the rule of law and the consequent threat of rebellion made the Ottoman Empire and Russia withdraw their support for Ghica in 1842 , and his successor , Gheorghe Bibescu , reigned as the first and only prince to have been elected by any one of the two Assemblies . In Moldavia , the situation was less tense , as Sturdza was able to calm down and manipulate opposition to Russian rule while introducing further reforms .
In 1848 , upon the outbreak of the European revolutions , liberalism consolidated itself into more overt opposition , helped along by contacts between Romanian students with the French movement . Nevertheless , the Moldavian revolution of late March 1848 was an abortive one , and led to the return of Russian troops on its soil . Wallachia 's revolt was successful : after the Proclamation of Islaz on June 21 sketched a new legal framework and land reform with an end to all corvées ( a program acclaimed by the crowds ) , the conspirators managed to topple Bibescu , who had by then dissolved the Assembly , without notable violence , and established a Provisoral Government in Bucharest .
The new executive , orchestrating the public burning of the Regulament in September , attempted to play Ottoman interests against Russian ones , trying to obtain backing from the Porte ; the relative initial success was rendered void after Russian diplomats pressured Sultan Abd @-@ ul @-@ Mejid I to intervene in their place ( and thus not risk losing yet more control over the region to a more determined Russian expedition ) . A Russian occupation over Wallachia soon joined the Ottoman one ( begun on September 18 ) , and both lasted until April 1851 ; in 1849 , the two powers signed the Treaty of Balta Liman , which asserted the right of the Porte to nominate hospodars for seven @-@ year terms .
= = Crimean War = =
The Crimean War again brought the two countries under Russian military administration , inaugurated in 1853 . The hospodars of the period , Prince Grigore Alexandru Ghica in Moldavia and Prince Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei in Wallachia , were removed from their thrones , and the region was governed by the Russian general Aleksandr Ivanovich Budberg .
As the Balkans remained a secondary theatre of war , the two Principalities were taken over by a neutral Austrian administration in September 1854 – part of a settlement between the Porte and Russia ( the Austrians remained until 1857 ) . Grigore Ghica and Știrbei were returned to the thrones in the same year , and completed the last series of reforms carried under the terms of the Regulament . The most far @-@ reaching among these were the ones concerning Roma slavery . In Moldavia , Romas were liberated , without a period of transition , on December 22 , 1855 ; the change was more gradual in Wallachia , where measures to curb trade had been taken earlier , and where the decision to ban the ownership of slaves was taken by Știrbei on February 20 , 1856 . Concerned by worsening boyar @-@ peasant relations , Știrbei , who governed without an Assembly ( and had instead appointed his own Divan ) , enacted measures to improve the situation in the countryside , and ultimately enforced contract @-@ based work as the rule on estates ( whereby peasants who were not indebted after five years in service could leave the land they were working on ) .
This was the moment when the call for union of the two Principalities began to be voiced with confidence , and the two monarchs showed more or less approval for the designs of the unionist Partida Națională ( created by 1848 revolutionaries who had returned from exile ) .
The war ended with the Treaty of Paris ( March 30 , 1856 ) , which placed the countries , still as Ottoman vassals , under the protectorate of all European Powers ( the United Kingdom , the French Empire , the Kingdom of Piedmont @-@ Sardinia , Prussia , Austria , and , never again completely , Russia ) . The protector states had to decide on a compromise formula for the projected union ; the Ottomans demanded and obtained , in contradiction with the Regulament , the removal of both hospodars from their thrones , pending elections for the ad hoc Divans . The outcome remained disputed until the election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza , who reigned as first Domnitor of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia , the basis of modern Romania .
= Western Chalukya Empire =
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan , South India , between the 10th and 12th centuries . This Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani , today 's Basavakalyan in Karnataka and alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical relationship to the 6th @-@ century Chalukya dynasty of Badami . The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi , a separate dynasty . Prior to the rise of these Chalukyas , the Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta controlled most of Deccan and Central India for over two centuries . In 973 , seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the ruler of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa , Tailapa II , a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruling from Bijapur region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital . The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Someshvara I who moved the capital to Kalyani .
For over a century , the two empires of Southern India , the Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynasty of Tanjore fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of Vengi . During these conflicts , the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi , distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas further complicating the situation . During the rule of Vikramaditya VI , in the late 11th and early 12th centuries , the Western Chalukyas convincingly contended with the Cholas and reached a peak ruling territories that spread over most of the Deccan , between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south . His exploits were not limited to the south for even as a prince , during the rule of Someshvara I , he had led successful military campaigns as far east as modern Bihar and Bengal . During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan , the Hoysalas , the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri , the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri , were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century .
The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style , an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire . Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka . Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi , the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti , the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi . This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India , especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language Kannada , and Sanskrit .
= = History = =
Knowledge of Western Chalukya history has come through examination of the numerous Kannada language inscriptions left by the kings ( scholars Sheldon Pollock and Jan Houben have claimed 90 percent of the Chalukyan royal inscriptions are in Kannada ) , and from the study of important contemporary literary documents in Western Chalukya literature such as Gada Yuddha ( 982 ) in Kannada by Ranna and Vikramankadeva Charitam ( 1120 ) in Sanskrit by Bilhana . The earliest record is dated 957 , during the rule of Tailapa II when the Western Chalukyas were still a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas and Tailapa II governed from Tardavadi in present @-@ day Bijapur district , Karnataka . The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated . One theory , based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas , suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami Chalukya dynasty of 6th @-@ century , while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the early Chalukyas .
The records suggests a possible rebellion by a local Chalukya King , Chattigadeva of Banavasi @-@ 12000 province ( c . 967 ) , in alliance with local Kadamba chieftains . This rebellion however was unfruitful but paved the way for his successor Tailapa II . A few years later , Tailapa II re @-@ established Chalukya rule and defeated the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II by timing his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused in the Rashtrakuta capital of Manyakheta by the invading Paramaras of Central India in 973 . After overpowering the Rashtrakutas , Tailapa II moved his capital to Manyakheta and consolidated the Chalukya empire in the western Deccan by subjugating the Paramara and other aggressive rivals and extending his control over the land between the Narmada River and Tungabhadra River . However , some inscriptions indicate that Balagamve in Mysore territory may have been a power centre up to the rule of Someshvara I in 1042 .
The intense competition between the kingdom of the western Deccan and those of the Tamil country came to the fore in the 11th century over the acutely contested fertile river valleys in the doab region of the Krishna and Godavari River called Vengi ( modern coastal Andhra Pradesh ) . The Western Chalukyas and the Chola Dynasty fought many bitter wars over control of this strategic resource . The imperial Cholas gained power during the time of the famous king Rajaraja Chola I and the crown prince Rajendra Chola I. The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi were cousins of the Western Chalukyas but became increasingly influenced by the Cholas through their marital ties with the Tamil kingdom . As this was against the interests of the Western Chalukyas , they wasted no time in involving themselves politically and militarily in Vengi . When King Satyashraya succeeded Tailapa II to the throne , he was able to protect his kingdom from Chola aggression as well as his northern territories in Konkan and Gujarat although his control over Vengi was shaky . His successor , Jayasimha II , fought many battles with the Cholas in the south around c . 1020 – 21 when both these powerful kingdoms struggled to choose the Vengi king . Shortly thereafter in c . 1024 , Jayasimha II subdued the Paramara of central India and the rebellious Yadava King Bhillama .
It is known from records that Jayasimha 's son Someshvara I , whose rule historian Sen considers a brilliant period in the Western Chalukya rule , moved the Chalukya capital to Kalyani in c . 1042 . Hostilities with the Cholas continued while both sides won and lost battles , though neither lost significant territory during the ongoing struggle to install a puppet on the Vengi throne . In 1068 Someshvara I , suffering from an incurable illness , drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River ( Paramayoga ) . Despite many conflicts with the Cholas in the south , Someshvara I had managed to maintain control over the northern territories in Konkan , Gujarat , Malwa and Kalinga during his rule . His successor , his eldest son Someshvara II , feuded with his younger brother , Vikramaditya VI , an ambitious warrior who had initially been governor of Gangavadi in the southern Deccan when Someshvara II was the king . Before 1068 , even as a prince , Vikramaditya VI had invaded Bengal , weakening the ruling Pala Empire . These incursions led to the establishment of Karnata dynasties such as the Sena dynasty and Varman dynasty in Bengal , and the Nayanadeva dynasty in Bihar . , Married to a Chola princess ( a daughter of Vira Rajendra Chola ) , Vikramaditya VI maintained a friendly alliance with them . After the death of the Chola king in 1070 , Vikramaditya VI invaded the Tamil kingdom and installed his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Adhirajendra , on the throne creating conflict with Kulothunga Chola I , the powerful ruler of Vengi who sought the Chola throne for himself . At the same time Vikramaditya VI undermined his brother , Someshvara II , by winning the loyalty of the Chalukya feudatories : the Hoysala , the Seuna and the Kadambas of Hangal . Anticipating a civil war , Someshvara II sought help from Vikramaditya VI 's enemies , Kulothunga Chola I and the Kadambas of Goa . In the ensuing conflict of 1076 , Vikramaditya VI emerged victorious and proclaimed himself king of the Chalukya empire .
The fifty @-@ year reign of Vikramaditya VI , the most successful of the later Chalukya rulers , was an important period in Karnataka 's history and is referred to by historians as the " Chalukya Vikrama era " . Not only was he successful in controlling his powerful feudatories in the north ( Kadamba Jayakesi II of Goa , Silhara Bhoja and the Yadava King ) and south ( Hoysala Vishnuvardhana ) , he successfully dealt with the imperial Cholas whom he defeated in the battle of Vengi in 1093 and again in 1118 . He retained this territory for many years despite ongoing hostilities with the Cholas . This victory in Vengi reduced the Chola influence in the eastern Deccan and made him emperor of territories stretching from the Kaveri River in the south to the Narmada River in the north , earning him the titles Permadideva and Tribhuvanamalla ( lord of three worlds ) . The scholars of his time paid him glowing tributes for his military leadership , interest in fine arts and religious tolerance . Literature proliferated and scholars in Kannada and Sanskrit adorned his court . Poet Bilhana , who immigrated from far away Kashmir , eulogised the king in his well known work Vikramankadeva Charita . Vikramaditya VI was not only an able warrior but also a devout king as indicated by his numerous inscriptions that record grants made to scholars and centers of religion .
The continual warring with the Cholas exhausted both empires , giving their subordinates the opportunity to rebel . In the decades after Vikramaditya VI 's death in 1126 , the empire steadily decreased in size as their powerful feudatories expanded in autonomy and territorial command . The time period between 1150 and 1200 saw many hard fought battles between the Chalukyas and their feudatories who were also at war with each other . By the time of Jagadhekamalla II , the Chalukyas had lost control of Vengi and his successor , Tailapa III , was defeated by the Kakatiya king Prola in 1149 . Tailapa III was taken captive and later released bringing down the prestige of the Western Chalukyas . Seeing decadence and uncertainty seeping into Chalukya rule , the Hoysalas and Seunas also encroached upon the empire . Hoysala Narasimha I defeated and killed Tailapa III but was unable to overcome the Kalachuris who were vying for control of the same region . In 1157 the Kalachuris under Bijjala II captured Kalyani and occupied it for the next twenty years , forcing the Chalukyas to move their capital to Annigeri in the present day Dharwad district .
The Kalachuris were originally immigrants into the southern Deccan from central India and called themselves Kalanjarapuravaradhisavaras . Bijjala II and his ancestors had governed as Chalukya commanders ( Mahamandaleshwar ) over the Karhad @-@ 4000 and Tardavadi @-@ 1000 provinces ( overlapping region in present @-@ day Karnataka and Maharashtra ) with Mangalavada or Annigeri as their capital . Bijjala II 's Chikkalagi record of 1157 calls him Mahabhujabala Chakravarti ( " emperor with powerful shoulders and arms " ) indicating he no longer was a subordinate of the Chalukyas . However the successors of Bijjala II were unable to hold on to Kalyani and their rule ended in 1183 when the last Chalukya scion , Someshvara IV made a final bid to regain the empire by recapturing Kalyani . Kalachuri King Sankama was killed by Chalukya general Narasimha in this conflict . During this time , Hoysala Veera Ballala II was growing ambitious and clashed on several occasions with the Chalukyas and the other claimants over their empire . He defeated Chalukya Someshvara IV and Seuna Bhillama V bringing large regions in the Krishna River valley under the Hoysala domains , but was unsuccessful against Kalachuris . The Seunas under Bhillama V were on an imperialistic expansion too when the Chalukyas regained Kalyani . Their ambitions were temporarily stemmed by their defeat against Chalukya general Barma in 1183 but they later had their vengeance in 1189 .
The overall effort by Someshvara IV to rebuild the Chalukya empire failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Someshvara IV into exile in Banavasi 1189 . After the fall of the Chalukyas , the Seunas and Hoysalas continued warring over the Krishna River region in 1191 , each inflicting a defeat on the other at various points in time . This period saw the fall of two great empires , the Chalukyas of the western Deccan and the Cholas of Tamilakam . On the ruins of these two empires were built the Kingdoms of their feudatories whose mutual antagonisms filled the annals of Deccan history for over a hundred years , the Pandyas taking control over some regions of the erstwhile Chola empire .
= = Administration = =
The Western Chalukya kingship was hereditary , passing to the king 's brother if the king did not have a male heir . The administration was highly decentralised and feudatory clans such as the Alupas , the Hoysalas , the Kakatiya , the Seuna , the southern Kalachuri and others were allowed to rule their autonomous provinces , paying an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor . Excavated inscriptions record titles such as Mahapradhana ( Chief minister ) , Sandhivigrahika , and Dharmadhikari ( chief justice ) . Some positions such as Tadeyadandanayaka ( commander of reserve army ) were specialised in function while all ministerial positions included the role of Dandanayaka ( commander ) , showing that cabinet members were trained as army commanders as well as in general administrative skills .
The kingdom was divided into provinces such as Banavasi @-@ 12000 , Nolambavadi @-@ 32000 , Gangavadi @-@ 96000 , each name including the number of villages under its jurisdiction . The large provinces were divided into smaller provinces containing a lesser number of villages , as in Belavola @-@ 300 . The big provinces were called Mandala and under them were Nadu further divided into Kampanas ( groups of villages ) and finally a Bada ( village ) . A Mandala was under a member of the royal family , a trusted feudatory or a senior official . Tailapa II himself was in charge of Tardavadi province during the Rashtrakuta rule . Chiefs of Mandalas were transferable based on political developments . For example , an official named Bammanayya administered Banavasi @-@ 12000 under King Someshvara III but was later transferred to Halasige @-@ 12000 . Women from the royal family also administered Nadus and Kampanas . Army commanders were titled Mahamandaleshwaras and those who headed a Nadu were entitled Nadugouvnda .
The Western Chalukyas minted punch @-@ marked gold pagodas with Kannada and Nagari legends which were large , thin gold coins with several varying punch marks on the obverse side . They usually carried multiple punches of symbols such as a stylised lion , Sri in Kannada , a spearhead , the king 's title , a lotus and others . Jayasimha II used the legend Sri Jaya , Someshvara I issued coins with Sri Tre lo ka malla , Someshvara II used Bhuvaneka malla , Lakshmideva 's coin carried Sri Lasha , and Jagadhekamalla II coinage had the legend Sri Jagade . The Alupas , a feudatory , minted coins with the Kannada and Nagari legend Sri Pandya Dhanamjaya . Lakkundi in Gadag district and Sudi in Dharwad district were the main mints ( Tankhashaley ) . Their heaviest gold coin was Gadyanaka weighting 96 grains , Dramma weighted 65 grains , Kalanju 48 grains , Kasu 15 grains , Manjadi 2 @.@ 5 grains , Akkam 1 @.@ 25 grains and Pana 9 @.@ 6 grain .
= = Economy = =
Agriculture was the empire 's main source of income through taxes on land and produce . The majority of the people lived in villages and worked farming the staple crops of rice , pulses , and cotton in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall , with areca and betel being the chief cash crops . The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords . If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them , thereby depriving him of revenue from their labor .
Taxes were levied on mining and forest products , and additional income was raised through tolls for the use of transportation facilities . The state also collected fees from customs , professional licenses , and judicial fines . Records show horses and salt were taxed as well as commodities ( gold , textiles , perfumes ) and agricultural produce ( black pepper , paddy , spices , betel leaves , palm leaves , coconuts and sugar ) . Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce . Chalukya records specifically mention black soil and red soil lands in addition to wetland , dry land and wasteland in determining taxation rates .
Key figures mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas ( officials ) or Goudas . The Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata , the Praja Gavunda ( people 's Gavunda ) and the Prabhu Gavunda ( lord of Gavundas ) . They served the dual purpose of representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias . They are mentioned in inscriptions related to land transactions , irrigation maintenance , village tax collection and village council duties .
The organisation of corporate enterprises became common in the 11th century . Almost all arts and crafts were organised into guilds and work was done on a corporate basis ; records do not mention individual artists , sculptors and craftsman . Only in the regions ruled by the Hoysala did individual sculptors etched their names below their creations . Merchants organised themselves into powerful guilds that transcended political divisions , allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars and revolutions . Their only threat was the possibility of theft from brigands when their ships and caravans traveled to distant lands . Powerful South Indian merchant guilds included the Manigramam , the Nagarattar and the Anjuvannam . Local guilds were called nagaram , while the Nanadesis were traders from neighbouring kingdoms who perhaps mixed business with pleasure . The wealthiest and most influential and celebrated of all South Indian merchant guilds was the self @-@ styled Ainnurruvar , also known as the 500 Svamis of Ayyavolepura ( Brahmins and Mahajanas of present @-@ day Aihole ) , who conducted extensive land and sea trade and thereby contributed significantly to the total foreign trade of the empire . It fiercely protected its trade obligations ( Vira Bananjudharma or law of the noble merchants ) and its members often recorded their achievements in inscriptions ( Prasasti ) . Five hundred such excavated Prasasti inscriptions , with their own flag and emblem , the bull , record their pride in their business .
Rich traders contributed significantly to the king 's treasury through paying import and export taxes . The edicts of the Aihole Svamis mention trade ties with foreign kingdoms such as Chera , Pandya , Maleya ( Malaysia ) , Magadh , Kaushal , Saurashtra , Kurumba , Kambhoja ( Cambodia ) , Lata ( Gujarat ) , Parasa ( Persia ) and Nepal . Travelling both land and sea routes , these merchants traded mostly in precious stones , spices and perfumes , and other specialty items such as camphor . Business flourished in precious stones such as diamonds , lapis lazuli , onyx , topaz , carbuncles and emeralds . Commonly traded spices were cardamom , saffron , and cloves , while perfumes included the by @-@ products of sandalwood , bdellium , musk , civet and rose . These items were sold either in bulk or hawked on streets by local merchants in towns . The Western Chalukyas controlled most of South India 's west coast and by the 10th century they had established extensive trade ties with the Tang Empire of China , the empires of Southeast Asia and the Abbasid Caliphate in Bhagdad , and by the 12th century Chinese fleets were frequenting Indian ports . Exports to Song Dynasty China included textiles , spices , medicinal plants , jewels , ivory , rhino horn , ebony and camphor . The same products also reached ports in the west such as Dhofar and Aden . The final destinations for those trading with the west were Persia , Arabia and Egypt . The thriving trade center of Siraf , a port on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf , served an international clientele of merchants including those from the Chalukya empire who were feasted by wealthy local merchants during business visits . An indicator of the Indian merchants ' importance in Siraf comes from records describing dining plates reserved for them . In addition to this , Siraf received aloe wood , perfumes , sandalwood and condiments . The most expensive import to South India were Arabian horse shipments , this trade being monopolised by Arabs and local Brahmin merchants . Traveller Marco Polo , in the 13th century , recorded that the breeding of horses never succeeded in India due to differing climatic , soil and grassland conditions .
= = Culture = =
= = = Religion = = =
The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the 10th century , coinciding with the defeat of the Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in Gangavadi , was a setback to Jainism . The growth of Virashaivism in the Chalukya territory and Vaishnava Hinduism in the Hoysala region paralleled a general decreased interest in Jainism , although the succeeding kingdoms continued to be religiously tolerant . Two locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory continued to be patronaged , Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli . The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara 's Advaita philosophy . The only places of Buddhist worship that remained during the Western Chalukya rule were at Dambal and Balligavi . There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time which suggest the religious transition was smooth .
Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith has been debated , the movement grew through its association with Basavanna in the 12th century . Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached of a faith without a caste system . In his Vachanas ( a form of poetry ) , Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple Kannada and wrote " work is worship " ( Kayakave Kailasa ) . Also known as the Lingayats ( worshipers of the Linga , the universal symbol of Shiva ) , these Virashaivas questioned many of the established norms of society such as the belief in rituals and the theory of rebirth and supported the remarriage of widows and the marriage of unwed older women . This gave more social freedom to women but they were not accepted into the priesthood . Ramanujacharya , the head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam , traveled to the Hoysala territory and preached the way of devotion ( bhakti marga ) . He later wrote Sribhashya , a commentary on Badarayana Brahmasutra , a critique on the Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara . Ramanujacharya 's stay in Melkote resulted in the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana converting to Vaishnavism , a faith that his successors also followed .
The impact of these religious developments on the culture , literature , and architecture in South India was profound . Important works of metaphysics and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written over the next centuries . Akka Mahadevi , Allama Prabhu , and a host of Basavanna 's followers , including Chenna Basava , Prabhudeva , Siddharama , and Kondaguli Kesiraja wrote hundreds of poems called Vachanas in praise of Lord Shiva . The esteemed scholars in the Hoysala court , Harihara and Raghavanka , were Virashaivas . This tradition continued into the Vijayanagar empire with such well @-@ known scholars as Singiraja , Mallanarya , Lakkana Dandesa and other prolific writers of Virashaiva literature . The Saluva , Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagar empire were followers of Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanujacharya exists today in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara . Scholars in the succeeding Mysore Kingdom wrote Vaishnavite works supporting the teachings of Ramanujacharya . King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism .
= = = Society = = =
The rise of Veerashaivaism was revolutionary and challenged the prevailing Hindu caste system which retained royal support . The social role of women largely depended on their economic status and level of education in this relatively liberal period . Freedom was more available to women in the royal and affluent urban families . Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts , such as Chalukya queen Chandala Devi 's and Kalachuri queen Sovala Devi 's skill in dance and music . The compositions of thirty Vachana women poets included the work of the 12th @-@ century Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to the bhakti movement is well known . Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi , ( sister of King Jayasimha II ) who fought and defeated rebellious feudals . Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating that Sati ( a custom in which a dead man 's widow used to immolate herself on her husband 's funeral pyre ) though present was on a voluntary basis . Ritual deaths to achieve salvation were seen among the Jains who preferred to fast to death ( Sallekhana ) , while people of some other communities chose to jump on spikes ( Shoolabrahma ) or walking into fire on an eclipse .
In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present , Brahmins enjoyed a privileged position as providers of knowledge and local justice . These Brahmins were normally involved in careers that revolved around religion and learning with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial affairs . They were patronised by kings , nobles and wealthy aristocrats who persuaded learned Brahmins to settle in specific towns and villages by making them grants of land and houses . The relocation of Brahmin scholars was calculated to be in the interest of the kingdom as they were viewed as persons detached from wealth and power and their knowledge was a useful tool to educate and teach ethical conduct and discipline in local communities . Brahmins were also actively involved in solving local problems by functioning as neutral arbiters ( Panchayat ) .
Regarding eating habits , Brahmins , Jains , Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities . Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats , sheep , pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge , hare , wild fowl and boar . People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches ( Kusti ) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling . Horse racing was a popular outdoor past time . In addition to these leisurely activities , festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of acrobats , dancers , dramatists and musicians was often provided .
Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples . Marketplaces served as open air town halls where people gathered to discuss and ponder local issues . Choirs , whose main function was to sing devotional hymns , were maintained at temple expense . Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu Matha , Jain Palli and Buddhist Vihara . These institutions provided advanced education in religion and ethics and were well equipped with libraries ( Saraswati Bhandara ) . Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit . Schools of higher learning were called Brahmapuri ( or Ghatika or Agrahara ) . Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly of Brahmins who received royal endowments for their cause . Inscriptions record that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen . The four most popular subjects with royal students were Economics ( Vartta ) , Political Science ( Dandaniti ) , Veda ( trayi ) and Philosophy ( Anvikshiki ) , subjects that are mentioned as early as Kautilyas Arthasastra .
= = = Literature = = =
The Western Chalukya era was one of substantial literary activity in the native Kannada , and Sanskrit . In a golden age of Kannada literature , Jain scholars wrote about the life of Tirthankaras and Virashaiva poets expressed their closeness to God through pithy poems called Vachanas . Nearly three hundred contemporary Vachanakaras ( Vachana poets ) including thirty women poets have been recorded . Early works by Brahmin writers were on the epics , Ramayana , Mahabharata , Bhagavata , Puranas and Vedas . In the field of secular literature , subjects such as romance , erotics , medicine , lexicon , mathematics , astrology , encyclopedia etc. were written for the first time .
Most notable among Kannada scholars were Ranna , grammarian Nagavarma II , minister Durgasimha and the Virashaiva saint and social reformer Basavanna . Ranna who was patronised by king Tailapa II and Satyashraya is one among the " three gems of Kannada literature " . He was bestowed the title " Emperor among poets " ( Kavi Chakravathi ) by King Tailapa II and has five major works to his credit . Of these , Saahasabheema Vijayam ( or Gada yuddha ) of 982 in Champu style is a eulogy of his patron King Satyashraya whom he compares to Bhima in valour and achievements and narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana using clubs on the eighteenth day of the Mahabharata war . He wrote Ajitha purana in 993 describing the life of the second Tirthankara , Ajitanatha .
Nagavarma II , poet laureate ( Katakacharya ) of King Jagadhekamalla II made contributions to Kannada literature in various subjects . His works in poetry , prosody , grammar and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged . Kavyavalokana in poetics , Karnataka @-@ Bhashabhushana on grammar and Vastukosa a lexicon ( with Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words ) are some of his comprehensive contributions . Several works on medicine were produced during this period . Notable among them were Jagaddala Somanatha 's Karnataka Kalyana Karaka .
A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada called Vachanas developed during this time . They were written by mystics , who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems that could appeal to the masses . Basavanna , Akka Mahadevi , Allama Prabhu , Channabasavanna and Siddharama are the best known among them .
In Sanskrit , a well @-@ known poem ( Mahakavya ) in 18 cantos called Vikramankadeva Charita by Kashmiri poet Bilhana recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king Vikramaditya VI . The work narrates the episode of Vikramaditya VI 's accession to the Chalukya throne after overthrowing his elder brother Someshvara II . The great Indian mathematician Bhāskara II ( born c.1114 ) flourished during this time . From his own account in his famous work Siddhanta Siromani ( c . 1150 , comprising the Lilavati , Bijaganita on algebra , Goladhaya on the celestial globe and Grahaganita on planets ) Bijjada Bida ( modern Bijapur ) was his native place .
Manasollasa or Abhilashitartha Chintamani by king Someshvara III ( 1129 ) was a Sanskrit work intended for all sections of society . This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including medicine , magic , veterinary science , valuing of precious stones and pearls , fortifications , painting , music , games , amusements etc . While the book does not give any of dealt topics particular hierarchy of importance , it serves as a landmark in understanding the state of knowledge in those subjects at that time . Someshwara III also authored a biography of his famous father Vikramaditya VI called Vikraman @-@ Kabhyudaya . The text is a historical prose narrative which also includes a graphic description of the geography and people of Karnataka .
A Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara became famous in the field of legal literature for his Mitakshara , in the court of Vikramaditya VI . Perhaps the most acknowledged work in that field , Mitakshara is a treatise on law ( commentary on Yajnavalkya ) based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of modern India . An Englishman Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance giving it currency in the British Indian court system . Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments were Sangita Chudamani , Sangita Samayasara and Sangita Ratnakara .
= = = Architecture = = =
The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture . The architecture designed during this time served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century . The art of the Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the " Gadag style " after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra River @-@ Krishna River doab region of present @-@ day Gadag district in Karnataka . The dynasty 's temple building activity reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century with over a hundred temples built across the Deccan , more than half of them in present @-@ day central Karnataka . Apart from temples , the dynasty 's architecture is well known for the ornate stepped wells ( Pushkarni ) which served as ritual bathing places , a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi . These stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries .
The Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi ( Gadag district ) , the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal ( Gadag district ) , the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti ( Bellary district ) , the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali ( Davangere district ) , the Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri ( Haveri district ) , the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri ( Dharwad district ) , the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi ( Koppal district ) , the Kaitabheshvara Temple at Kubatur , and the Kedareshvara Temple at Balligavi are the finest examples produced by the later Chalukya architects . The 12th @-@ century Mahadeva Temple with its well executed sculptures is an exquisite example of decorative detail . The intricate , finely crafted carvings on walls , pillars and towers speak volumes about Chalukya taste and culture . An inscription outside the temple calls it " Emperor of Temples " ( devalaya chakravarti ) and relates that it was built by Mahadeva , a commander in the army of king Vikramaditya VI . The Kedareswara Temple ( 1060 ) at Balligavi is an example of a transitional Chalukya @-@ Hoysala architectural style . The Western Chalukyas built temples in Badami and Aihole during their early phase of temple building activity , such as Mallikarjuna Temple , the Yellamma Temple and the Bhutanatha group of Temples .
The vimana of their temples ( tower over the shrine ) is a compromise in detail between the plain stepped style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative finish of the Hoysalas . To the credit of the Western Chalukya architects is the development of the lathe turned ( tuned ) pillars and use of Soapstone ( Chloritic Schist ) as basic building and sculptural material , a very popular idiom in later Hoysala temples . They popularised the use of decorative Kirtimukha ( demon faces ) in their sculptures . Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects who were natives of places such as Balligavi . The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom was dravidian architecture . This style is sometimes called Karnata dravida , one of the notable traditions in Indian architecture .
= = = Language = = =
The local language Kannada was mostly used in Western ( Kalyani ) Chalukya inscriptions and epigraphs . Some historians assert that ninety percent of their inscriptions are in the Kannada language while the remaining are in Sanskrit language . More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to Vikramaditya VI than any other king prior to the 12th century , many of which have been deciphered and translated by historians of the Archaeological Survey of India . Inscriptions were generally either on stone ( Shilashasana ) or copper plates ( Tamarashasana ) . This period saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature and poetry , impetus to which came from the devotional movement of the Virashaivas ( called Lingayatism ) who expressed their closeness to their deity in the form of simple lyrics called Vachanas . At an administrative level , the regional language was used to record locations and rights related to land grants . When bilingual inscriptions were written , the section stating the title , genealogy , origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit . Kannada was used to state terms of the grants , including information on the land , its boundaries , the participation of local authorities , rights and obligations of the grantee , taxes and dues , and witnesses . This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without any ambiguity .
In addition to inscriptions , chronicles called Vamshavalis were written to provide historical details of dynasties . Writings in Sanskrit included poetry , grammar , lexicon , manuals , rhetoric , commentaries on older works , prose fiction and drama . In Kannada , writings on secular subjects became popular . Some well known works are Chandombudhi , a prosody , and Karnataka Kadambari , a romance , both written by Nagavarma I , a lexicon called Rannakanda by Ranna ( 993 ) , a book on medicine called Karnataka @-@ Kalyanakaraka by Jagaddala Somanatha , the earliest writing on astrology called Jatakatilaka by Sridharacharya ( 1049 ) , a writing on erotics called Madanakatilaka by Chandraraja , and an encyclopedia called Lokapakara by Chavundaraya II ( 1025 ) .
= Worlds Apart ( Fringe ) =
" Worlds Apart " is the twentieth episode of the fourth season of the Fox science @-@ fiction drama television series Fringe , and the series ' 85th episode overall . It was co @-@ written by series story editor Matt Pitts and DC Comics ' Nicole Phillips based on a story by co @-@ producer Graham Roland . Charles Beeson served as director .
The series depicts members of a Federal Bureau of Investigation " Fringe Division " team based in Boston , Massachusetts as they investigate a series of unexplained , often ghastly occurrences , which are related to mysteries surrounding a parallel universe . In this episode , David Robert Jones ( Jared Harris ) employs former Cortexiphan subjects to create simultaneous earthquakes across the globe , leading Dr. Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) to hypothesize that the end of both the prime and parallel universes is imminent . The two worlds must decide whether to close the bridge that was repairing the parallel universe , or they may all face destruction .
" Worlds Apart " first aired on April 27 , 2012 in the United States . The episode featured the return of David Call and Pascale Hutton , two guest actors not seen since the second season finale . It aired in the wake of the official renewal of a fifth season for the series . An estimated 3 @.@ 1 million viewers watched the episode , a small increase from the previous episode . Critical reception was generally positive , as many highlighted the performances as well as the scene between the two Walters .
= = Plot = =
Several earthquakes strike simultaneously across the globe , at the same time and locations in both the prime and parallel universe . The combined Fringe teams agree that David Robert Jones is behind it , the quakes the result of stresses of bringing the two universes into synchronization so that he can collapse both of them . The teams also conclude that Jones has found a means , through the previous " experiment " in Westfield , Vermont ( " Welcome to Westfield " ) , to ride out the destruction of both universes . The idea of shutting down the bridge created by the Machine is brought up , believing that the bridge is enabling Jones ' plan . However , this is considered a last resort , as destroying the bridge will affect the healing of the singularities in the parallel universe .
When a second simultaneous set of earthquakes occur , the parallel universe 's version of Nick Lane ( David Call ) approaches Agent Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) of the prime universe , believing him to be the parallel universe 's version of Lee . Lee feigns familiarity , learning that Nick had visions of being at the epicenter of the quake before it began . When Lee reports this to Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) in the prime universe , she suddenly recalls her Cortexiphan trials including fellow subject Nick Lane , and with the team 's help , identifies that other Cortexiphan subjects are the epicenter of these quakes , linking to their parallel universe versions to achieve synchronization .
Believing that by taking in one of the Cortexiphan subjects they can stop the effects of another quake , a willing Lane from the parallel universe travels to the prime and is hooked to Walter 's ( John Noble ) equipment . Olivia also hooks herself up , allowing her to communicate what she sees in Lane 's mind . When the prime version of Lane attempts to get into the right position , Olivia is able to identify his location , and he is captured in time . However , despite disrupting the process for Lane , earthquakes continue across the world . Walter estimates that the next set of quakes will cause both universes to collapse .
The captured Lane expresses his belief that Jones is helping the prime universe to defeat the parallel one . Olivia tries to convince him of Jones ' true intentions . Eventually , Lane agrees to show the Fringe team a location where he once met with Jones . The team raids the site but finds nothing ; meanwhile , Lane escapes custody using his abilities . With only hours left until the next set of quakes , as projected by a watch that Lane was wearing , plans are made to shut down the bridge before this time runs out .
Walter and Walternate ( Noble ) start the Machine equipment to overload , which will take several minutes , after which they can pull the power and deactivate the Machine . Lee states to Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) that he will be staying in the parallel universe , where he feels at home , reflecting a previous conversation Peter had with Lee about staying with Olivia in the prime universe . Walter and Walternate have a heartfelt discussion over Peter , and Walter expresses concern that if the bridge disappears , so will Peter . The other Fringe members say their goodbyes to their counterparts . Eventually , the Machine is overloaded and deactivated , and the parallel universe aspects of the room disappear ; Walter is pleased to see Peter remains .
= = Production = =
Fringe story editor Matt Pitts and DC Comics ' Nicole Phillips co @-@ wrote the teleplay , based on a story by co @-@ producer Graham Roland . English director Charles Beeson , known for his work on the science fiction television series Supernatural and Terminator : The Sarah Connor Chronicles , directed " Worlds Apart " , his second episode of the season ( the other being " Making Angels " ) .
In an on @-@ set interview with The Huffington Post , actor John Noble explained that the episode 's primary storyline concerned the bridge between the two worlds . The third season finale , he explained , ended with the two universes healing themselves with the help of a " bridge " . He remarked , " What happens if that bridge now begins to be used as a conduit for evil ? That ’ s the issue we ’ re facing . What do you do ? What do you do with this wonderful discovery ? Do you keep it ? What do you lose if you lose it ? For example , if we didn ’ t have that [ link ] , we ... wouldn ’ t have all these wonderful characters that we ’ ve grown to love . What would happen ? I think we have to face that issue . We have to face the issue of ' How long can you keep this alive , this link between interlacing the two universes ? ' "
Guest stars David Call and Pascale Hutton reprised their characters Nick Lane and Sally Clark , respectively . Both actors had last appeared in the second season finale " Over There " . Lead actress Anna Torv was pleased with their return , explaining , " A few faces from the past pop up , which is always fun . "
The reappearance of Nick Lane and his storyline helped resolve an earlier plot point from " Over There , " in which he was recognized by Fringe agent Lincoln Lee before dying . Noble noted that " Worlds Apart ' and the rest of the fourth season brought back a number of characters from the series ' " rich history " , including Sally , Nick , and David Robert Jones . " This episode , " he commented , " is bringing those things back together for us as we face the decision of what to do . Do we keep the worlds together ? How do we keep them together without creating the monster that is happening ? How do we stop this monster from happening ? That ’ s what this is all about . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Worlds Apart " was first broadcast on the day following the announcement of the renewal of Fringe for a final shortened fifth season . The episode saw a small increase in viewership from the previous week , with an estimated 3 @.@ 09 million viewers . In the adult demographic , the episode received a 1 @.@ 0 / 3 ratings share , which means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 0 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds with television sets , and 3 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . Fringe finished in fourth place among both total viewers and adults , behind episodes of CSI : New York , Grimm , and Primetime : What Would You Do ? .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Worlds Apart " received generally positive reviews from television critics . Entertainment Weekly writer Jeff Jensen noted that with the closing of the bridge , " Fringe effectively pulled the plug on the creative idea that defined the best years of the show . [ ... ] I don 't think we can understate the passing of the parallel world premise . " While he said he would miss the lost characters , especially Fauxlivia , the series " got the emotions [ of their departure ] just right . " He added his hope that the characters would be revisited . In an interview , Pinckner said that they had spoken to Fox executives about closing off the bridge , to which one executive partner reportedly said , " I was so sad . I had tears in my eyes when we closed the door " . The executive added that despite having initially thought the idea
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of doppelganger characters as a poor one , she admitted that she " was so wrong " .
Jensen went on to praise Walter and Walternate 's conversation as " devastatingly perfect , " commenting " Just the very action of sitting , of Walternate choosing to literally to meet Walter at his lowest moment , was extraordinarily moving . " Dave Bradley of SFX magazine highlighted the episode 's acting as one particular positive element , praising Torv and Noble for " delivering perfect double performances . " Bradley also praised the scenes between the two Walters and two Astrids , writing that the " moments of connection make the decision to split the universes apart incredibly poignant . " Los Angeles Times writer Andrew Hanson also praised the Walter @-@ Walternate scenes , explaining that after their seated conversation " you almost forget the two characters are played by the same actor . If this isn ’ t the year that John Noble gets recognition for his performances in Fringe , it will be a crime . "
The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode with an A , describing " Worlds Apart " as an " exciting , emotional episode " that " seems to resolve some of this season ’ s storylines while setting up the upcoming two @-@ part season finale . " His favorite part of the episode was when the two teams worked together ; he gave particular attention to the Walter @-@ Walternate talk , remarking , " The last scene between the two Walters is something that I ’ ve been waiting to see for years now , and John Noble nails both sides of the conversation . It ’ s now one of the whole series ’ signature moments : Walter and Walternate , side @-@ by @-@ side . " Other critics also lauded the conversation between Walter and Walternate over Peter .
In a 2013 list , Den of Geek ranked " Worlds Apart " as the seventh best episode of the entire series , explaining that it " perhaps [ is ] a little rushed , but overall this is a satisfying conclusion to a number of major plot threads . Airing directly after " Letters of Transit " , the closing off of a number of dangling stories and characters in this episode allowed the remaining two episodes of season four and all of season five to deal with matters closer to home , and tie up the show ’ s most important remaining mystery , the Observers . "
= Pinoy =
Pinoy ( / ˈpinɔɪ / ) is an informal demonym referring to the Filipino people in the Philippines and their culture as well as to overseas Filipinos in the Filipino diaspora .
An unspecified number of Filipinos refer to themselves as Pinoy or sometimes the feminine Pinay . The word is formed by taking the last four letters of Filipino and adding the diminutive suffix -y in the Tagalog language ( the suffix is commonly used in Filipino nicknames : e.g. " Ninoy " or " Noynoy " for Benigno Jr. and III respectively ] , " Totoy " for Augusto , etc . ) . Pinoy was used for self @-@ identification by the first wave of Filipinos going to the continental United States before World War II and has been used both in a pejorative sense and as a term of endearment , similar to Chicano . Although Pinoy and Pinay are regarded as derogatory by some younger Filipino @-@ Americans , the terms have been widely used and have recently gained mainstream usage particularly among members of the Filipino masses and the Filipino @-@ American sector .
Pinoy was created to differentiate the experiences of those immigrating to the United States but is now a slang term used to refer to all people of Filipino descent . " Pinoy music " impacted the socio @-@ political climate of the 1970s and was employed by both Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos and the People Power Revolution that overthrew his regime . Recent mainstream usages tend to center on entertainment ( Pinoy Big Brother ) and music ( Pinoy Idol ) , which have played a significant role in developing national and cultural identity . As of 2016 , the term has been extensively used by the government of the Philippines itself with apparently no derogatory connotations . It is now more positive than the slang term " flip " .
= = Origins = =
According to Filipino American historian Dawn Mabalon , the earliest appearance of the terms " Pinoy " and " Pinay " was in a 1926 issue of the Filipino Student Bulletin . The article that featured the terms is titled " Filipino Women in U.S. Excel in Their Courses : Invade Business , Politics . "
= = = Motivations = = =
The desire to self @-@ identify can likely be attributed to the diverse and independent history of the archipelagic country - comprising 7 @,@ 107 islands in the western Pacific Ocean - which trace back 30 @,@ 000 years before becoming a Spanish colony in the 16th century and later occupied by the United States , which led to the outbreak of the Philippine – American War ( 1899 – 1902 ) . The Commonwealth of the Philippines was established in 1935 with the country gaining its independence in 1946 after hostilities in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War had ended . The Philippines have over 170 languages indigenous to the area , most of which belong to the Malayo @-@ Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family . In 1939 , then @-@ president Manuel L. Quezon renamed the Tagalog language as the Wikang Pambansa ( " national language " ) . The language was further renamed in 1959 as Filipino by Secretary of Education Jose Romero . The 1973 constitution declared the Filipino language to be co @-@ official , along with English , and mandated the development of a national language to be known as Filipino . Since then , the two official languages are Filipino and English .
As of 2003 there are more than eleven million overseas Filipinos worldwide , equivalent to about 11 % of the total population of the Philippines .
= = Earliest usages = =
The earliest known usages of Pinoy / Pinay in magazines and newspapers date to the 1920s include taking on social issues facing Pinoy , casual mentions of Pinoys at events , while some are advertisements from Hawaii from Filipinos themselves . The following are the more notable earliest usages :
= = = United States = = =
In the United States , the earliest published usage known is a Philippine Republic article written in January 1924 by Dr. J. Juliano , a member of the faculty of the Schurz school in Chicago - " Why does a Pinoy take it as an insult to be taken for a Shintoist or a Confucian ? " and " What should a Pinoy do if he is addressed as a Chinese or a Jap ? "
= = = Philippines = = =
In the Philippines , the earliest published usage known is from December 1926 , in History of the Philippine Press , which briefly mentions a weekly Spanish @-@ Visayan @-@ English publication called Pinoy based in Capiz and published by the Pinoy Publishing Company . In 1930 , the Manila @-@ based magazine Khaki and Red : The Official Organ of the Constabulary and Police printed an article about street gangs stating " another is the ' Kapatiran ' gang of Intramuros , composed of patrons of pools rooms who banded together to ' protect pinoys ' from the abusive American soldados . "
= = = Notable literature = = =
Pinoy is first used by Filipino poet Carlos Bulosan , in his 1946 semi @-@ autobiography , America Is in the Heart - " The Pinoys work every day in the fields but when the season is over their money is in the Chinese vaults . " The book describes his childhood in the Philippines , his voyage to America , and his years as an itinerant laborer following the harvest trail in the rural West . It has been used in American Ethnic courses to illustrate the racism experienced by thousands of Filipino laborers during the 1930s and 40s in the United States .
= = Pinoy music = =
In the early 1970s , Pinoy music or " Pinoy pop " emerged , often sung in Tagalog - it was a mix of rock , folk and ballads - marking a political use of music similar to early hip hop but transcending class . The music was a " conscious attempt to create a Filipino national and popular culture " and it often reflected social realities and problems . As early as 1973 , the Juan De la Cruz Band was performing " Ang Himig Natin " ( " Our Music " ) , which is widely regarded as the first example of Pinoy rock . " Pinoy " gained popular currency in the late 1970s in the Philippines when a surge in patriotism made a hit song of Filipino folk singer Heber Bartolome 's " Tayo 'y mga Pinoy " ( " We are Pinoys " ) . This trend was followed by Filipino rapper Francis Magalona 's " Mga Kababayan Ko " ( " My Countrymen " ) in the 1990s and Filipino rock band Bamboo 's " Noypi " ( " Pinoy " in reversed syllables ) in the 2000s . Nowadays , " Pinoy " is used as an adjective to some terms highlighting their relationship to the Philippines or Filipinos . Pinoy rock was soon followed by Pinoy folk and later , Pinoy jazz . Although the music was often used to express opposition to then Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos and his use of martial law and the creating of the Batasang Bayan , many of the songs were more subversive and some just instilled national pride . Perhaps because of the cultural affirming nature and many of the songs seemingly being non @-@ threatening , the Marcos administration ordered radio stations to play at least one - and later , three - Pinoy songs each hour . Pinoy music was greatly employed both by Marcos and political forces who sought to overthrow him .
= California condor =
The California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus ) is a New World vulture , the largest North American land bird . This condor became extinct in the wild in 1987 ( all remaining wild individuals were captured ) , but the species has been reintroduced to northern Arizona and southern Utah ( including the Grand Canyon area and Zion National Park ) , the coastal mountains of central and southern California , and northern Baja California . Although other fossil members are known , it is the only surviving member of the genus Gymnogyps . The species is listed as critically endangered by the IUCN .
The plumage is black with patches of white on the underside of the wings ; the head is largely bald , with skin color ranging from gray on young birds to yellow and bright orange on breeding adults . Its huge 3 @.@ 0 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wingspan is the widest of any North American bird , and its weight of up to 12 kg ( 26 lb ) nearly equals that of the trumpeter swan , the heaviest among native North American bird species . The condor is a scavenger and eats large amounts of carrion . It is one of the world 's longest @-@ living birds , with a lifespan of up to 60 years .
Condor numbers dramatically declined in the 20th century due to poaching , lead poisoning , and habitat destruction . A conservation plan was put in place by the United States government that led to the capture of all the remaining wild condors which was completed in 1987 , with a total population of 27 individuals . These surviving birds were bred at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park and the Los Angeles Zoo . Numbers rose through captive breeding and , beginning in 1991 , condors were reintroduced into the wild . The California condor is one of the world 's rarest bird species : as of October 2014 there are 425 condors living wild or in captivity . The condor is a significant bird to many Californian Native American groups and plays an important role in several of their traditional myths .
= = Taxonomy = =
The California condor was described by English naturalist George Shaw in 1797 as Vultur californianus . It was originally classified in the same genus as the Andean condor ( V. gryphus ) , but , due to the Andean condor 's slightly different markings , slightly longer wings , and tendency to kill small animals to eat , the California condor has now been placed in its own monotypic genus . The generic name Gymnogyps is derived from the Greek gymnos / γυμνος " naked " or " bare " , and gyps / γυψ " vulture " , while the specific name californianus comes from its location in California . The word condor itself is derived from the Quechua word kuntur .
The exact taxonomic placement of the California condor and the other six species of New World vultures remains unclear . Though similar in appearance and ecological roles to Old World vultures , the New World vultures evolved from a different ancestor in a different part of the world . Just how different the two are is currently under debate , with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks . More recent authorities maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures or place them in their own order , Cathartiformes . The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead placed them in Incertae sedis , but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
The genus Gymnogyps is an example of a relict distribution . During the Pleistocene epoch , this genus was widespread across the Americas . From fossils , the Floridan Gymnogyps kofordi from the Early Pleistocene and the Peruvian Gymnogyps howardae from the Late Pleistocene have been described . A condor found in Late Pleistocene deposits on Cuba was initially described as Antillovultur varonai , but has since been recognized as another member of Gymnogyps , Gymnogyps varonai . It may even have derived from a founder population of California condors .
Today 's California condor is the sole surviving member of Gymnogyps and has no accepted subspecies . However , there is a Late Pleistocene form that is sometimes regarded as a palaeosubspecies , Gymnogyps californianus amplus . Current opinions are mixed regarding the classification of the form as a chronospecies or a separate species Gymnogyps amplus . Gymnogyps amplus occurred over much of the bird 's historical range – even extending into Florida – but was larger , having about the same weight as the Andean condor . This bird also had a wider bill . As the climate changed during the last ice age , the entire population became smaller until it had evolved into the Gymnogyps californianus of today , although more recent studies by Syverson query that theory .
= = Description = =
The adult California condor is a uniform black with the exception of large triangular patches or bands of white on the underside of the wings . It has gray legs and feet , an ivory @-@ colored bill , a frill of black feathers surrounding the base of the neck , and brownish red eyes . The juvenile is mostly a mottled dark brown with blackish coloration on the head . It has mottled gray instead of white on the underside of its flight feathers .
The condor 's head and neck have few feathers , and the skin of the head and neck is capable of flushing noticeably in response to emotional state , a capability that can serve as communication between individuals . The skin color varies from yellowish to a glowing reddish @-@ orange . The birds do not have true syringeal vocalizations . They can make a few hissing or grunting sounds only heard when very close .
Contrary to the usual rule among true birds of prey , the female is slightly smaller than the male . Overall length can range from 109 to 140 cm ( 43 to 55 in ) and wingspan from 2 @.@ 49 to 3 m ( 8 @.@ 2 to 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Their weight can range from 7 to 14 @.@ 1 kg ( 15 to 31 lb ) , with estimations of average weight ranging from 8 to 9 kg ( 18 to 20 lb ) . Wingspans of up to 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) have been reported but no wingspan over 3 @.@ 05 m ( 10 @.@ 0 ft ) has been verified . Most measurements are from birds raised in captivity , so determining if there are any major differences in measurements between wild and captive condors is difficult .
California condors have the largest wingspan of any North American bird . They are surpassed in both body length and weight only by the trumpeter swan and the introduced mute swan . The American white pelican and whooping crane also have longer bodies than the condor . Condors are so large that they can be mistaken for a small , distant airplane , which possibly occurs more often than they are mistaken for other species of bird .
The middle toe of the California condor 's foot is greatly elongated , and the hind one is only slightly developed . The talons of all the toes are straight and blunt , and are thus more adapted to walking than gripping . This is more similar to their supposed relatives the storks than to birds of prey and Old World vultures , which use their feet as weapons or organs of prehension .
= = Historic range = =
At the time of human settlement of the Americas , the California condor was widespread across North America ; condor bones from the late Pleistocene have been found at the Cutler Fossil Site in southern Florida . However , climate changes associated with the end of the last glacial period and the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna led to a subsequent reduction in range and population . Five hundred years ago , the California condor roamed across the American Southwest and West Coast . Faunal remains of condors have been found documented in Arizona , Nevada , New Mexico , and Texas . The Lewis and Clark Expedition of the early 19th century reported on their sighting and shooting of California condors near the mouth of the Columbia River .
= = Habitat = =
The condors live in rocky shrubland , coniferous forests , and oak savannas . They are often found near cliffs or large trees , which they use as nesting sites . Individual birds have a huge range and have been known to travel up to 250 km ( 160 mi ) in search of carrion .
There are two sanctuaries dedicated to this bird , the Sisquoc Condor Sanctuary in the San Rafael Wilderness and the Sespe Condor Sanctuary in the Los Padres National Forest . These areas were chosen because of their prime condor nesting habitat .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
When in flight , the movements of the condor are remarkably graceful . The lack of a large sternum to anchor their correspondingly large flight muscles restricts them to being primarily soarers . The birds flap their wings when taking off from the ground , but after attaining a moderate elevation they largely glide , sometimes going for miles without a single flap of their wings . They have been known to fly up to speeds of 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) and as high as 4 @,@ 600 m ( 15 @,@ 100 ft ) . They prefer to roost on high perches from which they can launch without any major wing @-@ flapping effort . Often , these birds are seen soaring near rock cliffs , using thermals to aid them in keeping aloft .
The California condor has a long life span , reaching up to 60 years . If it survives to adulthood , the condor has few natural threats other than humans . Because they lack a syrinx , their vocal display is limited to grunts and hisses . Condors bathe frequently and can spend hours a day preening their feathers . Condors also perform urohidrosis , or defecate on their legs , to reduce their body temperature . There is a well @-@ developed social structure within large groups of condors , with competition to determine a pecking order decided by body language , competitive play behavior , and a variety of hisses and grunts . This social hierarchy is displayed especially when the birds feed , with the dominant birds eating before the younger ones .
= = = Diet = = =
Wild condors maintain a large home range , often traveling 250 km ( 160 mi ) a day in search of carrion . It is thought that in the early days of its existence as a species , the California condor lived off the carcasses of the " megafauna " , which are now extinct in North America . They still prefer to feast on large , terrestrial mammalian carcasses such as deer , goats , sheep , donkeys , horses , pigs , cougars , bears , or cattle . Alternatively , they may feed on the bodies of smaller mammals , such as rabbits or coyotes , aquatic mammals such as whales and California sea lions , or salmon . Bird and reptile carcasses are rarely eaten . Since they do not have a sense of smell , they spot these corpses by looking for other scavengers , like eagles and smaller vultures , the latter of which cannot rip through the tougher hides of these larger animals with the efficiency of the larger condor . They can usually intimidate other scavengers away from the carcass , with the exception of bears , which will ignore them , and golden eagles , which will fight a condor over a kill or a carcass . In the wild they are intermittent eaters , often going for between a few days to two weeks without eating , then gorging themselves on 1 – 1 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 2 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 3 lb ) of meat at once .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Condors begin to look for a mate when they reach sexual maturity at the age of six . To attract a prospective mate , the male condor performs a display , in which the male turns his head red and puffs out his neck feathers . He then spreads his wings and slowly approaches the female . If the female lowers her head to accept the male , the condors become mates for life . The pair makes a simple nest in caves or on cliff clefts , especially ones with nearby roosting trees and open spaces for landing . A mated female lays one bluish @-@ white egg every other year . Eggs are laid as early as January to as late as April . The egg weighs about 280 grams ( 10 oz ) and measures from 90 to 120 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) in length and about 67 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) in width . If the chick or egg is lost or removed , the parents " double clutch " , or lay another egg to take the lost one 's place . Researchers and breeders take advantage of this behavior to double the reproductive rate by taking the first egg away for puppet @-@ rearing ; this induces the parents to lay a second egg , which the condors are sometimes allowed to raise .
The eggs hatch after 53 to 60 days of incubation by both parents . Chicks are born with their eyes open and sometimes can take up to a week to leave the shell completely . The young are covered with a grayish down until they are almost as large as their parents . They are able to fly after five to six months , but continue to roost and forage with their parents until they are in their second year , at which point the parents typically turn their energies to a new nest . Ravens are the main predatory threat to condor eggs , while golden eagles and bears are potential predators of condor offspring .
= = Conservation = =
= = = Obstacles to recovery = = =
In modern times , a wide variety of causes have contributed to the condor 's decline . Its low clutch size ( one young per nest ) , combined with a late age of sexual maturity , make the bird vulnerable to artificial population decline . Significant past damage to the condor population has also been attributed to poaching , especially for museum specimens , lead poisoning ( from eating animals containing lead shot ) , DDT poisoning , electric power lines , egg collecting , and habitat destruction . During the California Gold Rush , some condors were even kept as pets . The leading cause of mortality in nestling condors is the ingestion of trash that is fed to them by their parents .
In addition to this , cattle ranchers who observed condors feeding on the dead young of their cattle assumed that the birds killed the cattle . This fallacy led to the condor 's extirpation in some parts of the western United States . This belief was so deeply ingrained that the reintroduction of condors to the Grand Canyon was challenged by some cattle ranchers , who mistakenly believed that the bird hunted calves and lambs .
Unanticipated deaths among recent condor populations occurred due to contact with golden eagles , lead poisoning , and other factors such as power line collisions . Since 1994 , captive @-@ bred California condors have been trained to avoid power lines and people . Since the implementation of this aversion conditioning program , the number of condor deaths due to power lines has greatly decreased . Lead poisoning due to fragmented lead bullets in large game waste is a particularly big problem for condors due to their extremely strong digestive juices ; lead waste is not as much of a problem for other avian scavengers such as the turkey vulture and common raven . This problem has been addressed in California by the Ridley @-@ Tree Condor Preservation Act , a bill that went into effect July 1 , 2008 that requires that hunters use non @-@ lead bullets when hunting in the condor 's range . Blood lead levels in golden eagles as well as turkey vultures has declined with the implementation of the Ridley @-@ Tree Condor Preservation Act , demonstrating that the legislation has helped reduce other species ' lead exposures aside from the California condor .
In an article titled : " Condors or lead ammunition ? We can 't have both " published by The Ecologist in January 2015 , author Dawn Starin states : " Over 60 % of the adult and juvenile deaths ( that is , excluding chicks and fledglings ) in the wild population have been as a result of lead poisoning . " She continues : " Because condors have been known to live past the age of 50 , do not breed until they are at least six years old , and raise only one chick every other year , their populations cannot withstand the mortality rates caused by this neurological toxin . " According to epidemiologist Terra Kelly : " Until all natural food sources are free from lead @-@ based ammunition , lead poisoning will threaten recovery of naturally sustaining populations of condors in the wild . " The article also states : " The military doesn 't use lead , and if that isn 't a huge message I don 't know what is . " However , this statement must be taken in the context that the military has limited the use of lead ammunition at installations in the condor 's range , not service wide .
= = = California Condor Recovery Plan = = =
As the condor 's population continued to decline , discussion began about starting a captive breeding program for the birds . Opponents to this plan argued that the condors had the right to freedom , that capturing all of the condors would change the species ' habits forever , and that the cost was too great . However , the project received the approval of the United States government , and the capture of the remaining wild condors was completed on Easter Sunday 1987 , when AC @-@ 9 , the last wild condor , was captured . At that point , there were only 22 condors in existence , all in captivity .
The goal of the California Condor Recovery Plan was to establish two geographically separate populations , one in California and the other in Arizona , each with 150 birds and at least 15 breeding pairs . As the Recovery Program works toward this goal the number of release sites has grown . There are three active release sites in California , one in Arizona and one in Baja California , Mexico .
The captive breeding program , led by the San Diego Wild Animal Park and Los Angeles Zoo , and with other participating zoos around the country , including the Oklahoma City Zoo and Botanical Garden , got off to a slow start due to the condor 's mating habits . However , utilizing the bird 's ability to double clutch , biologists began removing the first egg from the nest and raising it with puppets , allowing the parents to lay another egg .
As the number of condors grew , attention began to focus on releasing some back into the wild . In 1988 , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service began a reintroduction experiment involving the release of captive Andean condors into the wild in California . Only females were released , to eliminate the possibility of accidentally introducing a South American species into the United States . The experiment was a success , and all the Andean condors were recaptured and re @-@ released in South America . California condors were released in 1991 and 1992 in California , and again in 1996 in Arizona near the Grand Canyon . Though the birth rate remains low in the wild , their numbers are increasing steadily through regular releases of captive @-@ reared adolescents .
The California condor conservation project may be one of the most expensive species conservation projects in United States history , costing over $ 35 million , including $ 20 million in federal and state funding , since World War II . As of 2007 the annual cost for the condor conservation program was around $ 2 @.@ 0 million per year . However , nesting milestones have been recently reached by the reintroduced condors . In 2003 , the first nestling fledged in the wild since 1981 . In March 2006 , a pair of California condors , released by Ventana Wildlife Society , attempted to nest in a hollow tree near Big Sur , California . This was the first time in more than 100 years in which a pair of California condors had been seen nesting in Northern California . As of November 2011 there were 394 individuals living , including 205 in the wild and the rest in the San Diego Wild Animal Park , the Los Angeles Zoo , the Oregon Zoo , and the World Center for Birds of Prey in Boise , Idaho . As of October 2010 , the wild condor population in its name state of California reached 100 individuals , and 73 wild condors in Arizona . As of May 2012 , the number of living individuals has reached 405 , with 179 living in captivity . By June 2014 , using data from the National Park Service , the condor population had reached 439 : 225 in the wild and 214 in captivity . Official statistics from the October 2014 USFWS record an overall population of 425 , of which 219 are wild and 206 are captive .
As the Recovery Program achieved milestones , a fifth active release site in Sierra de San Pedro Mártir National Park , Baja California , Mexico , was added to the three release sites in California ( Big Sur , Pinnacles National Park and Bitter Creek National Wildlife Refuge ) and the Vermilion Cliffs release site in Arizona . In early 2007 , a California condor laid an egg in Mexico for the first time since at least the 1930s . The population of the condors has risen due to these wild and also captive nestings . In June , 2016 , three chicks that were born in Chapultepec Zoo in Mexico City , were flawn to Sierra de San Pedro Mártir National Park , Baja California , Mexico . In the spring of 2009 , a second wild chick was born in the Sierra de San Pedro Mártir National Park and was named Inyaa ( " Sun " in the Kiliwa language ) by local environmentalists . In 2014 , Condor # 597 , also known as " Lupine " , was spotted near Pescadero , a coastal community south of San Francisco . Lupine had been routinely seen at Pinnacles National Park after having been released into the wild at Big Sur the previous year . Younger birds of the Central California are seeking to expand their territory , which could mean that a new range expansion is possible for the more than 60 condors flying free in central California . Also in 2014 the first successful breeding in Utah was reported . A pair of condors , who were released in Arizona , nested in Zion National Park and the hatching of one chick was confirmed .
= = = Condor Watch = = =
A crowdsourcing project called Condor Watch ( CW ) was started on April 14 , 2014 , hosted by the web portal Zooniverse . Volunteers are asked to examine motion @-@ capture images of California condors associated with release sites managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service , National Park Service and Ventana Wildlife Society . The tasks on the website include identifying tagged condors and marking the distance to feeding sources such as animal carcasses . Biologists can then use this data to deduce which birds are at risk of lead poisoning .
Condor Watch enables volunteers , or citizen scientists , to participate in active research . The project has up 175 @,@ 000 images to view and assess — far more than the team could hope to view on their own . Lead scientist Myra Finkelstein believes volunteering is fun because it allows enthusiasts to track the " biographies " of individual condors . Citizen science has long been used in ornithology , for instance in the Audubon Society 's Christmas Bird Count , which began in 1900 and the breeding bird survey which began in 1966 . McCaffrey ( 2005 ) believes this approach not only directly benefits ongoing projects , but will also help train aspiring ornithologists .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Throughout its historic range , the California condor has been a popular subject of mythology and an important symbol to Native Americans . Unusually , this bird takes on different roles in the storytelling of the different tribes .
The Wiyot tribe of California say that the condor recreated mankind after Above Old Man wiped humanity out with a flood . However , other tribes , such as California 's Mono , viewed the condor as a destroyer , not a creator . They say that Condor seized humans , cut off their heads , and drained their blood so that it would flood Ground Squirrel 's home . Condor then seized Ground Squirrel after he fled , but Ground Squirrel managed to cut off Condor 's head when Condor paused to take a drink of the blood . According to the Yokut tribe , the condor sometimes ate the moon , causing the lunar cycle , and his wings caused eclipses . The Chumash tribe of Southern California believed that the condor was once a white bird , but it turned black when it flew too close to a fire .
Condor bones have been found in Native American graves , as have condor feather headdresses . Cave paintings of condors have also been discovered . Some tribes ritually killed condors to make ceremonial clothing out of their feathers . Shamans then danced while wearing these to reach the upper and lower spiritual worlds . Whenever a shaman died , his clothes were said to be cursed , so new clothing had to be made for his successor . Some scientists , such as Noel Snyder , believe that this process of making ceremonial clothing contributed to the condor 's decline .
= Spencer ( surname ) =
Spencer ( also Spence , Spender , Spens , and Spenser ) is a surname . The origin can be traced directly to Robert d 'Abbetot , who is listed as Robert le Dispenser , a tenant @-@ in @-@ chief of several counties , in the Domesday Book of 1086 . Robert was possibly one of the Norman knights who fought alongside ( or accompanied ) William the Conqueror in the defeat of Harold II , King of England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 . There is little doubt that both Robert and his brother Urse came to England at about the time of the Battle of Hastings . They were both beneficiaries of William over the years , and were given titles and substantial land and property — suggesting repayment for some earlier deeds . It is likely that Robert 's first acknowledgment was his official appointment as Royal " Dispencier " sometimes expressed more grandly as " Royal Steward " , " King 's Steward " or " Lord Steward " . As dispenser of provisions to the King and his household Robert was known and recorded as Robert le Despencer or , in its Latinised form , Robertus Dispensator . There is also the possibility that Robert held this official position before arriving in England .
Robert 's adopted surname was usually written as Despenser or Dispenser — notably in works such as the Domesday Book of 1086 and the Scottish Ragman Rolls of 1291 and 1296 . From 1066 until the 13th century the occupational name attributed to Robert d 'Abbetot existed with numerous spelling and other variations . Eventually both the " le " and " de " that frequently preceded the name were omitted . In 1392 the popular " s " in the centre of the name was discarded and replaced with the " c " seen in the present @-@ day form — Spencer .
The surname Spencer has gained in popularity over time . In the 19th century it also become popular as a given name — especially in the more anglicised areas of the United States .
= = Variations = =
= = = English = = =
In its transition from the French dispencier to its current form , the name Spencer has been presented and spelled in many ways — especially through the period of its early evolution in the medieval period from c.1100 to 1350 AD . The following ( in alphabetical order ) is a selection of the many orthographic variants :
Despencer , de Expansa ( derived from expence ) , De Spencer , de Spendure , de Spens , de la Despense , De la Spence , de la Spense , del Spens , Despenser , DeSpenser , Dispencer , Dispenser , Despensator , Dispensator , la Spens , le Despencer , le Despendur , le Despencer , le Despenser , le dispencer , le Espencer , le Espenser , le Spencer , le Spendur , Spendure , le Spenser , le Spensier , Spence , Spences , Spen , Spender , Spens , Spensar , Spense , Spenser , Spensers , Spensor , Spincer , also the rare patronymic Spencers , and the aphetic ( derived ) Spender .
Within a few generations the le ( " the " ) usually placed before Despenser was omitted . The name variant Spens first appears as Simon del Spens , dated 1300 , in the " Charters of Gisburn Priory " , Yorkshire , England , during the reign of Edward I. Spence , another form of Spens , means both " the place where provisions are kept " and the " clerk of the kitchen " . This form of the name was popular in both the north of England and in Scotland . In Fife the word referred to " a spare room beside the kitchen " , and in England to a " yard , enclosure or buttery " — simply an abbreviation of despencer referring to the household store . The principal Scottish family of Clan Spens descend from one of the ancient Earls of Fife . John " Dispensator or Le Dispenser " appeared in a list of the tenants and vassals of Walter fitz Alan High Steward of Scotland in the period 1161 – 1171 . Roger ' Dispensator ' witnessed a charter by Bricius de Douglas , the bishop of Moray granting the church of Deveth to Spynie between 1202 and 1222 . The family de Spens in Fife trace their ancestry back to 1170 and the " Baron de Spens d 'Estignols " , who settled in France in 1450 , and " the Count de Spens , who ranked among the first of the Swedish nobility and was generalissimo of the Swedish forces " . As a north country word for ' pantry ' , spence was used by Poet Laureate Alfred Lord Tennyson in the sense of a refectory : " Bluff Harry broke into the spence and turn 'd the cowls adrift " ( The Talking Oak , l.47. ) .
The surnames Stewart and Stuart denote essentially the same occupation but have a completely different word derivation . They originate from the pre @-@ 7th @-@ century English words stigweard — a compound of stig meaning household — and weard , a guardian .
= = = Other countries and cultures = = =
Foreign Equivalents :
German : Speiser – a steward . This is a derivative of the Middle High German spise , meaning food or supplies via the Old High German — in turn derived from Late Latin expe ( n ) sa ( pecunia ) , or " ( money ) expended " .
Jewish ( Ashkenazic ) : Speiser – occupational name for a grocer , from a later semantic development of " Speiser " .
Greek : Economos – the anglicised surname derived from the Greek oikonomou ( " oi " in Greek pronounced as a long E. ) Oikon ( English = ēcon ) means house in classical Greek . This surname has the same occupational derivation as Spencer but , like the surnames Stewart and Stuart , has a different etymology . The original meaning of oikonomou was a home owner but it evolved to mean estate manager , somebody who was responsible for all resources on the estate , a steward . Oikonomou was a medieval Eastern Roman title for somebody who was in charge of a project or institution ; it is still used by the Greek Orthodox church . Over time the meaning of Oikonomou has evolved from " manager of resources " to " manager of money , a treasurer " .
= = Etymology = =
Philologists have been able to track changes in the name Spencer over time — in different dialects and languages — as well as trace its derivation from a common ancestry . The name Spencer can be traced through its Latin and French roots to its Middle English and modern form .
Medieval Latin – dispensa , dispensator and dispensarius – steward .
Old French –
a. despense – larder
b. espenser , -ier – dispenser of money , provisions etc . ; someone working at , or in charge of , the buttery ; a household steward
c. despendour – steward .
Anglo @-@ French – despenser , -ier .
Middle English – spens ( e ) and spence – larder ; dispensour – steward . With the agent suffix – er this becomes spenser – butler or steward .
= = = Derivation = = =
In England , up to about the time of the Norman Conquest when communities were small , each person was identifiable by a single name , usually a personal name or nickname . Picts , Gaels , Britons , Anglo @-@ Saxons , Scandinavians and Normans all originally used single names , but as the population increased , it became necessary to identify people further — giving rise to names like John the butcher , Henry of Sutton , Roger son of Richard and William the short , which naturally evolved into John Butcher , Henry Sutton , Roger Richardson and William Short . Although a few hereditary patrilineal surnames ( those passed from father to son and daughter ) appear to have existed in before the Norman Conquest , the now traditional use of binomials ( two names , a given name and a surname ) appears to have gathered momentum at this time — particularly after the introduction of records for personal taxation , known in England as the poll tax , first levied in 1275 . The poll tax was the historical means by which local communities recorded the registering , categorizing , and polling of citizens , free @-@ subjects and other voters .
The meaning of a surname generally derives from one of the following four sources : location ( toponym ) such as a specific place ( e.g. London , York ) or feature of the place or landscape ( e.g. Hill , Townsend ) ; a relationship ( e.g. Richardson ) ; a nickname ( e.g. Grey , Wellbeloved ) ; or an occupation or office ( e.g. Sawyer , Skinner ) . The surname Spencer relates to occupation and office .
= = Robert Despenser , Urse d 'Abbetot , and the Despenser family = =
= = = Robert Despenser = = =
Robert d 'Abbetot was the son of Almericus d 'Abbetot whose Viking ancestry has been traced back to Tancred of Hauteville ( 980 – 1041 ) . Almericus is known to have held the position of mayor in the town of Saint @-@ Jean @-@ d 'Abbetot in Normandy . Robert , like William 's other close knights , was granted titles , lands and a high position in William 's court . In addition to his position as steward he also was given land grants in county Bedford . He held his office for the period c.1088 – 1098 .
Robert 's last name of d 'Abbetot had no meaning in England so it was likely changed to Robert le Despenser ( many spelling variants of this name exist including Robert the Dispensor , Robert Despensator , Robert Dispenser , and Robert fitzThurstin . ) which reflected his new official position and occupation . He seems to have maintained his popularity with William because in the Domesday Book of 1086 , Robert Despenser was listed as a land tenant @-@ in @-@ chief in Gloucestershire , Leicestershire , Lincolnshire , Oxfordshire , and Warwickshire , as well as holding lands in Worcestershire obtained from the Bishop of Worcester .
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5 times the mass of the Sun ( or 1 @.@ 5 solar masses ( M ☉ ) ) primarily fuse hydrogen atoms together in a series of stages to form helium , a sequence called the proton – proton chain . Above this mass , in the upper main sequence , the nuclear fusion process mainly uses atoms of carbon , nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries in the CNO cycle that produces helium from hydrogen atoms . Main @-@ sequence stars with more than two solar masses undergo convection in their core regions , which acts to stir up the newly created helium and maintain the proportion of fuel needed for fusion to occur . Below this mass , stars have cores that are entirely radiative with convective zones near the surface . With decreasing stellar mass , the proportion of the star forming a convective envelope steadily increases , whereas main @-@ sequence stars below 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ undergo convection throughout their mass . When core convection does not occur , a helium @-@ rich core develops surrounded by an outer layer of hydrogen .
In general , the more massive a star is , the shorter its lifespan on the main sequence . After the hydrogen fuel at the core has been consumed , the star evolves away from the main sequence on the HR diagram . The behavior of a star now depends on its mass , with stars below 0 @.@ 23 M ☉ becoming white dwarfs directly , whereas stars with up to ten solar masses pass through a red giant stage . More massive stars can explode as a supernova , or collapse directly into a black hole .
= = History = =
In the early part of the 20th century , information about the types and distances of stars became more readily available . The spectra of stars were shown to have distinctive features , which allowed them to be categorized . Annie Jump Cannon and Edward C. Pickering at Harvard College Observatory developed a method of categorization that became known as the Harvard Classification Scheme , published in the Harvard Annals in 1901 .
In Potsdam in 1906 , the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung noticed that the reddest stars — classified as K and M in the Harvard scheme — could be divided into two distinct groups . These stars are either much brighter than the Sun , or much fainter . To distinguish these groups , he called them " giant " and " dwarf " stars . The following year he began studying star clusters ; large groupings of stars that are co @-@ located at approximately the same distance . He published the first plots of color versus luminosity for these stars . These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars , which he named the Main Sequence .
At Princeton University , Henry Norris Russell was following a similar course of research . He was studying the relationship between the spectral classification of stars and their actual brightness as corrected for distance — their absolute magnitude . For this purpose he used a set of stars that had reliable parallaxes and many of which had been categorized at Harvard . When he plotted the spectral types of these stars against their absolute magnitude , he found that dwarf stars followed a distinct relationship . This allowed the real brightness of a dwarf star to be predicted with reasonable accuracy .
Of the red stars observed by Hertzsprung , the dwarf stars also followed the spectra @-@ luminosity relationship discovered by Russell . However , the giant stars are much brighter than dwarfs and so , do not follow the same relationship . Russell proposed that the " giant stars must have low density or great surface @-@ brightness , and the reverse is true of dwarf stars " . The same curve also showed that there were very few faint white stars .
In 1933 , Bengt Strömgren introduced the term Hertzsprung – Russell diagram to denote a luminosity @-@ spectral class diagram . This name reflected the parallel development of this technique by both Hertzsprung and Russell earlier in the century .
As evolutionary models of stars were developed during the 1930s , it was shown that , for stars of a uniform chemical composition , a relationship exists between a star 's mass and its luminosity and radius . That is , for a given mass and composition , there is a unique solution for determining the star 's radius and luminosity . This became known as the Vogt @-@ Russell theorem ; named after Heinrich Vogt and Henry Norris Russell . By this theorem , when a star 's chemical composition and its position on the main sequence is known , so too is the star 's mass and radius . ( However , it was subsequently discovered that the theorem breaks down somewhat for stars of non @-@ uniform composition . )
A refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by W. W. Morgan and P. C. Keenan . The MK classification assigned each star a spectral type — based on the Harvard classification — and a luminosity class . The Harvard classification had been developed by assigning a different letter to each star based on the strength of the hydrogen spectral line , before the relationship between spectra and temperature was known . When ordered by temperature and when duplicate classes were removed , the spectral types of stars followed , in order of decreasing temperature with colors ranging from blue to red , the sequence O , B , A , F , G , K and M. ( A popular mnemonic for memorizing this sequence of stellar classes is " Oh Be A Fine Girl / Guy , Kiss Me " . ) The luminosity class ranged from I to V , in order of decreasing luminosity . Stars of luminosity class V belonged to the main sequence .
= = Formation = =
When a protostar is formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud of gas and dust in the local interstellar medium , the initial composition is homogeneous throughout , consisting of about 70 % hydrogen , 28 % helium and trace amounts of other elements , by mass . The initial mass of the star depends on the local conditions within the cloud . ( The mass distribution of newly formed stars is described empirically by the initial mass function . ) During the initial collapse , this pre @-@ main @-@ sequence star generates energy through gravitational contraction . Upon reaching a suitable density , energy generation is begun at the core using an exothermic nuclear fusion process that converts hydrogen into helium .
When nuclear fusion of hydrogen becomes the dominant energy production process and the excess energy gained from gravitational contraction has been lost , the star lies along a curve on the Hertzsprung – Russell diagram ( or HR diagram ) called the standard main sequence . Astronomers will sometimes refer to this stage as " zero age main sequence " , or ZAMS . The ZAMS curve can be calculated using computer models of stellar properties at the point when stars begin hydrogen fusion . From this point , the brightness and surface temperature of stars typically increase with age .
A star remains near its initial position on the main sequence until a significant amount of hydrogen in the core has been consumed , then begins to evolve into a more luminous star . ( On the HR diagram , the evolving star moves up and to the right of the main sequence . ) Thus the main sequence represents the primary hydrogen @-@ burning stage of a star 's lifetime .
= = Properties = =
The majority of stars on a typical HR diagram lie along the main @-@ sequence curve . This line is pronounced because both the spectral type and the luminosity depend only on a star 's mass , at least to zeroth @-@ order approximation , as long as it is fusing hydrogen at its core — and that is what almost all stars spend most of their " active " lives doing .
The temperature of a star determines its spectral type via its effect on the physical properties of plasma in its photosphere . A star 's energy emission as a function of wavelength is influenced by both its temperature and composition . A key indicator of this energy distribution is given by the color index , B − V , which measures the star 's magnitude in blue ( B ) and green @-@ yellow ( V ) light by means of filters . This difference in magnitude provides a measure of a star 's temperature .
= = Dwarf terminology = =
Main @-@ sequence stars are called dwarf stars , but this terminology is partly historical and can be somewhat confusing . For the cooler stars , dwarfs such as red dwarfs , orange dwarfs , and yellow dwarfs are indeed much smaller and dimmer than other stars of those colors . However , for hotter blue and white stars , the size and brightness difference between so @-@ called dwarf stars that are on the main sequence and the so @-@ called giant stars that are not becomes smaller ; for the hottest stars it is not directly observable . For those stars the terms dwarf and giant refer to differences in spectral lines which indicate if a star is on the main sequence or off it . Nevertheless , very hot main @-@ sequence stars are still sometimes called dwarfs , even though they have roughly the same size and brightness as the " giant " stars of that temperature .
The common use of dwarf to mean main sequence is confusing in another way , because there are dwarf stars which are not main @-@ sequence stars . For example , a white dwarf is the dead core of a star that is left after the star has shed its outer layers , that is much smaller than a main @-@ sequence star- — roughly the size of Earth . These represent the final evolutionary stage of many main @-@ sequence stars .
= = Parameters = =
By treating the star as an idealized energy radiator known as a black body , the luminosity L and radius R can be related to the effective temperature Teff by the Stefan – Boltzmann law :
L
= 4πσR2Teff4
where σ is the Stefan – Boltzmann constant . As the position of a star on the HR diagram shows its approximate luminosity , this relation can be used to estimate its radius .
The mass , radius and luminosity of a star are closely interlinked , and their respective values can be approximated by three relations . First is the Stefan – Boltzmann law , which relates the luminosity L , the radius R and the surface temperature Teff . Second is the mass – luminosity relation , which relates the luminosity L and the mass M. Finally , the relationship between M and R is close to linear . The ratio of M to R increases by a factor of only three over 2 @.@ 5 orders of magnitude of M. This relation is roughly proportional to the star 's inner temperature TI , and its extremely slow increase reflects the fact that the rate of energy generation in the core strongly depends on this temperature , whereas it has to fit the mass – luminosity relation . Thus , a too high or too low temperature will result in stellar instability .
A better approximation is to take ε =
L / M , the energy generation rate per unit mass , as ε is proportional to TI15 , where TI is the core temperature . This is suitable for stars at least as massive as the Sun , exhibiting the CNO cycle , and gives the better fit R ∝ M0.78.
= = = Sample parameters = = =
The table below shows typical values for stars along the main sequence . The values of luminosity ( L ) , radius ( R ) and mass ( M ) are relative to the Sun — a dwarf star with a spectral classification of G2 V. The actual values for a star may vary by as much as 20 – 30 % from the values listed below .
= = Energy generation = =
All main @-@ sequence stars have a core region where energy is generated by nuclear fusion . The temperature and density of this core are at the levels necessary to sustain the energy production that will support the remainder of the star . A reduction of energy production would cause the overlaying mass to compress the core , resulting in an increase in the fusion rate because of higher temperature and pressure . Likewise an increase in energy production would cause the star to expand , lowering the pressure at the core . Thus the star forms a self @-@ regulating system in hydrostatic equilibrium that is stable over the course of its main sequence lifetime .
Main @-@ sequence stars employ two types of hydrogen fusion processes , and the rate of energy generation from each type depends on the temperature in the core region . Astronomers divide the main sequence into upper and lower parts , based on which of the two is the dominant fusion process . In the lower main sequence , energy is primarily generated as the result of the proton @-@ proton chain , which directly fuses hydrogen together in a series of stages to produce helium . Stars in the upper main sequence have sufficiently high core temperatures to efficiently use the CNO cycle . ( See the chart . ) This process uses atoms of carbon , nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries in the process of fusing hydrogen into helium .
At a stellar core temperature of 18 Million Kelvin , the PP process and CNO cycle are equally efficient , and each type generates half of the star 's net luminosity . As this is the core temperature of a star with about 1 @.@ 5 M ☉ , the upper main sequence consists of stars above this mass . Thus , roughly speaking , stars of spectral class F or cooler belong to the lower main sequence , while A @-@ type stars or hotter are upper main @-@ sequence stars . The transition in primary energy production from one form to the other spans a range difference of less than a single solar mass . In the Sun , a one solar @-@ mass star , only 1 @.@ 5 % of the energy is generated by the CNO cycle . By contrast , stars with 1 @.@ 8 M ☉ or above generate almost their entire energy output through the CNO cycle .
The observed upper limit for a main @-@ sequence star is 120 – 200 M ☉ . The theoretical explanation for this limit is that stars above this mass can not radiate energy fast enough to remain stable , so any additional mass will be ejected in a series of pulsations until the star reaches a stable limit . The lower limit for sustained proton – proton nuclear fusion is about 0 @.@ 08 M ☉ or 80 times the mass of Jupiter . Below this threshold are sub @-@ stellar objects that can not sustain hydrogen fusion , known as brown dwarfs .
= = Structure = =
Because there is a temperature difference between the core and the surface , or photosphere , energy is transported outward . The two modes for transporting this energy are radiation and convection . A radiation zone , where energy is transported by radiation , is stable against convection and there is very little mixing of the plasma . By contrast , in a convection zone the energy is transported by bulk movement of plasma , with hotter material rising and cooler material descending . Convection is a more efficient mode for carrying energy than radiation , but it will only occur under conditions that create a steep temperature gradient .
In massive stars ( above 10 M ☉ ) the rate of energy generation by the CNO cycle is very sensitive to temperature , so the fusion is highly concentrated at the core . Consequently , there is a high temperature gradient in the core region , which results in a convection zone for more efficient energy transport . This mixing of material around the core removes the helium ash from the hydrogen @-@ burning region , allowing more of the hydrogen in the star to be consumed during the main @-@ sequence lifetime . The outer regions of a massive star transport energy by radiation , with little or no convection .
Intermediate @-@ mass stars such as Sirius may transport energy primarily by radiation , with a small core convection region . Medium @-@ sized , low @-@ mass stars like the Sun have a core region that is stable against convection , with a convection zone near the surface that mixes the outer layers . This results in a steady buildup of a helium @-@ rich core , surrounded by a hydrogen @-@ rich outer region . By contrast , cool , very low @-@ mass stars ( below 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ ) are convective throughout . Thus the helium produced at the core is distributed across the star , producing a relatively uniform atmosphere and a proportionately longer main sequence lifespan .
= = Luminosity @-@ color variation = =
As non @-@ fusing helium ash accumulates in the core of a main @-@ sequence star , the reduction in the abundance of hydrogen per unit mass results in a gradual lowering of the fusion rate within that mass . Since it is the outflow of fusion @-@ supplied energy that supports the higher layers of the star , the core is compressed , producing higher temperatures and pressures . Both factors increase the rate of fusion thus moving the equilibrium towards a smaller , denser , hotter core producing more energy whose increased outflow pushes the higher layers further out . Thus there is a steady increase in the luminosity and radius of the star over time . For example , the luminosity of the early Sun was only about 70 % of its current value . As a star ages this luminosity increase changes its position on the HR diagram . This effect results in a broadening of the main sequence band because stars are observed at random stages in their lifetime . That is , the main sequence band develops a thickness on the HR diagram ; it is not simply a narrow line .
Other factors that broaden the main sequence band on the HR diagram include uncertainty in the distance to stars and the presence of unresolved binary stars that can alter the observed stellar parameters . However , even perfect observation would show a fuzzy main sequence because mass is not the only parameter that affects a star 's color and luminosity . Variations in chemical composition caused by the initial abundances , the star 's evolutionary status , interaction with a close companion , rapid rotation , or a magnetic field can all slightly change a main @-@ sequence star 's HR diagram position , to name just a few factors . As an example , there are metal @-@ poor stars ( with a very low abundance of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium ) that lie just below the main sequence and are known as subdwarfs . These stars are fusing hydrogen in their cores and so they mark the lower edge of main sequence fuzziness caused by variance in chemical composition .
A nearly vertical region of the HR diagram , known as the instability strip , is occupied by pulsating variable stars known as Cepheid variables . These stars vary in magnitude at regular intervals , giving them a pulsating appearance . The strip intersects the upper part of the main sequence in the region of class A and F stars , which are between one and two solar masses . Pulsating stars in this part of the instability strip that intersects the upper part of the main sequence are called Delta Scuti variables . Main @-@ sequence stars in this region experience only small changes in magnitude and so this variation is difficult to detect . Other classes of unstable main @-@ sequence stars , like Beta Cephei variables , are unrelated to this instability strip .
= = Lifetime = =
The total amount of energy that a star can generate through nuclear fusion of hydrogen is limited by the amount of hydrogen fuel that can be consumed at the core . For a star in equilibrium , the energy generated at the core must be at least equal to the energy radiated at the surface . Since the luminosity gives the amount of energy radiated per unit time , the total life span can be estimated , to first approximation , as the total energy produced divided by the star 's luminosity .
For a star with at least 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , when the hydrogen supply in its core is exhausted and it expands to become a red giant , it can start to fuse helium atoms to form carbon . The energy output of the helium fusion process per unit mass is only about a tenth the energy output of the hydrogen process , and the luminosity of the star increases . This results in a much shorter length of time in this stage compared to the main sequence lifetime . ( For example , the Sun is predicted to spend 130 million years burning helium , compared to about 12 billion years burning hydrogen . ) Thus , about 90 % of the observed stars above 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ will be on the main sequence . On average , main @-@ sequence stars are known to follow an empirical mass @-@ luminosity relationship . The luminosity ( L ) of the star is roughly proportional to the total mass ( M ) as the following power law :
<formula>
This relationship applies to main @-@ sequence stars in the range 0 @.@ 1 – 50 M ☉ .
The amount of fuel available for nuclear fusion is proportional to the mass of the star . Thus , the lifetime of a star on the main sequence can be estimated by comparing it to solar evolutionary models . The Sun has been a main @-@ sequence star for about 4 @.@ 5 billion years and it will become a red giant in 6 @.@ 5 billion years , for a total main sequence lifetime of roughly 1010 years . Hence :
<formula>
where M and L are the mass and luminosity of the star , respectively , <formula> is a solar mass , <formula> is the solar luminosity and <formula> is the star 's estimated main sequence lifetime .
Although more massive stars have more fuel to burn and might be expected to last longer , they also must radiate a proportionately greater amount with increased mass . Thus , the most massive stars may remain on the main sequence for only a few million years , while stars with less than a tenth of a solar mass may last for over a trillion years .
The exact mass @-@ luminosity relationship depends on how efficiently energy can be transported from the core to the surface . A higher opacity has an insulating effect that retains more energy at the core , so the star does not need to produce as much energy to remain in hydrostatic equilibrium . By contrast , a lower opacity means energy escapes more rapidly and the star must burn more fuel to remain in equilibrium . Note , however , that a sufficiently high opacity can result in energy transport via convection , which changes the conditions needed to remain in equilibrium .
In high @-@ mass main @-@ sequence stars , the opacity is dominated by electron scattering , which is nearly constant with increasing temperature . Thus the luminosity only increases as the cube of the star 's mass . For stars below 10 M ☉ , the opacity becomes dependent on temperature , resulting in the luminosity varying approximately as the fourth power of the star 's mass . For very low @-@ mass stars , molecules in the atmosphere also contribute to the opacity . Below about 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , the luminosity of the star varies as the mass to the power of 2 @.@ 3 , producing a flattening of the slope on a graph of mass versus luminosity . Even these refinements are only an approximation , however , and the mass @-@ luminosity relation can vary depending on a star 's composition .
= = Evolutionary tracks = =
When a main @-@ sequence star consumes the hydrogen at its core , the loss of energy generation causes its gravitational collapse to resume . Stars with less than 0 @.@ 23 M ☉ , are predicted to directly become white dwarfs when energy generation by nuclear fusion of hydrogen at their core comes to a halt . In stars between this threshold and 10 M ☉ , the hydrogen surrounding the helium core reaches sufficient temperature and pressure to undergo fusion , forming a hydrogen @-@ burning shell . In consequence of this change , the outer envelope of the star expands and decreases in temperature , turning it into a red giant . At this point the star is evolving off the main sequence and entering the giant branch . The path which the star now follows across the HR diagram , to the upper right of the main sequence , is called an evolutionary track .
The helium core of a red giant continues to collapse until it is entirely supported by electron degeneracy pressure — a quantum mechanical effect that restricts how closely matter can be compacted . For stars of more than about 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , the core eventually reaches a temperature where it becomes hot enough to burn helium into carbon via the triple alpha process . Stars with more than 5 – 7 @.@ 5 M ☉ can additionally fuse elements with higher atomic numbers . For stars with ten or more solar masses , this process can lead to an increasingly dense core that finally collapses , ejecting the star 's overlying layers in a Type II supernova explosion , Type Ib supernova or Type Ic supernova .
When a cluster of stars is formed at about the same time , the life span of these stars will depend on their individual masses . The most massive stars will leave the main sequence first , followed steadily in sequence by stars of ever lower masses . Thus the stars will evolve in order of their position on the main sequence , proceeding from the most massive at the left toward the right of the HR diagram . The current position where stars in this cluster are leaving the main sequence is known as the turn @-@ off point . By knowing the main sequence lifespan of stars at this point , it becomes possible to estimate the age of the cluster .
= = = General = = =
Kippenhahn , Rudolf , 100 Billion Suns , Basic Books , New York , 1983 .
= = = Technical = = =
Arnett , David , Supernovae and Nucleosynthesis , Princeton University Press , Princeton , 1996 .
Bahcall , John N. , Neutrino Astrophysics , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 1989 .
Bahcall , John N. , Pinsonneault , M.H. , and Basu , Sarbani , " Solar Models : Current Epoch and Time Dependences , Neutrinos , and Helioseismological Properties , " The Astrophysical Journal , 555 , 990 , 2001 .
Barnes , C. A. , Clayton , D. D. , and Schramm , D. N. ( eds . ) , Essays in Nuclear Astrophysics , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 1982 .
Bowers , Richard L. , and Deeming , Terry , Astrophysics I : Stars , Jones and Bartlett , Publishers , Boston , 1984 .
Bradley W. Carroll & Dale A. Ostlie ( 2007 ) . An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics . Person Education Addison @-@ Wesley San Francisco . ISBN 0 @-@ 80530402 @-@ 9 .
Chabrier , Gilles , and Baraffe , Isabelle , " Theory of Low @-@ Mass Stars and Substellar Objects , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 38 , 337 , 2000 .
Chandrasekhar , S. , An Introduction to the study of stellar Structure , Dover Publications , Inc . , New York , 1967 .
Clayton , Donald D. , Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis , University of Chicago Press , Chicago , 1983 .
Cox , J. P. , and Giuli , R. T. , Principles of Stellar Structure , Gordon and Breach , New York , 1968 .
Fowler , William . , Caughlan , Georgeanne R. , and Zimmerman , Barbara A. , " Thermonuclear Reaction Rates , I , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 5 , 525 , 1967 .
Fowler , William A. , Caughlan , Georgeanne R. , and Zimmerman , Barbara A. , " Thermonuclear Reaction Rates , II , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 13 , 69 , 1975 .
Hansen , Carl J. , Kawaler , Steven D. , and Trimble , Virginia Stellar Interiors : Physical Principles , Structure , and Evolution , Second Edition , Springer @-@ Verlag , New York , 2004 .
Harris , Michael J. , Fowler , William A. , Caughlan , Georgeanne R. , and Zimmerman , Barbara A. , " Thermonuclear Reaction Rates , III , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 21 , 165 , 1983 .
Iben , Icko , Jr , " Stellar Evolution Within and Off the Main Sequence , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 5 , 571 , 1967 .
Iglesias , Carlos A , and Rogers , Forrest J. , " Updated Opal Opacities , " The Astrophysical Journal , 464 , 943 , 1996 .
Kippenhahn , Rudolf , and Weigert , Alfred , Stellar Structure and Evolution , Springer @-@ Verlag , Berlin , 1990 .
Liebert , James , and Probst , Ronald G. , " Very Low Mass Stars " , Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 25 , 437 , 1987 .
Padmanabhan , T. , Theoretical Astrophysics , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 2002 .
Prialnik , Dina , An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 2000 .
Novotny , Eva , Introduction to Stellar Atmospheres and Interior , Oxford University Press , New York , 1973 .
Shore , Steven N. , The Tapestry of Modern Astrophysics , John Wiley and Sons , Hoboken , 2003 .
= SS Christopher Columbus =
The SS Christopher Columbus was an American excursion liner on the Great Lakes , in service between 1893 and 1933 . She was the only whaleback ship ever built for passenger service . The ship was designed by Alexander McDougall , the developer and promoter of the whaleback design .
Columbus was built between 1892 and 1893 at Superior , Wisconsin , by the American Steel Barge Company . Initially , she ferried passengers to and from the World 's Columbian Exposition . Later , she provided general transportation and excursion services to various ports around the lakes .
At 362 feet ( 110 m ) , the ship was the longest whaleback ever built , and reportedly also the largest vessel on the Great Lakes when she was launched . Columbus is said to have carried more passengers during her career than any other vessel on the Great Lakes . After a career lasting four decades , she was retired during the Great Depression and scrapped in 1936 by the Manitowoc Shipbuilding Company at Manitowoc , Wisconsin .
= = Background and proposal = =
The history of the Columbus is linked with that of the whalebacks , an innovative but not widely accepted ship design of the late 1880s , and of their designer , Alexander McDougall . A Scottish immigrant , Great Lakes captain , inventor and entrepreneur , McDougall developed the idea of the whaleback as a way to improve the ability of barges to follow a towing vessel in heavy seas . Whalebacks were characterized by distinctive hull shapes with rounded tops , lacking conventional vertical sides . Waves thus broke across their hulls with considerably less force than when striking a conventional hull . Water could also flow around the rounded turrets which resembled gun turrets on contemporary warships ; the superstructure and deckhouses were mounted on these turrets . The rounded contours of whalebacks gave them an unconventional appearance , and McDougall 's ship and barge designs were received with considerable skepticism , resistance , and derision . As they had porcine @-@ looking snouts for bows , some observers called them " pig boats " .
After McDougall was unable to persuade existing shipbuilders to try his designs , he founded the American Steel Barge Company in Superior , Wisconsin in 1888 , and built them himself . McDougall actively promoted his design and company by sending the SS Charles W. Wetmore to London , and starting another shipyard in Everett , Washington , which built the SS City of Everett . When the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition , to be held in Chicago , Illinois , was in the planning stages , McDougall recognized another opportunity to publicize his design . The Columbus , conceived as an elaborate ferry , was intended to demonstrate that the whaleback design would work well in passenger service , and would be able to travel at high speed . The ship 's name honored the explorer Christopher Columbus as did the World 's Columbian Exposition itself , timed to coincide with the 400th anniversary of his first voyage to the New World .
= = Construction and Columbian Exposition = =
The World 's Fair Steamship Company ordered the construction of the Columbus at an estimated cost of $ 360 @,@ 000 . The job was undertaken at McDougall 's American Steel Barge Company works in Superior , Wisconsin , starting in the fall of 1892 .
The hull framing , which included nine bulkheads , was completed on September 13 , 1892 . The ship 's propulsion mechanisms were next installed , consisting of a single four @-@ bladed , 14 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) diameter , 19 @-@ foot ( 6 m ) pitch propeller , the two reciprocating triple @-@ expansion steam engines ( with three cylinders of 26 @-@ inch ( 66 cm ) , 42 @-@ inch ( 107 cm ) and 70 @-@ inch ( 178 cm ) diameters in a common frame with a 42 @-@ inch ( 107 cm ) stroke ) manufactured by Samuel F. Hodge & Co. of Detroit , Michigan , and six steel tubular return Scotch boilers , ( 11 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) diameter by 12 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) long ) , built by Cleveland Shipbuilding Company . The rounded hull top was then added , followed by the six turrets , which were substantially larger than those employed on freighter whalebacks . The ship was launched on December 3 , 1892 , after which two superstructure decks were mounted on the turrets along the centerline of her hull to afford access to her two internal decks , one in the turrets and one in the hull below .
She was fitted out over the remainder of late 1892 and early 1893 . Electric lighting was used , and she was elegantly furnished . Her grand saloon and skylighted promenade deck contained several fountains and a large aquarium filled with trout and other fish of the lakes . The cabins and public spaces were fitted out with oak paneling , velvet carpets , etched glass windows , leather furniture and marble . Shops and restaurants were provided for the passengers .
McDougall 's American Steel Barge Company had committed in the contract that the Columbus would be built and delivered in three months , making her one of the fastest @-@ built large ships of her time . The builders further promised rapid loading and unloading , predicting that the vessel would be able to embark 5 @,@ 000 passengers in five minutes , and disembark the same passengers in even less time . The Columbus was specified to be able run the 6 miles ( 10 km ) from the dock downtown to the fairgrounds at Jackson Park and 64th Street in 20 minutes .
McDougall set up another holding company , the Columbian Whaleback Steamship Company of Duluth , Minnesota , to own and operate the Columbus . She was commissioned on May 13 , 1893 . Her first captain was John McArthur , who had captained other whalebacks for McDougall 's firms , starting with the first powered whaleback , the Colgate Hoyt , built in 1890 . McDougall was quoted as having said to McArthur , " There is your steamboat ; take her down to Chicago and make a success of her . "
McArthur did just that . Painted in all white livery , the Columbus made multiple round trips per day , sailing along the Lake Michigan shoreline from the Randolph Street / Van Buren Street dock to the Jackson Park site of the World 's Columbian Exposition 's Beaux arts " White City " exposition fairgrounds . A contemporary souvenir booklet called her " the greatest marine wonder of its time " , and another publication dubbed her the " Queen of the Lakes . " She had an estimated capacity of 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 passengers on her four decks , but it was reported that she carried 7 @,@ 000 on her maiden voyage . The Goodrich Transit Line steamer Virginia ( later the USS Blue Ridge ) is said to have raced against her .
The Columbus carried between 1 @.@ 7 and 2 @.@ 0 million passengers ( sources differ ) during the exposition , with only one fatality , a crew member . In recognition of that success , the commissioners of the exposition presented Captain McArthur with a gold watch engraved with a representation of the ship . McArthur went on to captain other whalebacks including the Frank Rockefeller , which became the SS Meteor , the only whaleback surviving today .
= = Regular service = =
After the exposition ended the Columbus entered passenger service , and an additional deck ( third superstructure , fifth total ) was added during the 1899 – 1900 winter season . Despite the Columbus ' success at the exposition , and McDougall 's promotional efforts , the whaleback design never caught on . By 1900 , the last whalebacks had been built in Superior : the Alexander McDougall in 1899 ( the last powered ship ) , and the John Smeaton , the last whaleback barge . The American Steel Barge Company was sold to the American Ship Building Company , becoming their Superior Works , and switched to more conventional laker designs .
In 1899 the Columbus was leased to and operated by the Goodrich Transit Line , whose steamer Virginia had been a perennial racing rival . She changed hands in 1905 to the Milwaukee & Chicago Transportation company – possibly a Goodrich holding company – and again in 1909 to Goodrich Transit Line . Her livery was at some point between 1906 and 1909 changed to a black hull with yellow accents , and she was placed in service on the route between Chicago and Milwaukee , Wisconsin . The Columbus remained with the Goodrich line for several years . Although she was used for excursions elsewhere around the Great Lakes , her regular schedule was a daily trip to Milwaukee , leaving Chicago mid @-@ morning , sailing to Milwaukee for a two @-@ hour stopover , and then returning ( see advertisement right ) . She made daily round @-@ trip excursions from the Goodrich docks at the Rush Street Bridge .
Columbus had at least three accidents . In June 1895 she suffered an explosion caused by a steam pipe becoming disconnected while she was underway . Accounts differ , but some claim that this happened during a race with her rival , Virginia . In July 1905 , she collided with the schooner Ralph Campbell in the Chicago River . On June 30 , 1917 , she was involved in her most serious accident , a collision with a water tower . The collision happened in Milwaukee while she was being maneuvered by tugs away from her dock . The Milwaukee River current caught her , spinning her sideways , and her bow sheared off two legs of the Yahr @-@ Lang Drug Company 's water tower , toppling it and flooding Columbus ' decks with about 25 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 95 @,@ 000 l ) . The collision killed 16 passengers and severely damaged her pilot house , putting her out of service for the rest of the year .
The Columbus was one of the first ships to be fitted with an on @-@ board radio , installed by 1909 , when she was allocated the call letters " KC " . Columbus and the SS Chicago used radio to help coordinate the rescue of over 200 passengers from the Goodrich liner City of Racine when the Racine was disabled off Waukegan , Illinois , in Lake Michigan .
In 1915 , the SS Eastland capsized while docked in the Chicago River , with the loss of over 800 lives . Officials subsequently ordered many passenger ships to undergo stability testing , which the Columbus passed easily . Even with 7 @,@ 500 sandbags ( simulating passengers ) piled on one side , and tugboats pulling in that direction , she listed only 12 degrees . Columbus was featured at the Century of Progress exhibition in Chicago in 1932 – 33 .
= = Disposition = =
The Columbus was taken out of service in 1933 , and changed hands twice during the Great Depression , in 1933 and again in 1934 . She was scrapped in 1936 at the Manitowoc Shipbuilding Company in Manitowoc , Wisconsin .
SS Christopher Columbus carried 1 @.@ 7 – 2 million passengers in her first year alone , and is estimated to have carried more passengers than any other vessel on the Great Lakes . She was one of the most photographed passenger ships on the lakes , and souvenir postcards of her are still widely available . One of her anchors , the design of which was patented by McDougall on February 3 , 1891 , is displayed at the Mariners ' Museum in Newport News , Virginia .
= Jim Bottomley =
James Leroy Bottomley ( April 23 , 1900 – December 11 , 1959 ) was an American professional baseball player . A first baseman , Bottomley played in Major League Baseball from 1922 through 1937 for the St. Louis Cardinals , Cincinnati Reds , and St. Louis Browns . He also served as player @-@ manager for the Browns in 1937 . Playing for the Cardinals against Brooklyn at Ebbets Field on September 16 , 1924 , he set the all @-@ time single game RBI record with 12 .
Born in Oglesby , Illinois , Bottomley grew up in Nokomis , Illinois . He dropped out of high school at the age of 16 to raise money for his family . After playing semi @-@ professional baseball , the Cardinals scouted and signed Bottomley . He won the League Award , given to the most valuable player , in 1928 , and was a part of World Series championship teams in 1926 and 1931 . He played for the Cardinals through the 1932 season , after which he was traded to the Reds . After playing for Cincinnati for three years , he played two more seasons with the Browns .
After finishing his playing career with the Browns , Bottomley joined the Chicago Cubs organization as a scout and minor league baseball manager . After suffering a heart attack , Bottomley and his wife retired to raise cattle in Missouri . Bottomley was nicknamed " Sunny Jim " because of his cheerful disposition . Bottomley was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1974 by the Veterans Committee and to the Cardinals Hall of Fame in 2014 .
= = Early life = =
Bottomley was born on April 23 , 1900 , to Elizabeth ( née Carter ) and John Bottomley in Oglesby , Illinois . His family later moved to Nokomis , Illinois , where Bottomley enrolled in grade school and Nokomis High School . He dropped out when he was 16 years old in order to help support his family financially . Bottomley worked as a coal miner , truck driver , grocery clerk , and railroad clerk . His younger brother , Ralph , died in a mining accident in 1920 .
Bottomley also played semi @-@ professional baseball for several local teams to make additional money , earning $ 5 a game ( $ 79 in current dollar terms ) . A police officer who knew Branch Rickey , the general manager of the St. Louis Cardinals , saw Bottomley play , and recommended Bottomley to Rickey .
= = Professional career = =
= = = St. Louis Cardinals = = =
Rickey dispatched scout Charley Barrett to investigate Bottomley . The Cardinals decided to invite Bottomley to a tryout in late 1919 , and signed him to a $ 150 @-@ a @-@ month ( $ 2 @,@ 047 in current dollar terms ) contract . Bottomley began his professional career in minor league baseball in 1920 . That year , Bottomley played for the Mitchell Kernels of the Class @-@ D South Dakota League , posting a .312 batting average in 97 games , as Barrett continued to scout him . He also played six games for the Sioux City Packers of the Class @-@ A Western League . During his time in the minor leagues , the media began to call Bottomley " Sunny Jim " , due to his pleasant disposition .
The next season , Bottomley played for the Houston Buffaloes of the Class @-@ A Texas League . Bottomley suffered a leg injury early in the season which became infected , and impeded his performance during the season . Bottomley managed only a .227 batting average in 130 games and struggled with his fielding . Unable to sell Bottomley to Houston for $ 1 @,@ 200 after the season ( $ 15 @,@ 920 in current dollar terms ) , Rickey sold Bottomley to the Syracuse Chiefs of the Class @-@ AA International League for $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 13 @,@ 267 in current dollar terms ) . Fully recovered from his leg injury in 1922 , Bottomley batted .348 with 14 home runs , 15 triples , and a .567 slugging percentage for the Chiefs . After the season , the Cardinals purchased Bottomley from the Chiefs for $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 212 @,@ 058 in current dollar terms ) .
Bottomley made his Major League Baseball debut for the St. Louis Cardinals on August 18 , 1922 . Replacing Jack Fournier , Bottomley batted .325 in 37 games . The Cardinals named Bottomley their starting first baseman in 1923 . As a rookie , Bottomley batted .371 , finishing second in the National League ( NL ) behind teammate Rogers Hornsby , who batted .384 . His .425 on @-@ base percentage also finished second in the NL behind Hornsby , while he finished sixth in slugging percentage , with a .535 mark . His 94 runs batted in ( RBIs ) were tenth @-@ best in the league .
Bottomley posted a .316 batting average in 1924 . In a game against the Brooklyn Dodgers on September 16 , 1924 , Bottomley set the major league record for RBIs in a single game , with 12 , breaking Wilbert Robinson 's record of 11 , set in 1892 . Robinson was serving as the manager of the Dodgers at the time . This mark has since been tied by Mark Whiten in 1993 . Finishing the season with 111 RBIs , placing third in the NL , Bottomley 's 14 home runs were seventh @-@ best in the NL , while his .500 slugging percentage was good for tenth .
Bottomley hit .367 in 1925 , finishing second in the NL to Hornsby . He led the NL with 227 hits , while his 128 RBIs were third @-@ best , and his .413 on @-@ base percentage was seventh @-@ best in the league . Bottomley batted .298 during the 1926 season , with an NL @-@ leading 120 RBIs . His 19 home runs placed second in the NL , behind Hack Wilson 's 21 , while his .506 slugging percentage was sixth @-@ best . He batted .345 in the 1926 World Series , as the Cardinals defeated the New York Yankees .
In 1927 , Bottomley finished the season with 124 RBIs , fourth best in the league , and a .509 slugging percentage , finishing sixth in the NL . Bottomley hit .325 with 31 home runs and 136 RBIs in 1928 , leading the league in home runs and RBIs . He also became the second Major League player in history to join the 20 – 20 – 20 club . That year , he won the League Award , given to the most valuable player of the NL . The Cardinals reached the 1928 World Series , and Bottomley batted .214 as they lost to the New York Yankees .
In 1929 , Bottomley hit 29 home runs , finishing seventh in the NL , while his 137 RBIs were fifth @-@ best , and his .568 slugging percentage placed him in eighth . After having what manager Gabby Street considered a " poor year " in 1930 , Bottomley struggled in the 1930 World Series , batting .045 in 22 at @-@ bats , as the Cardinals lost to the Philadelphia Athletics . Following the series , Bottomley described his World Series performance as " a bust as far as hitting goes " .
Amid questions about Bottomley 's status with the Cardinals heading into the 1931 season , he demonstrated renewed hitting ability during spring training . Despite the presence of Ripper Collins , a superior fielder who transferred to the Cardinals from the Rochester Red Wings of the International League , Street announced that Bottomley would remain the starting first baseman . However , Bottomley suffered an injury and struggled early in the 1931 season after returning to the game , and it appeared that he might lose his job to Collins , who filled in for Bottomley during his injury . Bottomley returned to form after his return , and he finished the season with a .3482 batting average , placing third behind teammate Chick Hafey 's .3489 and Bill Terry 's .3486 , the closest batting average finish in MLB history . His .534 slugging percentage was the sixth best in the league . The Cardinals reached the 1931 World Series , with Bottomley batting .160 , as the Cardinals defeated the Athletics . That offseason , other teams began to attempt to trade for either Bottomley or Collins . Bottomley batted .296 in 1932 , though he only played in 91 games .
= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
After the 1932 season , the Cardinals traded Bottomley to the Cincinnati Reds for Ownie Carroll and Estel Crabtree , in an attempt to partner Bottomley with Chick Hafey in developing a more potent offensive attack . Bottomley had also sought Cincinnati 's managerial position that offseason , which instead went to Donie Bush .
Bottomley threatened to quit baseball in a salary dispute with the Reds , as he attempted to negotiate a raise from his $ 8 @,@ 000 salary ( $ 146 @,@ 242 in current dollar terms ) , a reduction from the $ 13 @,@ 000 salary ( $ 225 @,@ 471 in current dollar terms ) he earned with the Cardinals the previous year . He and the Reds eventually came to terms on a one @-@ year contract believed to be worth between $ 10 @,@ 000 and $ 13 @,@ 000 . Bottomley finished eighth in the NL with 83 RBIs in 1933 , and ninth with 13 home runs . In three seasons with the Reds , Bottomley failed to hit higher than .283 or record more than 83 RBIs in a season . Bottomley left the Reds during spring training in 1935 due to a salary dispute , deciding to return to the team in April .
= = = St. Louis Browns = = =
Before the 1936 season , the Reds traded Bottomley to the St. Louis Browns of the American League ( AL ) , who were managed by Hornsby , for Johnny Burnett . During a July road trip , Bottomley announced his retirement as a result of an injured back ; however , he changed his mind and decided to remain with the team . Bottomley batted .298 for the 1936 season .
Bottomley decided to return to baseball in 1937 . When the Browns struggled during the 1937 season , beginning the season with a 25 – 52 win @-@ loss record , the Browns fired Hornsby and named Bottomley their player @-@ manager . Bottomley led the Browns to 21 more victories , as the team finished the season in eighth place , with a 46 – 108 record . The Browns trailed the seventh place Athletics by 9 1 ⁄ 2 games , and were 56 games out of first place . As a player , Bottomley batted .239 in 65 games during the 1937 season . Bottomley was among the ten oldest players in the AL that year .
The Browns did not retain Bottomley after the 1937 season , replacing him with Street , who served as his first assistant during the 1937 season . In 1938 , Bottomley served as the player @-@ manager of Syracuse . After a bad start to the season , and with team president Jack Corbett not adding capable players , Bottomley resigned and was replaced with Dick Porter . Bottomley also indicated that he did not want to continue playing .
Bottomley also holds the single @-@ season record for most unassisted double plays by a first baseman , with eight . Bottomley is also known as the only man to be sued for hitting a home run when a fan was hit by the ball when he was not looking . He had over 100 RBIs in each season from 1924 to 1929 . Bottomley was the second player in baseball history to hit 20 or more doubles , triples , and home runs in one season ( Frank Schulte being the first ) and the first of two players ( Lou Gehrig being the other ) to collect 150 or more doubles , triples , and home runs in a career .
= = Personal = =
Bottomley married Elizabeth " Betty " Browner , who operated a St. Louis beauty parlor , on February 4 , 1933 . The couple had no children . After he retired from baseball in 1938 , Bottomley and his wife moved to the Bourbon , Missouri , area , where he raised Hereford cattle . In 1939 , Bottomley became a radio broadcaster , signing a deal with KWK , an AM broadcasting station , to broadcast Cardinals and Browns games .
Bottomley returned to baseball as a scout for the Cardinals in 1955 . In 1957 , he joined the Chicago Cubs as a scout and managed the Pulaski Cubs of the Class D Appalachian League . While managing in Pulaski , Bottomley suffered a heart attack . The Bottomleys moved to nearby Sullivan , Missouri . Bottomley died of a heart ailment in December 1959 . He and his wife Betty were interred in the International Order of Fellows Cemetery , Sullivan , Missouri .
= = Honors = =
Bottomley was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame posthumously in 1974 by the Veterans Committee . The Baseball Writers ' Association of America charged that the Veterans Committee was not selective enough in choosing members . Charges of cronyism were levied against the Veterans Committee . When Bottomley was elected , the Veterans Committee included Frankie Frisch , a teammate of Bottomley 's with the Cardinals . Frisch and Bill Terry , also a member of the Veterans Committee at the time , shepherded the selections of teammates Jesse Haines in 1970 , Dave Bancroft and Chick Hafey in 1971 , Ross Youngs in 1972 , George Kelly in 1973 , and Freddie Lindstrom in 1976 . This led to the Veterans Committee having its powers reduced in subsequent years . In 2014 , the Cardinals announced Bottomley among 22 former players and personnel to be inducted into the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum for the inaugural class of 2014 .
The city park in Sullivan is named for Bottomley . A museum in Nokomis , Illinois , the Bottomley @-@ Ruffing @-@ Schalk Baseball Museum , is dedicated to Bottomley and fellow Hall of Famers Ray Schalk and Red Ruffing , who were also Nokomis natives .
= HMS Vigilant ( 1777 ) =
HMS Vigilant was a merchantman converted into a warship during the American Revolution . After serving as a transport in North American waters from 1775 , she was purchased by the Royal Navy ( RN ) and modified for shore bombardment duties in 1777 . She was instrumental in the eventual British success during the siege of Fort Mifflin that same year and supported British operations in Georgia and South Carolina in 1779 – 80 . Her heavy armament proved to be more than Vigilant was designed to handle and she was condemned and disposed of in 1780 .
= = Description and service = =
Built at Whitby in 1774 , the ship was named the Grand Duchess of Russia and she was chartered by the Navy Board to serve as a transport at the beginning of 1775 . While being modified at Deptford Dockyard in February , the ship was surveyed and found to be barque @-@ rigged and just over 308 tons burthen in size . A survey in New York two years later gave her length as 120 ft ( 36 @.@ 6 m ) , measured at the keel , with a beam of 36 ft ( 11 @.@ 0 m ) . Naval historian Rif Winfield quotes her tonnage as 684 14 ⁄ 94 burthen with a length at the gundeck of 122 feet 6 inches ( 37 @.@ 3 m ) and beam of 34 ft 10 in ( 10 @.@ 6 m ) .
Grand Duchess of Russia departed for Boston , Massachusetts carrying 150 marines on 30 March 1775 and she remained in North American waters for the next two years . Vice Admiral Lord Howe , commander of the North American Station , informed the Admiralty on 23 April that he had purchased the Grand Duchess of Russia and commissioned her as HMS Vigilant to bombard targets ashore . The ship received fourteen 24 @-@ pounder guns from the 50 @-@ gun ship Centurion and two 9 @-@ pounder and four 6 @-@ pounder guns from the hospital ( prison ) ship Jersey . Additional gun ports were cut in Vigilant 's side to allow two guns to be switched from one side to give her a broadside of nine guns . The 150 men of her crew were made up from the crews of Howe 's flagship , the third rate Eagle , Centurion , and the fourth rate Preston while her 30 marines were drawn from the marine brigade at Halifax .
Her conversion was completed by the end of June and her first task was to cover the evacuation of British troops from Perth Amboy , New Jersey on 29 July . The following month , Vigilant served as Howe 's flagship when he landed British troops at Elkton , Maryland , at the northern end of Chesapeake Bay , during the Philadelphia Campaign . In October , the ship sailed for the mouth of the Delaware River to attack the American fortifications defending Philadelphia . During this voyage , she rolled so badly during heavy weather that the round shot fell out of her guns and it was later decided that she should not put to sea with her guns mounted except during the summer months . Vigilant was not designed to carry such heavy weights as the 2 @,@ 200 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) 24 pounders up high in the ship and cutting gun ports in her sides further weakened her structure .
The first attack on Fort Mifflin on 22 – 23 October had been a disaster with two British ships run aground and burnt . For the second attack three weeks later , Vigilant 's crew was reinforced with an extra 50 men to work the guns and 24 riflemen to suppress the defenders of the fort during the attack . The ship 's sides were reinforced and two guns were transferred to the starboard side of the ship . Her trim was maintained by placing casks of water on the port side . While other ships bombarded the fort from the main channel , Vigilant and a smaller ship worked their way up a secondary channel to the rear of the fort . They were able to silence the fort 's guns by 6 p.m. , and the Americans evacuated five hours later , despite the ship 's grapeshot and small arms fire . During the attack Vigilant only lost three men killed and five wounded ; her hull had only been hit several times , but her rigging was shot to pieces . In recognition of the ship 's success , her commander , Lieutenant John Henry , was promoted to the command of the frigate Fowey .
Vigilant was generally inactive while the British occupied Philadelphia , but she sailed to New York City when the British evacuated the city in June 1778 . She joined the small British squadron there upon the approach of a French squadron under the command of the Comte d 'Estaing in July , but the French declined to engage the British ships . The ship accompanied the British squadron to Newport , Rhode Island as it attempted to lift the Franco @-@ American siege , but Vigilant was badly damaged when a storm interrupted the planned battle on 13 August . Despite the damage , she supported British troops on 29 – 30 August as they pursued the retreating Americans who had abandoned the siege after the French ships sailed to Boston for repairs . A few days later , on 4 September , the ship collided with the sloop @-@ of @-@ war Raven during the British raid on New London , Connecticut and had her bow stove in by the other ship . Vigilant was quickly repaired in New York and participated in the attack on Little Egg Harbor River in October .
At the beginning of December , the ship sailed from New York to Savannah , Georgia to assist in the attack on that city . Despite dismounting her main armament , the ship had to keep one or more pumps running continuously during the voyage to prevent her from sinking . She arrived at Savannah on 28 December , after the British had secured the city . Her nine @-@ pounder guns were ordered removed when she was reclassified as a 20 @-@ gun armed transport on 22 December . Throughout 1779 , Vigilant supported British operations along the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina , despite running aground several times . Lacking substantial repairs during this time , the ship 's condition deteriorated until her crew refused to take her to sea from Beaufort , South Carolina on 28 February 1780 to support the planned siege of Charleston . She was then surveyed and condemned as " utterly unfit for sea " and decommissioned on 9 April . Her crew and armament were loaded aboard the transport Margaret & Martha and taken to Charleston where they were transferred to the transport Margery , which had been purchased and renamed Sandwich to serve as Vigilant 's replacement . The ship was burnt at Beaufort sometime later that year .
= David Falk =
David B. Falk ( born 1950 ) is an American sports agent who primarily works with basketball players in the National Basketball Association . Falk began his career representing professional tennis players for Donald Dell 's ProServ and is best known for representing sports icon Michael Jordan for the entirety of Jordan 's career . Besides Jordan , Falk has represented more than 100 other NBA players , and is generally considered to be the most influential player agent the NBA has seen . During the peak years of Falk 's career in the 1990s , he was often considered the second @-@ most powerful person in the NBA behind Commissioner David Stern , and in 2000 he had at least one client on all but two NBA teams . He was listed among the " 100 Most Powerful People in Sports " for 12 straight years from 1990 to 2001 by The Sporting News , and was also named one of the Top 50 Marketers in the United States by Advertising Age in 1995 .
Falk negotiated the then @-@ highest contracts in NBA history for Patrick Ewing and Danny Ferry . He also negotiated professional sports ' first $ 100 million contract for Alonzo Mourning as part of an unprecedented free agency period , during which his company , FAME , changed the entire salary structure of the NBA , negotiating more than $ 400 million in contracts for its free agent clients in a six @-@ day period .
In January 2007 , Falk re @-@ launched FAME , and today serves as its founder and CEO . He represented 9 players in 2012 ; in the prime of his sports agent career in the 1990s he represented as many as 40 players at a time .
= = Personal life = =
Falk was born to a middle @-@ class Jewish family on Long Island , New York , the second of three children . Falk 's father had never finished high school and owned two butcher shops on Long Island , while his mother , Pearl Falk , had two master 's degrees , spoke six languages , and had worked as an interpreter in World War II for Nelson Rockefeller in Latin American affairs . Falk described his mother , a teacher and inspirational force as " a perfectionist " , and called her " the biggest influence in my life " , the one who drove him to achieve great heights .
" Nothing was really ever good enough . I brought home my college board scores — I think I got just under 1 @,@ 400 the first time . She was crushed . She didn 't understand how I could do so poorly . I think that I share a lot of those qualities . She used to have an expression that I would say is the guiding principle of my life : Always shoot for the stars and never settle for second best . "
Falk 's mother was an avid New York Knicks fan , a fact which influenced Falk 's career decision upon his career path . Longtime childhood friend and colleague , Attorney Reid Kahn , remembers Falk proclaiming that he wanted to represent professional athletes in the fourth grade . Another high school friend noted that Falk was not good enough to make any of the teams at Douglas MacArthur High School ( Levittown , New York ) , but that he was an ardent sports fan who frequently watched baseball games at Shea Stadium .
He graduated Syracuse University in 1972 , with a degree in economics , and subsequently , George Washington University Law School , where he earned a J.D. with honors in 1975 .
During his law school years , his parents separated . Falk maintained minimal contact with his father , but remained very close with his mother until her death in 1988 .
Falk lives in Rockville , Maryland with his wife , Rhonda ( Frank ) . Rhonda served as an undergraduate admissions counselor for George Washington University for five years , where she recruited students from the New England area as well as from the Caribbean . For 10 years she worked as a production manager for STSC , a software company in Rockville , Maryland . She later moved into the software publishing division and managed the distribution and sales of software through international resellers around the world . She also serves on the board of directors of Woodmont Country Club .
The Falks have two daughters , Daina , ( born 1983 ) an honors graduate of Duke University and an accomplished Beverly Hills photographer , and Jocelyn ( born 1988 ) , a dean 's list student majoring in television and communication at Syracuse University .
= = Sports marketing , promotions , and contracts = =
= = = ProServ and signing of Michael Jordan = = =
After many attempts to establish contact with agents Bob Woolf of Boston and Larry Fleisher , Falk turned to ProServ 's Donald Dell in 1974 . Falk attempted to get Dell on the phone for " six or seven weeks . " Finally , annoyed at Dell 's seeming unavailability , Falk called Dell 's office " about 17 times in a three @-@ hour period " until Dell took his call . When Dell informed him that ProServ was not hiring , Falk offered to work for free . Dell consented to take on Falk as an unpaid intern while he was attending law school , finally offering him a full @-@ time job starting at $ 13 @,@ 000 after his graduation from George Washington University Law School in 1975 .
Dell was a former pro tennis player and primarily represented tennis players , so he allowed Falk to handle a large portion of ProServ 's NBA dealings . Falk proved to be a capable agent and negotiator , as he signed the # 1 NBA Draft picks in 1976 ( John Lucas ) and 1981 ( Mark Aguirre ) , and negotiated the first million @-@ dollar NBA shoe deal for James Worthy in 1982 .
ProServ had an inside track with North Carolina after they successfully represented a number of N.C. basketball alumni , including Tom LaGarde , Phil Ford , Dudley Bradley , and James Worthy . In 1984 , the same year Michael Jordan entered the NBA Draft , Frank Craighill and Lee Fentress , two of Dell 's ProServ partners , left to start a competing firm , Advantage International . Dell and Falk signed # 3 pick Jordan , while Craighill and Fentress signed Sam Perkins .
= = = Nike shoe deal : " Air Jordan " = = =
After signing Jordan , Falk quickly made the first great deal for him : the Nike shoe deal . At the start of the 80s , only Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar had a six @-@ figure shoe deal for $ 100 @,@ 000 ( with Adidas ) , and Nike was a small player next to companies like Converse , which had virtually owned the market on basketball shoes through the 1970s . After James Worthy signed an 8 @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 2 million endorsement deal with New Balance in 1982 , also negotiated by Falk , Falk decided to make large demands to shoe companies for Jordan 's services , including his own shoe line and a royalty .
" We decided to stretch the envelope " , Falk said . " Instead of calling up the companies and asking them how much they would pay Michael Jordan , we called them up and asked them to make a presentation and explain what they could do to promote him . Needless to say , this got a lot of quizzical replies . "
Unbeknownst to Falk and Jordan , Nike had decided to target Jordan as their player of the future . Jordan himself was initially reticent ; throughout college he had worn Converse because of the company 's endorsement deal with Tar Heels coach Dean Smith , and off the court , he wore Adidas . Jordan had never worn or even seen a Nike shoe before the company contacted him .
Nike 's initial offer was $ 250 @,@ 000 , his own shoe line , and a percentage of the revenues . Jordan already had a standing offer from Adidas for $ 500 @,@ 000 , and Falk demanded that Nike match the figure in addition to the revenue
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music groups from Barbados are The Silvertones of Barbados .
= = = Holidays , festivals and other celebrations = = =
A number of holidays , festivals and other celebrations play an integral role in Barbadian folk , and popular , music . Whitsuntide , Christmas , and Easter are important , each associated with their own musical traditions , as are distinctly Barbadian festivities like the crop over festival and the Landship movement .
The original crop over festival celebrated the end of the sugarcane harvest . These festivals were held in the great house of the plantations , and included both slaves and plantation managers . Celebrations included drinking competitions , feasting , song and dance , and climbing a greased pole . Musical accompaniment was provided by triangle , fiddle , drums and a guitar , played by slave entertainers . Crop over festivals continue to play a part of Barbadian culture , and always feature music by performers in sugarcane @-@ cutting costumes , even though many modern performers are not themselves sugarcane @-@ cutters .
The Barbadian Landship movement is an informal entertainment organization which mocks , through mimicry and satire , the British navy . Landship began in 1837 , founded by an individual known variously as Moses Ward and Moses Wood , in Britton 's Hall in Seamen 's Village . The structure of the Landship organization mirrors the structure of the British navy , with a " ship " which is connected to a " dock " ( a wooden house similar to a chattel house ) , and leaders known as Lord High Admiral , Captain , Boatswain and other navy ranks . Each unit is named like a typical navy ship and may include actual names of British ships or places . Landship performances symbolize and reflect the passage of ships through rough seas . Parades , jigs , hornpipes , maypole dances and other music and dance types are a part of the Landship Society 's celebrations . The Council of the Barbados Landship Association regulates the movement .
Barbadian Christmas music is mostly based on church and concert hall performances , where typical North American Christmas carols are performed , such as " White Christmas " and " Silver Bells " , alongside works by English composers like William Byrd , Henry Walford Davies and Thomas Tallis . In more recent years , calypso , reggae and other new elements have become a part of local Christmas traditions . As recently as the 1960s , Barbados was home to a distinctive practice , in which scrubbers traveled from house to house singing hymns and receiving rewards from households .
= = = Tuk bands and tea meetings = = =
Tuk bands are Barbadian musical ensembles , consisting of a bow @-@ fiddle or pennywhistle flute , kittle triangle and a snare and double @-@ headed bass drum . The kittle and bass drum provide the rhythm , while the flute gives the melody . The drums are light @-@ weight so they can be carried easily , and are made by both rural villagers and drummers using cured sheepskin and goatskin . Tuk bands are based on the British military 's regimental bands , which played for many years for special occasions , like visiting royalty and coronations . The tuk sound has evolved over the years , as has the instrumentation , with the bow @-@ fiddle used before being most commonly replaced by the pennywhistle flute . Tuk bands are now most common in Landship events , but are still sometimes independent . On their own , tuk bands are generally accompanied by a range of iconic Barbadian characters , including " shaggy bears " , " mother sally " , " the steel donkey " and " green monkeys " . The upbeat modern sound of tuk ensembles are a distinctly Barbadian blend of African and British musics .
Tea meetings are celebrations held in society lodges or school halls , and feature both solo and group performance , theatrical rhetoric and oratory , and other activities . After declining following World War I , tea meetings have recently been revived and have regained their widespread popularity . They are held at nighttime , beginning at 9 : 00 pm and continuing until midnight , when there is a two @-@ hour break for food and drink before the tea meeting is resumed .
= = Popular music = =
Barbados has produced few internationally popular musicians , with worldwide pop superstar Rihanna being the most famous . It has however created a well @-@ developed local scene playing imported styles like American jazz and calypso , as well as the indigenous spouge style . Calypso was the first popular music in Barbados , and dates back to the 1930s . Barbadian calypso is a comedic song form , accompanied by guitar and banjo . More recent styles of calypso have also kept a local scene alive , and produced a number of famous calypsonians . Spouge is a mixture of calypso and other styles , especially ska , and became very popular in the 1960s , around the same time as the Barbadian jazz scene grew in stature and became home to a number of famous performers . Modern Barbadian popular music is largely based around reggae , ragga and soca , and includes some elements of indigenous styles . Artists like Terencia Coward have used modern popular music with instrumentation borrowed from folk tuk bands . Two of the more popular bands of Barbadian popular music are Krosfyah and Square One [ now defunct ] ; the new wave of singers , largely soca , include Rupee , Lil ' Rick and Jabae with lead vocalist Bruce and Barry Chandler , all recent winners at crop over . A more experimental artist such as poet and fiction writer Anthony Kellman writes thoughtful poetic lyrics delivered in a musical style deeply rooted in Barbadian indigenous folk music with strong elements of African and Latin influences . His albums Wings of a Stranger , Limestone , and Blood Mates have been described as groundbreaking due to his highly original style .
= = Calypso = =
Prior to the 1930s , Barbadian calypso was called banja , and was performed by laborers in village @-@ tenantry areas . Itinerant minstrels like Mighty Jerry , Shilling Agard and Slammer were well @-@ known forerunners of modern Barbadian calypso . Their song tradition embraced sentimentality , humor , and opinionated lyrics that continued to the 1960s , often by then accompanied by guitar or banjo .
The mid @-@ 20th century brought new forms of music from Trinidad , Brazil , the United States , Cuba and the Dominican Republic to Barbados , and the Barbadian calypso style came to be viewed as lowbrow or inferior . Promoters like Lord Silvers and Mighty Dragon , however , kept the popular tradition alive through shows at the Globe Theatre , featuring pioneers Mighty Romeo , Sir Don Marshall , Lord Radio and the Bimshire Boys and Mike Wilkinson . These performers set the stage for the development of popular Barbadian calypso in the 1960s .
In the early 1960s , Barbadian calypso grew in popularity and stature , led by Viper , Mighty Gabby and The Merrymen . The first calypso competitions were held in 1960 , and they quickly grew larger and more prominent . The Merrymen became the island 's most prominent contribution to calypso by the 1970s and into the 80s . Their style , known as blue beat , incorporated Barbadian folk songs and ballads , as well as American blues , country music , and a distinctive sound created by harmonica , guitar and banjo .
By the beginning of the 1980s , kaiso , a form of stage @-@ presented calypso pioneered in Trinidad , was widespread at crop over and other celebrations . The foundation of the National Cultural Foundation in 1984 helped to promote and administer calypso festivals , which attracted tourists , stimulating the calypso industry . As a result , calypso has become a very visible and iconic part of Barbadian culture , and some calypsonians have become internationally renowned , including Mighty Gabby and Red Plastic Bag .
= = = Spouge = = =
Spouge is a style of Barbadian popular music created by Jackie Opel in the 1960s . It is primarily a fusion of Jamaican ska with Trinidadian calypso , but is also influenced by a wide variety of musics from the British Isles and United States , include sea shanties , hymns and spirituals . Spouge instrumentation originally consisted of cowbell , bass guitar , trap set and various other electronic and percussion instruments , later augmented by saxophone , trombone and trumpets . Of these , the cowbell and the guitar are widely seen as the most integral part of the instrumentation , and are said to reflect the African origin of much of Barbadian music .
Two different kinds of spouge were popular in the 1960s , raw spouge ( Draytons Two style ) and dragon spouge ( Cassius Clay style ) . The spouge industry grew immensely by the end of the 1970s , and produced popular stars like Blue Rhythm Combo , the Draytons Two and The Troubadours . Recent years has seen a resurgence of interest in spouge among some quarters , with people like Desmond Weekes of the Draytons Two indicating that spouge should be encouraged because it is a national form that can reach international audiences and inspire the nation 's pride in their cultural heritage .
= = = Jazz = = =
Jazz is a genre of music from the United States which reached Barbados by the end of the 1920s . The first major performer from the island was Lionel Gittens , who was followed by Percy Green , Maggie Goodridge and Clevie Gittens . These bandleaders played a variety of music , including swing , a kind of pop @-@ jazz , Barbadian calypso and waltzes . With little recorded music on the island , radio broadcasts such as Willis Conover 's Voice of America had a major influence . In 1937 , riots over poverty and disenfranchisement occurred , and people like Clement Payne had risen to fame advocating reform . In that year , Payne was deported and riots broke out in Bridgetown , spreading throughout the island . The following year , the Barbados Labour Party was formed by C. A. Braithwaite and Grantley Adams .
As political awareness among the black majority on the island spread , so did bebop , a kind of jazz which was associated , in the United States , with social activism and Afrocentrism . The first Barbadian bebop musician from the island was Keith Campbell , a pianist who had learned to play many styles while living in Trinidad during a time when American soldiers were stationed there , providing a ready market for bands that could play American music . Other musicians of this period included Ernie Small , a trumpeter and pianist , and bandleader St. Clare Jackman .
In the 1950s , R & B and rock and roll became popular on the island , and many jazz bands found themselves pushed aside . A wave of Guyanese musicians also appeared on the island , including Colin Dyall , a saxophonist who later joined the Police Band , and the Ebe Gilkes Quartet . Though mainstream audiences were still listening to R & B and rock , modern jazz retained a small core of followers into the 1960s . The foundation of the Belair Jazz Club in Bridgetown in 1961 helped to keep this scene alive . With independence in 1966 came a focus on black Barbadian culture , and music like calypso , reggae and spouge , rather than the preoccupation with British standards of musical development . Calypso jazz arose during this period , pioneered by groups like the Schofield Pilgrim . The genre had developed by 1965 , when original works like " Jouvert Morning " and " Calypso Lament " were composed . Artists like the pianist Adrian Clarke became popular during the 60s as well .
In the early 1970s , jazz fan and critic Carl Moore launched a project to keep jazz alive on the island , while Zanda Alexander 's performance in Bridgetown in 1972 is said to be the first Caribbean jazz festival . Oscar Peterson 's 1976 performance in Trinidad also inspired Barbadian musicians , as did the radio program Jazz Jam , which was broadcast starting in the mid @-@ 70s on the Caribbean Broadcast Corporation . In 1983 , however , the Belair Jazz Club closed , and was not replaced by any long @-@ term clubs . Later in the 1980s , jazz declined greatly in popularity , though The National Cultural foundation organized the International Barbados / Caribbean Jazz Festival , which after a brief hiatus due to lack of sponsorship was resurrected by Gilbert Rowe of GMR international tours . Other performances were organized by a group called the Friends of Jazz . More jazz calypso fusion musicians appeared on the scene during this period , including Arturo Tappin , Nicholas Brancker , Andre Woodvine and Raf Robertson .
= = = Rock = = =
Rock music is alive and well in Barbados , there have been several bands through the years that perform alternative , rock and even metal music . Most recently the Alt / Rock / Metal band Standing Penance formed in 2009 . The band continues to operate in present @-@ day and is the only act of this genre to be signed to an American record label .
= = Education and musicology = =
Academic study of Barbadian music remains limited . Some song collections and other activities have been conducted , but there remain significant holes in scholarship , such as the musics of recent immigrants from China and India , who presumably have brought with them styles of Indian and Chinese musics . Due to a lack of archaeological and historical records , the island 's indigenous music is unknown . Since the 1970s , an increase in general interest in Barbadian culture has spurred greater study of music , and given an incentive to radio and television stations to create and maintain archives of cultural practices .
On modern Barbados , oral transmission remains the primary mode of music education , and there are few opportunities for most people to become formally educated in music of any kind . The elders of the island , who are the most educated in oral traditions , are held in high esteem due to their knowledge of folk culture . Modern Barbados is home to several institutions of musical education . There are dedicated schools for ballet : Dance Place and the Liz Mahon Dancers . A number of schools sponsor orchestras , steelbands and tuk bands , including the St. Lucy Secondary School Steel Orchestra . Music is a part of the curriculum for early childhood as well as primary and secondary education . The Barbados Community College has an associate degree programme in music . However , the University of the West Indies , though it has a campus on Barbados , does not offer degree programs in music . As a matter of fact , only recently has the University started offering students the opportunity to pursue a minor in music .
= = Music institutions and festivals = =
The main music festival in Barbados is crop over , which is celebrated with song , dance , calypso tent competitions and parades , especially leading up to the first Monday in August , Kadooment Day . The crop over festival celebrates the end of the sugarcane harvest , and is inaugurated by the ritual delivery of the last of the harvest on a cart pulled by mules . The champion sugarcane workers are crowned King and Queen for the event . In addition to crop over , music plays an important role in many other Barbadian holidays and festivals . The Easter Oistins Fish Festival , for example features a street party with music to celebrate the signing of the Charter of Barbados and the fishing industry of the island , and the Holetown Festival , which commemorates the arrival of the first settlers in 1627 .
The annual December Classical / Pops Festival comprises an all @-@ star orchestra accompanied by pop and rock stars , Broadway performers , opera singers , and film composers as featured guests . Opera , cabaret and sports are a major part of the Easter Holders Season . On 30 November , the Barbadian Independence Day , military bands in parades play marches , calypsos and other popular songs . This is preceded for several weeks by the National Independence Festival of Creative Arts . The National Independence Festival of Creative Arts and Crop Over are two of the festivals sponsored by the National Cultural Foundation ( NCF ) ; the other is Congaline , a recently organized street party that begins in April and ends on May Day . NCF also assists with the Holers Opera Season , Oistins Fish Festival , Holetown Festival and the B 'dos Jazz Festival .
Other major musical institutions in Barbados include the Barbados Chamber Orchestra and the Cavite Choral . There are also dance and ballet groups known as Dance National Afrique , Barbados Dance Theatre Company , Dance Strides , The Dance Place and Dancing Africa . The island 's music industry is home to several recording studios , the largest being Blue Wave , a 48 @-@ track system , and Paradise Alley , a 24 @-@ track system . Others include Chambers ' Studio , Gray Lizard Productions and Ocean Lab Studios .
= Brazilian Dreams =
Brazilian Dreams is a live album by Cuban jazz performer Paquito D 'Rivera . It was recorded at the Manchester Craftsmen 's Guild in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , between April 26 and 29 , 2001 , and released by MCG Jazz on August 27 , 2002 . The album features guest performances by the American vocal group New York Voices and trumpeter Claudio Roditi . In the United States , it peaked at number 22 on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart .
Produced by Jay Ashby , the album features seven songs written by Brazilian performers including Antônio Carlos Jobim , Luiz Bonfá , João Donato and Caetano Veloso , and three original songs , and was conceived as a tribute to the music of Brazil of which D 'Rivera has always been an admirer . Brazilian Dreams received mixed reviews by critics , some praising the performers and the musical selection , and others being critical about the lack of improvement on the arrangements on the classic songs of the genre included . The album earned D 'Rivera the Latin Grammy Award for Best Latin Jazz Album .
= = Background and release = =
Cuban saxophonist and clarinet player Paquito D 'Rivera decided to record an album paying tribute to Brazilian music after being invited by several Brazilian performers to play their native music . D 'Rivera also featured in Americanos : Latino Life in the United States , a 2000 documentary produced by American actor Edward James Olmos , representing Brazil . " I feel a great passion for the culture and music of Brazil , and it gives me pleasure to declare publicly that my heart is half Brazilian , " D 'Rivera declared on his autobiography My Sax Life ( 2005 ) . The album features the American group New York Voices since D 'Rivera has always been an admirer of vocal quartets and wanted to " kill two birds with one stone " . He further explained that in Cuba " musicians listened to radio stations from Miami mostly for the jingles sung by gringo vocal groups . " Brazilian Dreams was released by MCG Jazz on August 27 , 2002 and was the tenth album recorded by the Manchester Craftsmen 's Guild , following A Nancy Wilson Christmas by Nancy Wilson , Joe Williams Presents : Nicole Yarling Live at The Manchester Craftsman Guild and the Dizzy Gillespie All @-@ Stars 's Things to Come , among others .
= = Content = =
Brazilian Dreams was recorded live at the Manchester Craftsmen 's Guild in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania between April 26 and 29 , 2001 . The album includes ten songs and features Kim Nazarian , Lauren Kinhan , Darmon Meader and Peter Eldridge of the New York Voices as backing vocalists . Performer Claudio Roditi is also featured playing trumpet , while D 'Rivera plays clarinet . Most of the songs included are written by Brazilian songwriters paying homage to the music of the country ; the setlist includes eight songs written by Antônio Carlos Jobim , Gene Lees , Luiz Bonfá , Matt Dubey , João Donato , Caetano Veloso and three original songs by Roditi and D 'Rivera . The first track , " Corcovado " , includes a " vocal texture " inspired by Brazilian vocal groups Quarteto em Cy , MPB4 and The Swingle Singers . " One for Tom " is based on " Se todos fossem iguas a voce " by Jobim and features a tenor sax solo by Darmon Meader . " Meu Amigo " is supported by D 'Rivera 's clarinet and backing vocals in " an exquisite interplay of harmonies and solo sax with the slightest bass . " " Retrato Em Branco E Prêto " features Nazarian performing vocals in Portuguese language .
= = Reception and accolades = =
Brazilian Dreams received mixed reviews from critics . Paula Edelstein of AllMusic gave the album four stars out of five , praising the performer skills " leading his own ensembles or playing with renowned jazz masters , Paquito D 'Rivera continues to make a decidedly fresh imprint on Latin and Brazilian jazz . " William Grim of All About Jazz wrote that Brazilian Dreams was " a very satisfying album " hoping that D 'Rivera , Roditi and the New York Voices record another album based on Brazilian music due to the large extension of the musical catalog of the country . C. Michael Bailey , also of All About Jazz , stated that the album " is superb and fantastic in every way . " Morrice Blackwell of Jazz Review named the album a " musical match made in heaven " , praising the performers and the sound quality , considering that it is a live performance . Blackwell also commented on the Manchester Craftsmen 's Guild which " continually offer a complete jazz experience . " On a second review by Jazz Review , Lee Prosser referred to the album as a " classic Brazilian music collection ... something all jazz listeners can appreciate , enjoy , and want to have in their CD library collections " , to finally declare that it was " one of the very finest collections of music released in the year 2002 . " Maurice Bottomley of PopMatters wrote that the record is " gentle , cultured , and perhaps overly refined , but it is very accomplished and does actually swing , " further commenting that " it is also truer to the spirit of bossa nova in its first North American flowering than some will care to admit . "
However , Leila Cobo of Billboard magazine was critical about the fact that some tracks do not add much to the originals , but the album " stays merely pleasant , notably in ' Desafinado ' and ' Manhã de Carnaval / Gentle Rain ' . " On a negative review by Mike Quinn of JazzTimes stated that the album should be renamed " Brazilian Nightmares " a it is " impossible to escape the insipid vocal stylings of the ' New York Voices ' or the cliched horn arrangements that can be heard on bossa nova records going back as far as the ' 50s . " Quinn was also critical of the repertoire since " Brazil has produced more music than the usual 20 or 30 tunes that keep getting led to the butcher 's block . "
Brazilian Dreams reached number 35 at the CMJ Jazz Albums chart and peaked at number 22 on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart . D 'Rivera was awarded the Latin Grammy Award for Best Latin Jazz Album at the 4th Latin Grammy Awards , and with this recognition became the only performer to receive accolades in the Jazz and Classical music fields , after his album Historia del Soldado ( Histoire du soldat by Igor Stravinsky ) earned the Best Classical Album at the same ceremony .
= = Track listing = =
Track listing adapted from AllMusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
= Hurricane Allen =
Hurricane Allen was a rare and extremely powerful Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane which struck the Caribbean , eastern and northern Mexico then southern Texas . It was the first and strongest hurricane of the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season . The first named storm and first tropical cyclone of the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season , it was one of the strongest hurricanes in recorded history and one of the few hurricanes to reach Category 5 status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale on three separate occasions , and spent more time as a Category 5 than any other Atlantic hurricane . Allen is the only hurricane in the recorded history of the Atlantic basin to achieve sustained winds of 190 mph ( 305 km / h ) , thus making it the strongest Atlantic hurricane by wind speed . Until Hurricane Patricia in 2015 , this was also the highest sustained winds in the entire Western Hemisphere .
Throughout its life , Allen moved through the deep tropics on a west @-@ northwesterly course through the tropical Atlantic Ocean , Caribbean Sea , and Gulf of Mexico before making its final landfall near the United States – Mexico border . At peak strength , it passed near Haiti , causing hundreds of deaths and heavy damage . After crossing the Gulf of Mexico , Allen weakened as it struck the lower Texas coast , causing high winds , a significant storm surge , and heavy rainfall , which caused damage to southern Texas . Overall , Allen killed 290 people and left just over 1 @.@ 24 billion in damage ( 1980 USD ) , mostly within the United States and Haiti . Due to its impact , the name Allen was retired from the six @-@ year revolving list of Atlantic tropical cyclone names in 1981 and the name was replaced by Andrew . The name Andrew was subsequently retired after the 1992 season 's Hurricane Andrew . The dissipating storm precipitated the end of the Heat Wave of 1980 in places like Dallas / Fort Worth , Texas , which had recorded 69 days of 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) heat .
= = Meteorological history = =
Allen was an early Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane which originated from a tropical wave that previously moved off the African coastline on July 30 . The system developed as it moved westward , becoming a tropical depression on August 1 . However , the National Hurricane Center did not initiate advisories on Allen until almost 24 hours later , while centered 1 @,@ 300 mi ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) east of the Windward Islands . Early on August 2 , as the depression moved towards the Caribbean , it had intensified , and became the first named storm of the season . The National Hurricane Center noted that conditions appeared favorable for further intensification . However , it was also noted that a large cold @-@ low north of Puerto Rico was producing strong westerly wind shear , which would cause Allen to possibly encounter unfavorable conditions within 72 hours . Although slower forward movement was anticipated , Allen kept at generally the same westward pace between 17 and 23 mph ( 27 and 37 km / h ) . By August 3 , the National Hurricane Center retracted predictions of less favorable conditions from the cold @-@ low north of Puerto Rico , since that weather system was weakening and moving westward .
At 1600 UTC on August 3 , the National Hurricane Center upgraded Allen to hurricane status , as an Air Force Plane recorded winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . However , in post @-@ analysis , it was discovered that Allen had been a hurricane since 0000 UTC on August 3 . Shortly after the upgrade , Allen began a period of rapid deepening , and intensified into a major hurricane at 0000 UTC August 4 , while roughly 38 mi ( 61 km ) northwest of Bridgetown , Barbados . Six hours later , Allen passed only 8 mi ( 13 km ) south of St. Lucia at 0600 UTC . Although the National Hurricane Center noted that conditions favored slow strengthening , Allen continued to rapidly intensify , and became a Category 4 hurricane only two hours after that advisory . Later on August 4 , the National Hurricane Center noted a barometric pressure of 946 mbar ( 946 hPa ; 27 @.@ 9 inHg ) , and that the it would not drop significantly within 24 hours . Shortly before 0000 UTC on August 5 , the minimum pressure decreased to 924 mbar ( 924 hPa ; 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) , which was noted as equivalent to Hurricane David in the previous season .
By August 5 , Allen intensified into a Category 5 hurricane while south of Puerto Rico . This made Allen the earliest Category 5 hurricane in the Atlantic on record , but was later surpassed by Hurricane Emily which reached that intensity on July 16 , 2005 . During this time , Allen attained a central pressure of 911 mbar ( 911 hPa ; 26 @.@ 9 inHg ) , the lowest pressure on record in the eastern Caribbean sea . Hence , the barometric pressure dropped by 35 mbar ( 35 hPa ; 1 @.@ 0 inHg ) less than 10 hours after the National Hurricane Center stated that the pressure would not decrease significantly within 24 hours .
The eye passed between Hispaniola and Jamaica as a Category 4 hurricane . After weakening due to friction with the mountains of Haiti and Jamaica , Allen intensified back to a Category 5 hurricane , retaining this intensity for over a day . It then moved past the islands of Cayman Brac and Little Cayman causing moderate damage on Cayman Brac with winds near 135 mph . The storm then moved between Cuba and the Yucatán Peninsula , reaching its peak intensity of 190 mph ( 310 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 899 mbar ( 899 hPa ; 26 @.@ 5 inHg ) while crossing the Yucatán Channel . During Allen 's trek through the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico , its center of circulation never crossed over land despite its close passage to various islands in and around the Caribbean sea .
Allen again weakened to a Category 4 storm due to friction with Mexico and Eyewall replacement cycle , but restrengthened into a Category 5 hurricane for a third time as it moved over the open waters of the Gulf of Mexico , keeping this intensity for nearly a full day and with a pressure drop to 909 mbar ( 909 hPa ; 26 @.@ 8 inHg ) , the lowest pressure ever recorded in the western Gulf of Mexico . Shortly before landfall , a dry air mass in the western Gulf of Mexico caused the storm to weaken substantially . Allen made landfall north of Brownsville , Texas as a Category 3 storm with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Allen became extratropical on August 11 .
= = Preparations = =
As Allen approached the Caribbean Sea , gale warnings and a hurricane watch were issued for the islands of Barbados , St. Lucia , St. Vincent , Dominica , Grenada , Martinique , and Guadeloupe during the daylight hours of August 3 . Gale warnings were in effect for Antigua from 11 am on August 3 until 11 am on August 4 . Hurricane warnings were raised for Barbados , St. Vincent , St. Lucia , Martinique , and Dominica from the early afternoon of August 3 until the late morning of August 4 . As Allen moved into the Caribbean sea , hurricane watches were issued for southeastern sections of the Dominican Republic and the southwestern peninsula of Haiti from 11 am on August 4 until the morning of August 5 . Gale warnings were then in effect for the southern Dominican Republic from the night of August 4 into the night of August 5 , while southern Haiti maintained the warnings from the night of August 4 into the morning of August 5 . The hurricane watch was issued for Jamaica during the morning hours of August 5 , while hurricane warnings were raised for the southwest peninsula of Haiti from the late morning of August 5 into the morning of August 6 . Hurricane warnings went into effect for Jamaica from around noon on August 5 until late in the afternoon of August 6 . The Cayman Islands saw hurricane watches issued from the afternoon of August 5 into the morning of August 6 before the watches were upgraded to hurricane warnings from the morning until late afternoon of August 6 .
As Allen approached the Gulf of Mexico , hurricane warnings were raised for the northeast Yucatán peninsula of Mexico from the afternoon of August 6 into the morning of August 8 . Gale warnings were in effect for the Florida Keys from the evening of August 6 into the early morning of August 8 . As Allen approached its final landfall , the northeast Mexican coast and Texas coast were placed under a hurricane watch from the morning of August 8 until the morning of August 9 for Mexico and the afternoon of August 9 for Texas . Hurricane warnings were posted for the Texas coast during the afternoon of August 8 , and were lowered north of Freeport , Texas during the afternoon of August 9 and south of Freeport during the afternoon of August 10 . Gale warnings and a hurricane watch were issued for the Louisiana coast from Vermilion Bay westward from the afternoon of August 8 into the afternoon of August 9 . Hurricane warnings were in effect for northeast Mexico from the early afternoon of August 9 into the late afternoon of August 10 . Hurricane warnings were downgraded to gale warnings between High Island , Texas and Freeport , Texas between the late afternoon of August 9 and the late afternoon of August 10 . Hurricane watches were dropped for the Louisiana coast during the late afternoon of August 9 . Hurricane warnings were downgraded to gale warnings for the lower Texas coast south of Freeport from the late afternoon of August 10 into the early morning of August 11 .
= = Impact = =
Allen caused just under $ 1 billion ( 1980 USD ) in damages and killed at least 269 people throughout its course ( including indirect deaths ) .
= = = Caribbean islands = = =
In Barbados , preliminary damages were estimated to be $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1980 USD ) . About 500 houses were either damaged or destroyed . No deaths were reported . St. Lucia sustained catastrophic damage from the strong category 3 hurricane . Sustained winds of 90 knots ( 170 km / h ) and a sea level pressure as low as 967 millibars ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) were reported at Hewanorra . Eighteen people lost their lives as a result of the storm 's passage . One death in Guadeloupe was attributed to Allen . In Martinique , damage was extensive as the storm passed 50 miles ( 80 km ) south of the island . Waves 6 metres ( 20 ft ) high battered the coast of the island during the storm .
In the central Caribbean , Cayman Brac was hit by winds in excess of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) which caused considerable property damage . A coral reef at Discover Bay , Jamaica was devastated by the wave action from the storm . Offshore Jamaica , greater numbers of smaller @-@ sized Damselfishes was witnessed in the wake of Allen . Eight deaths in Jamaica were attributed to Allen . Damage was very significant along the northeast coast , where the hurricane made its closest approach to the island and created a 12 metres ( 39 ft ) storm surge . Three deaths were attributed to Allen in Cuba .
Extensive damage occurred in Haiti due to high winds and flash flooding . Total costs for that country were estimated to be at more than $ 400 million ( 1980 USD ) . Roughly 60 % of the nation 's coffee crop was destroyed . In all , 220 people were killed and 835 @,@ 000 were left homeless . In Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , 41 deaths were caused by tin roofs flying off and around 1200 were made homeless by flooding . Another 140 people were reported dead from flooding .
= = = Mexico = = =
Areas of northeastern Mexico saw heavy rains with the passage of Allen , with the highest totals exceeding 7 inches ( 180 mm ) . The hurricane earlier brushed the Yucatán Peninsula . As Allen only affected sparsely populated regions of Mexico , there were no reports of significant damage .
= = = United States = = =
In Texas , the storm surge was reported as high as 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) at Port Mansfield , though it may have been higher elsewhere along the Texas coast . A peak wind gust of 129 mph ( 208 km / h ) was also measured at Port Mansfield . Tropical storm @-@ force winds in Corpus Christi , Texas blew roof gravel through the city , which led to substantial glass breakage to the 18 @-@ story Guarantee Bank Building and a 12 @-@ story wing of Spohn hospital . The storm caused seven deaths in Texas and 17 in Louisiana ( most resulting from the crash of a helicopter evacuating workers from an offshore platform ) . Allen spawned several tornadoes in Texas . One tornado caused $ 100 million in damage when it hit Austin , Texas , making it the costliest tropical cyclone @-@ spawned tornado in recorded history . Overall , however , the storm caused limited damage in the United States due to its suddenly diminished power and because its highest tides and winds hit a sparsely @-@ populated portion of the Texas coast .
Allen dumped 10 inches ( 250 mm ) to 20 inches ( 510 mm ) of rain in south Texas , ending a summer @-@ long drought during the Heat Wave of 1980 .
= = Retirement = =
Because of the destruction , extreme death tolls and intensity , the name Allen was retired from the Atlantic tropic storms list by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 1981 , and will never be used again for a future Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced with Andrew in the 1986 season , which was also retired due to widespread damage in Florida following its second usage in 1992 and was replaced with Alex in 1998 .
= = Records = =
When Allen reached Category 5 intensity on August 5 , it became the earliest Category 5 storm ever recorded . This record stood until Hurricane Emily surpassed it on July 16 , 2005 . Allen is one of three Atlantic hurricanes to reach Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale on three separate occasions , the others being Hurricane Ivan and Hurricane Isabel . Allen also produced the fifth @-@ lowest minimum pressure ever recorded in the Atlantic basin at 899 mbar ( hPa ) and was the strongest known hurricane in the basin , in terms of pressure , since 1935 . Until then , it was the second strongest hurricane by pressure in the Atlantic Basin , but was since pushed down to fifth , and no hurricane has achieved 190 miles per hour ( 310 km / h ) winds in this basin since then . It remains the most intense storm ever in August . Allen spent nearly 3 days as a Category 5 storm , initially the longest stretch of any previous Atlantic hurricane on record . However , a reanalysis of the 1932 Cuba hurricane showed that it spent 3 hours longer at Category 5 intensity than Allen . Five typhoons have spent longer as Category 5 storms , including most recently Karen and Nancy in the early 1960s .
= 2000 – 01 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 2000 @-@ 01 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was fairly quiet with only five named storms , although there was an additional unnamed tropical storm and two subtropical cyclones with gale @-@ force winds . It started early , with a tropical disturbance forming on August 1 – the first day of the cyclone year . However , the first named storm , Ando , was not named until January 2 , which at the time was the 4th latest on record . Ando would become the most intense cyclone of the year , reaching peak winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) according to the Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion , the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the basin . The agency tracked storms south of the Equator and west of 90 ° E to the east coast of Africa .
In addition to being the strongest storm , Cyclone Ando was one of two deadly storms during the season . It passed about 205 km ( 105 mi ) west of Réunion , producing 1 @,@ 255 mm ( 49 @.@ 4 in ) of rainfall in the mountainous peaks . The rains led to flooding that killed two people . Ando was one of three storms to attain tropical cyclone status – winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) – in the month of January . The others were Bindu , which alternated its trajectory several times over open waters , and Charly , which rapidly weakened after encountering hostile wind shear . The next storm to form was Tropical Cyclone Dera , which intensified near Mozambique in early March and killed two people there due to flooding rains . It later moved southward through the Mozambique Channel , maintaining its intensity unusually far to the south before becoming extratropical . There was a month of inactivity in March , including three weeks in which there were no storms worldwide , the first such instance . Subsequently , two storms formed in early April ; one was a small , unnamed tropical storm , and the other was Severe Tropical Storm Evariste , which brought light rainfall to two islands . The season ended with an unusual subtropical storm forming rapidly in the southern Mozambique Channel on June 19 , the only such storm to form in that body of water in the month . It became the strongest storm on record for so late in the season , although it weakened without affecting land , dissipating on June 24 .
= = Season summary = =
During the season , the Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin . The agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique , and warned on tropical cyclones in the region from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E , south of the equator to 30 ° S. At the time , the cyclone year was from August 1 to July 31 of the subsequent year . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force , also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the southwestern Indian Ocean in an unofficial capacity .
Aside from a tropical disturbance in August , the season began later than usual , the fourth consecutive season to do so . At the time it had the 4th latest start on record for the first named storm . Only about 20 % of seasons have their first storm form after the middle of December , and the first named storm of this season , Ando , did not become a tropical storm until early January . However , January was active with three tropical cyclones , two of which became intense tropical cyclones , due to the active phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation ( MJO ) . February returned to a period of inactivity , and generally there was minimal convection across the basin due to unusually dry air . This was spread by a powerful and persistent ridge that extended eastward from Madagascar , as well as an inactive phase of the MJO . Drought conditions occurred on Réunion due to the lack of rainfall . After three weeks of no tropical cyclones developing worldwide , an event unseen since 1995 , the tropics became active again in early April .
In contrast with the busy preceding season , this season had much lower activity than usual , with only 36 days in which there was a tropical storm or cyclone active ; this was 17 less than normal . However , the number of days with a tropical cyclone was slightly above normal at 15 . In general , the southern hemisphere as a whole had the least active season since 1954 . There were only five named storms , only the fifth such time since the beginning of the satellite era in 1967 . As most storms formed toward the eastern periphery of the basin , damage was much less than the preceding year .
= = Storms = =
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Ando = = =
The beginnings of Ando can be traced to a circulation within the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) about 400 km ( 250 mi ) south @-@ west of Diego Garcia , which became evident on satellite imagery on December 30 . Associated convection , or thunderstorms , gradually organized into a central dense overcast , and the system became Tropical Disturbance 3 at 06 : 00 UTC on December 31 . The upper @-@ level environment generally favored further development , but the system failed to develop more initially due to some easterly wind shear . A large ridge to the south steered the nascent disturbance to the west @-@ southwest . After the shear subsided , the system intensified into a moderate tropical storm on January 2 , given the name " Ando " by the Mauritius Meteorological Service . Also on that day , the JTWC began issuing advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 04S , and around that time , Ando was passing about 465 km ( 290 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Agalega island .
Ando rapidly intensified after forming and attained tropical cyclone status early on January 4 , developing an eye in the center of the thunderstorms and outflow to the east . A tropical low over the southern Mozambique Channel weakened the ridge , causing Ando to turn more to the southwest . Late on January 4 , the storm intensified further into an intense tropical cyclone , and early the next day passed about 120 km ( 75 mi ) northeast of Tromelin Island . According to the JTWC , however , Ando attained peak 1 minute winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) late on January 5 . In contrast , the MFR assessed Ando as weakening due to the becoming larger and less defined , while still maintaining a small cloud diameter of about 400 km ( 250 mi ) . However , the eye re @-@ organized , and Ando attained peak 10 minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) on January 6 , with a 60 km ( 35 mi ) eye at the time . Continuing around the ridge , the cyclone passed about 205 km ( 125 mi ) west of Réunion that day before starting to weaken due to increased wind shear . On January 8 , Ando weakened below tropical cyclone status , and the convection increasingly separated from the circulation while turning to the southeast . On January 10 , the storm became extratropical , although the remnants turned back to the northwest due to the ridge , dissipating on January 13 .
As a developing storm , Ando produced some heavy rain between December 30 and January 2 over Seychelles . Swaziland also reported that Ando drew moisture from the continent , aggravating a persistent dry spell . While near Agalega island , Ando dropped 108 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) of rainfall , compared to a January average precipitation there of 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) . On Tromelin Island , gusts peaked at 125 km / h ( 78 mph ) and rainfall reached 141 mm ( 5 @.@ 6 in ) . Passing north of Réunion , Ando produced gusts of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) along the coast , but 133 km / h ( 83 mph ) was recorded at Plaine des Cafres in the mountainous peaks . Most parts of the island did not receive much rain , with the exception of mountainous peaks due to orographic lift , particularly after the center passed to the west . Pas de Bellecombe at an elevation of 2 @,@ 200 m ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) reported 1 @,@ 255 mm ( 49 @.@ 4 in ) over 48 hours . The rains caused flooding and some landslides , which washed away one house and killed two people . Ando also damaged crops and killed several livestock . The highest wave recorded was 5 @.@ 4 m ( 18 ft ) in La Possession . High waves injured several people , several of whom required rescue from lifeguards .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Bindu = = =
On January 2 , an area of convection persisted in the eastern portion of the ITCZ in the Australian basin , located northwest of Cocos Island , or about 1165 km ( 625 mi ) southwest of Sumatra . With a ridge to the south , the system moved generally westward . A nearby ship confirmed that a circulation formed , and on January 3 , it crossed 90 ° E into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean as a tropical disturbance . With easterly wind shear , the system initially remained weak , but convection increased and organized on January 5 . On the next day , the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression , although the circulation was still exposed from the thunderstorms at that time . After turning to the southwest , wind shear decreased , and the depression became Moderate Tropical Storm Bindu on January 7 . On the same day , the JTWC also initiated advisories as Tropical Cyclone 05S . Moving around the ridge to the south , Bindu slowly intensified , developing outflow and improved rainbands . Early on January 9 , the MFR upgraded the storm to tropical cyclone status as an eye 19 km ( 12 mi ) in diameter formed . The next day , Bindu weakened due to increased wind shear , causing the circulation to be exposed from the convection and for the cyclone to be downgraded into a severe tropical storm .
The building ridge caused the storm to slow and turn back to the west . After the formerly hostile shear relaxed , Bindu became a tropical cyclone again on January 11 , redeveloping an eye . On the next day , the MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , while the JTWC estimated maximum 1 minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . By that time , the cyclone had turned back to the south @-@ southwest . Drier air and wind shear resulted in weakening , and Bindu was downgraded to a severe tropical storm on January 14 . At 18 : 00 UTC the next day , the storm passed about 140 km ( 85 mi ) southeast of Rodrigues island , by which time the circulation was exposed north of the dwindling convection . The MFR downgraded Bindu to tropical depression status on January 16 . An approaching trough turned the system to the south on the next day , and Bindu became extratropical late on January 17 . The remnants turned sharply eastward due to a ridge , later looping back to the west on January 20 . Another trough turned the storm southward on January 21 and absorbed the circulation the next day .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Charly = = =
A small circulation formed north of the Cocos Islands on January 8 within the near @-@ equatorial trough . For about a week , it drifted west @-@ southwestward without much development , although an area of convection formed within the system on January 11 about 1240 km ( 770 mi ) southwest of Sumatra . Persistent wind shear prevented much strengthening , and the circulation crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on January 16 . Another increase in convection merited its classification as a tropical disturbance on the next day , which organized into a central dense overcast . Slow development continued , allowing the disturbance to become a tropical depression and later Tropical Storm Charly on January 19 . On the same day , the JTWC also began tracking it as Tropical Cyclone 06S . Taking a track similar to earlier Tropical Cyclone Bindu , the storm moved southwestward around a ridge to the south . Charly gradually developed outflow and increasingly organized convection due to decreasing wind shear . A ragged eye formed on January 20 and became better defined , and early on January 21 , Charly intensified into a tropical cyclone .
By January 22 , Charly developed a 37 km ( 23 mi ) wide eye , surrounded by deep convection . Based on the increased organization , the storm became an intense tropical cyclone , reaching peak 10 minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , according to the MFR . In contrast , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . Late on January 22 , the wind shear and dry air increased while waters became cooler , all of which became detrimental to the storm 's structure . The eye rapidly dissipated as the convection dwindled , and within 24 hours of peak intensity , Charly was downgraded to tropical storm status . On January 24 , the storm passed about 320 km ( 200 mi ) southeast of Rodrigues . By that time , the circulation was exposed from the thunderstorms , and Charly weakened to tropical depression status on January 25 . Caught in the weak low @-@ level flow , the circulation moved erratically , first to the west , then drifting before turning to the southeast . It continued to produce some convection during this time , which spread rainfall over Mauritius and Réunion . A cold front swept Charly to the southeast , absorbing it on January 31 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Dera = = =
After an extended period of inactivity lasting nearly a month , the ITCZ produced an area of convection on March 1 between Diego Garcia and the Seychelles . There were initially two weak circulations , although the one south @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia ultimately became Cyclone Dera . It moved southwestward without much development at first due to hostile wind shear , with the circulation often exposed from the thunderstorms . On March 4 , the system developed into a tropical disturbance off the northeast coast of Madagascar . Two days later , the storm moved ashore Madagascar about 50 km ( 30 mi ) southeast of Antsiranana . It weakened and became indistinct over land , emerging into the Mozambique Channel near Nosy Be as a weak low . Convection gradually increased across the region as the track shifted westward . After moving toward Mozambique , the system rounded the ridge and turned to the south just off the coast , passing only 10 km ( 6 mi ) east of Angoche . Around that time , the thunderstorms began organizing more , allowing the disturbance to intensify into a tropical depression on March 8 . With warm waters and an anticyclone providing outflow , the depression quickly intensified , becoming Tropical Storm Dera on March 9 and soon after developing an eye feature . Also on that day , the JTWC initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 15S .
Late on March 9 , Dera passed about 20 km ( 12 mi ) east of Europa Island , although the large eye passed over the island . On March 10 , Dera attained tropical cyclone status , and after a brief bout of wind shear , the eye became better defined . The cyclone attained peak 10 minute winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) on March 11 , according to the MFR , and 1 minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) according to the JTWC . Despite being located unusually far to the south , Dera maintained its intensity due to warm waters , and it accelerated southeastward due to an approaching cold front . Wind shear increased on March 12 , and only on that day did water temperatures drop off , causing a marked decrease in intensity and for the eye to dissipate . Late on March 12 , Dera became extratropical , which continued southeastward along the cold front .
The precursor of Dera dropped heavy rainfall in Mayotte , reaching 193 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) on Pamanzi . The precipitation came in intense squalls , with hourly peaks of 49 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) recorded , which flooded rivers and some houses . In addition , the system produced gusts of 101 km / h ( 63 mph ) , strong enough to damage roofs , cause power outages , and damage fields and trees . Heavy rainfall also spread across Mozambique , producing additional river flooding Zambezi in a region that had been flooded for weeks . The floods wrecked dozens of homes and covered many roads , while killing two people . Later , gusts peaked at 155 kilometres per hour ( 96 mph ) on Europa Island , while rainfall reached 72 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Evariste = = =
The ITCZ became active in late March , spawning several areas of convection across the Indian Ocean and into the adjacent Australian basin . The westernmost system had a circulation as of March 31 about 600 km ( 370 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia . Despite favorable conditions , the system failed to organize at first , although it became Tropical Disturbance 9 on April 2 after the structure improved . Drifting to the southwest and later to the south , the associated convection waxed and waned , finally organizing more on April 4 ; on that day , the disturbance quickly intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Evariste . A day prior , the JTWC had initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 18S . A trough to the south weakened the ridge , turning the storm to the southwest . A small eye formed on April 5 , but later dissipated after an increase in thunderstorm activity . On that day , the MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , just shy of tropical cyclone status , while the JTWC estimated 1 minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . On April 6 , increased wind shear from the approaching trough began weakening Evariste and turned it to the south . That day , it passed about 135 km ( 85 mph ) east of St. Brandon , and on April 7 , Evariste bypassed Rodrigues about 200 km ( 125 mi ) to the southwest . The convection gradually deteriorated and left the circulation exposed . Late on April 7 , the storm suddenly turned southwestward toward a developing low east of Madagascar , although the southwest motion resumed soon after . On April 8 , Evariste dissipated , dissipating ahead of the nearby trough .
Evariste produced peak gusts of 91 km / h ( 57 mph ) on St. Brandon , with 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) of rainfall recorded . Stronger winds were recorded on Rodrigues while the storm passed , reaching 109 km / h ( 68 mph ) . Rainfall was minimal , reaching only 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) , and failing to alleviate drought conditions .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm 10 = = =
A small area of convection not associated from the ITCZ became Tropical Disturbance 10 on April 1 , about 215 km ( 350 mi ) west @-@ northwest of the Cocos Islands in the Australian region . It moved west @-@ southwestward , entering the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on April 2 , and on the same date the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 16S . The thunderstorms organized into a small central dense overcast , and there was evidence of an eye feature , suggesting the system could have been much stronger . Although satellite imagery had difficulty in tracking the low @-@ level circulation , a nearby ship on April 3 confirmed the presence of a circulation . Operationally the system was only classified as a tropical depression . However , data from QuikSCAT helped upgrade the system to moderate tropical storm status in a post @-@ season analysis , with peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) on April 3 ; as a result , it was not named . After previously moving to the west @-@ southwest , the small storm turned back to the west due to a strengthening ridge to the south . Wind shear increased on April 4 , which rapidly dwindled the convection and thereby leaving behind an exposed circulation . It underwent the Fujiwhara effect with a larger disturbance to the east , causing the system to turn back to the north and dissipate on April 5 .
= = = Subtropical Cyclone 11 = = =
Similar to a Subtropical Depression 13 in April 2000 , there was an unusual subtropical cyclone that formed in June to end the season . A trough exited South Africa on June 18 with an associated frontal wave in the southern Mozambique Channel . On the next day , the system separated from the front and became a cut @-@ off low . It moved north @-@ northwestward along the eastern periphery of a ridge in southern Africa , becoming a subtropical depression on June 20 . The associated convection initially diminished , although the thunderstorms redeveloped due to the atmospheric instability in the region . On June 21 , the depression passed about 100 km ( 60 mi ) east of Maputo , Mozambique , while moving into an area of much warmer waters . As such , the structure became more tropical , with a small central dense overcast forming over the circulation only 75 km ( 45 mi ) in diameter . The JTWC initiated advisories on June 21 as Tropical Cyclone 12S . The small size of the storm merited the MFR calling it a " midget cyclone " , with a small eye forming late on June 21 . Based on the feature , the JTWC estimated peak 1 winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) ; in contrast , the MFR estimated 10 minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Despite the structure , the convection was shallow , which brought uncertainty to the true intensity of the storm . Turning to the northeast and east , the subtropical storm rapidly weakened on June 22 to depression status after the environment became hostile , and the convection largely dissipated . The exposed low turned northwestward on June 23 , dissipating the next day .
The storm was the only one on record to form in the Mozambique Channel in June . In addition , it was the strongest storm to form so late in the season .
= = = Other storms = = =
On August 1 , in the middle of the southern hemisphere 's winter , an area of convection persisted in the northeastern portion of the basin about 740 km ( 460 mi ) northeast of Diego Garcia . At that time , an associated circulation was exposed to the east of the thunderstorms . At 06 : 00 UTC that day , the MFR initiated advisories on Tropical Disturbance 1 . After the system organized further , the JTWC also began tracking the system as Tropical Cyclone 01S , estimating winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . With a ridge to the south , the system tracked generally westward , briefly becoming a tropical depression on August 1 . An approaching trough weakened the ridge , allowing the depression to turn southwestward . Located in an area of moderate wind shear , the system failed to intensify further , and it dissipated on August 3 .
An area of convection formed on November 9 to the east of Diego Garcia , possibly the result of the MJO . A circulation was evident by November 11 , and the following day it developed into Tropical Disturbance 2 about 830 km ( 515 mi ) southeast of Diego Garcia . Also on November 12 , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 02S . It moved to the southwest , but looped back to the east on November 13 , during which time the MFR upgraded it to tropical depression status . Later that day , the agency ceased issuing advisories , but the system reorganized on November 14 . On November 17 , it turned back to the southwest , but the MFR discontinued advisories on the next day .
An area of convection persisted on January 19 off the east coast of Madagascar , which became Tropical Disturbance 6 two days later . It drifted to the east , strengthening to tropical depression status on January 22 , and passing 330
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mines . ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines .
= = Career = =
The ship was ordered on 4 August 1934 and laid down at Germania , Kiel on 26 March 1935 as yard number G537 . She was launched on 8 July 1936 and completed on 6 July 1938 . When World War II began in September 1939 , Bernd von Arnim was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sisters in laying defensive minefields . The ship also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods . Bernd von Arnim joined the other destroyers in laying minefields off the British coast in November , when Bernd von Arnim , Hermann Künne and Wilhelm Heidkamp laid about 180 magnetic mines in the middle of the Thames Estuary on the night of 17 / 18 November . The destroyer HMS Gipsy , one trawler , and seven other ships totalling 27 @,@ 565 Gross Register Tons ( GRT ) were sunk by this minefield . Four days later , she was one of the destroyers escorting the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst through the North Sea to break out into the North Atlantic . Together with her sisters Hans Lody and Erich Giese , Bernd von Arnim was to lay a minefield off Cromer during the night of 6 / 7 December , but she had trouble with two of her boilers and had to shut them down . The ship was ordered to return to port while the other two destroyers continued their mission .
= = = Norwegian campaign = = =
Bernd von Arnim was allocated to Group 1 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung in April 1940 . The group 's task was to transport the 139th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 139 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) and the headquarters of the 3rd Mountain Division ( 3 . Gebirgs @-@ Division ) to seize Narvik . The ships began loading troops on 6 April and set sail the next day . Bernd von Arnim was spotted by the British destroyer Glowworm in a storm on the morning of 8 April and the ship turned away to the north @-@ west at full speed after laying a smoke screen . The German ship was suffering damage from the heavy seas at 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) and was forced to reduce speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) after she had lost two men overboard . The British destroyer was better suited for the conditions and began to close on Bernd von Arnim . Lieutenant Commander ( Korvettenkapitän ) Curt Rechel , captain of von Arnim , turned his ship to the north @-@ east , closer to the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper . The ships exchanged fire without effect for an hour until Hipper came within range and sank Glowworm shortly afterward .
The German destroyers reached the Ofotfjord on the morning of 9 April and Commodore Friedrich Bonte took his flagship Wilhelm Heidkamp , Bernd von Arnim and Georg Thiele down the fjord to Narvik . A heavy snowstorm allowed von Arnim and Thiele to enter the harbor without challenge and tie up at a pier . The mountain troops immediately began disembarking , but the ship was spotted by the coast defense ship Norge a few minutes later . The latter ship immediately opened fire and was able to fire approximately 13 shells at 600 – 800 meters ( 660 – 870 yd ) range before von Arnim was able to fire seven torpedoes . Only two struck the Norwegian ship , but they detonated one or more of the ship 's magazines and she immediately capsized and sank . None of the Norwegian shells hit either of the two German destroyers due to the darkness and falling snow , despite the short range . Von Arnim lowered boats to rescue the surviving Norwegian sailors and was able to pick up 96 men together with boats from the merchantmen in harbor .
Von Arnim and Thiele were the first to refuel from the single tanker that had made it safely to Narvik and later moved to the Ballangenfjord , a southern arm of the Ofotfjord , closer to the entrance . Shortly before dawn on 10 April , the five destroyers of the British 2nd Destroyer Flotilla surprised the five German destroyers in Narvik harbor . They torpedoed two destroyers and badly damaged the other three while suffering only minor damage themselves . As they were beginning to withdraw they encountered the three destroyers of the 4th Flotilla which had been alerted in the Herjansfjord when the British began their attack . The Germans opened fire first , but the gunnery for both sides was not effective due to the mist and the smoke screen laid by the British as they retreated down the Ofotfjord . The German ships had to turn away to avoid a salvo of three torpedoes fired by one of the destroyers in Narvik , but von Arnim and Thiele had also been alerted and were coming up to engage the British .
The two German destroyers crossed the T of the British flotilla and were able to fire full broadsides at a range of only 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . They first engaged the British flagship , HMS Hardy , and badly damaged her . Both of her forward guns were knocked out and the forward superstructure was set afire . Hardy was forced to beach herself lest she sink , and the German ships switched their fire to HMS Havock , the next ship in line . Their fire was relatively ineffective and both sides fired torpedoes without scoring any hits . Havock pulled out and dropped to the rear to fight off any pursuit by the ships of the 4th Flotilla . This placed HMS Hunter in the lead and she was quickly set on fire by the German ships . Thiele probably also hit her with a torpedo and she was rammed from behind by HMS Hotspur when the latter ship lost steering control . Hotspur was able to disengage , but Hunter capsized shortly afterward . The three remaining British ships were able to escape from the Germans under the cover of a smoke screen . Von Arnim had been hit by five British shells , which had knocked out one boiler . This was repaired by the morning of 13 April and she received six torpedoes from the badly damaged destroyers .
On the night of 12 April , Commander Erich Bey , the senior surviving German officer , received word to expect an attack the following day by British capital ships escorted by a large number of destroyers and supported by carrier aircraft . The battleship Warspite and nine destroyers duly appeared on 13 April , although earlier than Commander Bey had expected , and caught the Germans out of position . The five operable destroyers , including Bernd von Arnim , charged out of Narvik harbor and engaged the British ships . Although no hits were scored , they did inflict splinter damage on several of the destroyers . The ship was able to make a torpedo attack on the British destroyers before being driven off , but her torpedoes all missed . Lack of ammunition forced the German ships to retreat to the Rombaksfjorden ( the easternmost branch of the Ofotfjord ) , east of Narvik , where they might attempt to ambush pursuing British destroyers . Von Arnim had exhausted her ammunition and she was beached at the head of the fjord . Her crew placed demolition charges and abandoned the ship . By the time the British reached the ship she had rolled over onto her side . The ship 's crew joined the German troops ashore and participated in the campaign until the British evacuated the area in June .
= Joe Darling =
Joseph " Joe " Darling CBE ( 21 November 1870 – 2 January 1946 ) was an Australian cricketer who played 34 Test matches as a specialist batsman between 1894 and 1905 . As captain , he led Australia in a total of 21 Tests , winning seven and losing four . In Test cricket , he scored 1657 runs at an average of 28 @.@ 56 per innings , including three centuries . Darling toured England four times with the Australian team — in 1896 , 1899 , 1902 and 1905 ; the last three tours as captain . He was captain of the Australian cricket team in England in 1902 , widely recognised as one of the best teams in Australian cricket history .
He was a stocky , compact man and a strong driver of the ball , playing most of his cricket as an opening batsman . He was a patient batsman and was known for his solid defence , but he was able to score quickly when required . In Sydney in 1897 – 98 , he scored 160 in 165 minutes , including 30 boundaries to assist his team in defeating the English . He was the first man to score 500 runs in a Test series and was also the first to score three centuries in a series . His captaincy was disciplinarian in nature but his teammates respected his broad cricket knowledge . Even tempered with a strong personality , he was a stickler for fair play on the field . His teammates gave him the nickname " Paddy " due to a supposed resemblance to the Australian boxer , Frank " Paddy " Slavin .
His cricket career was interrupted several times due to his obligations as a farmer , first growing wheat in South Australia , and later as a wool @-@ grower in Tasmania . He was a member of several bodies dedicated to agriculture in Tasmania , including the responsible authority for the Royal Hobart Show . He was a pioneer in activities such as rabbit eradication and pasture improvement . He entered politics in 1921 , standing as an independent in the Tasmanian Legislative Council , where he was a forceful speaker . He retained his seat in the Tasmanian Parliament until his death following a gall bladder operation in 1946 .
= = Early life and career = =
Darling was born on 21 November 1870 in Glen Osmond , South Australia , the sixth son of John Darling , a grain merchant and his wife Isabella , née Ferguson . He was educated at Prince Alfred College , where he took an interest in cricket . At the age of 15 , he scored a record 252 runs in the " inter @-@ collegiate " match , the annual fixture against fierce rival St Peter 's College . His future Test team mate , Clem Hill , would later beat this record , scoring 360 . Not long after , he was included in a combined South Australian / Victoria XV that played the Australian XI in 1886 . He made only 16 runs , but the manner in which he made them saw senior players hail him as a future champion .
His father , disapproving of Darling 's fondness for sport , sent him away from his cricket and Australian rules football teams to spend twelve months at Roseworthy Agricultural School . Later , Darling worked in a bank for a time and before his father appointed him manager of one of a wheat farm . Working on the farm added size and strength to an already stocky and athletic frame . He was selected for the South Australian team at age 19 , but his father would not allow him time off the farm to play .
After two years in the bush , Darling returned to Adelaide and cricket . He opened a sports store on Rundle Street , Adelaide and was soon selected to represent South Australia in inter @-@ colonial cricket . He made his first @-@ class cricket debut against New South Wales at the Adelaide Oval ; scoring 5 and 32 as South Australia won the match by 237 runs . The next season , against the touring England team captained by Andrew Stoddart , Darling made 115 , his maiden first @-@ class century .
= = Test career = =
= = = Consolidation = = =
The First Test of 1894 – 95 against England , at the Sydney Cricket Ground , saw Darling make his Test debut . In an innings where Australia make 586 runs , including centuries for George Giffen and Syd Gregory , Darling was dismissed for a golden duck , bowled first ball by Tom Richardson . He played in all five Tests in the series , scoring 258 runs at an average of 28 @.@ 66 per innings . He was included in the Australian team to tour England in 1896 , where he topped the scoring aggregates for the tour with 1555 runs at an average of 29 @.@ 90 , including three centuries . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack stated that Darling " proved himself perhaps the best of present @-@ day left @-@ handed batsmen " during the tour . England won the series two Tests to one .
Andrew Stoddart brought another team to Australia to contest The Ashes in 1897 – 98 . Australia won the series comfortably , four Tests to one . Darling started the season poorly , scoring a duck and one against the tourists for South Australia in a match in which team mate Clem Hill scored a double century . Darling went on , however , to dominate the series with the bat . His maiden Test century , 101 in the First Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground after Australia was made to follow @-@ on , was the first made by a left @-@ hander in Tests . It was not enough to prevent England winning by nine wickets .
In the Third Test in his home town of Adelaide , Darling scored 178 runs and Australia won the match by an innings and 13 runs . He reached his century by hitting Johnny Briggs over the eastern gate and into the nearby park . This is the only time in Ashes Tests where a player has reached 100 with a hit out of the ground . During this innings , he also became the first player to hit a six in a Test in Australia ( prior to 1910 , a six was awarded only if the ball was hit out of the ground ) . He later also hit the first six in a Test in England . Returning to Sydney for the Fifth and final Test , Darling scored 160 runs from 253 scored in total . He batted for 165 minutes , hitting 30 boundaries as Australia successfully chased 273 in the fourth innings . His first 100 came in 91 minutes ; at the time , the fastest Test century scored . By the end of the season , Darling became the first player to score 500 runs in a series and the first player to score three centuries in a series .
= = = Captaincy = = =
Darling was chosen by his team mates as captain for the 1899 Australian team touring England . The team was one of the strongest seen in England to that time , with the cricket reference book Wisden stating , " By common consent the [ 1899 Australians ] formed the strongest combination that had come from the Colonies since the great side captained by Mr. W. L. Murdoch in 1882 . " and that " Darling proved himself one of the very best captains that ever took a team into the field . " The Australians lost only three of the 35 matches they played on the tour , winning 16 and another 16 finishing in draws . The only Test to reach a decisive result was the Second Test at Lord 's , where Australia won by ten wickets due in part to centuries by Hill and Victor Trumper and a ten wicket haul by fast bowler Ernie Jones . Aside from Hill , Darling was seen by Wisden as the best batsman among the Australians . Wisden claimed , " Up to a certain point the responsibilities of captaincy seemed to tell against Darling , but during the last weeks of the tour he played marvellous cricket . " Over the tour , he scored 1941 runs at an average of 41 @.@ 29 , topping both the averages and the aggregate for his team , and was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year .
Darling 's deeds as a cricketer had reconciled his father to his sporting endeavours , but not to his sports store operation . In 1900 , his father purchased " Stonehenge " , a sheep station covering 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) in central Tasmania and ordered Darling to run the property on pain of exclusion from his will . Darling complied with his father 's wishes and moved his family to the remote station , 34 kilometres ( 21 mi ) along a dirt track from the nearest town , tiny Oatlands . Darling stood out of first @-@ class cricket for nearly two years .
It was not until December 1901 that Darling was convinced to return by the Melbourne Cricket Club to captain the Australians against the touring English for the first three Tests only . The English , captained by Archie MacLaren , won the First Test in Sydney convincingly by an innings and 124 runs . The Second Test in Melbourne was played on a rain @-@ affected pitch . MacLaren won the toss and sent Australia in to bat on the " sticky wicket " . Within three hours , both teams had been dismissed ; Australia holding a lead on the first innings of 51 runs . Realising the danger the pitch held to his leading batsmen , Darling re @-@ ordered the batting line @-@ up and opened the batting himself alongside Hugh Trumble . The pair held out the English for 90 minutes ; Darling considered his 32 runs one of his best innings . Nevertheless , Barnes managed to grab five wickets in the final half @-@ hour to leave the Australians 5 / 48 when stumps was called . Twenty five wickets fell in the day 's play . Importantly , Australia had a 99 @-@ run lead and batsmen of the calibre of Hill , Trumper , Reggie Duff and Warwick Armstrong still to bat . The next day , on a perfect pitch , the Australian batsmen established a match @-@ winning lead , eventually winning the Test by 229 runs . In the Third Test in Adelaide , Australia became the first team to score over 300 runs to win the fourth innings of a Test match . Darling , along with Hill and Trumble , led the record making run chase ; Darling scored 62 runs . Hugh Trumble captained the final two Tests as Darling returned to his farm . Australia won both Tests and the series to retain The Ashes .
= = = Return to cricket = = =
Darling agreed to once again lead the Australian cricket team in England in 1902 . In what was a very cold and wet summer , the Australian team won a close fought series against the strong English team two Tests to one . Given the strength of the opposition , this Australian team is often referred to as one of the best Australian teams ever assembled . The team included players of the calibre of Trumper , Hill , Armstrong , Trumble and Monty Noble ; all of whom would be later included in the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame . The team lost only two matches during the tour , with Wisden saying , " No travelling team ever strove harder for victory or more completely subordinated all personal considerations to the prime object of winning matches . They formed a splendid all @-@ round combination " .
The First Test at Edgbaston finished in a draw . Rain saved the Australians after they were dismissed for only 36 in their first innings ; Wilfred Rhodes took seven wickets for only 17 runs . Rain again ruined the Second Test at Lord 's when the final two days were washed out . The Third Test , the only Test match played at Bramall Lane , saw Australia win by 143 runs due in part to a century by Hill and Noble taking 5 / 51 . Darling was dismissed twice by Barnes without scoring , the first Test captain to make a " pair " . Australia won the Fourth Test at Old Trafford by three runs ; Trumble took ten wickets for the match . The last batsman , Fred Tate , came in with England needing eight runs to secure victory . Darling brought the field in and Trumble prevented Rhodes scoring from the last three balls of his over . This left Tate to face Jack Saunders , who dismissed him with the fourth ball of his over to win the match for Australia . England won the Fifth and final Test at the Oval by one wicket . Chasing 263 , England were 5 / 48 when Gilbert Jessop scored a century in 75 minutes to help England to victory .
The star for the Australians was Trumper who scored 2 @,@ 570 runs , easily beating Darling 's own record for a colonial batsman in an English season set in 1899 . So important was Trumper to the Australian team that Darling , who had previously checked that all the Australians were on board the carriage to the ground , was later simply to ask " Is Vic aboard ? " before giving the driver the go @-@ ahead . Darling himself had a mixed tour with the bat .
Darling started the tour in a way that promised great things , but he did not keep up his form and fell a good deal below his standard of 1896 and 1899 . His tremendous hitting power , however , was several times of the utmost value , and very likely in a season of hard wickets he would have had as good a record as ever .
On the return trip to Australia , the touring team stopped to play three Tests against South Africa , the first between the two nations . Australia won the series two Tests to nil , but Darling 's own form was poor . In successive innings , Darling made 0 , 14 , 6 , 4 and 1 . After the tour , he returned to Stonehenge and took a two @-@ year break from first @-@ class cricket . In his absence , Monty Noble captained the Australian team against the touring English in 1903 – 04 .
= = = Final tour and retirement = = =
Before the Australian team to tour England in 1905 was selected , Darling returned to first @-@ class cricket for South Australia . He won selection in the touring squad and was named as captain . A weaker Australian bowling attack saw Darling resort to defensive measures throughout the tour . These measures included directing Armstrong to bowl his leg breaks down the leg side , where Darling had placed up to seven fielders . These measures , unpopular with the English public , saw 19 matches on the tour finish in draws , three more than the 16 matches won by Australia . Wisden said , " Leaving aside Duff 's long score at the Oval , Darling was the finest batsman on the side in the Test games , playing superb cricket under very trying conditions . " At Old Trafford in the Fourth Test , he made 73 out of 105 in less than ninety minutes . His innings included thirteen boundaries , all but one of them being drives . Despite his efforts , England still won the Test by an innings and 80 runs .
After losing six tosses against his English opposite number Stanley Jackson during the summer , Darling decided on a different approach before the Scarborough Festival match late in the tour . At the toss , he approached Jackson stripped to the waist and suggested , in fun , a wrestle for choice of innings .
The 1905 tour was Darling 's last Test cricket foray , as he claimed that continuing to tour was unfair to his wife . He retired from first @-@ class cricket during the 1907 – 08 season . In his first @-@ class career , Darling made 10635 runs , including 19 centuries at an average of 34 @.@ 52 . In club cricket in Adelaide , Joe scored heavily . He averaged 144 for East Torrens Cricket Club in 1899 – 1900 , 98 @.@ 66 for Adelaide Cricket Club in 1896 – 97 and 86 @.@ 20 for Sturt Cricket Club in 1904 – 05 . He continued to make runs in Tasmanian club cricket right through middle age . In 1921 , he made 100 runs in an hour , including 29 in one eight @-@ ball over playing for Claremont Cricket Club . At age 52 , he made 133 not out during a successful run chase where his team , Break @-@ o ' -Day , made 6 / 219 in 90 minutes .
He was contemptuous of the newly formed Australian Board of Control for International Cricket Matches ( now known as Cricket Australia ) , who he saw as attempting to remove control of international cricket tours from the players . He would often refer to cricket administrators as " Dead Heads " . He later represented the Tasmanian Cricket Association as a delegate to the Board of Control .
= = Outside cricket = =
Following his retirement from big cricket , Darling returned to his Tasmanian sheep station , where he was involved in a range of agricultural activities . He pioneered measures to eradicate rabbits , an introduced pest then in plague proportions throughout Australia . He was an active member of organisations such as the Tasmanian Stock Holders and Orchardists ' Association and the Royal Agricultural Society of Tasmania , the organising body of the Royal Hobart Show . Darling imported South Australian merino rams to improve his flock , and his wool topped the Hobart sales on several occasions . He also introduced subterranean clover to Tasmania .
In 1919 , Darling moved from Stonehenge to Claremont House , around which the Hobart suburb of Claremont later formed . He was elected to the Cambridge electorate in the Tasmanian Legislative Council in 1921 as an independent . He retained his position in the Parliament until his death in 1946 . In Parliament , one of his colleagues was Charles Eady , his teammate from the 1896 tour of England . Darling was recognised by his colleagues as a forceful , no @-@ nonsense speaker . In the 1930s , he won an exemption from land tax for small farmers , and toward the end of his parliamentary career , a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate charges Darling had made regarding maladministration . The findings of the commission , released after his death , saw a government Minister and two others found guilty of accepting bribes . Darling was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1938 New Year Honours in recognition of his work as a member of the Legislative Assembly .
Darling married Alice Minna Blanche Francis , a wheat farmer 's daughter from Mundoora , South Australia in 1893 . Together they raised 15 children : ten sons and five daughters . After surgery for a ruptured gall bladder , Darling died in Hobart on 2 January 1946 . He was buried at Cornelian Bay cemetery after a Congregationalist ceremony and was survived by his wife and twelve of his children .
= = Style and personality = =
Darling had a stocky , compact build , standing 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 73 metres ) and weighing 12 stone 12 pounds ( 82 kg ) . His teammates thought his dark hair , blue eyes and moustache were similar to the boxer , Frank " Paddy " Slavin , and he answered to the nickname " Paddy " during his time in cricket . His time working on his father 's farm had developed his strength . During his first game for South Australia , he was challenged to a naked wrestle by the fast bowler and ex @-@ miner Ernie Jones , an informal initiation into the team . To his team mates ' surprise , Darling managed to defeat the much larger Jones .
The left @-@ handed Darling was a strong driver of the ball who showed the batsman the full face of the bat . When necessary , he was a dour defender of his wicket . His fellow players thought that was sometimes unnecessarily defensive in his approach to batting and that he was at his best when driving hard . His South Australian and Australian team mate George Giffen thought that no Australian 's cut shots travelled faster past point .
Darling is a remarkable combination of stolidity and power . His driving , whenever he choose to let himself loose , is tremendous , and no left @-@ handed batsman , at any rate in our time , has possessed quite such a defence . He always gives one the idea of being a great natural hitter , who has rigorously schooled himself to play the steady game .
Darling holds the record for the most innings in a complete Test Match career ( 60 ) , without being dismissed lbw .
Darling had a strong personality and an independent outlook . Those who knew him well thought him destined to be a leader in whatever he undertook . He shunned strong drink and tobacco and found it difficult to tolerate overindulgence in alcohol . Normally even @-@ tempered , he did show displeasure at the heckling from the crowd at Lord 's at his obstinate defensive effort in the face of an Australian batting collapse . He was a stickler for fair play , but his actions against the English batsman KS Ranjitsinhji would today be seen as gamesmanship . During the bowler 's approach and after the bowler had looked at the field , the Australian fielders moved behind Ranjitsinhji 's back . This worried the Indian prince when playing his leg glance and eventually saw him left out of the English team .
The journalist Ray Robinson wrote that " of all Australian captains he came closest to being a disciplinarian " . Regardless , his team mates continued to select him as captain , trusting in his knowledge and understanding of the game . On a wet day during the 1899 tour , a delay in play saw some of the Australians accept an invitation to the Player 's tobacco factory in Nottingam . While away , the weather cleared and play began with Darling leading a team of five Australians and five substitutes onto the field . Darling later called a team meeting that saw the culprits fined ₤ 5 for breaching team rules . His approach to the hard @-@ drinking Ernie Jones was similarly tough . To ensure that the fast bowler would not drink to excess , he selected Jones as twelfth man in a match against an English county team . When Jones refused to play , a team meeting saw him facing expulsion from the team . Darling spoke to him privately and made it clear that without an apology to his team mates and a promise to curb his drinking , he would be on the next boat bound for Australia . The firm and prompt action had a lasting effect on team discipline during his time as Australian captain . Wisden noted that " as a captain he inspired his men to reveal their best form . " As a captain he was a reformer , suggesting rule changes that included making six runs the reward for clearing the boundary rather than the entire ground , and using of sawdust to fill holes in bowler 's run @-@ ups .
= = Test match performance = =
= 2012 Gatorade Duels =
The 2012 Gatorade Duels were a pair of stock car races held on February 23 , 2012 at Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach , Florida . The 60 @-@ lap races , held before a crowd of 80 @,@ 000 , were the qualifying races for the 2012 Daytona 500 , the premier event of the 2012 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . The first race was won by Tony Stewart for the Stewart @-@ Haas Racing team . Dale Earnhardt Jr. finished second and Marcos Ambrose came in third . The second race was won by Matt Kenseth driving for the Roush Fenway Racing team ; their first win in the history of the Gatorade Duels . Regan Smith followed in the second position and Jimmie Johnson was third .
Carl Edwards led the first race from the start . One lap later , he was overtaken by Stewart . Afterward , Earnhardt moved into the first position , holding it until a caution period on lap nine . Denny Hamlin assumed the lead at the lap 14 and maintained the position until his pit stop 30 laps later . Stewart reclaimed the lead and held it throughout the remaining 16 laps and two further caution periods to win the first Gatorade Duel . There were three cautions and eight lead changes among five different drivers during the course of the first race .
During the second race , Greg Biffle was the leader at the start . On the fourth lap , Kenseth passed Biffle to take over the lead . He lost the position when Joey Logano and Kyle Busch moved into the top two places . Biffle passed Kyle Busch by the 29th lap and held it during his pit stop 14 laps later . With three laps remaining in the race , Kenseth attempted a race @-@ winning slingshot and passed Biffle when the final lap started and held it to win the second Gatorade Duel . There were five lead changes among five different drivers and no cautions were shown during the course of the second race .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Daytona International Speedway is one of six superspeedways to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Michigan International Speedway , Auto Club Speedway , Indianapolis Motor Speedway , Pocono Raceway and Talladega Superspeedway . Its standard track is a four @-@ turn , 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) superspeedway . Daytona 's turns are banked at 31 degrees and the front stretch ( the location of the finish line ) is banked at 18 degrees . The defending winners of the races were Kurt Busch and Jeff Burton .
In early years , qualifying had varying formats : from one timed lap , to the average of two laps , to the better of two laps . The idea of having two individual races to establish the starting lineup of the Daytona 500 dates back to the first race in 1959 . The first of the 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) qualifying races consisted of Convertible division cars and the second of Grand National cars . Between 1960 and 1967 , the races were 100 miles ( 160 km ) and were increased to 125 miles ( 201 km ) in 1969 . Prior to 1971 , the races yielded points to the Drivers ' Championship . Large well @-@ established teams approach the races as practice sessions for the Daytona 500 while a successful qualification into the Daytona 500 for smaller less @-@ established teams would allow them to enter future NASCAR events during the season . An unsuccessful qualification meant the team would risk closing down until sponsorship was found . Corporate sponsors purchased naming rights to qualifying races ; between 1981 and 1984 , Uno cards was the title sponsor for the " Uno Twin 125 ’ s " qualifying events . In 1985 they became known as " 7 @-@ Eleven Twin 125 's " ; no sponsors funded the 1988 , 1989 and 1990 qualifying events and the races were called " Daytona Twin Qualifiers " . Gatorade became the sponsor of the dual qualifying events in 1991 and the races were increased to 150 miles ( 240 km ) as it became known as the " Gatorade Duels " in 2005 . The races were rebranded as the " Budweiser Duels " in 2013 and became known as the " Can @-@ Am Duels " in 2016 .
The top 35 drivers were assigned to Gatorade Duel races based upon their qualifying positions in the Daytona 500 . Drivers who qualifed in odd @-@ number positions competed in the first Duel along with the winner of the 2012 Daytona 500 pole . Competitors who qualifed in even @-@ numbered places took part in the second Duel . The drivers ' finishing positions in both Duels determined their starting positions in the Daytona 500 . Positions 40 to 42 were filled with the quickest drivers who did not qualify in the top 35 , apart from 43rd which was occupied by an eligible past champion . In the event a past champion was not available , the 43rd position would be filled by the next @-@ fastest driver . Two drivers outside the top 35 were eligible for two transfer spots in each Duel .
After some of the cars ' engines overheated while driving in packs during the 2012 Budweiser Shootout , NASCAR increased the engines ' pressure release values from 25 psi ( 1 @.@ 7 bar ) to 28 psi ( 1 @.@ 9 bar ) to help reduce overheating and alleviate the effects of driving at high temperatures .
= = = Practice and qualification = = =
Two 90 @-@ minute practice sessions were held on February 22 . Matt Kenseth was quickest in the first practice session , with a time of 44 @.@ 809 seconds . Trevor Bayne was second @-@ quickest with a lap @-@ time 0 @.@ 009 seconds slower . Ricky Stenhouse Jr , with a time of 44 @.@ 849 seconds , was third @-@ fastest , ahead of Marcos Ambrose and Mark Martin . Clint Bowyer , Michael McDowell and Kevin Harvick . Paul Menard and Kasey Kahne completed the top ten . During the session , Brad Keselowski slowed to avoid Ryan Newman , causing Clint Bowyer to turn into Keselowski , whose car went spinning into the grass on the backstretch . Keselowski 's car sustained minor damage ; his team could repair it , meaning he was not required to use a back @-@ up car . Aric Almirola led the second practice , in which 25 drivers competed , with a lap of 45 @.@ 065 seconds — nearly one @-@ tenth of a second faster than David Stremme . David Ragan was third , ahead of Robert Richardson , Jr. and Greg Biffle . Bobby Labonte , Joe Nemechek , Bill Elliott , Michael Waltrip and Kahne completed the top ten ahead of the races .
During the session , in where drivers ran in packs and drafted off each other , Juan Pablo Montoya made contact with Kahne and sent his car spinning into the grass on the frontstretch , tearing off some of its nose . Kahne was required to use a back @-@ up car for the rest of Speedweeks . Becauase the qualifying grids were chosen by the order in which drivers qualified in Daytona 500 pole position qualifying , the pole was given to Carl Edwards in the first race and to Biffle in the second . Edwards was joined on the front row of the grid by Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , with Ambrose in third . Stenhouse and Bayne started in fourth and fifth positions respectively . Biffle was joined by Mears on the front row for the second race , with Jeff Gordon in third . Martin Truex , Jr. started fourth , and was followed by Martin in fifth .
= = = Races = = =
The qualifying races for the 2012 Daytona 500 began at 2 : 00 p.m. EST and was televised live in the United States by Speed . The conditions on the grid before the race were dry , the air temperature was 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) and a ten percent chance of rain was forecast . Dr. L. Ronald Durham of Greater Friendship Missionary Baptist Church in Daytona Beach , Florida began the pre @-@ race ceremonies with an invocation . Vocalist Catrina Mack from Orlando , Florida performed the national anthem .
= = = = Race 1 = = = =
Following the invocation and the performance of the National Anthem , three @-@ time Olympic gold medalist swimmer Ryan Lochte gave the command for the drivers to start their engines . Edwards maintained his pole position lead going into the first corner with Earnhardt , Jr. in second . On lap two , Tony Stewart passed Edwards around the outside to take the lead . Edwards , with assistance from Bayne , moved in front of Stewart going into turn three to reclaim the first position two laps later . On the fifth lap , Earnhardt moved into the lead and Ambrose moved into second place . Edwards temporairly moved back into first before Earnhardt reclaimed the position . Bayne , who also battled for the lead , had moved down the field by
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astrophysicists .
= = = Baryon asymmetry = = =
It is not yet understood why the universe has more matter than antimatter . It is generally assumed that when the universe was young and very hot , it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of baryons and antibaryons . However , observations suggest that the universe , including its most distant parts , is made almost entirely of matter . A process called baryogenesis was hypothesized to account for the asymmetry . For baryogenesis to occur , the Sakharov conditions must be satisfied . These require that baryon number is not conserved , that C @-@ symmetry and CP @-@ symmetry are violated and that the universe depart from thermodynamic equilibrium . All these conditions occur in the Standard Model , but the effect is not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry .
= = = Dark energy = = =
Measurements of the redshift – magnitude relation for type Ia supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe has been accelerating since the universe was about half its present age . To explain this acceleration , general relativity requires that much of the energy in the universe consists of a component with large negative pressure , dubbed " dark energy " . Dark energy , though speculative , solves numerous problems . Measurements of the cosmic microwave background indicate that the universe is very nearly spatially flat , and therefore according to general relativity the universe must have almost exactly the critical density of mass / energy . But the mass density of the universe can be measured from its gravitational clustering , and is found to have only about 30 % of the critical density . Since theory suggests that dark energy does not cluster in the usual way it is the best explanation for the " missing " energy density . Dark energy also helps to explain two geometrical measures of the overall curvature of the universe , one using the frequency of gravitational lenses , and the other using the characteristic pattern of the large @-@ scale structure as a cosmic ruler .
Negative pressure is believed to be a property of vacuum energy , but the exact nature and existence of dark energy remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang . Results from the WMAP team in 2008 are in accordance with a universe that consists of 73 % dark energy , 23 % dark matter , 4 @.@ 6 % regular matter and less than 1 % neutrinos . According to theory , the energy density in matter decreases with the expansion of the universe , but the dark energy density remains constant ( or nearly so ) as the universe expands . Therefore , matter made up a larger fraction of the total energy of the universe in the past than it does today , but its fractional contribution will fall in the far future as dark energy becomes even more dominant .
The dark energy component of the universe has been explained by theorists using a variety of competing theories including Einstein 's cosmological constant but also extending to more exotic forms of quintessence or other modified gravity schemes . A cosmological constant problem sometimes called the " most embarrassing problem in physics " results from the apparent discrepancy between the measured energy density of dark energy and the one naively predicted from Planck units .
= = = Dark matter = = =
During the 1970s and 80s , various observations showed that there is not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies . This led to the idea that up to 90 % of the matter in the universe is dark matter that does not emit light or interact with normal baryonic matter . In addition , the assumption that the universe is mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations . In particular , the universe today is far more lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter . While dark matter has always been controversial , it is inferred by various observations : the anisotropies in the CMB , galaxy cluster velocity dispersions , large @-@ scale structure distributions , gravitational lensing studies , and X @-@ ray measurements of galaxy clusters .
Indirect evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter , as no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories . Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed , and several projects to detect them directly are underway .
Additionally , there are outstanding problems associated with the currently favored cold dark matter model which include the dwarf galaxy problem and the cuspy halo problem . Alternative theories have been proposed that do not require a large amount of undetected matter but instead modify the laws of gravity established by Newton and Einstein , but no alternative theory as been as successful as the cold dark matter proposal in explaining all extant observations .
= = = Horizon problem = = =
The horizon problem results from the premise that information cannot travel faster than light . In a universe of finite age this sets a limit — the particle horizon — on the separation of any two regions of space that are in causal contact . The observed isotropy of the CMB is problematic in this regard : if the universe had been dominated by radiation or matter at all times up to the epoch of last scattering , the particle horizon at that time would correspond to about 2 degrees on the sky . There would then be no mechanism to cause wider regions to have the same temperature .
A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by inflationary theory in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the universe at some very early period ( before baryogenesis ) . During inflation , the universe undergoes exponential expansion , and the particle horizon expands much more rapidly than previously assumed , so that regions presently on opposite sides of the observable universe are well inside each other 's particle horizon . The observed isotropy of the CMB then follows from the fact that this larger region was in causal contact before the beginning of inflation .
Heisenberg 's uncertainty principle predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be quantum thermal fluctuations , which would be magnified to cosmic scale . These fluctuations serve as the seeds of all current structure in the universe . Inflation predicts that the primordial fluctuations are nearly scale invariant and Gaussian , which has been accurately confirmed by measurements of the CMB .
If inflation occurred , exponential expansion would push large regions of space well beyond our observable horizon .
A related issue to the classic horizon problem arises because in most standard cosmological inflation models , inflation ceases well before electroweak symmetry breaking occurs , so inflation should not be able to prevent large @-@ scale discontinuities in the electroweak vacuum since distant parts of the observable universe were causally separate when the electroweak epoch ended .
= = = Magnetic monopoles = = =
The magnetic monopole objection was raised in the late 1970s . Grand unified theories predicted topological defects in space that would manifest as magnetic monopoles . These objects would be produced efficiently in the hot early universe , resulting in a density much higher than is consistent with observations , given that no monopoles have been found . This problem is also resolved by cosmic inflation , which removes all point defects from the observable universe , in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness .
= = = Flatness problem = = =
The flatness problem ( also known as the oldness problem ) is an observational problem associated with a Friedmann – Lemaître – Robertson – Walker metric . The universe may have positive , negative , or zero spatial curvature depending on its total energy density . Curvature is negative if its density is less than the critical density , positive if greater , and zero at the critical density , in which case space is said to be flat . The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time , and yet the universe today remains very close to flat . Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time , 10 − 43 seconds , the fact that the universe has reached neither a heat death nor a Big Crunch after billions of years requires an explanation . For instance , even at the relatively late age of a few minutes ( the time of nucleosynthesis ) , the universe density must have been within one part in 1014 of its critical value , or it would not exist as it does today .
= = Ultimate fate of the universe = =
Before observations of dark energy , cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe . If the mass density of the universe were greater than the critical density , then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse . It would become denser and hotter again , ending with a state similar to that in which it started — a Big Crunch . Alternatively , if the density in the universe were equal to or below the critical density , the expansion would slow down but never stop . Star formation would cease with the consumption of interstellar gas in each galaxy ; stars would burn out leaving white dwarfs , neutron stars , and black holes . Very gradually , collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes . The average temperature of the universe would asymptotically approach absolute zero — a Big Freeze . Moreover , if the proton were unstable , then baryonic matter would disappear , leaving only radiation and black holes . Eventually , black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation . The entropy of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it , a scenario known as heat death .
Modern observations of accelerating expansion imply that more and more of the currently visible universe will pass beyond our event horizon and out of contact with us . The eventual result is not known . The ΛCDM model of the universe contains dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant . This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems , such as galaxies , will remain together , and they too will be subject to heat death as the universe expands and cools . Other explanations of dark energy , called phantom energy theories , suggest that ultimately galaxy clusters , stars , planets , atoms , nuclei , and matter itself will be torn apart by the ever @-@ increasing expansion in a so @-@ called Big Rip .
= = Speculations = =
While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology , it is likely to be refined . The Big Bang theory , built upon the equations of classical general relativity , indicates a singularity at the origin of cosmic time ; this infinite energy density is regarded as impossible in physics . Still , it is known that the equations are not applicable before the time when the universe cooled down to the Planck temperature , and this conclusion depends on various assumptions , of which some could never be experimentally verified . ( Also see Planck epoch . )
One proposed refinement to avoid this would @-@ be singularity is to develop a correct treatment of quantum gravity .
It is not known what could have preceded the hot dense state of the early universe or how and why it originated , though speculation abounds in the field of cosmogony .
Some proposals , each of which entails untested hypotheses , are :
Models including the Hartle – Hawking no @-@ boundary condition , in which the whole of space @-@ time is finite ; the Big Bang does represent the limit of time but without any singularity .
Big Bang lattice model , states that the universe at the moment of the Big Bang consists of an infinite lattice of fermions , which is smeared over the fundamental domain so it has rotational , translational and gauge symmetry . The symmetry is the largest symmetry possible and hence the lowest entropy of any state .
Brane cosmology models , in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in string theory ; the pre @-@ Big Bang model ; the ekpyrotic model , in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes ; and the cyclic model , a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur periodically . In the latter model the Big Bang was preceded by a Big Crunch and the universe cycles from one process to the other .
Eternal inflation , in which universal inflation ends locally here and there in a random fashion , each end @-@ point leading to a bubble universe , expanding from its own big bang .
Proposals in the last two categories , see the Big Bang as an event in either a much larger and older universe or in a multiverse .
= = Religious and philosophical interpretations = =
As a description of the origin of the universe , the Big Bang has significant bearing on religion and philosophy . As a result , it has become one of the liveliest areas in the discourse between science and religion . Some believe the Big Bang implies a creator , and some see its mention in their holy books , while others argue that Big Bang cosmology makes the notion of a creator superfluous .
= = = Books = = =
Farrell , John ( 2005 ) . The Day Without Yesterday : Lemaitre , Einstein , and the Birth of Modern Cosmology . New York , NY : Thunder 's Mouth Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 56025 @-@ 660 @-@ 5 .
Kolb , E. ; Turner , M. ( 1988 ) . The Early Universe . Addison – Wesley . ISBN 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 11604 @-@ 9 .
Peacock , J. ( 1999 ) . Cosmological Physics . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 42270 @-@ 1 .
Woolfson , M. ( 2013 ) . Time , Space , Stars and Man : The Story of Big Bang ( 2nd edition ) . World Scientific Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84816 @-@ 933 @-@ 3 .
= Hasta la Raíz =
Hasta la Raíz ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈasta la raˈis ] , " To the Root " ) is the sixth studio album by Mexican recording artist Natalia Lafourcade . It was released on March 17 , 2015 , by Sony Music Latin . After the success of her previous album , Mujer Divina , a tribute to Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Agustín Lara , Lafourcade decided to record an album with original recordings . Lafourcade spent three years writing the songs and searching for inspiration in different cities , resulting in songs that express very personal feelings regarding love . The record was produced by Lafourcade , with the assistance of Argentinian musician Cachorro López and Mexican artist Leonel García .
Upon its release , Hasta la Raíz received favorable reviews from music critics , with some critics expressing skepticism about her songwriting and saying she had stayed within her comfort zone , and others praising her evolution as a musician and naming the album one of the best pop releases of the year . The record peaked at number eight on the US Billboard Latin Albums and number one in Mexico , where it was certified platinum , with over 60 @,@ 000 copies shipped in the country . Hasta la Raíz received a nomination for Album of the Year and won Best Alternative Music Album and Best Engineered Album at the 16th Latin Grammy Awards . The album also won Best Latin Rock , Urban or Alternative Album at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards .
To promote the album , four singles were released , and Lafourcade launched the 2015 Hasta la Raíz Tour to several Latin American countries , the United States , and Europe . The album 's first two singles , the title track and " Nunca Es Suficiente " reached the top five in Mexico .
= = Background = =
In 2010 Natalia Lafourcade joined Mexican orchestra conductor Alondra de la Parra on the musical project Travieso Carmesí , an album created as part of the Bicentennial of Mexico celebration . While conducting research to find songs for that album , Lafourcade studied Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Agustín Lara 's catalog and decided to record a tribute album with his songs . Released in 2012 , Mujer Divina earned her accolades for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Long Form Music Video at the 14th Latin Grammy Awards . Two years later , Lafourcade traveled to Veracruz ( Mexico ) , Colombia , and Cuba in a search for musical inspiration and a balance between heart , mind and body . She has said that composition of her new music for Hasta la Raíz was closely woven with the experience of singing Lara 's music .
Hasta la Raíz is Lafourcade 's sixth studio album and her first album of original material in seven years , since Hu Hu Hu ( 2009 ) . It was produced by Argentinean musician Cachorro López , Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Leonel García , and Lafourcade after another record producer became too expensive : " I could not afford a very famous producer who had his fees at exorbitant figures , I won 't say his name , so I decided to take refuge on my friends [ Cachorro and Leonel ] , doing songs with them as accomplices , and they understood " .
= = Writing and recording = =
After completing the album Hu Hu Hu ( 2009 ) Lafourcade experienced writer 's block , and felt that the songs she was writing were too similar to those in her previous albums . For her new work , she sought inspiration from Agustín Lara 's repertoire and her native country , Mexico . " One of the things I wanted to happen with this record was to find the connection with Mexico and its people again " . She said she was a Mexican and proud of the " very many " positive parts it has . Musically , she wanted more simplicity in her songs . Lafourcade forced herself to write " without judgement " , recording voice memos on her phone as part of the writing process . She was inspired by the works of Latin American songwriters such as Simón Díaz , Violeta Parra , Mercedes Sosa , Chavela Vargas , and Caetano Veloso . While recording demos , Lafourcade realized that the songs were more direct and emotional than her previous work . The writing took three years , resulting in approximately 30 songs . Since the album was about her personal life , she selected what she felt were " the strongest ones " , saying , " more than making an album , I wanted to have songs ... that could stand on their own " .
The title track , " Hasta la Raíz " , was written by Lafourcade and Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Leonel García , with whom she had previously collaborated on her album Mujer Divina and on García 's album Todas Mías ( 2012 ) . García had an idea about the song ; they then wrote the music together . Laforcade referred to this collaboration as " magical " , saying the song was an anthem to human strength , and about not forgetting one 's roots . García played a huapango riff , and Lafourcade started singing along while producer Cachorro López recorded everything , and the final result is from that session .
There are two songs about falling in love , " Mi Lugar Favorito " and " Vámonos Negrito " . The former , arranged to emulate emotional outbursts , was the most difficult to finish , and the singer had a hard time trying to find the right place for it on the album . " Vámonos Negrito " is a tribute to her Latin American roots that she started writing after a show in Colombia and finished in Cuba ; in this song , one of her favorites , she tried to create a musical landscape with instruments , textures , and harmonies . The bolero " Antes de Huir " , is a " sad and hopeful " song . It is about not letting go of the things we love . " Ya No Te Puedo Querer " is , according to Lafourcade , an obscure folk @-@ pop song about finding that one cannot be in a relationship anymore ; it was written during a concert tour in Monterrey .
" Para Qué Sufrir " is a song about being all right and trusting someone . Lafourcade wrote the song in a short time but had problems with the chorus , so she asked Torreblanca 's lead singer Jose Manuel Torreblanca for help ; López did the arrangements . " Nunca es Suficiente " deals with emotions about a dysfunctional relationship and wanting something more . It was composed by Lafourcade and Daniela Azpiazu and was intended to be performed by Mexican artist Paulina Rubio , since both Lafourcade and Azpiazu wanted to write songs for other artists . However , upon finishing it , they decided to keep the song to themselves and use it either for Aziapizu 's project María Daniela y su Sonido Lasser or Lafourcade 's album . According to Beverly Bryan of The Village Voice , the song resembles Belle and Sebastian 's The Life Pursuit " in its treatment of Sixties @-@ era pop inspirations " . Mariano Prunes of AllMusic compared the track to the work of Spanish singer Jeanette on the song " Porque Te Vas " . Lafourcade decided upon the album 's title between the songs " Hasta la Raíz " and " Palomas Blancas " ; the latter was written in Las Vegas , during her trip to the Grammy Awards . It is a love story filled with metaphors about her love for Mexico , connection with the universe , and self @-@ preservation . The song had the most modified arrangement , being made with few chords .
In order to create a balance in the tracklist , Lafourcade wrote " Te Quiero Ver " as a " simple song " about wanting to be with someone . The track was co @-@ written by Marian Ruzzi , and was inspired by the music of the 1970s , including a chorus with answering voices , emulating musical theatre . The lyrics for " Lo Que Construimos " , deals with the decision to leave someone and going separate ways . " Estoy Lista " is a ballad about being ready to be well , and Lafourcade worked on the track in her spare time , taking a year to finish it . The last track , " No Más Llorar " , was written during a family reunion with her father and sister in Chile . Lafourcade wrote it about a love that could not be , her mourning and search for stability , forgiveness , and healing . In live performances , the singer dedicates the track to Mexico , to send hope through her music and help people deal with situations such as the Iguala mass kidnapping . " I feel that nowadays is really important that we acknowledge the social part . We must look inward and work , see which aspects we can address to deliver something more positive to the world " .
Regarding the musical arrangements , Lafourcade explained , " I felt that the arrangements had to function as the perfect embrace to the songs ... since each song had its own distinct personality . So it was like creating the ideal musical surroundings . I 'm very visual with music , so I always try to create atmospheres , panoramas , and images . Kind of like creating photographs through music " . She stated to Venue Magazine that the album sequence was selected to create a cycle , to have a beginning and an ending . Lissette Corsa of MTV Iggy said that the songs are " crafted as expansive , cinematic soundscapes that lend themselves to the mood of each song " .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , Hasta la Raíz received positive reactions from music critics . Beverly Bryan of The Village Voice stated that the album " casts a spell with deep feeling , and melodies and lyrics that linger in the mind . Elegantly adorned with subtle strings and velvety production , it has the kind of warmth people are always saying they can hear on old vinyl records " . Bryan also predicted that this release would be recognized in the future as the singer 's " most profound and enduring statement " . In another positive review , Natalia Cano of the magazine Rolling Stone Mexico , referred to the album as " fresh and honest pop , a reflection of her musical maturity " , reiterating that the album " continues to place her as one of the most important composer and performer of Latin America . " AllMusic 's Mariano Prunes gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars ranking , and on his review stated that " these are extremely well @-@ written songs in the spirit of the great Latin America romantic tradition of which Lara was a founding father , but infused with a contemporary perspective " . Luis Romero of the website Coffee and Saturday said that the album is one of the best pop releases of the year , praising Lafourcade 's evolution as a musician , but was critical of Lafourcade for not having extended " her comfort zone " , since it is too early in her career to become settled in one type of music , " and the proof is that the best album tracks are those where she is helped by Leonel García , Torreblanca and María Daniela " . An editor from Televisa Espectáculos wrote a mixed review , commenting that the album has to be listened to twice to " fall in love with at least one song " , comparing positively the title track with Lafourcade 's work on her previous album ( Mujer Divina ) and the songs " Mi Lugar Favorito " and " Te Quiero Ver " with her album Hu Hu Hu , creating a " mix of sounds " on which Lafourcade shows all the things she learned after working with Agustín Lara 's catalog . Lissette Corsa , of MTV Iggy , stated that " despite moments of darkness and heartfelt sadness , Hasta la Raiz bristles with a sense of adventure and optimism " , and noted the influence of Chilean songwriter Violeta Parra in the track " Vámonos Negrito " , as part of Lafourcade 's " eclectic artistry " . Corsa also noted that the singer " drew from Joni Mitchell , Charles Bradley , and Amy Winehouse " .
The album earned the accolades for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Engineered Album , and was nominated for Album of the Year , at the 16th Annual Latin Grammy Awards . About the nominations , Lafourcade said to the newspaper Al Día , " I am very grateful to the people because this album has allowed me to reach them in a closer way , create a complicity ... I feel very happy and with high expectations , regardless of whether we get the Latin Grammy or not " . Billboard columnist Leila Cobo , while reviewing the nominees for the Latin Grammy Award for Album of the Year , stated that this is a " breakthrough album " for the singer , since she is going " beyond her alt roots into commercial territory but with finesse and guts that stay close to her origins " . Hasta la Raíz won a Grammy Award for Best Latin Rock , Urban or Alternative Album . The album ranked at number @-@ one in the list for the " 10 Best Albums of 2015 in Mexico " by newspaper El País ; according to the reviewer Luis Pablo Beauregard , it is an album " naked and raw , where the lyrics and fragility of her voice draw the footprint of heartbreak " . The American edition of Rolling Stone magazine placed Hasta la Raíz at number 3 in the list for the " 10 Best Latin Albums of the Year " , arguing that " the loftiness of the album 's ambitions are tempered by Lafourcade 's masterful songwriting , which remains as deft as a Mesut Özil cross pass " . The editors of Billboard magazine ranked the album at number 2 in the list for the " 10 Best Latin Albums of 2015 " , stating that the singer " manages to be retro and futuristic at the same time ... the sound is so unexpected , that coupled with Lafourcade ’ s sweet vocals , it 's arresting " . Website AllMusic included the album on their list for the " Best of 2015 : Favorite Latin and World Albums " , explaining that Lafourcade " delivers an intimate , poignant , quietly powerful collection of heartbreak songs on this gem of an album " .
= = Singles = =
The title track , " Hasta la Raíz " , was released as the lead single on January 14 , 2015 . It peaked at number 5 in Mexico 's Monitor Latino Pop Chart and number 17 in the U.S. Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , and won Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Alternative Song at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 . The music video was directed by Alonso Ruizpalacios , at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City , gathering 300 fans who responded to an ad published in social networks . " Nunca Es Suficiente " was released as a promo single on January 21 , 2015 . The music video was released on March 23 , 2015 , and was directed by Martín Bautista , and features actors Diana Lein , Gustavo Sánchez Parra and Tenoch Huerta . The video presents two couples during different stages of a love relationship . " Nunca Es Suficiente " peaked at number 4 in the Monitor Latino Pop Chart in Mexico . The track " Lo Que Construimos " was selected as the third single , with its music video also directed by Ruizpalacios and premiering on September 13 , 2015 . On December 10 , 2015 was announced that the track " Mi Lugar Favorito " was the fourth single from the album .
= = Commercial reception = =
In the United States , the album was available on March 17 , 2015 , as a digital download only and debuted at number 12 in the Billboard Latin Albums chart , selling 1 @,@ 000 digital units . On April 14 , the album was available on Amazon on Demand and on September 25 , 2015 , a physical CD was released . Following Lafourcade 's performance at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 , sales of the album increased 176 % and re @-@ entered the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart at number 7 , almost matching its initial peak ( number 6 ) . The album re @-@ entered the Latin Albums chart in the week of January 23 , 2016 , to achieve its highest peak at number 8 and also reached a highest position in the Latin Pop Album chart , at number 5 . In the week of April 16 , 2016 , reached a peak of number 4 at the Latin Pop Album Chart . In Mexico , Hasta la Raíz peaked at number one in the Top 100 Mexico chart and was certified platinum by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas for the shipment of 60 @,@ 000 copies . Hasta la Raíz peaked at number 73 in the Spanish Album Chart and 82 in the Italian Album Charts , spending one week on both record charts .
= = Track listing = =
= = Tour = =
Lafourcade launched a promotional tour throughout Mexico and only performed at theaters that were at least 100 years old . The Village Voice , reporting on an interview with Lafourcade , noted , " There are enough such grand old structures in her country to make this possible " , although according to Lafourcade , " some of them are better maintained than others . " The " Hasta la Raíz Tour " opened in Tijuana on April 18 , 2015 , and also visited several cities in the United States such as San Francisco , Washington , D.C. , and New York City . In Hollywood , Lafourcade participated on the Latin Grammy Acoustic Sessions at the Fonda Theatre . A few dates in Argentina , Chile , Italy , and Spain were announced ; however , her record label , Sony Music , announced that due to illness the performance in Spain , set for June , would be canceled . In September , Lafourcade performed at " Festival DCODE 2015 " in Madrid , Spain . The singer also visited Colombia on October 1 , 2015 , performing at Bogotá 's Royal Center . On November 4 , 2015 , Lafourcade fulfilled a long @-@ held dream of performing for the first time at the Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City . " I 've been here with Julieta Venegas , and someone reminded me that I opened for Juanes a few years ago . When I was 13 years old , I ran away from home with my best friend to come to the Auditorio Nacional to see Christina Aguilera , and I wanted to be on stage , longing to have this opportunity . After many years of work , this became a reality . " To further promote the album , Lafourcade became the first Mexican female singer @-@ songwriter to record an acoustic session for the music streaming service Spotify . Titled Spotify Sessions , the live EP includes six tracks from Hasta la Raíz ( " Para Qué Sufrir " , the title track , " Nunca Es Suficiente " , " Ya No Te Puedo Querer " , " Palomas Blancas " , and " No Más Llorar " ) and a cover version of Rafael Hernández 's " Silencio " . Lafourcade performed " Hasta la Raíz " at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 . Lafourcade also presented the tour in a sold @-@ out show held at the Teatro Cariola in Santiago de Chile , Chile on November 25 , 2015 .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Album certification = = =
= = Release history = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Hasta la Raíz album liner notes .
= = = Performance credits by song = = =
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= Nebraska Highway 250 =
Nebraska Highway 250 ( N @-@ 250 ) is a highway in northwestern Nebraska . Its southern terminus is at N @-@ 2 , east of Ellsworth . N @-@ 250 does not intersect any state maintained road , until it reaches its northern terminus at U.S. Highway 20 ( US 20 ) in Rushville . The route was designated in 1960 , and was extended south in 1996 .
= = Route description = =
All of the route is in Sheridan County . N @-@ 250 starts at N @-@ 2 , south of Lakeside . The road shortly crosses a railroad owned by BNSF Railway and enters Lakeside . N @-@ 250 shifts west slightly , and bends around a lake . The route travels north , through sand hills , and passing by small lakes and ponds . East of Thompson Lake , N @-@ 250 intersects the 304th Trail , a road that connects to other lakes . Fifteen miles ( 24 km ) later , the road 298th Trail , which connects the Twin Lakes to the highway . A few miles later , the highway passes the Smith Lake State Wildlife Management Area , and crosses over the Niobrara River later . N @-@ 250 soon straightens out , and travels north for 26 miles ( 42 km ) . The road enters Rushville as Chamberlain Street . It enters downtown , and ends at US 20 . In 2012 , the Nebraska Department of Roads ( NDOR ) calculated as many as 305 vehicles traveling on N @-@ 250 near Rushville , and as few as 90 vehicles traveling north of Lakeside . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year .
= = History = =
A metal @-@ surfaced road from US 20 in Rushville to north of the Niobrara River was constructed between 1940 and 1948 . It was extended south to north of Cravath Lake by 1953 . The road was removed from the highway system map in 1957 , and was re @-@ added in 1960 , as N @-@ 250 . A narrow road was extended from N @-@ 250 to N @-@ 2 around 1981 – 82 , but it was not part of N @-@ 250 until 1996 . The routing has not changed significantly since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sheridan County .
= Americium =
Americium is a radioactive transuranic chemical element with symbol Am and atomic number 95 . This member of the actinide series is located in the periodic table under the lanthanide element europium , and thus by analogy was named after the Americas .
Americium was first produced in 1944 by the group of Glenn T. Seaborg from Berkeley , California , at the metallurgical laboratory of University of Chicago . Although it is the third element in the transuranic series , it was discovered fourth , after the heavier curium . The discovery was kept secret and only released to the public in November 1945 . Most americium is produced by uranium or plutonium being bombarded with neutrons in nuclear reactors – one tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of americium . It is widely used in commercial ionization chamber smoke detectors , as well as in neutron sources and industrial gauges . Several unusual applications , such as nuclear batteries or fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion , have been proposed for the isotope 242mAm , but they are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this nuclear isomer .
Americium is a relatively soft radioactive metal with silvery appearance . Its common isotopes are 241Am and 243Am . In chemical compounds , americium usually assumes the oxidation state + 3 , especially in solutions . Several other oxidation states are known , which range from + 2 to + 8 and can be identified by their characteristic optical absorption spectra . The crystal lattice of solid americium and its compounds contain small instrinsic radiogenic defects , due to metamicitization induced by self @-@ irradiation with alpha particles , which accumulates with time ; this can cause a drift of some material properties over time , more noticeable in older samples .
= = History = =
Although americium was likely produced in previous nuclear experiments , it was first intentionally synthesized , isolated and identified in late autumn 1944 , at the University of California , Berkeley , by Glenn T. Seaborg , Leon O. Morgan , Ralph A. James , and Albert Ghiorso . They used a 60 @-@ inch cyclotron at the University of California , Berkeley . The element was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( now Argonne National Laboratory ) of the University of Chicago . Following the lighter neptunium , plutonium , and heavier curium , americium was the fourth transuranium element to be discovered . At the time , the periodic table had been restructured by Seaborg to its present layout , containing the actinide row below the lanthanide one . This led to americium being located right below its twin lanthanide element europium ; it was thus by analogy named after the Americas : " The name americium ( after the Americas ) and the symbol Am are suggested for the element on the basis of its position as the sixth member of the actinide rare @-@ earth series , analogous to europium , Eu , of the lanthanide series . "
The new element was isolated from its oxides in a complex , multi @-@ step process . First plutonium @-@ 239 nitrate ( 239PuNO3 ) solution was coated on a platinum foil of about 0 @.@ 5 cm2 area , the solution was evaporated and the residue was converted into plutonium dioxide ( PuO2 ) by annealing . After cyclotron irradiation , the coating was dissolved with nitric acid , and then precipitated as the hydroxide using concentrated aqueous ammonia solution . The residue was dissolved in perchloric acid . Further separation was carried out by ion exchange , yielding a certain isotope of curium . The separation of curium and americium was so painstaking that those elements were initially called by the Berkeley group as pandemonium ( from Greek for all demons or hell ) and delirium ( from Latin for madness ) .
Initial experiments yielded four americium isotopes : 241Am , 242Am , 239Am and 238Am . Americium @-@ 241 was directly obtained from plutonium upon absorption of one neutron . It decays by emission of a α @-@ particle to 237Np ; the half @-@ life of this decay was first determined as 510 ± 20 years but then corrected to 432 @.@ 2 years .
<formula>
The times are half @-@ lives
The second isotope 242Am was produced upon neutron bombardment of the already @-@ created 241Am . Upon rapid β @-@ decay , 242Am converts into the isotope of curium 242Cm ( which had been discovered previously ) . The half @-@ life of this decay was initially determined at 17 hours , which was close to the presently accepted value of 16 @.@ 02 h .
<formula>
The discovery of americium and curium in 1944 was closely related to the Manhattan Project ; the results were confidential and declassified only in 1945 . Seaborg leaked the synthesis of the elements 95 and 96 on the U.S. radio show for children Quiz Kids five days before the official presentation at an American Chemical Society meeting on 11 November 1945 , when one of the listeners asked whether any new transuranium element beside plutonium and neptunium had been discovered during the war . After the discovery of americium isotopes 241Am and 242Am , their production and compounds were patented listing only Seaborg as the inventor . The initial americium samples weighed a few micrograms ; they were barely visible and were identified by their radioactivity . The first substantial amounts of metallic americium weighing 40 – 200 micrograms were not prepared until 1951 by reduction of americium ( III ) fluoride with barium metal in high vacuum at 1100 ° C.
= = Occurrence = =
The longest @-@ lived and most common isotopes of americium , 241Am and 243Am , have half @-@ lives of 432 @.@ 2 and 7 @,@ 370 years , respectively . Therefore , any primordial americium ( americium that was present on Earth during its formation ) should have decayed by now .
Existing americium is concentrated in the areas used for the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted between 1945 and 1980 , as well as at the sites of nuclear incidents , such as the Chernobyl disaster . For example , the analysis of the debris at the testing site of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb , Ivy Mike , ( 1 November 1952 , Enewetak Atoll ) , revealed high concentrations of various actinides including americium ; but due to military secrecy , this result was published only until later in 1956 . Trinitite , the glassy residue left on the desert floor near Alamogordo , New Mexico , after the plutonium @-@ based Trinity nuclear bomb test on 16 July 1945 , contains traces of americium @-@ 241 . Elevated levels of americium were also detected at the crash site of a US Boeing B @-@ 52 bomber aircraft , which carried four hydrogen bombs , in 1968 in Greenland .
In other regions , the average radioactivity of surface soil due to residual americium is only about 0 @.@ 01 picocuries / g ( 0 @.@ 37 mBq / g ) . Atmospheric americium compounds are poorly soluble in common solvents and mostly adhere to soil particles . Soil analysis revealed about 1 @,@ 900 times higher concentration of americium inside sandy soil particles than in the water present in the soil pores ; an even higher ratio was measured in loam soils .
Americium is produced mostly artificially in small quantities , for research purposes . A tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of various americium isotopes , mostly 241Am and 243Am . Their prolonged radioactivity is undesirable for the disposal , and therefore americium , together with other long @-@ lived actinides , must be neutralized . The associated procedure may involve several steps , where americium is first separated and then converted by neutron bombardment in special reactors to short @-@ lived nuclides . This procedure is well known as nuclear transmutation , but it is still being developed for americium . The transuranic elements from americium to fermium occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo , but no longer do so .
= = Synthesis and extraction = =
= = = Isotope nucleosyntheses = = =
Americium has been produced in small quantities in nuclear reactors for decades , and kilograms of its 241Am and 243Am isotopes have been accumulated by now . Nevertheless , since it was first offered for sale in 1962 , its price , about 1 @,@ 500 USD per gram of 241Am , remains almost unchanged owing to the very complex separation procedure . The heavier isotope 243Am is produced in much smaller amounts ; it is thus more difficult to separate , resulting in a higher cost of the order 100 @,@ 000 – 160 @,@ 000 USD / g .
Americium is not synthesized directly from uranium – the most common reactor material – but from the plutonium isotope 239Pu . The latter needs to be produced first , according to the following nuclear process :
<formula>
The capture of two neutrons by 239Pu ( a so @-@ called ( n , γ ) reaction ) , followed by a β @-@ decay , results in 241Am :
<formula>
The plutonium present in spent nuclear fuel contains about 12 % of 241Pu . Because it spontaneously converts to 241Am , 241Pu can be extracted and may be used to generate further 241Am . However , this process is rather slow : half of the original amount of 241Pu decays to 241Am after about 15 years , and the 241Am amount reaches a maximum after 70 years .
The obtained 241Am can be used for generating heavier americium isotopes by further neutron capture inside a nuclear reactor . In a light water reactor ( LWR ) , 79 % of 241Am converts to 242Am and 10 % to its nuclear isomer 242mAm :
79 % : <formula>
10 % : <formula>
Americium @-@ 242 has a half @-@ life of only 16 hours , which makes its further up @-@ conversion to 243Am , extremely inefficient . The latter isotope is produced instead in a process where 239Pu captures four neutrons under high neutron flux :
<formula>
= = = Metal generation = = =
Most synthesis routines yield a mixture of different actinide isotopes in oxide forms , from which isotopes of americium can be separated . In a typical procedure , the spent reactor fuel ( e.g. MOX fuel ) is dissolved in nitric acid , and the bulk of uranium and plutonium is removed using a PUREX @-@ type extraction ( Plutonium – URanium EXtraction ) with tributyl phosphate in a hydrocarbon . The lanthanides and remaining actinides are then separated from the aqueous residue ( raffinate ) by a diamide @-@ based extraction , to give , after stripping , a mixture of trivalent actinides and lanthanides . Americium compounds are then selectively extracted using multi @-@ step chromatographic and centrifugation techniques with an appropriate reagent . A large amount of work has been done on the solvent extraction of americium . For example , a 2003 EU @-@ funded project codenamed " EUROPART " studied triazines and other compounds as potential extraction agents . A bis @-@ triazinyl bipyridine complex was proposed in 2009 as such a reagent is highly selective to americium ( and curium ) . Separation of americium from the highly similar curium can be achieved by treating a slurry of their hydroxides in aqueous sodium bicarbonate with ozone , at elevated temperatures . Both Am and Cm are mostly present in solutions in the + 3 valence state ; whereas curium remains unchanged , americium oxidizes to soluble Am ( IV ) complexes which can be washed away .
Metallic americium is obtained by reduction from its compounds . Americium ( III ) fluoride was first used for this purpose . The reaction was conducted using elemental barium as reducing agent in a water- and oxygen @-@ free environment inside an apparatus made of tantalum and tungsten .
<formula>
An alternative is the reduction of americium dioxide by metallic lanthanum or thorium :
<formula>
= = Physical properties = =
In the periodic table , americium is located to the right of plutonium , to the left of curium , and below the lanthanide europium , with which it shares many similarities in physical and chemical properties . Americium is a highly radioactive element . When freshly prepared , it has a silvery @-@ white metallic lustre , but then slowly tarnishes in air . With a density of 12 g / cm3 , americium is less dense than both curium ( 13 @.@ 52 g / cm3 ) and plutonium ( 19 @.@ 8 g / cm3 ) ; but has a higher density than europium ( 5 @.@ 264 g / cm3 ) — mostly because of its higher atomic mass . Americium is relatively soft and easily deformable and has a significantly lower bulk modulus than the actinides before it : Th , Pa , U , Np and Pu . Its melting point of 1173 ° C is significantly higher than that of plutonium ( 639 ° C ) and europium ( 826 ° C ) , but lower than for curium ( 1340 ° C ) .
At ambient conditions , americium is present in its most stable α form which has a hexagonal crystal symmetry , and a space group P63 / mmc with lattice parameters a
= 346 @.@ 8 pm and c =
1124 pm , and four atoms per unit cell . The crystal consists of a double @-@ hexagonal close packing with the layer sequence ABAC and so is isotypic with α @-@ lanthanum and several actinides such as α @-@ curium . The crystal structure of americium changes with pressure and temperature . When compressed at room temperature to 5 GPa , α @-@ Am transforms to the β modification , which has a face @-@ centered cubic ( fcc ) symmetry , space group Fm3m and lattice constant a = 489 pm . This fcc structure is equivalent to the closest packing with the sequence ABC . Upon further compression to 23 GPa , americium transforms to an orthorhombic γ @-@ Am structure similar to that of α @-@ uranium . There are no further transitions observed up to 52 GPa , except for an appearance of a monoclinic phase at pressures between 10 and 15 GPa . There is no consistency on the status of this phase in the literature , which also sometimes lists the α , β and γ phases as I , II and III . The β @-@ γ transition is accompanied by a 6 % decrease in the crystal volume ; although theory also predicts a significant volume change for the α @-@ β transition , it is not observed experimentally . The pressure of the α @-@ β transition decreases with increasing temperature , and when α @-@ americium is heated at ambient pressure , at 770 ° C it changes into an fcc phase which is different from β @-@ Am , and at 1075 ° C it converts to a body @-@ centered cubic structure . The pressure @-@ temperature phase diagram of americium is thus rather similar to those of lanthanum , praseodymium and neodymium .
As with many other actinides , self @-@ damage of the crystal lattice due to alpha @-@ particle irradiation is intrinsic to americium . It is especially noticeable at low temperatures , where the mobility of the produced lattice defects is relatively low , by broadening of X @-@ ray diffraction peaks . This effect makes somewhat uncertain the temperature of americium and some of its properties , such as electrical resistivity . So for americium @-@ 241 , the resistivity at 4 @.@ 2 K increases with time from about 2 µOhm · cm to 10 µOhm · cm after 40 hours , and saturates at about 16 µOhm · cm after 140 hours . This effect is less pronounced at room temperature , due to annihilation of radiation defects ; also heating to room temperature the sample which was kept for hours at low temperatures restores its resistivity . In fresh samples , the resistivity gradually increases with temperature from about 2 µOhm · cm at liquid helium to 69 µOhm · cm at room temperature ; this behavior is similar to that of neptunium , uranium , thorium and protactinium , but is different from plutonium and curium which show a rapid rise up to 60 K followed by saturation . The room temperature value for americium is lower than that of neptunium , plutonium and curium , but higher than for uranium , thorium and protactinium .
Americium is paramagnetic in a wide temperature range , from that of liquid helium , to room temperature and above . This behavior is markedly different from that of its neighbor curium which exhibits antiferromagnetic transition at 52 K. The thermal expansion coefficient of americium is slightly anisotropic and amounts to ( 7 @.@ 5 ± 0 @.@ 2 ) × 10 − 6 / ° C along the shorter a axis and ( 6 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 4 ) × 10 − 6 / ° C for the longer c hexagonal axis . The enthalpy of dissolution of americium metal in hydrochloric acid at standard conditions is − 620 @.@ 6 ± 1 @.@ 3 kJ / mol , from which the standard enthalpy change of formation ( ΔfH ° ) of aqueous Am3 + ion is − 621 @.@ 2 ± 2 @.@ 0 kJ / mol − 1 . The standard potential Am3 + / Am0 is − 2 @.@ 08 ± 0 @.@ 01 V.
= = Chemical properties = =
Americium readily reacts with oxygen and dissolves well in acids . The most common oxidation state for americium is + 3 , in which americium compounds are rather stable against oxidation and reduction . In this sense , americium is chemically similar to most lanthanides . The trivalent americium forms insoluble fluoride , oxalate , iodate , hydroxide , phosphate and other salts . Other oxidation states have been observed between + 2 and + 7 , which is the widest range among the actinide elements . Their color in aqueous solutions varies as follows : Am3 + ( colorless to yellow @-@ reddish ) , Am4 + ( yellow @-@ reddish )
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One of the first factories to be built was Philip 's and Lee 's Twist Mill in Salford , completed in 1801 , the second iron @-@ framed multi @-@ story building to be erected in Britain . The large Salford Engine Twist Company mill was built to the west of Salford , between Chapel Street and the Irwell , and in 1806 was the first large cotton mill to use gas lighting . It was however outnumbered by the numerous smaller factories and mills throughout the area , including Nathan Gough 's steam @-@ driven mule spinning mill , near Oldfield Road , where a serious accident occurred on 13 October 1824 ( see illustration ) .
Canal building provided a further stimulus for Salford 's industrial development . The opening of the Bridgewater Canal in 1761 improved the transport of fuel and raw materials , reducing the price of coal by about 50 % . The later Manchester , Bolton & Bury Canal ( which terminated at Salford ) brought more cheap coal from pits at Pendleton , Agecroft Colliery and beyond . By 1818 Manchester , Salford and Eccles had about 80 mills , but it was the completion of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 which triggered Salford 's development as a major inland port . Salford Docks , a major dockland on the Ship Canal 35 miles ( 56 km ) east of the Irish Sea , brought employment to over 3 @,@ 000 labourers . By 1914 the Port of Manchester , most of whose docks were in Salford , had become one of the largest port authorities in the world , handling 5 % of the UK 's imports and 4 @.@ 4 % of its exports . Commodities handled included cotton , grain , wool , textile machinery and steam locomotives .
For centuries , textiles and related trades were the main source of employment in the town . Bleaching was a widely distributed finishing trade in Salford , carried over from the earlier woollen industry . In the 18th century , before the introduction of chemical bleaching , bleaching fields were commonplace , some very close to the town . In 1773 there were 25 bleachers around Salford , most to the west of the township . Printing was another source of trade ; the earliest recorded in the region was a calique printer in the Manchester Parish Register of 1763 . These industries became more important as Salford faced increasing competition from the nearby towns of Bolton and Oldham . As its cotton spinning industries faltered its economy turned increasingly to other textiles and to the finishing trades , including rexine and silk dyeing , and fulling and bleaching , at a string of works in Salford .
Both Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels spent time in Salford , studying the plight of the British working class . In The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 , Engels described Salford as " really one large working @-@ class quarter ... [ a ] very unhealthy , dirty and dilapidated district which , while other industries were almost always textile related is situated opposite the ' Old Church ' of Manchester " .
Salford developed several civic institutions ; in 1806 , Chapel Street became the first street in the world to be lit by gas ( supplied by Phillips and Lee 's cotton mill ) . In 1850 , under the terms of the Museums Act 1845 , the municipal borough council established the Royal Museum and Public Library , said to have been the first unconditional free public library in England , preceding the Public Libraries Act 1850 .
The effect on Salford of the Industrial Revolution has been described as " phenomenal " . The area expanded from a small market town into a major industrial metropolis ; factories replaced cottage industries , and the population rose from 12 @,@ 000 in 1812 to 70 @,@ 244 within 30 years . By the end of the 19th century it had increased to 220 @,@ 000 . Large @-@ scale building of low quality Victorian terraced housing did not stop overcrowding , which itself lead to chronic social deprivation . The density of housing was as high as 80 homes per acre . Private roads were built for the use of the middle classes moving to the outskirts of Salford . The entrances to such roads , which included Elleray Road in Irlams o ' th ' Height , were often gated , and patrolled .
= = = Post @-@ industrial decline = = =
During the early 20th century , improvements in regional transport infrastructure precipitated the decline of Salford 's existing industries , including those at the Salford Docks . Increased foreign competition began to undermine the competitiveness of local textile processing businesses . Rising unemployment during the Great Depression of the 1920s and ' 30s , and a significant economic decline in the decades following the Second World War contributed toward a fall in Salford 's population . By 1939 local coal mining had almost stopped , and cotton spinning had by 1971 ceased completely . Between 1921 and 1939 , the population of Salford decreased by 29 % , from 234 @,@ 045 to 166 @,@ 386 , far greater than the rate of decline within the whole of North West England .
A survey in 1931 concluded that parts of Salford contained some of the worst slums in the country . Many houses were infested by rats and lacked elementary amenities . Inspectors found that of 950 houses surveyed , 257 were in a state of bad repair with leaking roofs , broken flooring and rotten woodwork . The inspectors were " struck by the courage and perseverance with which the greater number of tenants kept their houses clean and respectable under most adverse conditions " . By 1933 slum clearance projects were under way , and by the end of 1956 over a thousand families had been rehoused in overspill estates at Little Hulton . These clearances have , for some , changed the character of the area to such an extent that " observers in search of the typical Salford may have to look in Eccles and Swinton , for much of the community and townscape ... has gone from Salford , replaced by tall blocks of flats " . Large areas of the city were redeveloped in the 1960s and 1970s , with Victorian era terraced housing estates that inspired painter L. S. Lowry and soap opera Coronation Street giving way to concrete tower blocks and austere architecture . Life in Salford during the early 20th century was described by Robert Roberts , in his study The Classic Slum .
Despite extensive redevelopment , throughout the 1980s and 1990s the area experienced chronic poverty , deprivation and unemployment . This social deprivation led to increased levels of gang crime linked to illegal narcotics , firearms and robberies . Organised crime in Salford , particularly in Ordsall and Pendleton , " began to have a disturbing effect on grass roots democracy . Both the Liberal Democrats and the Conservatives announced they would not contest certain Salford wards " because they regarded them as " unsafe " and would put their " party workers at risk " . Salford 's social amenities and the night @-@ time economy folded amid criminal " intimidation " , " drug use , fights and demands for money " . In early 2005 , the Government of Latvia appealed to the European Union to advise people against travelling to Salford after a Latvian people man was stabbed in the head in Lower Broughton . However , a crackdown by Greater Manchester Police coupled with investment in , and structural changes to the housing stock , began the change in Salford 's fortunes ; population decline has slowed , and Salford 's city councillors have insisted it is a safe place to visit . In August 2005 , a survey by Channel 4 television rated the city as the 9th worst place to live in the United Kingdom , based on criteria of crime , education , environment , lifestyle and employment .
= = = Regeneration = = =
Salford has suffered from high levels of unemployment and housing and social problems since around the 1960s , although there are regeneration schemes to reverse its fortunes . Many of the high @-@ rise housing blocks from the 1960s and 1970s were demolished during the 1990s , " a sign that the great social engineering schemes ( from that period ) had failed " . However , the high @-@ rises that remain are a striking feature of Salford 's landscape . Work was scheduled to begin on the £ 180 million redevelopment of the Greengate area of Salford in January 2007 . The plans include the construction of what will be the two tallest tower blocks in Salford . Plans also include a five @-@ star hotel , a new public square and park , restaurants , cafes and 403 apartments . Work is ongoing to regenerate the area known as Middlewood Locks , with the restored Salford terminus of the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal forming the centrepiece of a brand new residential development . As part of the Pathfinder initiative , Salford was identified in 2002 as one of nine areas in specific need of investment for new homes . Between 2003 and 2006 £ 115M was invested in the Manchester and City of Salford housing markets , £ 44M of which was invested in central Salford . Rows of terraces in neighbourhoods such as Seedley and Langworthy – once used for the title sequence of Coronation Street – are being compulsorily purchased , demolished and replaced by " modern sustainable accommodation " . Other schemes such as the Charlestown and Lower Kersal New deal for Communities , have concentrated on renovating existing terraced housing stock by block improvement and alleygating , as well as demolishing unsuitable properties and building new facilities , in consultation with the local community .
Salford now has many tourist attractions , such as Ordsall Hall , the Bridgewater Canal and the Lowry Centre , an award @-@ winning theatre and art gallery complex , consisting of two theatres and three art galleries . The centre is named after the artist L. S. Lowry , who attended Salford School of Art and lived in nearby Pendlebury for 40 years . Many of his paintings of Salford and Manchester mill scenes , populated with small matchstick @-@ like figures , are on display .
The waterfront development at MediaCityUK will make Salford a major centre of UK media production . The development houses BBC departments including CBBC , BBC Sport and Radio 5 Live which moved in 2011 and Breakfast moved from London in spring 2012 .
= = Governance = =
Salford was anciently part of the Manchester parish of the Salford Hundred , an area much larger than the present @-@ day city of Salford , within the historic county boundaries of Lancashire . A stroke of a Norman baron 's pen is said to have divorced Manchester and Salford , although it was not Salford that became separated from Manchester , but Manchester , with its humbler line of lords , that was separated from Salford . Salford received its town charter from Ranulf de Blondeville , 6th Earl of Chester , then Lord of the Manor , in 1230 . From then until 1791 , when police commissioners were appointed , it was governed by a reeve , a medieval administrator and law enforcement official . It was not recognised as a borough in the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , but was granted borough status in 1844 ; the new Salford borough was made up of the township of Salford and part of Broughton . The remainder of Broughton , and a part of Pendlebury , were added in 1853 .
When the administrative county of Lancashire was created by the Local Government Act 1888 , Salford was elevated to become the County Borough of Salford and was , in modern terms , a unitary authority area exempt from the administration of Lancashire County Council . Following a campaign supported by William Joynson @-@ Hicks , Home Secretary and MP for a neighbouring constituency of Manchester , city status was granted to the county borough by letters patent dated 21 April 1926 . This was in spite of the opposition of civil servants in the Home Office who dismissed the borough as " merely a scratch collection of 240 @,@ 000 people cut off from Manchester by the river " . In 1961 , a small part of the Municipal Borough of Eccles was added to the city , and in 1966 , Salford was twinned with Clermont @-@ Ferrand in France .
In 1974 the City and County Borough of Salford was abolished under the Local Government Act 1972 , and was replaced by the metropolitan borough of City of Salford , a local government district of the new metropolitan county of Greater Manchester , with triple the territory of the former City of Salford , taking in neighbouring Eccles , Swinton and Pendlebury , and Worsley and Irlam . Both Salford and the wider City of Salford are unparished areas .
= = = Parliamentary representation = = =
Salford was enfranchised as a parliamentary borough returning a single Member of Parliament ( MP ) by the Great Reform Act of 1832 . From 1868 it returned two MPs to the House of Commons until the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 , when the constituency was split into three single @-@ member divisions : Salford North , Salford South and Salford West . Boundaries changed again under the provisions of the Representation of the People Act 1948 when the constituencies were reorganised into Salford East and Salford West . Since 1997 , Salford has lain within the reconstituted Salford parliamentary constituency . Hazel Blears – a member of the Labour Party – has been the MP for the constituency since 1997 . From the general election of 2010 Salford will be part of the new constituency of Salford and Eccles . The wards of Broughton and Kersal , however , are to be part of the cross boundary constituency of Blackley and Broughton .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 28 ′ 59 ″ N 2 ° 17 ′ 35 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 483 ° , − 2 @.@ 2931 ° ) , and 205 miles ( 330 km ) northwest of central London , Salford stands about 177 feet ( 54 m ) above sea level , on relatively flat ground to the west of a meander of the River Irwell – the city 's main topographical feature . In 1904 Salford was recorded as " within a great loop of the River Irwell ... roughly three @-@ quarters of a mile from north to south and one mile from east to west " . Salford is contiguous with Manchester , and has been described " in participation of its trade , and for all other practical purposes , an integral part of it ; presents a near resemblance to it in streets and edifices ; contains several public buildings and a great public park , which belong fully more to Manchester than to itself " . Greengate , the original centre of Salford , is located at a fording point on the river opposite Manchester Cathedral . In 1969 Nikolaus Pevsner wrote :
That [ neighbouring ] Stretford and Salford are not administratively one with Manchester is one of the most curious anomalies of England .
The Irwell , sourced at Cliviger in Lancashire , flows from the north and for a distance forms the statutory boundary between Salford and Manchester . Flooding has historically been a problem and the Irwell has seen much modification along its course in Salford with some bends being removed , channelisation , and the construction of levees and bank reinforcements . Salford has expanded along the river valley to the north and south and on to higher ground on the valley sides at Irlams o ' th ' Height and Higher Broughton . Unconsolidated glacial deposits along the riverbank at Broughton have caused several landslides along the riverbank . The City Engineer 's Department of the City of Salford recorded one such incident near Great Clowes Street in February 1882 , and others in 1886 , 1887 and 1888 . In 1892 the road was propped with timber supports . The tram service along the road was discontinued in 1925 , and the road closed to mechanically propelled vehicles in January 1926 . Further slips saw the road closed completely in July 1933 , and although no substantial movements have been recorded since 1948 slow subsidence around the Cliff continues to this day .
Salford 's built environment is made up of a range of building stock . Some inner @-@ city areas are noted for chronic urban decay . Salford 's housing stock is characterised by an oversupply of older , smaller terraced housing and flatted accommodation that declined in value during the late 20th century . As demand fell , it left many owners in negative equity and often without the means to maintain their homes in reasonable condition . As a result , much of the built environment is poor .
Land use in Salford is overwhelmingly urban , with a number of green spaces . The largest is Kersal Dale Country Park , which covers about 32 hectares ( 0 @.@ 32 km2 ) . Others include Kersal Moor in Higher Kersal , The Meadow , Peel Park and the adjacent David Lewis Recreation Ground close to the University of Salford , and Albert Park and Clowes Park in Broughton . The territory of Salford is contiguous with other towns on all sides , and as defined by the Office for National Statistics forms the sixth @-@ largest settlement in the Greater Manchester Urban Area , the United Kingdom 's second @-@ largest conurbation . The M602 motorway enters Salford from Eccles to the west . The A580 " East Lancashire Road " terminates at Salford , entering the area from Pendlebury . Heavy rail @-@ lines pass through Salford .
= = Demography = =
As of the 2001 UK census , Salford had a population of 72 @,@ 750 . The 2001 population density was 9 @,@ 151 per mi ² ( 3 @,@ 533 per km ² ) , with a 100 to 98 @.@ 4 female @-@ to @-@ male ratio . Of those over 16 years age , 44 @.@ 0 % were single ( never married ) and 36 @.@ 7 % married . Salford 's 32 @,@ 576 households included 44 @.@ 1 % one @-@ person , 22 @.@ 0 % married couples living together , 7 @.@ 6 % were co @-@ habiting couples , and 13 @.@ 3 % single parents with their children . Of those aged 16 – 74 , 37 @.@ 3 % had no academic qualifications , similar to that of 35 @.@ 5 % in all of the City of Salford but significantly higher than 28 @.@ 9 % in all of England . 15 @.@ 9 % of Salford 's residents aged 16 – 74 had an educational qualification such as first degree , higher degree , qualified teacher status , qualified medical doctor , qualified dentist , qualified nurse , midwife , health visitor , etc. compared to 20 % nationwide .
As a result of 19th @-@ century industrialisation , Salford has had " a special place in the history of the British working class " ; together with Manchester it had the world 's " first fully formed industrial working class " . Salford has not , in general , attracted the same minority ethnic and cosmopolitan communities as in other parts of Greater Manchester , although it did attract significant numbers of Irish in the mid @-@ 19th century . Many migrated to Salford because of the Great Hunger in Ireland combined with Salford 's reputation as a hub for employment in its factories and docks . In 1848 , Salford Roman Catholic Cathedral opened , reflecting the large Irish @-@ born community in Salford at that time .
In the decades following the Second World War , Salford experienced significant population decline , as residents followed employment opportunities to other locations in Greater Manchester , taking advantage of a greater choice in the type and location of housing .
In 2011 , Salford had a population of 103 @,@ 886 , which is about the same size as Rochdale . The population increased from 72 @,@ 750 in the previous census , mainly due to boundary changes .
In 2011 , 22 @.@ 7 % of the population in the Salford USD ( Urban Subdivision ) were non white British compared with 15 @.@ 6 % for the surrounding borough . The USD had a slightly larger percentage of Asian and black people . Salford has become a lot more ethnically diverse since the previous census , probably due to the relocation of many BBC establishments from London between 2011 and 2012 . This has created lots of jobs and encouraged migration to the area , which was previously very deprived since the loss of many traditional industries in the 20th century .
= = Economy = =
For decades Salford 's economy was heavily dependent on manufacturing industry , especially textiles and engineering . Since the Second World War however , Salford has experienced decades of growing unemployment as these sectors diminished and new sectors chose to locate in out of town locations with better transport links . Between 1965 and 1991 the city lost over 49 @,@ 000 jobs , or more than 32 % of its employment base . Several factors contributed to this decline , not least changes in the national and international economies , the introduction of new technology and the concentration of investment in London and South East England . The biggest job losses were experienced in Salford 's traditional industries and although the service sector expanded during this period , it was unable to compensate for the decline in manufacturing .
The inner city 's main shopping area is Salford Shopping City , Pendleton – colloquially referred to as " Salford Precinct " – close to the University of Salford . However this area suffers from extreme deprivation and is dominated by the central business district that is Manchester city centre . This is planned to change in the next few years with the implementation of the Pendleton Area Action Plan and the development of the pedestrianised and boulevarded A6 corridor . Salford Quays has been shortlisted as the new possible city centre by 2020 .
The Lowry Hotel , the first five @-@ star hotel to be built in Greater Manchester , is on the Salford side of the River Irwell .
Salford is credited as the birthplace of the Bush Roller Chain . Hans Renold , a Swiss @-@ born engineer , came to Salford in the late 19th century . In 1879 he purchased a small textile @-@ chain making business in Ordsall from James Slater and founded the Hans Renold Company , what is now Renold , a firm which still produces chains . Renold invented the bush roller chain shortly after and began producing it . It is the type of chain most commonly used for transmission of mechanical power on bicycles , motorbikes , to industrial and agricultural machinery to uses as varied as rollercoasters and escalators .
According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of Salford 's residents aged 16 – 74 was 18 @.@ 0 % retail and wholesale , 14 @.@ 4 % property and business services , 12 @.@ 3 % manufacturing , 11 @.@ 7 % health and social work , 8 @.@ 6 % education , 7 @.@ 3 % transport and communications , 6 @.@ 8 % hotels and restaurants , 5 @.@ 8 % construction , 4 @.@ 4 % finance , 4 @.@ 2 % public administration , 0 @.@ 6 % energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 3 % agriculture , 0 @.@ 1 % mining , and 5 @.@ 7 % other . Compared with national figures , Salford had a relatively low percentage of residents working in agriculture . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 , 4 @.@ 4 % students were with jobs , 9 @.@ 1 % students without jobs , 6 @.@ 3 % looking after home or family , 11 @.@ 2 % permanently sick or disabled , and 4 @.@ 8 % economically inactive for other reasons . The proportion of students economically active in Salford was higher than the City of Salford and England averages ( 3 @.@ 0 % and 2 @.@ 6 % respectively ) ; the same is true for economically inactive students ( 5 @.@ 1 % in City of Salford and 4 @.@ 7 % in England ) . The rest of the figures were roughly inline with national trends .
= = Landmarks = =
Although Salford lacks the number of Grade II * ( and above ) listed buildings accorded to its neighbour ( Manchester ) , it does possess a wide range of both classical and modern architecture , as well as some unique structures , including the 19th @-@ century Barton Swing Aqueduct . One of Salford 's oldest buildings is the Grade I listed Ordsall Hall , a Tudor mansion and former stately home in nearby Ordsall . It dates back over 750 years , although the oldest surviving parts of the present hall were built in the 15th century . Kersal Cell is a Grade II * listed 16th @-@ century timber @-@ framed manor house , currently in use as a private residence . Closer to the centre of the settlement , the tower of the Church of the Sacred Trinity dates from 1635 , the main building from 1752 . It was restored between 1871 and 1874 , and is now used as a library and office space . Another Grade II * listed building , Salford Cathedral , is a decorated neo @-@ Gothic Roman Catholic church built between 1844 and 1848 .
Salford is linked to Manchester by a series of bridges , including the Grade II listed Blackfriars Bridge , completed in 1820 . The settlement is dominated by the several railway viaducts built in the 19th century . Salford ( Old ) Town Hall , situated in Bexley Square off Chapel Street , is a Neo @-@ classical brick building dressed in stone , designed by Richard Lane . Public swimming baths were provided , on Blackfriars Road . Now in commercial use , the two @-@ storey building was constructed in about 1890 from brick , with terracotta dressings and a part @-@ glazed roof . The Salford University Campus , visible partly from the Crescent , contains a number of interesting buildings including the Royal Art Gallery and the Peel Building .
Salford Lads Club is a recreational club established in 1903 and located in Ordsall . It is a listed building and gained international fame in 1986 when the pop band The Smiths posed in front of it for the inside cover of their album The Queen Is Dead . A report by English Heritage said " The building is thought to be the most complete example of this rare form of social provision to survive in England . " In 2007 , the Manchester Evening News reported that the club was third in a nationwide hunt to find the most iconic buildings in the country .
= = Transport = =
One of the earliest transport schemes in Salford was constructed by the Salford to Wigan Turnpike trust , by an Act of Parliament of 1753 . Turnpike roads had a huge impact on the nature of business transport around the region . Packhorses were superseded by wagons , and merchants would no longer accompany their caravans to markets and fairs , instead sending agents with samples , and despatching the goods at a later date . Road transport was not without its problems however and in 1808 the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal was connected to the River Irwell . In the main a coal @-@ carrying canal , it provided a valuable boost to the economies of Salford and Manchester , with a large number of wharves at its terminus in Salford . Sixteen years later John Greenwood started the first bus operation from Pendleton to Market Street , Manchester .
The Liverpool and Manchester Railway – the world 's first steam driven inter @-@ city passenger railway – opened through Salford on 15 September 1830 . The railway was primarily built to provide faster transport of materials and goods between the Port of Liverpool and mills in Manchester and surrounding towns , and stopped along the route at Ordsall Lane railway station . Almost eight years later the Manchester and Bolton Railway was opened , terminating at Salford Central railway station .
By 1801 the population of both Manchester and Salford was about 94 @,@ 000 . By 1861 this had risen to about 460 @,@ 000 , and so in the same year John Greenwood Jr. made an application to Salford Borough Council and to the Pendleton Turnpike Trust , to build a tramway from Pendleton to Albert Bridge in Salford . The system was innovative in that the rails were designed to be ' flush ' with the road surface , with a third central rail to accommodate a perambulator wheel attached to the front axle of the omnibus . Approval was granted and work commenced immediately , with the horse @-@ pulled tramway finished in September 1861 . It remained in use for a further eleven years when the condition of the track had deteriorated such that the council ordered it removed . The Tramways Act 1870 allowed councils to construct their own tramways , and on 17 May 1877 the ' Manchester and Salford Tramways ' opened for business . The network of lines was largely complete by September 1880 , the company changed its name to the Manchester Carriage and Tramways Company , and the system reached its peak in the 1890s . A steam tramway was opened on 12 April 1883 from Bury to Higher Broughton . The vehicles provoked letters of complaints from residents about the associated noise , dirt , and grease , and by 1888 the route was eventually curtailed to Besses o ' th ' Barn .
Electric trams were a common sight in early 20th century Salford , and had from 1901 replaced the earlier horse @-@ drawn vehicles . A network of lines crossed the region , with coordinated services running through Salford , Manchester and the surrounding areas . Many served the new suburban housing and industrial developments built at the time , but in 1947 they were withdrawn in favour of more practical services – buses . The city is served by a complex road infrastructure , with connections from the M602 motorway to several major motorways , and A @-@ roads including the A57 Regent Road and the A6042 Trinity Way . Salford City Council has also created both advisory and mandatory cycle lanes across the city .
Public transport in Salford is now co @-@ ordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester ( TfGM ) , a county @-@ wide public body with direct operational responsibilities such as supporting ( and in some cases running ) local bus services , and managing integrated ticketing in Greater Manchester . Salford City Council is responsible for the administration and maintenance of public roads and footpaths throughout the city . The city is served by two railway stations , Salford Central and Salford Crescent . Most train services are provided by Northern , although Salford Crescent is also served by TransPennine Express as part of its TransPennine North West network . Buses run to destinations throughout Salford , the City of Salford , across Greater Manchester and further afield : Pendleton is served by a route to Preston and Blackpool .
The Eccles line of the Manchester Metrolink runs through Salford , with stations at Exchange Quay , Salford Quays , Anchorage , Harbour City , Broadway , Langworthy , Weaste and more recently MediaCityUK . The line was opened in two stages , in 1999 and 2000 , as Phase 2 of the system 's development .
= = Education = =
Despite the rapid progress made during the Industrial Revolution , by 1851 education in Salford was judged " inadequate to the wants of the population " , and for those children who did get schooling " order and cleanliness were little regarded ... [ they ] were for the most part crowded in close and dirty rooms " .
Salford has thirty @-@ two primary schools , and five secondary schools . Until recently there were three main 6th form and FE colleges : Pendleton College , Eccles College and Salford College . They merged to create Salford City College in January 2009 .
The University of Salford , a plate glass university , is one of four in Greater Manchester . It has its origins in the former Royal Technical College , which was granted the status of a College of Advanced Technology ( CAT ) , on 2 November 1956 . In November 1963 the Robbins Report recommended that the CATs should become technological universities ; and on 4 April 1967 a Charter was established creating the University of Salford . The university is undergoing £ 150M of redevelopment through investment in new facilities , including a £ 10M law school and a £ 22M building for health and social care , which were opened in 2006 .
The University of Salford has over 19 @,@ 000 students , and was ranked 81st in the UK by The Times newspaper . In 2007 , the university received nearly 17 @,@ 000 applications for 3 @,@ 660 places , and the drop @-@ out rate from the university was 25 % . Of the students graduating , 50 % gained first class or 2 : 1 degrees , below the national average of about 55 % . The level of student satisfaction in the 2009 survey ranged from 62 % to 94 % , depending on subject .
= = Religion = =
From the formation of the Hundred of Salford , the entire area was within the Diocese of Lichfield . This diocese was divided in 1541 , upon the creation of the See of Chester .
Early worship took place at the parish church of Manchester , however a small chantry chapel existed in 1368 on the only bridge linking the two settlements . In the 16th century , it was converted into a dungeon , and was later demolished in 1779 . In 1634 – 35 , Humphrey Booth , a wealthy local merchant , opened a chapel of ease , which a year later was consecrated as the Chapel of Sacred Trinity ( the parish of Sacred Trinity was created in 1650 ) . John Wesley preached in the building , before his break with the Anglican Church . Upon his return in 1747 however he preached in the open , at Salford Cross . The chapel was rebuilt in about 1752 – 53 , although the tower probably belonged to the original building . It was restored in 1871 – 74 by the architect J. P. Holden and a chapel was added to the south @-@ east in 1934 . It is now a Grade II * listed building .
Salford Cathedral is one of the largest Catholic cathedrals in Northern England . It was built between 1844 and 1848 , and was listed as a Grade II * building in 1980 . It is at the centre of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford , which was founded in 1850 as one of the first post @-@ Reformation Catholic dioceses in Britain . Its current boundaries encompass Manchester and a large part of North West England . The Bishop of Salford 's official residence is at Wardley Hall .
Salford Deanery is in the Salford Archdeaconry of the Church of England . The sixteen churches in the deanery include the Parish Church of Saint Paul the Apostle in Paddington , St. Thomas ' in Pendleton , St Philip with St Stephen in Salford and St Clement 's in Ordsall .
The Greek Orthodox Church of the Annunciation was founded in 1861 , in Broughton . It was established by the local Greek immigrant community , who had arrived in the area soon after the Greek War of Independence in the early 19th century . It replaced an earlier place of worship on Cheetham Hill Road , and an earlier chapel on Wellington Street . It is the oldest purpose @-@ built Orthodox church in the country .
= = Sports = =
Salford has a notable history in sports , which includes hosting some of the events in the 2002 Commonwealth Games : rugby league , speedway , and horse racing . Salford had a venue for horse racing since the 17th century ; the earliest record of racing at Kersal Moor dates from 1687 .
Salford Red Devils is the city 's rugby league club and has been based in Salford since 1873 . They participate in the European Super League . Salford now play all home games at the AJ Bell Stadium . Junior rugby league is also played within Salford 's boundaries , with Langworthy Reds , Folly Lane and Salford City Roosters amongst other clubs providing playing personnel to the senior club .
The Premiership side Sale Sharks play their home games at the AJ Bell Stadium since the start of the 2012 – 13 season
Salford Quays has been used as a major international triathlon site , but a 2009 aquathlon was cancelled because of a lack of competitors .
During the early part of the 20th century speedway was staged at Albion Stadium .
The city is one of the largest settlements in the UK without a professional football team ; in the formative years of the sport the region 's football heartland was in east Manchester , with few teams to the west . Non @-@ league Salford City of the Northern Premier League are the city 's only representatives in the football pyramid .
= = Culture = =
Salford Museum and Art Gallery opened in November 1850 as the Royal Museum and Public Library . It was built on the site of Lark Hill estate and Mansion , which was purchased by public subscription . The park was named Peel Park after Robert Peel who contributed to the subscription fund . The library was the first unconditionally free public library in the country .
Harold Brighouse 's play Hobson 's Choice takes place in the Salford of 1880 , and the 1954 film version was shot in the town . Walter Greenwood 's 1933 novel Love on the Dole was set in a fictional area known as Hanky Park , said in the novel to be near Salford , but in reality based on Salford itself . A more modern fictional setting influenced by the area is Coronation Street 's Weatherfield . The Salford of the 1970s was the setting for the BAFTA award winning East is East . Salford was featured in the second series of the Channel 4 programme The Secret Millionaire , screened in 2007 .
The folk song " Dirty Old Town " , written by native Ewan MacColl , is the origin of Salford 's nickname . Local band Doves released a song on their 2005 album Some Cities called " Shadows of Salford " . One of the most famous photographs of band The Smiths shows them standing outside the Salford Lads Club , and was featured in the artwork for their album The Queen Is Dead . The videos for the Timbaland song " The Way I Are " , and the Justin Timberlake song " Lovestoned " were filmed in Salford .
= = Public services = =
Under the requirements of the Municipal Corporations Act , 1835 , the County Borough of Salford was obliged to appoint a Watch Committee to establish a police force and appoint a chief constable . On 1 June 1968 the Manchester and Salford city constabularies formed the Manchester and Salford Police . Since 1974 , Home Office policing in Salford has been provided by the Greater Manchester Police . The force 's " ( F ) Division " has its headquarters for policing the City of Salford at Swinton , with further police stations in Little Hulton , Higher Broughton and Salford . The Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , whose headquarters are on Bolton Road in nearby Pendlebury .
Salford Royal Hospital dated back to 1830 and was extended in 1911 . It was closed and converted into flats . The modern Salford Royal , at Hope , near the boundary with Eccles , was opened in 1882 as the Salford Union Infirmary . Later renamed Hope Hospital and then again as Salford Royal , it is a large NHS hospital administrated by Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust . In a 2006 – 07 review of all 394 NHS Trusts in England by the Healthcare Commission , Salford Royal was one of 19 to be rated excellent in its quality of services and its use of resources . The North West Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport . Other forms of health care are provided for locally by several small clinics and surgeries .
Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the local authority via the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . Salford 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is United Utilities ; there are no power stations in the city . United Utilities also manages Salford 's drinking and waste water .
= = Notable people = =
People from Salford are called Salfordians , and the city has been the birthplace and home to notable people of national and international acclaim . Amongst the most notable persons of historic significance with a connection to Salford are Emmeline Pankhurst , one of the founders of the British suffragette movement , who lived in Salford , and the scientist James Prescott Joule , who was born and raised in Salford . The novelist Walter Greenwood ( Love on the Dole ) and the dramatist Shelagh Delaney ( A Taste of Honey ) were both born in , and wrote about , Salford . Musicians Bernard Sumner and Peter Hook , who were members of Joy Division – which later reformed as New Order – are both from Salford . Notable Salfordian sportspeople include former England football international and Manchester United F.C. midfielder Paul Scholes , Olympic Javelin Thrower Shelley Holroyd , English former snooker player Mick Price was born in the area and Great Britain and England rugby league international and current Warrington Wolves front @-@ rower Adrian Morley . Salford was also the former hometown of The Smiths frontman , singer @-@ songwriter Morrissey and the band Happy Mondays . Composer Sir Peter Maxwell Davies , who was appointed Master of the Queen 's Music in 2004 , was born in Salford . Actors Albert Finney and Robert Powell were both born and raised in Salford . Another notable resident of Salford is Eddie Colman , the youngest of the Manchester United players to die in the Munich air disaster of 6 February 1958 , when only 21 . Born at Archie Street in November 1936 , he lived in the area all his life and is buried at Weaste Cemetery . His former home was demolished in the early 1970s . Journalist Alistair Cooke who wrote and broadcast " Letter from America " for decades on the BBC was born in Salford .
= Bærum Tunnel =
The Bærum Tunnel ( Norwegian : Bærumstunnelen ) is a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) long double track railway tunnel in Bærum , Norway . Running between Marstranderveien and Engervannet , it will make up most of the 6 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometer ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) long section of the Asker Line between Lysaker Station and Sandvika Station , which was taken into use on 26 August 2011 . The tunnel was constructed from 2007 using the drilling and blasting method with three crosscuts . The tunnel will have double track , be electrified and allow for maximum speeds of 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) . The whole section between the stations is estimated to cost 2 @.@ 7 billion Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . The tunnel will accelerate intercity and regional traffic west of Oslo and free up capacity for the Oslo Commuter Rail .
= = Specifications = =
The Bærum Tunnel is 5 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) long and is part of the 6 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometer ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) long section of the Asker Line between Lysaker and Sandvika . At Engervannet , at the Sandvika end , the tunnel mouths out with two 400 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) long arms , one on each side of the Drammen Line , allowing trains to connect to the correct direction of traffic through Sandvika . The excavated cross @-@ section is 110 square meters ( 1 @,@ 200 sq ft ) . At the Lysaker end , the tunnel has an end @-@ piece which consists of a 150 @-@ meter ( 490 ft ) long culvert and the Drammen Line branches off on both sides of the tunnel . The three crosscuts , at Blommenholm , Fossveien and Skallum , will be used as emergency exits . In addition , there are three additional exits , to allow for an emergency exit every 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , located at Ballerud , Engerjordet and Njålveien . Each consists of a spiral staircase up to 55 meters ( 180 ft ) deep . These are primarily intended to allow access for emergency personnel , rather than as an escape route for passengers . Each staircase ends in a smoke @-@ tight room . The line will have double track , be electrified at 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC and allow for maximum speeds of 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) .
= = History = =
The Asker Line runs from Lysaker Station via Sandvika Station to Asker Station , in the municipalities of Bærum and Asker . The line is built to increase the traffic on the west corridor . The only railway west of Oslo has been the Drammen Line , which has limited capacity , and a mix of local , regional , intercity and freight trains . This has caused many delays and poor utilization of tracks , as some trains make many stops and others only a few . The Asker Line allows regional and intercity trains to by @-@ pass the local stations east of Asker , by running local trains and freight trains on the Drammen Line , while faster trains run on the new track . The Asker Line was built in two stages : the first from Asker to Sandvika was built from 2001 to 2005 , and the second stage , from Sandvika to Lysaker , between 2007 and 2011 . The other two tunnels on the Asker Line are the 3 @,@ 790 @-@ meter ( 12 @,@ 430 ft ) long Skaugum Tunnel and the 3 @,@ 590 @-@ meter ( 11 @,@ 780 ft ) long Tanum Tunnel .
There were four main contracts for building the line issued after public tenders . Three of these involved part of the tunnel , and were awarded to Skanska , Veidekke and NCC . Mesta , Mika , Bestonmast and Spesialprosjekt bid , but failed to win any contracts . Work was done from 06 : 00 through 02 : 00 , and noisy work was avoided before 07 : 00 or after 22 : 00 . Any work outside the tunnels was only done between 07 : 00 to 18 : 00 , and from 08 : 00 to 16 : 00 on Saturdays . The tunnel is built using the drilling and blasting method , which involved blasting sections of 5 meters ( 16 ft ) of rock at a time , with a progress of 15 meters ( 49 ft ) per week per team . Blasting started on 26 June 2007 . Construction is done from three crosscuts , a 60 @-@ meter ( 200 ft ) long section at Engervannet , a 250 @-@ meter ( 820 ft ) long section at Fossveien , and a 420 meters ( 1 @,@ 380 ft ) long section at Skallum . At Skallum , a rinsing system for the water using in the tunneling was established , allowing the water to be recycled .
The tunneling resulted in 800 @,@ 000 cubic meters ( 28 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of earthwork , most of which was used for the expansion of the Port of Drammen . It was transported away from the tunnel with up to 12 truckloads per hour . The first breakthrough took place on 5 June 2008 . On 19 October 2008 , there was a ground failure at a storage area of earthwork . This caused a land slip which pressed up earthwork nearby at Gjønnes Station on the Kolsås Line of the Oslo Metro ; a 50 meters ( 160 ft ) long section of one platform and track was pressed up 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , resulting in the other track lying on its side . Because of changes to European Union regulations after planning of the project , three extra emergency staircases had to be installed in late 2009 . The final breakthrough in the tunnel occurred on 26 July 2009 . The tunneling took place under the groundwater level . To avoid similar problems which occurred during the construction of the Romerike Tunnel , where massive leaks took a year to fix , several test bores were made in the area to measure the groundwater level . Any indications of a change would immediately be automatically communicated to the on @-@ site geologists , who would be able to act accordingly . The system also automatically pumped water into the affected areas to compensate for any leaks until they could be fixed .
To make the tunnel water and frost tight , the walls were covered with polyethylene mats . Because they are highly inflammable , they were then covered in a layer of gunite . Also installed were fire water pipes and ventilation systems to remove smoke . To sound @-@ insulate the tunnel and avoid vibrations spreading to nearby housing , the entire tunnel was covered in a layer of rock wool . By December 2010 , the ballast had been laid , and in January 2011 laying of the tracks and ties started . The work to build the tracks and overhead wires has been contracted to Baneservice . The contract for the electro @-@ technical installations was awarded to YIT Building Systems for NOK 120 million . As of 2006 , the whole section from Lysaker to Sandvika was estimated to cost NOK 2 @.@ 7 billion .
Freight trains started using the tunnel on 26 August 2011 , and passenger trains on 28 August . The official opening took place on 2 September . Along with several other projects west of Oslo , including a new Lysaker Station and Høvik Station , and an upgrade to the Drammen Line between Lysaker and Etterstad , the completion of the Asker Line will allow higher service frequency , higher regularity and faster trains west of Oslo . A new high @-@ frequency schedule , named Route Plan 2012 , was planned for introduction in early 2013 following delivery of new Stadler FLIRT trains . This will also allow for more trains that stop at all stations on the Drammen Line and introduce three hourly trains to Vestfold and six hourly trains stopping at the main stations west of Oslo .
= HMS Fame ( H78 ) =
HMS Fame was an F @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy during the 1930s . Although assigned to the Home Fleet upon completion , the ship was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1935 – 36 during the Abyssinia Crisis . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 , she spent time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Fame served in the Norwegian Campaign in 1940 before she was severely damaged when she ran aground in October . The ship was refloated several months later and spent a year and a half under repair . Fame was converted into an escort destroyer while under repair and was assigned to escort duties in the North Atlantic when the repairs were completed in mid @-@ 1942 .
She sank two German submarines before she was transferred back to British coastal waters in May 1944 to protect the build @-@ up for Operation Overlord . Together with two other destroyers , she sank another German submarine that month and was reassigned to escort duties off the west coast of Scotland in July , where she remained until the war ended in May 1945 . Fame remained on active duty until mid @-@ 1947 when she was paid off . The ship was recommissioned a year later and was then sold to the Dominican Republic in 1949 . She was scrapped in 1968 .
= = Description = =
The F @-@ class ships were repeats of the preceding E class . They displaced 1 @,@ 405 long tons ( 1 @,@ 428 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 940 long tons ( 1 @,@ 970 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The turbines developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . Fame carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 6 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 760 km ; 7 @,@ 310 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . The F class was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 5
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she turned her attention :
When she was quite a young child , she learnt with facility several of the problems of Euclid . As she grew older , she acquired the French , Italian , and German languages ... piano @-@ forte ... [ and ] drawing . But , as soon as she had completely vanquished the difficulties of any one branch of study , it was her way to lose interest in it , and pass to another .
A voracious reader , Procter was largely self @-@ taught , though she studied at Queen 's College in Harley Street in 1850 . The college had been founded in 1848 by Frederick Maurice , a Christian Socialist ; the faculty included novelist Charles Kingsley , composer John Hullah , and writer Henry Morley .
Procter showed a love of poetry from an early age , carrying with her while still a young child a " tiny album ... into which her favourite passages were copied for her by her mother 's hand before she herself could write ... as another little girl might have carried a doll " . Procter published her first poem while still a teenager ; the poem , " Ministering Angels " , appeared in Heath 's Book of Beauty in 1843 . In 1853 she submitted work to Dickens 's Household Words under the name " Mary Berwick " , wishing that her work be judged on its own merits rather than in relation to Dickens 's friendship with her father ; Dickens did not learn " Berwick 's " identity till the following year . The poem 's publication began Proctor 's long association with Dickens 's periodicals ; in all , Procter published 73 poems in Household Words and 7 poems in All the Year Round , most of which were collected into her first two volumes of poetry , both entitled Legends and Lyrics . She was also published in Good Words and Cornhill . As well as writing poetry , Procter was the editor of the journal Victoria Regia , which became the showpiece of the Victoria Press , " an explicitly feminist publishing venture " .
In 1851 , Procter converted to Roman Catholicism . Following her conversion , Procter became extremely active in several charitable and feminist causes . She became a member of the Langham Place Group , which set out to improve conditions for women , and was friends with feminists Bessie Rayner Parkes ( later Bessie Rayner Belloc ) and Barbara Leigh Smith , later Barbara Bodichon . Procter helped found the English Woman 's Journal in 1858 and , in 1859 , the Society for the Promotion of the Employment of Women , both of which focused on expanding women 's economic and employment opportunities . Though on paper Proctor was merely one member among many , fellow @-@ member Jessie Boucherett considered her to be the " animating spirit " of the Society . Her third volume of poetry , A Chaplet of Verses ( 1861 ) , was published for the benefit of a Catholic Night Refuge for Women and Children that had been founded in 1860 at Providence Row in East London .
Procter became engaged in 1858 , according to a letter that her friend William Makepeace Thackeray wrote to his daughters that year . The identity of Procter 's fiancé remains unknown , and the proposed marriage never took place . According to her German biographer Ferdinand Janku , the engagement seems to have lasted several years before being broken off by Procter 's fiancé . Critic Gill Gregory suggests that Procter may have been a lesbian and in love with Matilda Hays , a fellow member of the Society for the Promotion of the Employment of Women ; other critics have called Procter 's relationship with Hays " emotionally intense . " Procter 's first volume of poetry , Legends and Lyrics ( 1858 ) was dedicated to Hays and that same year Procter wrote a poem titled " To M.M.H. " in which Procter " expresses love for Hays ... [ Hays was a ] novelist and translator of George Sand and a controversial figure ... [ who ] dressed in men 's clothes and had lived with the sculptor Harriet Hosmer in Rome earlier in the 1850s . " While several men showed interest in her , Procter never married .
Procter fell ill in 1862 ; Dickens and others have suggested that her illness was due to her extensive charity work , which " appears to have unduly taxed her strength " . An attempt to improve her health by taking a cure at Malvern failed . On 3 February 1864 , Procter died of tuberculosis , having been bed @-@ ridden for almost a year . Her death was described in the press as a " national calamity " . Procter was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery .
= = Literary career = =
Procter 's poetry was strongly influenced by her religious beliefs and charity work ; homelessness , poverty , and fallen women are frequent themes . Procter 's prefaces to her volumes of poetry stress the misery of the conditions under which the poor lived , as do poems such as " The Homeless Poor " :
In that very street , at that same hour ,
In the bitter air and drifting sleet ,
Crouching in a doorway was a mother ,
With her children shuddering at her feet .
She was silent – who would hear her pleading ?
Men and beasts were housed – but she must stay
Houseless in the great and pitiless city ,
Till the dawning of the winter day . ( 51 – 58 )
Procter 's Catholicism also influenced her choice of images and symbols ; Procter often uses references to the Virgin Mary , for example , to " introduce secular and Protestant readers to the possibility that a heavenly order critiques Victorian gender ideology 's power structure . "
Procter wrote several poems about war ( the majority of poems published on this topic in Household Words were by Procter ) , although she rarely deals directly with the topic , preferring to leave war " in the background , something to be inferred rather than stated . " Generally , these poems portray conflict as something " that might unite a nation that had been divided by class distinctions . "
According to critic Gill Gregory , Procter " does not overtly ponder the vexed question of the poet , particularly the woman poet and her accession to fame " , unlike many other women poets of the time , such as Felicia Hemans and Letitia Elizabeth Landon . Procter is instead primarily concerned with the working classes , particularly working @-@ class women , and with " emotions of women antagonists which have not fully found expression " . Procter 's work often embodies a Victorian aesthetic of sentimentality , but , according to Francis O 'Gorman , does so with " peculiar strength " ; Procter employs emotional affect without simplification , holding " emotional energy [ in tension ] ... against complications and nuances . " Procter 's language is simple ; she expressed to a friend a " morbid terror of being misunderstood and misinterpreted " , and her poetry is marked by " simplicity , directness , and clarity of expression " .
= = = Reputation = = =
Procter was " fabulously popular " in the mid @-@ 19th century ; she was Queen Victoria 's favourite poet and Coventry Patmore stated that the demand for her work was greater than that for any other poet , excepting Alfred , Lord Tennyson . Readers valued Procter 's poems for their plainness of expression , although they were considered " not so very original in thought ; [ their merit is that ] they are indeed the utterances ' of a believing heart ' , pouring out its fulness . " Procter herself expressed little ambition about her work : her friend Bessie Raynor Belloc thought that Procter was pained that her reputation as a poet had outstripped her father 's , and quoted Procter as saying that " Papa is a poet . I only write verses . "
Procter 's popularity continued after her death ; the first volume of Legends and Lyrics went through 19 editions by 1881 , and the second through 14 editions by the same year . Many of her poems were made into hymns or otherwise set to music . Among these was " The Lost Chord " , which Arthur Sullivan set to music in 1877 ; this song was the most commercially successful of the 1870s and 1880s in both Britain and the United States . Her work was also published in the United States and translated into German . By 1938 , Procter 's reputation had fallen so far that a textbook could mention her poems only to pronounce them " stupid , trivial and not worthy of the subject " . Critics such as Cheri Larsen Hoeckley , Kathleen Hickok , and Natalie Joy Woodall argue that the demise of Procter 's reputation is due at least in part to the way Charles Dickens characterized her as a " model middle @-@ class domestic angel " and a " fragile and modest saint " rather than as an " active feminist and strong poet . " Emma Mason argues that although Dickens 's portrayal of Procter " extinguished modern interest " in her , it also " has helped rescue Procter from the kind of endless conjecture about her private life that has confused studies of women like Letitia Landon . "
Modern critics have given Procter 's work little attention . The few critics who have examined Procter 's poetry generally find it important for the way that she overtly expresses conventional sentiments while covertly undermining them . According to Isobel Armstrong , Procter 's poetry , like that of many 19th @-@ century women poets , employs conventional ideas and modes of expression without necessarily espousing them in entirety . Francis O 'Gorman cites " A Legend of Provence " as an example of a poem with this kind of " double relationship with the structures of gender politics it seems to affirm . " Other critics since Armstrong agree that Procter 's poetry , while ladylike on the surface , shows signs of repressed emotions and desires . Kirstie Blair states that the suppression of emotion in Procter 's work makes the narrative poems all the more powerful , and Gill Gregory argues that Procter 's poetry often explores female sexuality in an unconventional way , while as often voicing anxiety about sexual desires . Elizabeth Gray criticizes the fact that the few discussions of Procter 's poetry that do exist focus primarily on gender , arguing that the " range and formal inventiveness of this illuminatingly representative Victorian poet have remained largely unexplored . "
= = List of works = =
A House to Let , a short story co @-@ written with Charles Dickens , Elizabeth Gaskell and Wilkie Collins
Legends and Lyrics , first series , 1858
Legends and Lyrics , second series , 1861
A Chaplet of Verses , 1862
The Haunted House , a short story co @-@ written with Charles Dickens , Elizabeth Gaskell , Wilkie Collins , George Sala and Hesba Stretton
= Darius Morris =
Darius Aaron Morris ( born January 3 , 1991 ) is an American professional basketball player free agent who last played in the NBA for the Brooklyn Nets . Morris was selected as the 41st pick in the 2011 NBA draft by the Los Angeles Lakers and plays the point guard position . He has also played for the Brooklyn Nets , Philadelphia 76ers , Los Angeles Clippers and Memphis Grizzlies of the NBA as well as the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders and Rio Grande Valley Vipers of the NBA D @-@ League . With the Vipers , he established a D @-@ League playoff single @-@ game assists record in 2014 .
Morris spent two seasons with the Michigan Wolverines basketball team . While playing for the 2010 – 11 team , he was the Big Ten assists leader and set the Michigan single @-@ season assist record ( since broken by Trey Burke ) . He earned third team All @-@ Big Ten honors his sophomore season .
Prior to attending Michigan , Morris led Windward School to the 2009 California state championship while earning the California Interscholastic Federation ( CIF ) Southern Section John Wooden High School Player of the Year Award . He was a 2010 – 11 All @-@ Big Ten 3rd team selection by the coaches and the media . The National Association of Basketball Coaches named him as a 2nd team All @-@ District selection for the district composed of Big Ten schools .
= = High school career = =
Morris was raised in Carson , California . In high school , Morris , the son of Dewayne Sr. and Robin Morris , attended Windward School . As a brash freshman , Morris promised the media that he would be able to dunk and lead Windward to a state championship before he graduated . Morris was invited to numerous All @-@ star basketball camps hosted by LeBron James , Steve Nash , the National Basketball Players Association and Nike . He was twice selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ State player in California . He was also named the MVP of numerous tournaments and invited to participate in numerous all @-@ star games , including the Academic All @-@ American Classic . Morris ' father worked for the United States Postal Service office in Venice .
As a senior , Morris led Windward High School to the California Division V state title , posting a game @-@ high 25 points , eight rebounds and four assists in the championship game . Darius Morris was named the MVP of Olympic League , CIF Division 5A Southern Section Player of Year , and CIF Division 5A State Player of Year . Also Darius was awarded a John Wooden High School Player of the Year Award , received by Jrue Holiday the year before . He was ranked as the 11th , 15th and 20th best high school basketball point guard in the nation by ESPN , Rivals.com and Scout.com , respectively . Rivals and ESPN included him on their lists of best overall basketball players at 77th and 100th , respectively .
= = College career = =
As a freshman with the 2009 – 10 team , Morris averaged 4 @.@ 4 points and 2 @.@ 6 assist per game on 24 @.@ 3 minutes of playing time per game . On November 14 , Morris began the season for # 15 ranked Wolverines in the starting lineup , posting 11 points and 5 assists against Northern Michigan . He had a season @-@ high 7 assists against Northwestern on January 10 , 2010 .
On December 23 , 2010 , Morris was one of three Wolverines to make 4 three point shots as the team set a school single @-@ game record by making 16 against Bryant University . He also had 12 assists on his way to a double @-@ double . On December 27 , 2010 , the Big Ten Conference named Morris player of the week . Ann Arbor media felt his omission from the 67 @-@ man 2011 Bob Cousy Award watchlist was a surpise . Morris repeated as ( co- ) player of the week on January 31 , 2011 sharing the award with Talor Battle , after becoming the third Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball player ( following Gary Grant and Manny Harris ) to record a triple double . On February 1 , 2011 , The Wall Street Journal calculated that Morris was by far the most valuable player to his team among major conference players because his combined assists and field goals account for over 53 % of his team 's points .
Morris established a new Michigan single @-@ season assists record during the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament ( 235 in 35 games ) . The previous highest single @-@ season assists totals in Michigan history were by Gary Grant ( 234 in 34 games , 1987 – 88 ) and Rumeal Robinson ( 233 in 37 games , 1988 – 89 ) . His average of 6 @.@ 71 assists per game led the Big Ten Conference . For the season , Morris also led the 2010 – 11 team in points per game and steals per game .
Following the 2010 – 11 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season , Darius Morris was selected as a third team All @-@ Big Ten selection by both the conference 's coaches and the conference 's media . Morris was also a National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) Division I District 7 All ‐ District second team choice . Since the Big Ten Conference is its own district , this is equivalent to being named second team All @-@ Big Ten by the NABC .
Following the season , Morris sought the advice of the NBA 's undergraduate advisory committee to determine his draft prospects . On May 4 , Morris announced his final decision not to withdraw his name prior to the May 8 deadline and to enter the June 23 , 2011 NBA Draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2011 – 12 season = = =
ESPN 's Chad Ford described Morris at 6 feet 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) as the biggest true point guard in the draft . Morris was selected by his hometown Los Angeles Lakers in the second round of the 2011 NBA Draft with the 41st overall selection . In the week prior to the beginning of the 2011 – 12 NBA season , Morris appeared along with teammates Derek Fisher , Steve Blake and Matt Barnes on the December 22 season 1 finale of The X Factor during a performance by 50 Cent . On January 11 , he played 13 minutes against Utah in his first game for the Lakers , contributing his first four points , his first two assists and first rebound . The game went to overtime and marked the Lakers ' first road victory of the season in four attempts . Morris began seeing action as Blake endured a costrochaondral fracture of the cartilage that connects the rib to the sternum in subsequent games . Morris stayed in the main rotation for seven games during Blake 's rib injury before returning to a limited role . On March 7 , 2012 , Morris was assigned to the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders of the NBA D @-@ League . Morris debuted for the Defenders with 21 points on March 10 . He was recalled by the Lakers on March 16 , 2012 . On April 26 , against the Sacramento Kings in the last game of the regular season , Morris tallied 9 points and 5 assists .
= = = 2012 – 13 season = = =
Morris agreed to re @-@ sign with the Lakers on July 2 , 2012 and was named to the Lakers team for the July 13 – 22 Las Vegas NBA Summer League . During the Summer League , Morris led the Lakers in scoring and assists . On November 9 , 2012 , Darius Morris recorded 10 points , a career @-@ high 5 rebounds , 5 assists , and 1 steal in a 101 – 77 Lakers win over the Golden State , backing up Blake , while Steve Nash was injured . On November 13 , with both Blake and Nash injured , Morris made his first career start against the San Antonio Spurs . As a starter , Morris posted career highs of 31 minutes and 6 assists on November 16 against the Phoenix Suns . On December 4 , Chris Duhon overtook Morris as the replacement starter . On December 16 , Morris posted a career @-@ high 15 points against the Philadelphia 76ers . A few nights later , Kobe Bryant praised him for his defensive effort . When Nash returned to the starting lineup on December 22 , Morris started in place of Metta World Peace , who came off the bench . This was part of a common strategy employed by Lakers head coach Mike D 'Antoni to play players out of position . While a starter , Morris ' responsibility was to defend against the opponents ' most dangerous perimeter player . On January 4 , World Peace returned to the starting lineup in Morris ' place . Then in late January , Jodie Meeks replaced Morris in the rotation as Blake also returned to the rotation .
On March 7 , 2013 , Morris was reassigned to the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders . He played for the D @-@ Fenders on March 9 , scoring 21 points and adding 6 rebounds , 2 assists and a steal . He was recalled on March 9 , 2013 . On April 3 , 2013 , the Lakers sent him to the D @-@ Fenders once again . He was recalled the next day . On April 26 in the 2013 NBA Playoffs against the San Antonio Spurs , with Bryant , Nash , Blake and Meeks sidelined , Morris had his best day as a pro , tallying 24 points and 6 assists in a starting role .
On June 28 , the Lakers decided that they would not make Morris the $ 1 @.@ 2 million qualifying offer prior to the July 1 deadline that would have been necessary to make him a restricted free agent . Although the team expressed interest in re @-@ signing Morris at a lower priced contract and having him represent the team again in the summer league , he would become an unrestricted free agent at the deadline because the qualifying offer was not made .
= = = 2013 – 14 season = = =
On September 27 , 2013 , Morris signed with the Philadelphia 76ers . As the September 28 training camp date approached , Morris was expected to battle with Tony Wroten for the backup point guard position behind Michael Carter @-@ Williams . When Carter @-@ Williams missed games , it was Wroten who moved into the starting lineup . On November 16 , 2013 he scored a NBA regular season career high 20 points along with 2 assists in a 135 – 98 @-@ point loss to the New Orleans Pelicans . On November 20 , 2013 , he was waived by the 76ers as part of roster moves that included signing Elliot Williams and Lorenzo Brown and waiving Kwame Brown . In December , he was one of several guards to work out with the Memphis Grizzlies . That month , he was also considered by the Los Angeles Lakers when Kobe Bryant was injured since point guards Blake , Nash and Jordan Farmar were all injured . The Lakers , however , decided to sign Kendall Marshall who was averageing 19 @.@ 4 points and 9 @.@ 6 assists in the D @-@ League at the time .
On January 6 , 2014 , Morris signed a 10 @-@ day contract with the Los Angeles Clippers after Chris Paul suffered a separated shoulder . Later that same day , Morris played his first game for the Clippers , logging 8 minutes off the bench in a 101 @-@ 81 win over the Orlando Magic , as Morris scored his first point as a Clipper off of a free throw . On January 16 , Morris signed a second 10 @-@ day contract with the Clippers . On January 26 , his second 10 @-@ day contract expired and the Clippers decided not to sign him for the rest of the season .
On February 3 , 2014 , Morris signed a 10 @-@ day contract with the Memphis Grizzlies . Mike Conley , Jr. had been injured and Jerryd Bayless had been recently traded , leaving the team short at point guard . On February 13 , 2014 , the Grizzlies did not offer him a second 10 @-@ day contract after his first 10 @-@ day contract expired .
On March 17 , 2014 , Morris was acquired by the Rio Grande Valley Vipers of the NBA D @-@ League . On March 20 , he posted his first professional double @-@ double with 21 points and 10 assists against the Bakersfield Jam . Morris posted 31 points on March 21 against the Austin Toros . On April 12 , Morris posted 51 points and 18 assists in an overtime playoff loss to the Iowa Energy . The performance established a D @-@ League single @-@ game playoff record for assists and was the second highest all @-@ time single @-@ game playoff point total .
= = = 2014 – 15 season = = =
In July 2014 , Morris joined the San Antonio Spurs for the 2014 NBA Summer League . On September 24 , 2014 , he signed with the Portland Trail Blazers . However , he was later waived by the Trail Blazers on October 25 , 2014 . On December 11 , 2014 , the Brooklyn Nets made a two @-@ for @-@ one trade clearing a space on their roster . Morris signed with the team that day and made his debut for them the next day , recording two points and one assist in the 88 @-@ 70 win over the Philadelphia 76ers . On June 29 , he was waived by the Nets .
= = = 2015 – 16 season = = =
On March 29 , 2016 , Morris was reacquired by the Rio Grande Valley Vipers . That night , he made his season debut in a 118 – 97 win over the Oklahoma City Blue , recording nine points , three rebounds , four assists and two steals in 24 minutes off the bench .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= Forza Motorsport 4 =
Forza Motorsport 4 is a racing video game developed by Turn 10 Studios and published by Microsoft Studios for the Xbox 360 . It is the fourth installment in the Forza series . It is the first title in the series to support the Kinect sensor alongside the traditional controller @-@ based gameplay . It is the last Forza Motorsport released for Xbox 360 ; 2012 's Forza Horizon and its 2014 sequel were the last two Forza games for the platform , while 2013 's Forza Motorsport 5 was released as an Xbox One exclusive .
New to the series is the Autovista mode , a mode in which players can view precise details such as engine parts and interior gauges on a select number of cars . It features a partnership with BBC 's Top Gear as well as its American counterpart . Jeremy Clarkson , presenter for Top Gear , provides commentary in the game 's Autovista mode . Other partnerships include a two @-@ year agreement with the American Le Mans Series ( ALMS ) . Over 500 cars and 26 tracks are included .
The game received universal acclaim from critics . Aggregate websites GameRankings and Metacritic report scores of 90 @.@ 50 % and 91 out of 100 , respectively . Metacritic also reports eight perfect scores from various media outlets . Critics praised the enhanced vehicle physics , updated visuals , and strong sound design . Several reviewers also gave high marks for the game 's Autovista mode . Some critics expressed frustration with Kinect features , and others also felt that the game was not enough of an innovation from its predecessor , Forza Motorsport 3 . These critics did , however , concede that the game was a vast improvement over Forza Motorsport 3 .
= = Gameplay = =
Forza Motorsport 4 is a racing video game , and the fourth in the Forza Motorsport series . Like Sony 's Gran Turismo franchise , Forza games are racing simulations ; heavy emphasis is placed on making the cars drive and look as realistic as possible . Races are conducted on closed circuit tracks . 500 cars are featured in the core game experience , ranging from road cars to race cars .
Players can utilize Kinect to look into a corner using a new head tracking feature . This allows them to look toward the apex of a corner or at nearby cars . The controller or steering wheel is used to control the car while Kinect is used independently for viewing around the driver . Players can also use Kinect as a game controller . In this setting the game automatically accelerates and decelerates the player 's vehicle utilizing a modified version of the feature known as Auto Brake in Forza Motorsport 3 . The steering is controlled by placing the players arms out as if controlling an invisible steering wheel . Kinect will allow the player to use voice commands to start races and navigate menus .
New to the Forza series is a feature known as Autovista . It is designed to allow players to walk around and explore inside cars . This feature allows players to view minute details such as brake pads , engine components , and interior details . The player can point at certain features , such as headlights , wheels and the engine for further information about them via audio recording . It can be controlled via Kinect or a game controller . Only 24 cars in the game support the Autovista feature , as it is primarily for sports cars , classic cars , and dream cars . The graphics used to create these cars are formed using image @-@ based lighting which allowed the developers to create perfect reflections , and would better immerse the car in the environment both when racing on a track or in the garage or Top Gear studio when viewing a car .
As in Forza Motorsport 3 , there is a career mode for players to complete , which sees players racing at multiple locations around the world . This is known as World Tour Mode in Forza Motorsport 4 , previously known as Season Play in Forza Motorsport 3 . However , one new feature that appears in Forza Motorsport 4 is the game 's ability to adapt the difficulty as the player progresses through the career , and collect a trend of data to see how well they perform . This allows AI drivers to change and upgrade their cars automatically to suit the player 's driving abilities . There are several types of races besides the standard format . Forza Motorsport 4 includes the original bumper @-@ to @-@ bumper races , but also has drift , autocross , and multiple @-@ heat races . Unlike in Forza Motorsport 3 where players had no choice over which car they received after leveling up , in Forza Motorsport 4 players are now able to choose one out of several cars as a prize , which are automatically upgraded to the high end of their class . Players are able to import their Forza Motorsport 3 profiles into Forza Motorsport 4 . This gives them the ability to transfer a certain amount of in @-@ game credits and gifted cars into their new garage . The amount allowed transferred is based on how long they have played the game and how many cars and credits they have . Players have the option to create car clubs and share cars in their garages within that club . Previous games in the series were limited to eight cars on the track , however Forza Motorsport 4 supports 16 player racing online , and two players offline .
Forza Motorsport 4 features 26 courses to compete on . These race courses are mix between circuits courses and point @-@ to @-@ point courses . 17 real @-@ world tracks and nine fictional locations are included . Each course features as reverse configuration , and many have multiple other configurations . Three additional real world race tracks and one fictional track have been added to the Forza franchise , Hockenheimring , Indianapolis Motor Speedway , Infineon Raceway and the fictional Bernese Alps .
= = Development , marketing and release = =
A technology demo for Forza Motorsport 4 was first revealed at Microsoft 's E3 2010 press conference . The live demonstration showcased a passing challenge while driving the 2010 Ferrari 458 Italia . Using the Microsoft Kinect sensor the player steered the car to pass opponents . Forza Motorsport 4 was formally unveiled at the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards . Turn 10 announced that the game would feature over 500 cars from 80 manufacturers , and confirmed that it will support Kinect as well as standard Xbox 360 controllers and racing wheels . Turn 10 officially partnered with the American Le Mans Series ( ALMS ) for two years from August 8 , 2011 . The partnership provides several in @-@ game ALMS themed events to complement the cars and tracks raced in the ALMS present in previous entries in the Forza Motorsport series . Unlike past games in the series , vehicles from the SCCA Pro Racing World Challenge were not present initially in Forza Motorsport 4 aside from a Mopar sponsored Dodge Viper . The Porsche download content pack added one World Challenge Porsche GT3 . More known content was leaked during IGN 's visit to E3 2011 , which revealed that there will be the option to create car clubs and share garages within that club , and that the game will support 16 player online racing . Hockenheimring , Indianapolis Motor Speedway and Infineon Raceway were added as three more real world tracks to the Forza series .
A Tesla Roadster was used to record the game 's tire sounds . The developers chose the Tesla due to its near @-@ silent electric motor which allowed them to record the sounds cleanly without engine or exhaust noise . Two microphones were mounted to the car and pointed at the tire for recording . Lance Hayes , the award winning composer for Forza Motorsport 3 , returned to score Forza Motorsport 4 , which features a combination of his music and other licensed artists . 15 songs were provided by Hayes for the user interface and some in @-@ race music . In speaking of the tone of the soundtrack , Hayes stated " The score has an increased cinematic feel as well as incorporating many of the styles ( downtempo , electronic , ambient ) that made the Forza Motorsport 3 OST a fan favorite . "
On August 26 , 2011 , at PAX Prime it was announced that Turn 10 would include the UNSC Warthog from Microsoft Studios ' Halo series in Forza Motorsport 4 's Autovista mode . The model of Warthog used in Forza Motorsport 4 is identical to the version in the then @-@ upcoming Halo 4 , although the vehicle is not drivable . Turn 10 has cited the vehicle 's exaggerated four wheel steering system , fictional futuristic technology and excessive height as reasons for its exclusion , stating " One , it 's got some technology that 's built into Halo that would have been a big investment for us to then build into the game only to support one vehicle . [ ... ] Technically we don 't support that because no real world cars in our game do . "
= = = Top Gear content = = =
Turn 10 has entered a multiple year partnership with the BBC 's Top Gear . The content provided by the BBC 's BAFTA award @-@ winning television show Top Gear , also includes narration from presenter Jeremy Clarkson during the virtual showroom ( Autovista ) navigation . The game features the Top Gear test track at Dunsfold Aerodrome , near the village of Cranleigh , UK . The first in @-@ game demo in Autovista was revealed at E3 2011 . An extra piece of content for Top Gear fans is the addition of two of the show 's three reasonably priced cars , the Kia Cee 'd , and the Suzuki Liana , while the TV show 's third such car , the Chevrolet Lacetti is not present . At E3 , players were able to complete laps of the Top Gear Test Track and record their own times . The Top Gear test track in Forza Motorsport 4 also features authentic camera angles during replays . The game features Top Gear " Car Football " ( only available online with Xbox Live ) and a Top Gear bowling mini game , both set on the official Top Gear test track .
The BBC Top Gear studio is part of the Home Space when viewing a car . The studio has the original TV series cars on plinths , such as the destroyed Toyota Hilux and Clarkson 's Fiat Coupé police car as seen in Series 11 , Episode 1 , and all of the original Top Gear logos , Stig posters , and lighting arrangements , that reflect off the paintwork of the car the player is viewing , similar to how they would on the real Top Gear show . A live action commercial was produced and contained a voice over track by Jeremy Clarkson . The commercial is set in a busy city in which a man merely wants to drive fast . As the man speeds through the city streets with police in pursuit Clarkson speaks of lovers of speed as an endangered species . He notes that places for these people to truly enjoy their cars are being taken away , then pitches the video game . The commercial was well received by the media . Jalopnik 's Ray Wert called the advert " epic " . The driving was performed by professional stunt driver Martin Ivanov .
Forza Motorsport 4 was featured in the U.S. version of Top Gear . At the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards professional stunt driver and show co @-@ host Tanner Foust and Rutledge Wood , car expert and co @-@ host were featured in the unveiling of the game . Foust drove a 2010 Dodge Challenger while Wood rode as a passenger . The advertisement showed Foust drifting around the environment and ended with a top @-@ down shot of the pad . On the pavement the word Forza was spelled out in tire marks . Additionally in the final episode of the show 's second season Wood and co @-@ host Adam Ferrara challenged Foust to a timed race at Infineon Raceway , otherwise known as Sears Point ; Foust drove the Lexus LF @-@ A around the real course while Wood and Ferrara drove the course in Forza Motorsport 4 .
= = = Limited Collector 's Edition = = =
Players who buy the Limited Collector 's Edition get a polished Steelbook case , with the 2012 BMW M5 as the cover car . They receive a V.I.P. car pack , including the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport and Noble M600 ; a 10 @-@ car American Muscle Car Pack , including the Plymouth GTX 426 HEMI and Chevrolet Nova SS , ( also available on Xbox Live on launch day ) ; a pre @-@ order exclusive Ship Bonus Car Pack , including the Koenigsegg Agera and Tesla Roadster Sport ; a five @-@ car BMW Designer Car Pack featuring five BMWs with unique exterior designs , including a BMW M6 designed by an entrant into an M6 design competition . This pack was available on launch day , along with a free download of the 2012 BMW M5 and a BMW theme for the Xbox 360 dashboard . In addition to this , Collector 's Edition owners are given a 96 @-@ page volume entitled ' Cars of Forza Motorsport 4 Presented By Top Gear ' , written by the editors from Top Gear magazine . This volume gives detailed information about many of the exotic cars found within the game , as well as photos ( both in game and real life ) of them . The description of the cars is exactly the same that Jeremy Clarkson narrates while using the Top Gear section found within the Autovista feature .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
Forza Motorsport 4 has received monthly downloadable content ( DLC ) packs since its release . Each month a number of new cars are bundled into a pack available for purchase . Players can also opt to purchase individual cars from a given pack should they not want all the vehicles presented that month . Players can purchase a Season Pass which entitles them to free downloads of the first six packs . The Top Gear Car Pack DLC was the first of the monthly packs to not be covered by the Season Pass . Unlike previous Forza titles which included Porsche cars through a sublicense from Electronic Arts , Forza Motorsport 4 did not initially include the Porsche marque . Instead , cars from Ruf Automobile , a German car manufacturer which builds their own models from bodies in white received from Porsche , were included . EA 's release of Shift 2 : Unleashed earlier in 2011 was regarded as an expansion into the simulation @-@ racing genre , and brought the Forza series into more direct competition with EA Games . On March 5 , 2012 it was announced there would be a downloadable car pack on May 22 that will feature 30 Porsche cars . The new 2013 SRT Viper GTS was included in Forza Motorsport 4 as free downloadable content on June 22 , 2012 . As a part of the June DLC pack , a 1940 Ford was added . This pack also includes an MG MGA , a Volkswagen Beetle , a BMW 507 , and a Maserati Ghibli . Sometime in late 2015 , all DLC packs were removed without warning , making it so anyone who has yet to purchase said DLC no longer has the chance , restricting the use of over 100 cars . This sparked cries of fury among many fans of the series , yet no plan to re @-@ instate the DLC has been considered , leaving its fate unknown ( although most likely gone ) .
= = = Music = = =
Forza Motorsport 4 features an original score by Lance Hayes , also known as DJ Drunken Master . Like Forza Motorsport 3 , the score consists mainly of ambient electronica music , although orchestral elements are incorporated into the music . Alongside the score , Forza Motorsport 4 contains a wide selection of licensed music from various artists . Although the game was released in 2011 , the score was not officially released until October 30 , 2013 on iTunes .
= = Reception = =
Forza Motorsport 4 was released to critical acclaim . It currently holds a score of 90 @.@ 66 % at GameRankings and 91 out of 100 at Metacritic , two video game review aggregate websites . It is ranked 36th in the top Xbox 360 games at GameRankings . It received eight perfect scores from reviews posted at Metacritic , with the lowest score being an 80 % approval rating . It also won the award for Most Anticipated E3 2011 game from Computer and Video Games . It ranked first in sales in the United Kingdom during the week of its release . As of April 30 , 2012 it ranked 23rd in sales in the UK .
Luke Reilly of IGN called the game " this generation 's premier racing simulator " . He praised the game 's Autovista mode , specifically mentioning the attention to detail given to even the smaller parts of the vehicles . He gave high marks for the commentary given by Jeremy Clarkson of the BBC 's Top Gear . He called Clarkson 's remarks " refreshingly candid " . Reilly did state , however that he wished the game offered evening races . Editor Martin Robinson of Eurogamer felt that the game was " easy to fall in love with . " Robinson noted that several cars benefit from the improved handling system , including the Ferrari 250 Testa Rossa . He contrasted the game to Gran Turismo 5 ( GT5 ) . He explained that GT5 emitted a " crazy love " from its developers and noted that Forza Motorsport 4 " often failed to embrace the emotion its subjects can inspire . " Official Xbox Magazine 's Ryan McCaffrey lauded the game 's 60 fps framerate and breathtaking views . He stated that this , along with excellent sound design , kept him " playing from the cockpit view the entire time . " He did note , however , that the game 's soundtrack felt out of place , and that he muted it during gameplay .
Jeff Gerstmann , co @-@ founder of Giant Bomb felt that while Forza Motorsport 4 was a " fantastic driving game " it merely felt like an incremental improvement on its predecessor . " I found myself getting a very ' annual sports game update ' vibe off of it , " stated Gerstmann . Justin Calvert of GameSpot agreed ; he said that Forza Motorsport 4 refines upon its predecessor , " but also feels just a little too familiar " . X @-@ Play 's Jason D 'Aprile also felt that Forza Motorsport 4 an improvement over Forza Motorsport 3 , " making it the absolute king of the road . " He cited the game 's audio and visuals , the amount of cars and tracks , the online play and variable skill level all as high points . However , D 'Aprile felt that the Kinect implementation was " a gimmick " and expressed disappointment that there was not more content involving Top Gear . Matthew Kato , reviewer for Game Informer was unimpressed by Forza 's Kinect integration as well . He felt that Kinect @-@ based racing " isn ’ t satisfying since your arms get tired and the game controls the gas and brake for you . "
1UP.com Associate Editor Jose Otero called Forza Motorsport 4 " the most accessible racer around . " He cited the new World Tour mode as a major improvement over Forza 3 ' Season Play . He noted that should a car in the player 's garage not be tuned correctly for an event the game can suggest the proper upgrades . For seasoned players this feature can be turned off . He felt that features like this , along with the returning Rewind feature which allows players to replay a poor section of their race , cater to all skill levels . The reviewer from Edge magazine compared Forza Motorsport 4 to its closest competitor , Gran Turismo 5 ( GT5 ) . He stated that though the Forza series " might be getting familiar , but it 's still a more exciting drive than [ GT5 ] . " The review stated that the improved handling dynamics , focus on the player and the game 's community , and strong accessibility made the game a " supercharged package . "
= Super Mario 64 DS =
Super Mario 64 DS ( スーパーマリオ64DS , Sūpā Mario Rokujūyon Dī Esu ) is a platform video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . The game was a launch title for the Nintendo DS , released in North America and Japan in 2004 ; it was later released in Europe and Australia in 2005 .
Nintendo , who produced the original version of the game , first displayed the game as a multiplayer demonstration at the 2004 E3 titled Super Mario 64 × 4 . In addition to revised graphics , the remake includes new characters , a multiplayer mode , and several minigames independent of the main adventure . As with the original title , the plot of Super Mario 64 DS centers on rescuing Princess Peach from Bowser , with slight changes to accommodate the additional characters . Yoshi is the initial protagonist in this version , with Mario , Luigi , and Wario as unlockable characters .
Overall , the game was critically and commercially successful . It won video game awards , and received positive comments from the gaming press , that focused on elements of the single @-@ player mode . The multiplayer mode and lack of analog controls used in Super Mario 64 were common complaints among reviewers . The game sold well in territories , was ranked on best @-@ selling lists , and , as of September 30 , 2015 , has sold 11 @.@ 06 million copies worldwide .
= = Plot = =
The game begins with Mario receiving a letter from Princess Peach inviting him to come to her castle for a cake she has baked for him . Mario arrives at Peach 's castle , along with Luigi and Wario . The trio disappear as they enter the castle , and Lakitu , the game 's camera operator , informs Yoshi of the disappearance . Yoshi explores Peach 's castle to find Mario , Luigi , Wario and Peach .
Scattered throughout the castle are paintings and secret walls , which act as portals to other worlds where Bowser and his minions guard the Power Stars . After recovering most of the power stars and defeating Bowser 's minions , Yoshi acquires keys that access other areas of the castle , where he finds Mario and his friends captured .
First , Yoshi defeats Goomboss and frees Mario as they continue searching the castle to find more Power Stars . Second , Mario defeats King Boo and frees Luigi who uses " invisibility power " to get Wario 's key . Third , Luigi defeats Chief Chilly and frees Wario using the key . Mario and his friends then tackle three obstacle courses , with each ensuing a battle with Bowser . After defeating him twice , they received a key that opens even more levels of the castle .
After collecting 150 power stars , Mario and his friends reach the highest area of the castle , where they ensue a final battle against Bowser . Eventually , after Bowser 's defeat , Mario and his friends return to Peach 's castle , where they free Peach from a stained @-@ glass window above the entrance . As a reward for saving Peach , she kisses Mario on the nose and bakes the cake she had promised . The game ends when Mario , Luigi , Peach , Yoshi and Wario wave goodbye to the player as Lakitu films and then flies away . A photo with Peach 's cake then appears .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Mario 64 DS is a 3D platformer in which the player controls four different characters through numerous levels to collect 150 Power Stars , 30 more than the original game . Each level is an enclosed world in which the player is free to wander in all directions and discover the environment without time limits . The worlds are inhabited with enemies that attack the characters as well as friendly creatures that provide assistance , offer information , or ask for help . The player gathers stars in each course ; some stars only appear after completing certain tasks , often hinted at by the name of the course . These challenges include defeating a boss , solving puzzles , racing an opponent , and gathering coins . As the player collects stars , more areas of the castle become accessible .
Power @-@ ups in Super Mario 64 DS take the form of special hats resembling those worn by Mario , Luigi , and Wario ( voiced by Charles Martinet ) , and are available in some levels . Acquiring one such hat will change the player 's character into the corresponding character . The hats fall off if the character is hit , but can be reacquired . Yoshi is able to start a level wearing the hat of any of the available characters . Another power @-@ up item , the " Power Flower " , provides each character with a different ability : Mario is able to float , similar to Super Mario World 's balloon item ; Luigi becomes invisible and transparent , similar to the invisible hat in the Nintendo 64 version ; Wario becomes coated by metal , which makes him temporarily invincible to enemy attacks and sink underwater , similar to the metal hat in the original version ; and Yoshi is able to breathe fire . Each ability is necessary to complete specific areas in the game . Other items include the " Super Mushroom " , which increases the character 's size and strength , and the feather , that only Mario can get , and which allows the character to fly in the same fashion as in Super Mario 64 . However , in multiplayer VS . Mode , other characters can get wings , in Yoshi 's case , he grows wings out of his body like in Super Mario World .
The game uses both of the system 's screens to offer new options . The top screen displays the normal gameplay , while the bottom touchscreen can function as an overhead map and touch controls . The overhead map displays the current course the player traverses and displays item locations . The touch controls include virtual buttons , which rotate the top screen 's camera angle , and directional character controls , which can operate with either the DS stylus or the player 's thumb using the DS wrist strap . In addition to the single @-@ player adventure , the game includes 36 minigames and a multiplayer mode . Minigames are made accessible by catching rabbits in the main game . All minigames use the touchscreen to play , and are based on different themes : racing , card games , puzzles , and so forth . The multiplayer mode uses the wireless DS Download Play where up to four players compete against each other using Green , Red , Blue , and Yellow Yoshi ( voiced by Kazumi Totaka ) — character hats appear in the stage allowing players to transform into either Mario , Luigi , or Wario . Wario can stun opponents by picking them up , swinging them , and throwing them .
= = Development = =
Super Mario 64 DS was developed by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS . It is a remake of the Nintendo 64 launch title Super Mario 64 , with the game 's 3D engine mirroring many visual effects used in the original game . Graphical changes include a higher polygon count for character models and the lack of texture filtering . Originally titled " Super Mario 64 × 4 " , it was first shown as a multiplayer demonstration at the 2004 E3 before the Nintendo DS was released . A few months later , Nintendo announced an actual game — along with many others — was in development . At the Nintendo DS conference on October 7 , 2004 , the game was on demonstration again and new information was revealed ; the name was changed to Super Mario 64 DS and four different characters ( Mario , Luigi , Yoshi , and Wario ) would be used in the main , single @-@ player adventure . The demonstration was a more complete version of the game than the E3 version — the game 's development was 90 % complete at this time — and highlighted the multiple characters in the single @-@ player mode and included minigames ; the multiplayer mode , however , was not present . Prior to the conference , the appearance of the box art on GameStop 's product page caused speculation the game would be a launch title . Nintendo confirmed the rumor by announcing at the conference that the game would be a launch title of the Nintendo DS in North America and Japan . As the game 's release approached , the release schedule of launch titles altered ; many titles were delayed , while others were announced to be released a few days before the Nintendo DS . Super Mario 64 DS was the only game scheduled to be released with the system . Koji Kondo provided the music for the game , while the voice actors from Super Mario 64 returned as well and this time , Kazumi Totaka joined the cast , playing the role of Yoshi .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
Super Mario 64 DS has been commercially successful . Following its release in Japan , the game sold 241 @,@ 000 copies by December 19 , 2004 , and was the fifth best @-@ selling title on the weekly sales chart of that week . Sales continued to increase , and Super Mario 64 DS had sold 639 @,@ 000 units by February 20 , 2005 . The game frequently appeared on Amazon.com 's sales charts . In the first week of June 2006 , it was listed as the sixth best @-@ selling Nintendo DS title , and had risen to number three by the last week of the month . The game appeared again near the end of July 2006 as the eighth best @-@ selling title . At the beginning of 2008 , Amazon.com charts listed the game as the seventh best @-@ selling Nintendo DS title in the United States . By November 2006 , the game had sold over one million units in Europe , and , by the end 2007 , over two million copies in the United States . As of September 30 , 2015 , Super Mario 64 DS has sold 11 @.@ 06 million copies worldwide .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The game has won awards and met with overall positive reviews from video game journalists . Upon its release , IGN labeled it as an " Editor 's Choice " and awarded it " Game of the Month " for the Nintendo DS , citing the game as a " great achievement " of the system 's capability . In 2005 , the game won a Golden Joystick Award for best handheld game of year . Prior to the game 's release , Craig Harris of IGN reviewed the early demonstration . He commented on the accurate recreation of the original graphics , and stated that the small Nintendo DS screen helps hide any visual flaws . Harris criticized the game 's controls calling them a little " sluggish " and " clumsy " . Though he praised the graphics and new gameplay additions , Harris expressed disappointment that the Mario launch title for the new system was a remake instead of a full game . IGN 's Anoop Gantayat anticipated the game would be a big hit among American video game enthusiasts . In Japan , Famitsu ranked Super Mario 64 DS the 29th most wanted title .
Reviewers praised the game 's accurate recreation of the Nintendo 64 title , additional features , and upgrades . Phil Theobald of GameSpy lauded Super Mario 64 DS , calling it " fantastic " and complimenting the new features : minigames , use of a second screen , and extra stars . He also commented that the gameplay of the original game holds up ten years after its original release . Harris said the original feel of Super Mario 64 is retained , while the new challenges and features build upon it in a way that added to the game 's longevity . He complimented the graphics and audio , and considered the game a good demonstration of the Nintendo DS 's capabilities . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot also complimented the graphics , specifically the higher polygon count and smooth frame rate . He called Super Mario 64 DS a " great update of a classic game " , and felt the changes and additional features offered a new experience to fans of the original . In contrast , 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish felt the game did not offer enough new content to warrant a purchase . He praised the inclusion of extra characters , calling them a " nice twist " , but concluded his review by calling the game a " poorly @-@ conceived port " that should be played on the original system .
Other criticism focused on the game 's controls and multiplayer mode . Theobald felt the lack of an analog stick made the controls more difficult than the original game and required a short period of adjustment . He further stated that the digital pad and touchscreen 's virtual analog control were " tricky " and required practice . Harris echoed similar comments and noted the touchscreen does not provide physical feedback like an analog stick . He added the game was never intended to be played without proper analog controls . Gerstmann referred to the multiplayer mode as " uneventful " and considered it lacking longevity , but commented that it was a good
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extra that demonstrated the system 's wireless multiplayer capabilities . Theobald agreed it was a nice addition , but considered it a " diversion " that players would tire of quickly .
= Apogee Stadium =
Apogee Stadium is a college football stadium located at the junction of Interstate 35 East and West in Denton , Texas . Opened in 2011 , it is home to the University of North Texas ( UNT ) Mean Green football team , which competes in Conference USA . The facility replaced Fouts Field , where the school 's football program had been based since 1952 .
The stadium was proposed by the University of North Texas System Board of Regents after the 2002 New Orleans Bowl . Designed by HKS , Inc . , it was constructed at a cost of $ 78 million after a contentious student body election in 2008 . It was originally named " Mean Green Stadium " , but was renamed when ResNet provider Apogee purchased the naming rights in 2011 . The stadium hosted its first major event on September 10 , 2011 when the Mean Green lost 48 – 23 against the University of Houston Cougars . That game 's attendance of 28 @,@ 075 holds the record for the stadium ; the Mean Green have never sold out a home game in their five seasons at the venue . Official home attendance figures for the team 's first five seasons at Apogee Stadium averaged around 18 @,@ 492 per game , which is slightly under 60 % of its capacity of 30 @,@ 850 .
The facility includes various amenities , including a press box , luxury boxes , and an alumni pavilion . It also uses environmental technology ; it is the first newly built stadium to achieve Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Platinum certification . It can be reached by road , but because of limited parking and traffic congestion on game days , many attendees park on the northeast side of Interstate 35E and cross a pedestrian bridge to reach the stadium . Others use public transportation to reach the facility on game days .
= = History = =
= = = Early planning and finance = = =
In September 2002 , the University of North Texas purchased 19 acres ( 7 @.@ 7 ha ) on the opposite side of Interstate 35 from the main campus in Denton , Texas from Liberty Christian School for $ 5 @.@ 1 million . The university also owned an adjacent 158 @-@ acre ( 64 ha ) golf course . Following the football team 's victory at the 2002 New Orleans Bowl , school administrators announced their intent to build an assortment of new athletic facilities on the properties , now called the Mean Green Village . These plans included a new football stadium to replace Fouts Field , where the school 's football team had been based since 1952 . Richard Raefs , vice chancellor of administrative affairs at UNT , stated that that the project 's primary objective was the consolidation of academic facilities and that renovating Fouts Field would cost $ 8 million more than building an entirely new stadium .
The University of North Texas System Board of Regents released a long @-@ term campus master plan in 2005 that included a proposed new stadium with a capacity of 35 @,@ 000 and an estimated cost " in excess of $ 35 million " . UNT athletic director Rick Villareal stated that the university would use only private fundraising , rather than another increase in students ' fees , to pay for any new facilities , including a stadium . He projected that the new stadium would cost $ 40 million and seat 50 @,@ 000 spectators . The athletic department changed that capacity estimate in 2007 to 32 @,@ 000 with the possibility of later expansion to 50 @,@ 000 .
= = = Athletics fee referendum = = =
In 2008 , the athletic department tried again to increase the athletics fee to pay for the new stadium , which now had an estimated cost of $ 60 million . UNT Student Government Association ( SGA ) student senators voted to hold a student election on the referendum to approve the new fee , which amounted to a net increase of $ 7 per credit hour for each student , or approximately $ 840 per student over the course of four years . According to state law , students cannot pay for more than half the cost of a stadium .
The athletic department made a concerted effort to promote the higher fee to students , and supporters suggested hiring street preachers or troubadours to promote the election . Making the case for the fee prior to the election , athletic director Rick Villareal said that the stadium was " not some arms race for us " and that the fee 's objective was not just to keep up with other universities .
The referendum was held between October 13 – 17 , 2008 . Students voted for or against the proposal :
In order for the University of North Texas to have a better Athletic program , which in turn can lead to national exposure and increased recognition of UNT ; I agree to a dedicated Athletic Fee not to exceed $ 10 per semester credit hour , capped at 15 hours . Once the Athletic Fee is implemented , the Student Service Fee will be reduced by $ 3 per semester credit hour . The Athletic Fee shall not be implemented until the semester the new football stadium is complete , which is expected to be fall 2011 .
On October 21 , 2008 , the UNT SGA announced that in one of the largest turnouts in the school 's history , student voters approved a dedicated athletic fee to fund the new stadium . Almost 14 % of the student body voted , with 2 @,@ 829 students ( 58 @.@ 1 % ) voting for the increase and 2 @,@ 038 ( 41 @.@ 9 % ) voting against it . After the election , the cost estimate for the stadium 's construction increased by $ 18 million to $ 78 million , $ 38 million more than the 2005 estimate . At a press conference with head football coach Todd Dodge , Villarreal stated that " there 's an arms race going on with facilities . This one will put us up there with everybody else . " In February 2009 , the school 's chapter of Students for a Democratic Society unsuccessfully attempted to petition for a re @-@ vote on the referendum .
Following the election , Representative Myra Crownover and Senator Craig Estes submitted companion bills during the eighty @-@ first Texas Legislature to approve the fee increase . According to the report submitted by Crownover to the state 's Higher Education Committee , the fee would not begin until construction of the new stadium was complete . As a result of the fee , the athletics department would collect approximately $ 8 @.@ 7 million from students in 2012 , of which $ 3 @.@ 9 million would be put towards payment of the new stadium . Estes ' bill was approved by the Texas House and Senate , and was signed into law by Governor Rick Perry on May 23 , 2009 . Prior to the groundbreaking ceremony on November 21 , 2009 , President of UNT Gretchen Bataille said that of the approximately $ 78 million needed to pay for the new stadium , the department had raised $ 5 million . In 2015 , the eighty @-@ fourth Texas Legislature passed a bill allowing the Board of Regents to raise the fee by up to 10 % each year beyond the original limit of $ 10 . In September 2015 , the Board of Regents approved an increase in the fee , raising it to $ 11 per credit hour .
= = = Construction and naming rights = = =
In February 2008 , the school selected HKS , Inc. to provide architectural and design services for the proposed new stadium . The university hired Manhattan Construction Company in 2009 to provide pre @-@ construction and construction services . After leveling the area , Manhattan installed a steel @-@ reinforced concrete skeleton for the stands . Subsequently , the firm flattened the playing field area and installed artificial turf . In later phases , glass and brick were added to the facility 's luxury suites . Construction officially finished on July 20 , 2011 .
On August 11 , 2011 , UNT announced a deal with Austin @-@ based ResNet provider Apogee for the naming rights to the new stadium , and the name was changed to " Apogee Stadium " . According to the contract , Apogee will pay $ 11 @.@ 8 million of the $ 20 million deal in cash over 20 years , including graduated annual payments beginning at $ 312 @,@ 000 and ending in three payments of $ 1 million . The remaining $ 8 @.@ 29 million will be in the form of in @-@ kind services . As part of the contract , Apogee also received one luxury suite in the new stadium and premium tickets to other UNT events .
= = = Opening season = = =
The stadium hosted its first game on September 10 , 2011 , when the Mean Green football team lost 48 – 23 against the University of Houston Cougars . Despite the concerted efforts of the university and the athletic department , the first home game at the new stadium did not sell out , and the game attracted 28 @,@ 075 spectators , 2 @,@ 775 fewer than full capacity . Although attendees ' reception to the opening game was generally positive , attendance dropped to 21 @,@ 181 for the second home game against the Indiana University Hoosiers . By the third home game against the Florida Atlantic University Owls , attendance had dropped to a season @-@ low of 13 @,@ 142 . To promote the final home game of the season against the Middle Tennessee State University Blue Raiders , the university offered free tickets to some athletic booster club members , and head football coach Dan McCarney promoted the game with an op @-@ ed in the school 's student newspaper , the North Texas Daily . The official attendance for the final game was 15 @,@ 962 , bringing the total home attendance for the year to 113 @,@ 186 , a new record for the Mean Green . For the 2011 season , the stadium averaged 18 @,@ 864 spectators per home game , which is 61 @.@ 15 % of the facility 's capacity of 30 @,@ 850 . The team ended the season ranked 98th out of 120 Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) teams in average home attendance . It finished with five wins and seven losses , its best record since the 2004 season .
= = = Later events = = =
For the five home games of the 2012 season , average game attendance saw a slight increase to 18 @,@ 927 , giving the Mean Green the 103rd highest attendance out of 124 FBS teams . The venue hosted its first nationally televised game on October 16 , 2012 when the Mean Green defeated the Louisiana – Lafayette Ragin ' Cajuns 30 – 23 on ESPN2 . The broadcast had an estimated 366 @,@ 000 viewers , earning a Nielsen rating of 0 @.@ 3 . The 2013 season began with a home game celebrating 100 years of football at North Texas ; an announced crowd of 21 @,@ 975 watched the Mean Green defeat the Idaho Vandals 40 – 6 . For the six home games of the 2013 season , average game attendance at Apogee was 21 @,@ 030 . The venue averaged 19 @,@ 271 attendees per home game during the 2014 season and 13 @,@ 631 for the 2015 season .
= = = Other uses = = =
Other events at the stadium include an annual Independence Day fireworks show , hosted by the local Kiwanis organization . The stadium also hosted Bands of America regional marching band competitions in 2012 and 2014 The facility also hosts a number of high school football contests each year , including playoff games . The venue hosted a 5K run in 2016 , coinciding with that year 's spring game .
= = = Largest crowds = = =
= = Structure and facilities = =
Apogee Stadium occupies 426 @,@ 300 square feet ( 39 @,@ 600 m2 ) on 46 acres ( 19 ha ) of land . Stands on the north , east , and west sides of the stadium seat 30 @,@ 850 and form a horseshoe shape around a standard American football field . The field 's surface is PowerBlade HP + , a type of artificial turf comprising synthetic fibers with a rubber and sand infill . Unlike Fouts Field , Apogee Stadium does not have an all @-@ weather running track , and spectators are set approximately 33 feet ( 10 m ) closer to the field . A separate 2 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 230 m2 ) pavilion for alumni is located just north of the stadium . Parts of the stadium 's exterior are covered with 48 @,@ 320 square feet ( 4 @,@ 489 m2 ) of recyclable silver aluminum composite panels , with an additional 1 @,@ 334 square feet ( 123 @.@ 9 m2 ) of green panels for accent .
The home side stands are located on the west side of the stadium . They include 21 luxury suites , which the athletic department sells for $ 20 @,@ 000 per year plus a " 6- or 7 @-@ figure gift to the Stadium Fund " , and 754 club seats , which can be purchased with a one @-@ time gift of $ 3 @,@ 125 to $ 12 @,@ 500 , in addition to an annual $ 500 donation to the athletic department and the cost of season tickets . The side also includes a press box , named the Bill Mercer Press Club , in honor of the school 's longtime play @-@ by @-@ play announcer . Barnes & Noble College Booksellers operates a Mean Green Gear Store , which is located underneath the stands at Gate 2 on the west side of the stadium .
The stands on the east side of the field are generally reserved for student seating ; behind them is a path @-@ defined tailgating area called " The Hill " . The seating behind the north end zone forms a distinctive " V " shape intended to resemble an eagle 's wings in flight . The tips of the " wings " reach 106 feet ( 32 m ) above the field . There is no seating behind the south end zone , but the area includes a 47 @-@ by @-@ 27 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 3 m × 8 @.@ 2 m ) scoreboard and a 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) bronze bust of an eagle . The bust is named " Spiriki " , and was donated by members of the Geezles , the school 's first social fraternity . On game days , the area also includes a scale replica cannon named " Boomer " , which is fired each time the team scores .
= = = Environmental design = = =
In 2008 , president of UNT Gretchen Bataille signed the American College and University President 's Climate Commitment ( ACUPCC ) to achieve carbon neutrality by 2040 . As part of that process , all new university buildings and facilities are required to achieve a minimum of Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Silver certification . While planning the stadium 's construction , the university consulted HKS , Inc. to design it to meet a number of green building standards and hired FocusEGD , an environmental graphic design firm , to design many of the stadium 's graphic elements . As a result , Apogee Stadium uses various forms of environmental technology . To reduce water consumption and urban runoff , the facility includes a 85 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 900 m2 ) water retention system , 338 @,@ 000 square feet ( 31 @,@ 400 m2 ) of permeable paving , and low @-@ flow plumbing systems . To minimize the human impact on the environment , developers took advantage of the landscape around the stadium whenever possible .
The facility also includes three Northern Power Systems 100 wind turbines , which were installed in February 2012 . To fund the turbine project , the Texas State Energy Conservation Office allocated $ 2 million in federal stimulus funds to the university . The 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) turbines each have three 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) blades and are expected to produce a combined 450 @,@ 000 kilowatt @-@ hours ( 1 @,@ 600 GJ ) of energy per year , which would account for roughly six percent of the athletics department 's power grid in the area . The turbines are also expected to offset 323 metric tons ( 323 @,@ 000 kg ) of carbon dioxide emissions .
The stadium 's sustainable design features have earned praise and awards from media outlets and industry groups . In 2011 , Apogee Stadium became the first newly built stadium to achieve LEED Platinum certification , the highest level awarded by the U.S. Green Building Council . The points @-@ based ratings system measures various environmental aspects including water efficiency , energy conservation , indoor air quality , and sustainability . Dallas Business Journal named the stadium the " Green Project Deal of the Year " in 2012 , and Engineering News @-@ Record named it the year 's " Best Green Project " . The stadium was named as one of the four finalists during the World Stadium Awards Congress for " most sustainable stadium design concept " , but lost to the London Olympic Stadium .
= = Transportation and location = =
Apogee Stadium is located on Bonnie Brae Street at the junction of Interstate 35 East and West in the southeast part of Denton , Texas . It is part of the Mean Green Village , a 175 @-@ acre ( 71 ha ) parcel of land located south of UNT 's main campus that includes various athletic department facilities . In February 2003 , the school conducted studies to identify potential traffic problems in the area . The results of the studies indicated that the intersection of Bonnie Brae Street and Airport Road northwest of the facility represented a potential major traffic hazard , since the two @-@ lane Bonnie Brae Street could not accommodate the additional game day traffic , and Airport Road would be needed for access to Denton Municipal Airport to the north . Initially , university officials planned to address some concerns by rerouting season ticket holders through the surrounding neighborhoods , but in 2009 , residents expressed concerns that the stadium could clog traffic systems in the area . Consequently , the City of Denton passed an ordinance to shut down the area streets on game days to anyone without a resident 's permit . The university began the process of transferring the right @-@ of @-@ way surrounding Bonnie Brae Street to the city in 2012 to allow for the road 's expansion from two lanes to four . The project is expected to improve the region 's transportation system between Interstate 35 East and U.S. Route 377 to the south .
To encourage the use of sustainable transportation , developers limited the quantity of parking spaces on site . The facility includes 1 @,@ 758 parking spaces adjacent to the stadium , but to access it on the day of an event , most attendees park at Fouts Field on the opposite side of Interstate 35E and walk across a pedestrian bridge , which leads to the stadium . The university announced plans to build the bridge in August 2011 to address another area of the concern from the 2002 studies . Construction on the $ 2 @.@ 5 million project , a joint venture between the university and the Texas Department of Transportation , began in February 2012 . Although originally expected to open for the football team 's first home game of the 2012 season , construction delays moved the opening date to October 16 for the third home game of the season .
In June 2016 , the Fort Worth Transportation Authority announced its intent to begin operating a commuter bus service on weekdays from Fort Worth Intermodal Transportation Center to the stadium parking lot . The Denton County Transportation Authority ( DCTA ) is expected to review the proposal on August 22 , 2016 . On game days , UNT football game attendees can also take the DCTA A @-@ train to the Euline Brock Downtown Denton Transit Center and take a shuttle to Fouts Field , where they can walk to the stadium . Beginning two hours prior to the beginning of each game and ending one hour after the game is over , the Mean Green Game Day shuttle also stops at various locations in Denton , including the Denton County Courthouse @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Square and the southeast corner of the university . In September 2013 , the school announced a partnership with DCTA to provide free trips on the A @-@ train and shuttle rides to the stadium for football game attendees wearing UNT apparel .
= 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania =
1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania was an oral ultimatum presented to Juozas Urbšys , Foreign Minister of Lithuania , by Joachim von Ribbentrop , Foreign Minister of Nazi Germany , on 20 March 1939 . The Germans demanded that Lithuania give up the Klaipėda Region ( also known as the Memel Territory ) , which had been detached from Germany after World War I , or the Wehrmacht would invade Lithuania . After years of rising tension between Lithuania and Germany , increasing pro @-@ Nazi propaganda in the region , and continued German expansion , the demand was expected . The ultimatum was issued just five days after the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia . The four signatories of the 1924 Klaipėda Convention , which had guaranteed the protection of the status quo in the region , did not offer any material assistance . The United Kingdom and France followed a policy of appeasement , while Italy and Japan openly supported Germany . Lithuania was forced to accept the ultimatum on 22 March . For Germany it was the last territorial acquisition before World War II ; for Lithuania it was a major downturn in economy and morale ; for Europe it was further escalation in pre @-@ war tensions .
= = Klaipėda dispute = =
Klaipėda ( German : Memel ) , an important seaport in East Prussia , was detached from Germany by Article 28 of the Treaty of Versailles and was governed by the Allies according to Article 99 . France assumed administration of the region while Lithuania continued to lobby for its control , claiming that it should belong to Lithuania as it had a significant Lithuanian population ( see Lithuania Minor ) and was that country 's only access to the Baltic Sea . Poland also laid claim to the territory . As the Allies were hesitant to make a decision and it seemed that the region would remain a free state much like the Free City of Danzig , Lithuania took the initiative and organized the Klaipėda Revolt in January 1923 . Soviet Russia and Germany supported the action . The region , as an autonomous territory with its own parliament ( Klaipėda Parliament ) , was attached to Lithuania . The region covered about 2 @,@ 400 km ² and had a population of approximately 140 @,@ 000 .
During the 1920s , Lithuania and Germany maintained a relatively normal relationship as they were united by anti @-@ Polish sentiment . In January 1928 , after long and difficult negotiations , Germany and Lithuania signed a border treaty , which left Klaipėda on the Lithuanian side . However , tensions began rising in the 1930s after the Weimar Republic was replaced with Nazi Germany . An especially tense period came in February 1934 when the Lithuanian government arrested dozens of pro @-@ Nazi activists . In response to these arrests and trials , Germany declared a boycott of Lithuanian agricultural imports . The boycott caused an economic crisis in Suvalkija ( southern Lithuania ) , where farmers organized violent protests . However , after the plebiscite in Saar most of the pro @-@ Nazi prisoners received amnesty . In the wake of the amnesties , Lithuanian prestige suffered both abroad and in Klaipėda , allowing Germany to strengthen its influence in the region .
= = Rising tension = =
In the spring of 1938 Adolf Hitler personally stated that gaining Klaipėda was one of his highest priorities , second only to gaining the Sudetenland . When Poland presented its ultimatum to Lithuania in March 1938 , Germany openly declared that in the event of a military clash between Poland and Lithuania , its army would invade Lithuania to capture Klaipėda and a large portion of western Lithuania . A week after Lithuania accepted the Polish ultimatum , Germany presented an eleven @-@ point memorandum that demanded freedom of action for pro @-@ German activists in the region and a lessening of Lithuanian influence there . Its points were worded in a deliberately vague manner , which would enable Germany to accuse Lithuania of violations . Lithuania chose to postpone dealing with the problem , hoping that the international situation would improve . In the meantime it hoped to give the German population no reasons for complaint .
This tactic did not prove successful : pro @-@ Nazi propaganda and protests were rampant , even among the Lithuanian population , and the local government was powerless to prevent them . The Nazis physically harassed Lithuanian organizations . On 1 November 1938 Lithuania was pressured into lifting martial law and press censorship . During the December elections to the Klaipėda Parliament , pro @-@ German parties received 87 % of votes ( 25 seats out of 29 ) in the Klaipėda territory . Dr. Ernst Neumann , the chief defendant in the 1934 trials , was released from prison in February 1938 and became the leader of Klaipėda 's pro @-@ German movement . In December he was received by Adolf Hitler , who assured him that the Klaipėda issue would be resolved by March or April 1939 . Neumann and other Nazi activists claimed the right of self @-@ determination for the region and demanded that Lithuania open negotiations over the political status of Klaipėda . The parliament was expected to vote for a return to Germany when it convened on 25 March 1939 . Germany 's official channels maintained silence on the issue . Germany hoped that Lithuania would voluntarily give up the troubled region , and a public stance could have disturbed the sensitive discussions it was then engaged in with Poland over an anti @-@ Communist alliance against the Soviet Union .
= = The ultimatum = =
Rumors had reached the Lithuanian government to the effect that Germany had specific plans to take over Klaipėda . On 12 March Foreign Minister Urbšys represented Lithuania at the coronation of Pope Pius XII in Rome . On his return to Lithuania he stopped in Berlin with the hope of clarifying the growing rumors . On 20 March Ribbentrop agreed to meet with Urbšys , but not with Kazys Škirpa , who was asked to wait in another room . The conversation lasted for about 40 minutes . Ribbentrop demanded the return of Klaipėda to Germany and threatened military action . Urbšys relayed the verbal ultimatum to the Lithuanian government . Because the ultimatum was never set down in writing and did not include a formal deadline , some historians have downplayed its import , describing it as a " set of demands " rather than as an ultimatum . However , it was made clear that force would be used should Lithuania resist , and it was warned not to seek help from other nations . While a clear deadline was not given , Lithuania was told to make a speedy decision and that any clashes or German casualties would inevitably provoke a response from the German military .
Lithuania secretly informed the signatories of the Klaipėda Convention about these demands , since technically Lithuania could not transfer Klaipėda without the approval of the signatories . Italy and Japan supported Germany in the matter , while the United Kingdom and France expressed sympathy for Lithuania but chose not to offer any material assistance . They followed a well @-@ publicized policy of appeasing Hitler . The UK treated the issue in the same way as it had treated the Sudeten Crisis and made no plans to assist Lithuania or the other Baltic States if they were attacked by Germany . The Soviet Union , while supporting Lithuania in principle , did not wish to disrupt its relations with Germany at that point , since it was contemplating an alliance with the Nazis . Without any material international support Lithuania had no choice but to accept the ultimatum . Lithuanian diplomacy characterized the concession as a " necessary evil " that would enable Lithuania to preserve its independence and maintained the hope that it was merely a temporary retreat .
= = Acceptance = =
At 1 : 00 am on 23 March Urbšys and Ribbentrop signed a treaty , effective 22 March , stating that Lithuania was voluntarily transferring the Klaipėda Region to Germany . The treaty comprised five articles :
= = Aftermath = =
Before the treaty was signed , German soldiers had already entered the port of Klaipėda . Adolf Hitler , on board the cruiser Deutschland , personally toured the city and gave a short speech . The armada sailing to Klaipėda included the cruiser Admiral Graf Spee , the light cruisers Nürnberg , Leipzig , and Köln , two destroyer squadrons , three torpedo boat flotillas , and one tender flotilla . At the time the Lithuanian navy had only one warship , the Prezidentas Smetona , a 580 @-@ ton converted minesweeper . While the Germans were celebrating the return of the city , European politicians expressed fears that the Free City of Danzig would be Hitler 's next target .
President Antanas Smetona 's unconditional acceptance of a second ultimatum in the space of a little over one year became a major source of dissatisfaction with his authoritarian rule . The German ultimatum triggered a political crisis : the passive cabinet of Vladas Mironas was replaced by a cabinet headed by General Jonas Černius . For the first time since the 1926 coup d 'état , the government included members of the opposition : Leonas Bistras , of the Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party , was named Minister of Education and Jurgis Krikščiūnas , of the Lithuanian Popular Peasants ' Union , was named Minister of Agriculture . Because other parties were banned , Bistras and Krikščiūnas were officially billed as independent private citizens . Four generals were now members of the cabinet as well . However , even the looming international crisis did not induce Lithuanian politicians to unite , and they continued to engage in petty political disputes .
The loss of its only access to the Baltic Sea was a major blow to the Lithuanian economy . Between 70 % and 80 % of foreign trade passed through Klaipėda . The region , which represented only about 5 % of Lithuania 's territory , contained a third of its industry . Lithuania also lost its heavy investments in the port 's infrastructure . About 10 @,@ 000 refugees , mostly Jews , left the region and sought shelter and support from the Lithuanian government . Lithuanians doubted the fate of their country : in March – April withdrawals of deposits in banks and credit institutions totaled almost 20 % of total deposits . After the loss of Klaipėda , Lithuania drifted into the German sphere of influence , especially in terms of trade . At the end of 1939 , Germany accounted for 75 % of Lithuanian exports and for 86 % of its imports . Germany and the Soviet Union concluded the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact in 1939 , dividing Eastern Europe into their respective spheres of influence . Not surprisingly , Lithuania was , at first , assigned to Germany . The Nazis went so far as to suggest a German – Lithuanian military alliance against Poland and promised to return the Vilnius Region , but Lithuania held to its policy of strict neutrality .
= Neil Brooks =
Neil Brooks ( born 27 July 1962 ) is an Australian former sprint freestyle swimmer best known for winning the 4 × 100 m medley relay at the 1980 Olympics in Moscow as part of the Quietly Confident Quartet . Brooks was as much known for his swimming achievements as he was for disciplinary incidents . He often found himself in conflict with officialdom and threatened with sanctions . His international career ended when he was suspended for drinking 46 cans of beer on the return flight to Australia after the 1986 Commonwealth Games . In retirement , he became a news presenter and sports commentator , but was fired amid alcohol problems .
Born in England , Brooks emigrated to Australia as a toddler and started swimming lessons after nearly drowning in a childhood accident . After initially being known for his lack of technique , Brooks quickly rose through the youth ranks . Brooks made his debut at the Australian Championships in 1976 , but it was not until 1979 that he medalled at national level and made his debut for Australia at a FINA ( Fédération Internationale de Natation ) Swimming World Cup meet . In 1980 , he gained prominence by breaking the Australian record in the 100 m freestyle and being invited to a national team camp . There he had his first clash with officialdom , walking out after accusing the officials of neglecting him . He then qualified for the Australian team for the 1980 Moscow Olympics , defying political pressure to boycott the Games in the wake of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan . Arriving in Moscow , Brooks ' experience in the 100 m freestyle was an unpleasant one , suffering an asthma attack and missing the final . The peak of his swimming career came in the 4 × 100 m medley relay , when he caught and passed the Soviet Union 's Sergey Kopliakov during the anchor leg to seal a narrow victory for Australia . This victory remains the only time that the United States did not win the event at Olympic level .
Following the Olympics , Brooks was expelled from the Australian Institute of Sport by Don Talbot for disciplinary reasons . He accepted a swimming scholarship at the University of Arkansas , where he enjoyed the more liberal disciplinary standards . He returned to Australia for the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane and again raised the ire of officials during a preparatory training camp . After lobbying for improved accommodation conditions , Brooks was involved in a physical altercation with the team manager . As a result , he was given a suspension that was to take effect after the Commonwealth Games . However , his teammates protested and threatened to walk out , resulting in the ban being rescinded . Despite the turbulent preparation , Brooks had a successful meet , winning the 100 m freestyle and anchoring the 4 × 100 m freestyle and medley relays to gold medals . Brooks competed at his second Olympics in Los Angeles in 1984 Games , where he won silver in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay and bronze for swimming the heats of the medley relay . Brooks ' international career ended at the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh with silver in the 100 m freestyle and gold in the freestyle relay . Brooks retired after being suspended for his drinking binge during the return trip . He later became a swimming commentator but was sacked in 1998 after a disciplinary incident .
= = Early years = =
An only child , Brooks was born in Crewe , England , before migrating to Western Australia when he was four , along with his working @-@ class parents Mick and Norah . His first aquatic adventure was almost his last . Aged seven , he was playing with a friend on the shore of the Swan River when they climbed into a boat that drifted deeper into water and overturned . Brooks was forced to cling to the boat as his friend swam ashore to seek help . His parents immediately enrolled him in swimming lessons at the Marylands Swim Club . Shortly after , he switched to the tutelage of Kevin Duff , who coached him for the next fifteen years . After just six weeks under Duff , Brooks came third in the 50 m breaststroke at the State Age Championships . Despite coaching the likes of Olympic medallists Kevin O 'Halloran , Lyn McClements , David Dickson and Lynne Watson , Duff was virtually unknown outside Western Australia . Brooks was known for his rebellious nature , and had a glowing assessment of his coach , opining that " He 's not pushy like many other Australian coaches and he 's not in the politics of Australian swimming " .
Brooks attended Hale Primary School and trained at Beatty Park Pool , routinely dominating the State Age Championships . He won bronze in the 100 m and 200 m backstroke , and silver in the 200 m freestyle at the 1974 Australian Age Championships . Owing to a lack of style , he was known during his primary school years as " Basher Brooks " , but by the time he entered Churchlands Senior High School , his stroke had become more technically refined . Nevertheless , he was always confident in his mental ability , stating " before I just swam on guts , now I had the stroke as well as the guts . I was always the toughest kid in the race . "
At the age of 13 , Brooks suffered a loss of confidence . After being champion in all four strokes for the previous four years , he was now frequently losing . The other children had grown more at the start of their adolescence and he was struggling to match them . Within a year , Brooks ' physical growth began to catch up and he started to regain the dominant position . He also switched from distance to sprint events .
= = National debut = =
In 1976 , at the age of 13 , Brooks competed at his first open Australian Championships , but did not gain any podium finishes and as such missed selection in the team for the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal . In the same year , the Australian team came to Perth for its pre @-@ Olympic training camp and were billeted in the homes of members of the local swimming community . Brooks ' family took his future relay team @-@ mate Mark Tonelli , who had a reputation for indiscipline . Brooks , however , was inspired by Tonelli and cited him as a key motivating factor in him wanting to become an Olympian .
During the 1976 – 77 season , Brooks came to prominence as a possible Australian representative sprinter . He broke six records in winning two events at the 1977 Western Australian Championships . He swam the 100 m freestyle in 56 @.@ 56 s , breaking the state records for 14- , 15- , and 16 @-@ year @-@ olds , before repeating the achievement in the 200 m backstroke . Still aged 14 , he competed at his second Australian Championships and came fourth in the 100 m freestyle . In 1978 , he came third in the 100 m freestyle and missed selection for the 1978 Commonwealth Games in Edmonton , Canada by 0 @.@ 03 s . He spent the rest of the year training and studying accounting at Leederville Technical College . During the year , Brooks set Australian age group records in the 200 m individual medley , the 200 m backstroke and the 100 m freestyle . At the inaugural Australian Short Course Championships in Launceston , Tasmania in 1979 , he won silver in the 200 m individual medley and bronze in the 100 m freestyle . His performances earned him selection in the Australian team for the first time , competing in the FINA Swimming World Cup event in Tokyo in April 1979 , aged 16 years and nine months .
Aged 17 , Brooks swam 51 @.@ 91 s in Perth in January 1980 , breaking Tonelli 's Australian record in the 100 m freestyle . As a result , he was invited to his first national training camp under Bill Sweetenham for prospective Olympic swimmers . He had the first of his many clashes with sporting administrators , first claiming that the officials did not want him to board with Tonelli 's family and then stating that Sweetenham had only coached him two or three times , which he felt was insufficient . Brooks walked out of the camp and returned to Perth to train under Duff . At the Australian Championships , the 100 m was seen as a clash between Tonelli and Brooks . The latter came second in the 100 m freestyle , outsprinted in the dying stages by Tonelli , who reclaimed his national record in a time of 51 @.@ 80 s . As a result , Brooks was selected in both the individual event and the 4 × 100 m medley relay .
However , another obstacle arose with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , which resulted in a boycott of the Games by a large part of the Western World , led by the United States . The Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser was also the patron of the Australian Olympic Committee , and significant political pressure came to bear on the athletes to boycott the Games . Tonelli , however , realised that only the sportspeople would suffer from a boycott and that trade relations would continue unabated . He took a leadership role among the athletes to fight for their right to compete .
= = Moscow Olympics = =
The 4 × 100 m medley relay was the focal point of Brooks ' Moscow campaign and it came only two days before his 18th birthday . The event had always been won by the United States since its inception at Olympic level in 1960 , and their boycott had opened up the field in the event . In the five times the event had been contested , Australia 's best result was a silver in the inaugural race . A bronze in 1964 was the only other medal success and the 1976 edition of the medley relay had seen Australia eliminated in the heats . This time , Australia were regarded as a medal chance , but were not seen as the main threats ; Sweden , Great Britain and the Soviet Union were the most heavily fancied teams . The hosts boasted the silver medallists in the 100 m backstroke and breaststroke , and their butterflyer had come fifth ; their freestyler would place fourth a few days later . The British had Duncan Goodhew , the breaststroke gold medallist , while Sweden 's butterflyer and backstroker had won their respective events and their freestyle swimmer would come second in the 100 m . On paper , Australia 's team paled in comparison . Peter Evans was the only individual medallist over a 100 m race , claiming bronze in the breaststroke . Mark Kerry had been eliminated in the backstroke semifinals , while Tonelli was swimming as a makeshift butterflyer , despite having performed better than Kerry in the 100 m backstroke . Adding to the pressure was the fact that Australia won no gold medals at the 1976 Olympics in any sport , and were yet to win in Moscow , so the public were still awaiting their first victory since Munich in 1972 . Coming into the Olympics , Australia were ranked seventh out of the thirteen competing countries . Australia 's prospects improved after the morning heats in which Sweden was disqualified . Tonelli , the eldest swimmer in the quartet at the age of 23 , convened the team as its de facto leader . He asked his team @-@ mates to commit to swimming their legs in a certain time ; Kerry vowed to swim the backstroke in 57 s , Evans the breaststroke in 63 s flat , Tonelli the butterfly in 54 s and Brooks promised to anchor the team in 49 @.@ 8 s , even though he had never gone faster than 51 s . Tonelli named the foursome as the Quietly Confident Quartet , and they exhibited a quiet confidence as they lined up for the race .
Kerry led off in a faster time than he had clocked in the individual event , but it was still two seconds slower than his personal best time of 57 @.@ 87 s . This left Australia in fourth place at the end of the first leg . Evans then swam a personal best of 63 @.@ 01 s , leaving the team almost level with the host nation at the halfway mark . Tonelli then swam his leg in 54 @.@ 94 s , almost two seconds faster than his previous best . He did so with an uneven arm technique due to the disparity in the strength of his arms . He began to lose ground in the last 50 m and was a bodylength behind until a late surge brought him to within a metre of the lead by the end of his leg . Brooks then made a powerful , well @-@ timed dive and surfaced almost even with his Soviet counterpart . At the halfway mark , he had drawn level and made a superior turn to take the lead . The Soviet freestyler Kopliakov pulled level at the 25 m mark before Brooks again sprinted away to seal an Australian victory by 0 @.@ 22 s . He did not breathe in the last ten metres , and claimed to be laughing for the final five metres , confident that his opponent could not pass him . The Australian freestyler had finished his leg in 49 @.@ 86 s as he had vowed to his team mates . The time of 3 m 45 @.@ 70 s sealed Australia 's first ever win in a medley relay at the Olympics , for men or women . Brooks dedicated the team 's win to his mother , who had died from cancer the previous Christmas . Upon returning to Australia , he was greeted as a hero , but he considered retiring due to waning desire for success after his triumph in Moscow . In 2000 , Brooks and the other members of the quartet were each awarded the Australian Sports Medal for their victory in Moscow .
In the individual event , which occurred after the relay , Brooks had come equal first in his heat with eventual bronze medallist Per Johansson from Sweden in a time of 52 @.@ 11 s . This made him the seventh fastest qualifier for the semi @-@ finals , but he suffered a severe asthma attack and had to be hospitalised . He swam the semi @-@ final regardless , despite having a heart @-@ rate before the start of race of 120 , compared to his usual 72 . He finished seventh in a time of 52 @.@ 70 s , which saw him place 14th , missing the final by 0 @.@ 83 s .
= = US college career = =
Brooks suffered from a lack of motivation after the Olympics . He was recruited to the Australian Institute of Sport by swimming coaches Bill Sweetenham and Dennis Pursley , but his stay was brief . The inaugural director Don Talbot , a former head coach of the Australian swimming team , expelled him for indiscipline . He then won the 1981 Australian title in the 100 m freestyle without training , but his time of 52 @.@ 61 s was substantially slower than his personal best . Brooks then accepted a scholarship to go to the University of Arkansas to train under Sam Freas . He enjoyed the more liberal culture in the American collegiate system , particularly the relationship between swimmers and their coaches . He enjoyed the less paternalistic treatment that the coaches accorded to their swimmers , saying that " In Australia , after a race they want to lock you in your room . In America , you can share a beer after the meet with the coach . " The shortcourse pools used in the United States played into the hands of Brooks , as his strong legs gave him an advantage in pushing away from the turns , which came twice as often in comparison to longcourse ( 50 m ) pools . He had initially planned to stay in the United States for only a year , but decided to extend his stay by a year , having enjoyed the high frequency of racing and the recognition accorded to university athletes in the United States . In both years , he won the 50 m and 100 m freestyle double in the Southwest Conference , and was fourth in the 100 m freestyle at the 1981 National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Championships . He also came second in the 100 m freestyle at the AACC Championships to Rowdy Gaines , who went on to win the event at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics .
Despite his successes in America , the Australian Swimming Union did not offer to fund a return home for Brooks for the 1982 Australian Championships , but the University of Arkansas paid his fare as a reward for his performances in collegiate competition . Despite failing to defend his 100 m title , he qualified for the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane . The team then went into a five @-@ week training camp in the seaside Sydney suburb of South Coogee . The team resided at a migrant hostel , which at the time was primarily occupied by Vietnamese refugees from the Vietnam War . Brooks spoke out about the quality of the accommodation , leading officials to make improvements .
= = Brief suspension for disciplinary reasons and 1982 Commonwealth Games = =
Brooks ' protests against the accommodation was overshadowed by a much @-@ publicised physical confrontation with a team official . He telephoned his coach in the United States to make return travel arrangements for the conclusion of the Commonwealth Games . Due to the difference in time zones , he made his call after the team curfew , prompting team manager Jeff Hare to attempt to disconnect the line . After Hare threatened to expel him from the team , Brooks lost his temper and pinned the manager against the wall . The swimmer was summoned to a meeting with ASU officials the following day , where he remained unrepentant . He received a one month ban , effective after the conclusion of the Commonwealth Games . Brooks demanded that if the ASU were to suspend him , they should do so immediately for the Commonwealth Games , rather than letting him compete and win medals before punishing him . His complaints about the training conditions had gained the attention of his team @-@ mates , and several senior swimmers threatened to leave if he was banned . In the end , the ASU rescinded the suspension . Brooks has remained strongly critical of the attitude of swimming bureaucracy , claiming that " too many officials expect unquestioning obedience " , calling for the formation of a swimmers ' committee .
Arriving in Brisbane for the Commonwealth Games , Brooks and some of his fellow sprinters shaved their heads , something that received much attention from the Australian public . He won his heat of the 100 m freestyle in a Commonwealth and Commonwealth Games record of 51 @.@ 09 s . He swam slower in the final , but his time of 51 @.@ 14 s was enough to secure the gold medal in a close contest . Just 0 @.@ 43 s separated him and the bronze and silver medallists Greg Fasala and Michael Delany , both of Australia .
Brooks then won gold as part of the winning 4 × 100 m freestyle relay , anchoring the team of Fasala , Delany and Graeme Brewer to a victory by almost three seconds , putting in a split of 50 @.@ 56 s . The shaven @-@ headed quartet was dubbed the Mean Machine . He collected another gold in the medley relay , combining with David Orbell , Evans and Jon Sieben , this time completing his freestyle anchor leg in 50 @.@ 44 s . Canada had finished the race far ahead of the Australians , but were disqualified for an early changeover . After the games , Brooks completed the American college season before returning to Australia . He was named as Western Australia 's Sportsman of the Year .
= = Second Olympics = =
Brooks came into the 1984 Australian Championships as the favourite , but this time he was on the receiving end of a close result . He placed third in the 100 m freestyle behind Mark Stockwell and Delany , missing individual selection by 0 @.@ 05 s . The trio was separated by a total of only 0 @.@ 15 s . Selected as a relay swimmer only , he went to Los Angeles hoping to win the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay , an event that the United States had always won .
During the heats , the Australian team of Brooks , Fasala , Delany and Stockwell showed their intention to deny the Americans the gold for the first time at Olympic level . Drawn alongside the Americans in the third and final heat , the Australians set a new Olympic record of 3 m 19 @.@ 94 s . Brooks led off in the heat , setting a time of 50 @.@ 36 s , before Stockwell made up a deficit of 0 @.@ 41 s during the anchor leg to beat the hosts by 0 @.@ 20 s . Australia and the United States had stamped their authority on the event , qualifying almost four seconds faster than third @-@ placed Sweden . However , the Americans had more speed in reserve , having rested 200 m freestyle silver medalist Mike Heath and 100 m freestyle gold medallist Rowdy Gaines , whereas Australia used its full @-@ strength team .
In the final , Australian coach Terry Buck switched the swimming order , putting Fasala as the leadoff leg , while the Americans brought in Heath and Gaines . Fasala 's time of 51 @.@ 00 s put the Australians second at the first change , behind the Americans , for whom Chris Cavanaugh had built a 0 @.@ 17 s lead . After the first leg , the race was still close — 0 @.@ 90 s separated all the teams . Brooks completed his leg in 49 @.@ 36 s , the fourth fastest in the race , 0 @.@ 24 s faster than his American counterpart Heath , giving the Australians a slender 0 @.@ 07 s lead at the halfway point . Australia and the United States had broken away from the field , which was now the best part of two seconds in arrears . However , the Australian lead was short @-@ lived . Matt Biondi took 0 @.@ 59 s from Delany and Gaines took another 0 @.@ 13 s from Stockwell , as the United States won in a world record time of 3 m 19 @.@ 03 s . Australia were 0 @.@ 65 s behind with Sweden a further 2 @.@ 99 s in arrears . Brooks remained adamant that either he or Stockwell should have led off , stating that " the gold was there for the taking " .
Brooks collected a bronze in the medley relay after swimming the freestyle leg in the heats before being replaced by first @-@ choice Stockwell in the final . Competing in the third and final heat , Australia and the United States were equal at the last change before Brooks posted the fastest freestyle leg in the heats , pulling out a 0 @.@ 40 s margin over Tom Jager . Australia again qualified fastest , but the Americans again had more in reserve , having rested all of their first @-@ choice quartet in the heats . Stockwell combined with Kerry , Evans and Glenn Buchanan to finish behind the United States and Canada in the final , missing silver by just 0 @.@ 02 s . Australia improved on their qualifying time by only 0 @.@ 68 s , while the Americans sped up by 5 @.@ 03 s .
In 1985 , Brooks dead @-@ heated with Stockwell in the 100 m freestyle at the Australian Championships , clocking a time of 51 @.@ 12 s . He then combined with Tom Stachewicz , Paul Lee and Barry Armstrong , as Western Australia won the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay for the first time . Brooks maintained his form and despite not defending his Australian 100 m title , was selected for the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh , where he came second to Fasala in the 100 m freestyle in a time of 51 @.@ 01 s . He claimed gold in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay along with Fasala , Stockwell and Matthew Renshaw , anchoring the quartet in setting a Commonwealth Games record . On the return flight , he consumed 46 cans of beer and was banned for six months after he talked about the incident during a television interview . In his memoirs , Talbot , a non @-@ drinker , cited Brooks and his Mean Machine teammates as being one of the biggest proponents of a hard @-@ drinking culture that had permeated the Australian swimming scene at the time . In particular , he singled out Brooks as being a focal point of disruptive activity during his time at the Australian Institute of Sport . Talbot sees alcohol as the main reason behind the collapse of Australia 's standing in the swimming world in the 1970s and the subsequent prolonged period of international uncompetitiveness in the 1980s .
= = After swimming = =
Brooks retired thereafter , moving to Nambour , Queensland and starting a rock band called The Union . He played the electric guitar , and also wrote his own music and songs . He also represented Western Australia in water polo and indoor cricket and played Australian rules football at district level .
Having graduated from the University of Arkansas with a degree in journalism in 1985 , Brooks entered the media . Before his graduation , he had been a cadet with the Seven Network in Perth for five years , reading the sports segment on the weekday evening news . He was a television commentator at the 1988 , 1992 and 1996 Summer Olympics . Aside from covering the swimming and water polo , he also commentated on volleyball and in 1998 , he called various downhill skiing events at the Nagano Winter Olympics . Domestically , Brooks called Australian Football League matches and read the sports segment on the weekday evening news for the Seven Network . For three years , he hosted Brooksy 's Footy Show , a Western Australian travel / holiday show called Wild West , and in the lead @-@ up to the Sydney Olympics , co @-@ hosted The Games with Tracey Holmes .
However , Brooks ' career began to unravel in the late @-@ 1990s . He became addicted to alcohol , leading to a series of on @-@ screen incidents . He once read the sports news segment while inebriated , and was then involved in a drunken argument with the Nine Network 's Australian rules football pundit Sam Newman . In early 1999 , Seven suspended Brooks from on @-@ screen duties for six weeks after he made comments that they deemed to be " tasteless and offensive " . In an interview with a magazine that had not been authorised by Seven , Brooks was asked what event he was looking forward to most at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , and replied " The after @-@ Olympics piss @-@ up " . He was eventually sacked , denying him the opportunity to commentate on the swimming events and costing him an annual salary of AUD700,000 .
In late 2000 , Brooks was declared bankrupt by the Federal Court in Perth after failing to repay a AUD14,941.64 debt to BankWest . In May 2001 , the police raided Brooks ' Perth home and found a metre @-@ high cannabis plant . Brooks claimed that the plant belonged to a friend , and then announced that he would be leaving the state . Having moved to South Australia in 2003 , Brooks started Local , which he billed as the state 's leading lifestyle magazine . The venture was run solely by him and his wife , and was dominated by advertising . Journalist Peter FitzSimons criticised the lack of grammar checking and copyediting , citing a quote from Kieren Perkins , which was rendered thus in the publication : " I was over the moon . Winning is something you strive to do but when I consider all the factors being married two children twenty seven years of age competing in my third Games and I broke fifteen minutes twice in two days it really was quite outstanding and whichever way you cut it Grant Hackett was just the next generation of swimmer [ sic ] . " Brooks stood 200 cm and weighed 95 kg during his career , but in the early part of the 21st century fought a battle with obesity , after ballooning to 150 kg . As of 2007 , he had lost substantial weight and fought off his alcohol problems .
Brooks later became a partner in Nitro Energy Drink Company , which was involved in motorsport sponsorship . However , the firm suffered from financial trouble and he had a falling out with his business partner . In 2009 , Brooks was removed from the board and the company was put into administration , and both he and his former partner have started legal proceedings .
Brooks ' first marriage was to Lynette Quinlivan in January 1985 . Their son Luke is a member of the Australian water polo team , playing as a goalkeeper . He has two other children from other relationships . In 2000 , he married his third wife Linda .
= Irruputuncu =
Irruputuncu is a volcano in the commune of Pica , Tamarugal Province , Tarapacá Region , Chile , as well as San Pedro de Quemes Municipality , Nor Lípez Province , Potosí Department , Bolivia . The mountain 's summit is 5 @,@ 163 m ( 16 @,@ 939 ft ) high and has two summit craters — the southernmost 200 m ( 660 ft ) -wide one has active fumaroles . The volcano also features lava flows , block @-@ and @-@ ash flows and several lava domes . The volcano is part of the Andean Central Volcanic Zone ( CVZ ) .
The volcano has been active during the Pleistocene and Holocene , with major eruptions occurring 258 @.@ 2 ± 48 @.@ 8 ka ago , between 55 @.@ 9 ka and 140 ka ago and 1570 ± 900 BP ( 380 ± 900 AD ) , which were accompanied by the formation of ignimbrites . Historical volcanic activity is less clear ; an eruption in 1989 is considered unconfirmed . Plumes linked to phreatomagmatic eruptive activity were observed on 26 November 1995 and 1 September 2003 . Seismic activity is also observed on Irruputuncu , and ongoing fumarolic activity releasing 21 – 50 t / d ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 57 long ton / ks ) of sulfur dioxide has left sulfur deposits in the active crater .
The Central Volcanic Zone is thinly inhabited and most volcanoes are not under reconnaissance , but Irruputuncu is watched by the Chilean SERNAGEOMIN geologic service . The possibility of geothermal energy production from the volcano has been examined .
= = Etymology and alternative names = =
The name Irruputuncu derives from Aymara iru spiny Peruvian feather grass and phutunqu a small vessel or a hole , pit , crater . Alternative names are Irruputunco and Iruputuncu .
= = Geography and geology = =
= = = Regional setting = = =
The subduction of the Nazca plate and the Antarctic plate beneath the western side of South America has generated a belt of volcanic activity named the Andean Volcanic Belt . The belt is separated in a number of volcanic zones by segments lacking recent volcanic activity ; in these segments , shallow subduction of the plates presumably displaces the asthenosphere away from these segments . The segments with active volcanism are the Northern Volcanic Zone ( NVZ ) , the Central Volcanic Zone ( CVZ ) , the Southern Volcanic Zone ( SVZ ) and the Austral Volcanic Zone ( AVZ ) . The " Volcanoes of the World " catalogue counts about 575 eruptions in the entire volcanic belt .
Volcanic activity in the belt is usually linked to the dehydration of the subducting slabs , which causes water and other subducted components to be added to the overlying mantle . In the case of the CVZ , this addition generates magmas that are further modified by the thick crust in the area , forming andesites , dacites and rhyolites .
= = = Local setting = = =
Volcanism in the CVZ is linked to the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South America plate . This subduction within the past c . 27 @.@ 5 mya has triggered a thickening of the crust and orogeny . Approximately 44 volcanic centres that are either active or potentially active are found in the CVZ . Some centres are fumarolically active ; these include Alitar , Lastarria and Tacora . Irruputuncu and other volcanoes including Guallatiri , Isluga , Lascar and San Pedro have displayed phreatic or magmatic @-@ phreatic activity . The arid climate of the area has led to good preservation of volcanic structures .
A small gap about 100 km ( 62 mi ) wide , which is known as the " Pica gap " but includes the Pliocene @-@ Pleistocene Alto Toroni volcano that features vigorous seismic activity , separates Irruputuncu from Isluga in the north . Irruputuncu is part of an elliptical alignment of volcanoes that extends to the east , which may be linked to a cup @-@ shaped intrusion in the crust . Older Pliocene volcanoes around Irruputuncu are Laguna volcano to the northeast and Bofedal to the southeast . Irruputuncu lies at the end of a chain of volcanoes that trends northeastward away from it .
The volcanic complex sits on top of ignimbrite layers , the Miocene Ujina and Pleistocene Pastillos Ignimbrites . These ignimbrites are c.150 m ( 490 ft ) and 20 – 90 m ( 66 – 295 ft ) thick , the former is a welded ignimbrite that was erupted 9 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 4 mya and the latter in two stages 0 @.@ 79 ± 0 @.@ 2 - 0 @.@ 73 ± 0 @.@ 16 mya and 0 @.@ 32 ± 0 @.@ 25 mya . In terms of composition , the Ujina is pink @-@ grey crystals and pumice and the Pastillos a gray @-@ white pumice forming the lower member and the upper member of the Pastillos contains cinerites with accessory claystones , siltstones and diatomites . Further volcanic rocks beneath Irruputuncu are hydrothermally altered dacites that may be part of an older now deeply eroded edifice .
Irruputuncu is a relatively small , 5 @,@ 163 m ( 16 @,@ 939 ft ) high volcano , which covers a surface area of 23 @.@ 861 km2 ( 9 @.@ 213 sq mi ) with a volume of 4 km3 ( 0 @.@ 96 cu mi ) and has two summit craters , of which the 200 m ( 660 ft ) -wide southwestern one is fumarolically active . Crater II , the youngest crater , is surrounded by the Crater lava flows that form lava domes and seven short lava flows 0 @.@ 54 – 0 @.@ 94 km ( 0 @.@ 34 – 0 @.@ 58 mi ) long , 68 – 107 m ( 223 – 351 ft ) thick and with a total volume of 0 @.@ 042 km3 ( 0 @.@ 010 cu mi ) emitted from it . They have weakly developed ogives and there is no evidence of glacial activity anywhere on the volcano . The current edifice is constructed within a collapsed amphitheater of an older edifice . Overall , the volcano has a pristine morphology . Block @-@ and @-@ ash flows and thick lava flows of high viscosity form the stratocone . A rhyolitic ignimbrite is found southwest of the volcano . The oldest lava flows on the northern and eastern side of the volcano were erupted from a northeastern crater named Crater I and are 35 – 113 m ( 115 – 371 ft ) thick with erosional features and preserved ogives . They have a volume of around 0 @.@ 097 km3 ( 0 @.@ 023 cu mi ) .
The younger flows are known as Queñoas lava flows ; they form six distinct flows on the western sides of the volcano . They have different appearances depending on the side ; the northwestern flows form lateral lava levees and ogives and reach thicknesses of 117 – 180 metres ( 384 – 591 ft ) while the other flows have lobate structures with thicknesses of 23 – 95 m ( 75 – 312 ft ) . These thicknesses may be the result of high @-@ viscosity magma and / or low eruption rates . A major block @-@ and @-@ ash deposit with the volume of 0 @.@ 023 km3 ( 0 @.@ 0055 cu mi )
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, which has prevented him from being with the band . Through the Armpit.net forums Sam offers this statement , adding that he will have surgery , following for rehabilitation . Bass duties are covered by Samuel Gerhard Mpungu .
= = Style and legacy = =
= = = Music and lyrics = = =
Durst wanted Limp Bizkit to be a " megaband " which could cross over into as many different styles of music as possible . Limp Bizkit 's music has predominately been described as nu metal , rap metal and rap rock . Limp Bizkit have also been described as alternative metal , alternative rock and post @-@ grunge . Limp Bizkit 's music is noted for its " kinetic , frenzied energy " . Otto is adept in drumming in a variety of styles ranging from Brazilian and Afro @-@ Cuban music to bebop and funk . DJ Lethal functions as a sound designer for the band , shaping their sound . According to Lethal , " I try and bring new sounds , not just the regular chirping scratching sounds . [ ... ] It 's all different stuff that you haven 't heard before . I 'm trying to be like another guitar player . "
Borland 's guitar playing is experimental and nontraditional , and he is noted for his creative use of six and seven @-@ string guitars . Three Dollar Bill , Yall features him playing without a guitar pick , performing with two hands , one playing melodic notes , and the other playing chord progressions . His guitar playing has made use of octave shapes , and choppy , eighth @-@ note rhythms , sometimes accompanied by muting his strings with his left hand , creating a percussive sound . Borland has also made use of unevenly accented syncopated sixteenth notes to create a disorienting effect , and hypnotic , droning licks . The song " Stuck " uses a sustain pedal in the first bar , and muted riffs in the second bar .
AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that their album , Significant Other , contains " flourishes of neo @-@ psychedelia on pummeling metal numbers " and " swirls of strings , even crooning , at the most unexpected background " . The band did not employ solos until Gold Cobra ( except for the song " Underneath The Gun " out of Results May Vary ) , however , during the recording of Significant Other , drummer John Otto performed an extended solo in the middle of the song " Nobody Like You " . Durst 's lyrics are often profane , scatological or angry . Much of Durst 's lyrical inspiration came from growing up and his personal life . The song " Sour " , from the album Three Dollar Bill , Yall , was inspired by Durst 's problems with his girlfriend . His breakup with her inspired the Significant Other songs " Nookie " and " Re @-@ Arranged " . When describing Limp Bizkit 's lyrics , The Michigan Daily said " In a less @-@ serious vein , Limp Bizkit used the nu @-@ metal sound as a way to spin testosterone fueled fantasies into snarky white @-@ boy rap . Oddly , audiences took frontman Fred Durst more seriously than he wanted , failing to see the intentional silliness in many of his songs . " Furthermore , Limp Bizkit 's lyrics were described as " misogynistic " . The Unquestionable Truth ( Part 1 ) focuses on more serious and darker lyrical subject matter , including Catholic sex abuse cases , terrorism and fame .
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
Limp Bizkit has been nominated for and won several awards . Limp Bizkit has been nominated for three Grammy Awards including Best Hard Rock Performance ( " Nookie " ) , Best Rock Album ( Significant Other ) , and Best Hard Rock Performance ( " Take A Look Around " ) . Limp Bizkit has been nominated for 3 American Music Awards for Favorite Alternative Artist winning one of them in 2002 .
In 1999 , the band won the Maximum Vision Award at the Billboard Music Video Awards for their music video " Nookie " . At the 2000 and 2001 Blockbuster Awards , the band won the Favorite Group ( Rock ) award . That year also saw the band winning a MuchMusic Award for Best International Video , honoring their video for the song " Break Stuff " . At the 2001 ECHO Awards , the band won the Best International Metal Band award . At the 2009 Kerrang ! Awards , the band won the Hall of Fame award . Further expanding upon the group 's achievements and popularity , they were also the first group inducted into MTV 's Total Request Live " Hall of Fame " on May 26 , 2001 .
Richard Cheese performed a lounge rendition of the songs " Nookie " and " Break Stuff " on his debut album , Lounge Against the Machine . " Weird Al " Yankovic 's " Angry White Boy Polka " medley included Limp Bizkit 's song " My Way " . The Vitamin String Quartet recorded a tribute album called The String Quartet Tribute to Limp Bizkit : Break Stuff , which contains reinterpretations of the band 's songs performed by a violinist backed by cellos , synthesizers , and keyboard percussion . Girl Talk sampled " Nookie " and " Break Stuff " in the song " Friends @-@ 4 @-@ Ever " , which appears on his album Secret Diary . The Blackout covered " My Generation " for the compilation Higher Voltage ! : Another Brief History of Rock .
= = = Live performances = = =
Borland is known for performing in costumes and body paint during concerts , appearing in bunny and kung fu suits , and painted as a skeleton and what he describes as a " burnt match " . Describing the character , he stated , " I go onstage wearing almost nothing . I have underwear and my boots on , and I paint my whole head black — from the neck up — and I have the black contacts . All you can see is these glowing teeth . " Borland 's black contacts were customized for him by a company noted for making contacts for the science fiction TV series Babylon 5 .
In addition to Borland 's visual appearance , the band has also used elaborate stage setups in their performances . Their Ladies Night in Cambodia club tour visually paid tribute to the film Apocalypse Now , with an elaborate stage setup which featured an empty Jeep , camouflage mesh and palm trees . During the band 's tour with Primus , Limp Bizkit took inspiration from Primus ' trademark self @-@ deprecatory slogan " Primus sucks " : Durst , Borland , Rivers , Otto and Lethal took the stage with middle fingers raised . According to Borland , " they finger us back — and you know what that means to us — that they love us . It 's kind of like saying something is bad when you really mean good . Les Claypool came out the first night of the tour and got a big kick out of it . We figured it was the right idea . It makes hecklers go ' huh . ' "
During the band 's sets at Ozzfest , audience members at the tour heckled Limp Bizkit , leading the band to use a 30 @-@ foot toilet as a stage prop , which they would emerge from during each performance ; the band punctuated their sets by " flushing " cardboard cutouts of pop stars like Hanson and the Spice Girls . During their appearance at the first Family Values Tour , Limp Bizkit performed on a set which the Los Angeles Times described as " a mix of The War Of The Worlds and Mars Attacks " . The band emerged from a spaceship during the tour , and Borland continued to experiment with visual appearances . During the band 's Halloween performance on the tour , each of the band 's members dressed as Elvis Presley at various stages in his career .
= = Band members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Three Dollar Bill , Y 'all $ ( 1997 )
Significant Other ( 1999 )
Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water ( 2000 )
Results May Vary ( 2003 )
The Unquestionable Truth ( Part 1 ) ( 2005 )
Gold Cobra ( 2011 )
Stampede of the Disco Elephants ( TBA )
= Battle of Höchstädt ( 1800 ) =
The Battle of Höchstädt was fought on 19 June 1800 on the north bank of the Danube near Höchstädt , and resulted in a French victory under General Jean Victor Marie Moreau against the Austrians under Baron Pál Kray . The Austrians were subsequently forced back into the fortress town of Ulm . Instead of attacking the heavily fortified , walled city , which would result in massive losses of personnel and time , Moreau dislodged Kray 's supporting forces defending the Danube passage further east . As a line of retreat eastward disappeared , Kray quickly abandoned Ulm , and withdrew into Bavaria . This opened the Danube pathway toward Vienna .
The Danube passage connecting Ulm , Donauwörth , Ingolstadt and Regensburg had strategic importance in the ongoing competition for European hegemony between France and the Holy Roman Empire ; the army that commanded the Danube , especially its passage through Württemberg and Bavaria , could command access to the important cities of Munich and the seat of Habsburg authority : Vienna . The end result of the battle was the opposite of what had occurred on those same fields almost 100 years earlier , when the armies of the Grand Alliance had faced the armies of France during the War of the Spanish Succession . At the Second Battle of Höchstädt in 1704 , called the Battle of Blenheim by the English , the overwhelming Allied victory ensured the safety of Vienna from the Franco @-@ Bavarian army , thus preventing the collapse of the Grand Alliance . France 's loss during that engagement opened the pathway into France for the allied English and Austrian forces .
= = Background = =
Although the First Coalition forces achieved several initial victories at Verdun , Kaiserslautern , Neerwinden , Mainz , Amberg and Würzburg , the efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces back and resulted in the negotiation of the Peace of Leoben ( 17 April 1797 ) and the subsequent Treaty of Campo Formio ( October 1797 ) . This treaty proved difficult to administer . Austria was slow to give up some of the Venetian territories . A Congress convened at Rastatt for the purposes of deciding which southwestern German states would be mediatised to compensate the dynastic houses for territorial losses , but was unable to make any progress . Supported by French republican forces , Swiss insurgents staged several uprisings , ultimately causing the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation after 18 months of civil war . By early 1799 , the French Directory had become impatient with stalling tactics employed by Austria . An uprising in Naples raised further alarms , and recent gains in Switzerland suggested the timing was fortuitous for the French to venture on another campaign in northern Italy and southwestern Germany .
At the beginning of 1800 , the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine . Feldzeugmeister Pál Kray led approximately 120 @,@ 000 troops . In addition to his Austrian regulars , his force included 12 @,@ 000 men from the Electorate of Bavaria , 6 @,@ 000 troops from the Duchy of Württemberg , 5 @,@ 000 soldiers of low quality from the Archbishopric of Mainz , and 7 @,@ 000 militiamen from the County of Tyrol . Of these , 25 @,@ 000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance ( Bodensee ) to protect the Vorarlberg . Kray posted his main body of 95 @,@ 000 soldiers in the L @-@ shaped angle where the Rhine changes direction from a westward flow along the northern border of Switzerland to a northward flow along the eastern border of France . Unwisely , Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach , near the northwestern end of Lake Constance , only a day 's march from French @-@ held Switzerland .
General of Division Jean Victor Marie Moreau commanded a modestly @-@ equipped army of 137 @,@ 000 French troops . Of these , 108 @,@ 000 troops were available for field operations while the other 29 @,@ 000 watched the Swiss border and held the Rhine fortresses . Napoleon Bonaparte offered a plan of operations based on outflanking the Austrians by a push from Switzerland , but Moreau declined to follow it . Rather , Moreau planned to cross the Rhine near Basel where the river swung to the north . A French column would distract Kray from Moreau 's true intentions by crossing the Rhine from the west . Bonaparte wanted Claude Lecourbe 's corps to be detached to Italy after the initial battles , but Moreau had other plans . Through a series of complicated maneuvers in which he flanked , double flanked , and reflanked Kray 's army , Moreau 's forces lay on the eastern slope of the Black Forest , while portions of Kray 's army was still guarding the passes on the other side . Battles at Engen and Stockach were fought on 3 May 1800 between the Moreau 's and Kray 's armies . The fighting near Engen resulted in a stalemate with heavy losses on both sides . However , while the two main armies were engaged at Engen , Claude Lecourbe captured Stockach from its Austrian defenders under the Joseph , Prince of Lorraine @-@ Vaudemont . The loss of this main supply base at Stockach compelled Kray to retreat north to Messkirch , where his army enjoyed a more favorable defensive position . It also meant , however , that any retreat by Kray into Austria via Switzerland and the Vorarlberg was cut off .
On 4 and 5 May , the French launched repeated and fruitless assaults on the Messkirch . At nearby Krumbach , where the Austrians also had the superiority of position and force , the 1st Demi @-@ Brigade took the village and the heights around it , which gave them a commanding aspect over Messkirch . Subsequently , Kray withdrew his forces to Sigmaringen , followed closely by the French . Fighting at nearby Biberach an der Ris ensued on 9 May ; action principally consisted of the 25 @,@ 000 man @-@ strong French " Center " , commanded by Laurent de Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr against a Habsburg force of similar size . Again , on 10 May , the Austrians withdrew with heavy losses , this time to Ulm .
= = Order of battle = =
= = = French = = =
Sources are unclear which forces were present . Certainly , it was approximately 40 @,@ 000 troops , and possibly 60 @,@ 000 , well above the 10 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 total Austrian and Württemberg numbers . Contemporary accounts place the 94th Demi @-@ brigade at the center of action in Gremheim , a village between Höchstädt and Donauwörth , about .5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from Blindheim . This suggests the presence of General Claude Jacques Lecourbe ' s Corps , including the forces of generals Laval , Molitor , Jardon , and VanDamme . This is also confirmed in an extract of Moreau 's dispatch to the French Minister of War , published in the London Chronicle , 10 June 1800 . " The 6th chasseurs , 13th cavalry , 4th hussars and 11th chasseurs distinguished themselves in this affair . The rest of the division , and that of LeClere , passed rapidly the Danube ... General Grenier was equally well prepared . " In his Art of War , Baron Antoine @-@ Henri Jomini also refers to General Dedon @-@ Duclos as having a key role in the French success at Höchstädt .
= = = Austrian = = =
The Allied force included approximately 20 @,@ 000 Habsburg regulars and Württemberg 's contingent of troops raised for the war :
FZM Count Anton Sztáray , Commanding
FML von Ferdinand August Freiherr von Hügel 's Württemberg Contingent , including
General Beulwitz , Infantry Regiment Beulwitz , Seckendorf and Seeger ( 1 battalion each )
Füss @-@ Jägers ( three companies ) ;
Garde du Corps ( 1 squadron )
3 squadrons of Light Horse
Contingent regiments commanded by von Zobel , von Mylius , and von Oberniz ( 1 battalion each )
20 guns
Austrian Regulars
Royal Regiment Albert , Number 3 ( 6 squadrons )
Hohenzollern Number 8 ( 6 squadrons )
Hussar Regiment Vécsey Number 4 ( 8 squadron )
Blankenstein Number 6 ( 8 squadron )
Total Austrian / Württemberg force : 20 @,@ 000 men .
= = Dispositions = =
Kray assumed that Moreau would follow him to fortress at Ulm , on the Danube , where he arrayed most of the Austrian regulars and Württemberg contingent and supplies . This position gave him ready access to both shores of the river and effectively , he assumed , blocked Moreau 's path into Bavaria . At several points east on the Danube , he posted modest forces to protect the river crossings there , and to dismantle , if necessary , the stone bridges across the river . Several bridges crossed the river between Ulm and Donauwörth , which lay downstream to the east , and each presented a strategic point at which to rupture Kray 's potential line of march into Bavaria : Leipheim , Günzburg , Gundelfingen , Lauingen , Dillingen , Höchstädt , Gremheim , and Elchingen .
According to Moreau 's narrative , he intended to force Kray to either come to battle outside Ulm , or to abandon the city . Ulm obstructed unfettered French access into Bavaria , and blocked the main force of the Army of the Rhine . To keep his forces secure , accepted military wisdom required that Moreau secure at least half of the crossings of the river , and that his troops follow a line of march perpendicular to the river . This would prevent them from having to fight a battle ( or a skirmish ) with their backs to the river . The more bridges his force could take , the more secure the approach on Ulm .
= = General engagement = =
Moreau appeared to march toward Ulm , which lay some twenty miles east of Sigmaringen and Biberach an der Ris , where his army and Kray 's had engaged a few days earlier . Instead of striking directly at the well @-@ fortified and supplied city , however , his force suddenly veered to the east and struck at the smaller forces posted between Ulm and Donauwörth . Lecourbe first secured posts in Landsberg and Augsburg , and left sufficient rearguard troops to protect himself from Prince Reuss @-@ Plauen , who remained in the Tyrol guarding mountain access to Vienna . He then approached Dettingen , Blindheim ( Blenheim ) and Höchstädt . The Corps of General Grenier has been posted with their right flank to the Danube and Gunzburg , and their left flank at Kinsdorf . General Richepanse protected both shores of the Iller , covering the road from Ulm south to Memmingen , and secured communication with Switzerland ; there , he withstood considerable skirmishing with the Austrians . Three divisions of reserve remained at the hamlets of Kamlack and Mindel , to support the attack made by General Lecourbe on Ulm , in a case it should succeed , or Grenier 's attack upon Gunzburg , in case Lecourbe should not succeed .
Lecourbe made several feints on the bridge at Dillingheim , but his reconnaissance suggested instead that he focus on the bridges at Gremsheim , Blindheim and Höchstädt , which he did the next day . A small group of 80 or so men from the 94th Demi @-@ Brigade managed a spectacular crossing of the river . After stripping their clothing and weapons , and loading them into a small raft , the naked men swam the river , pulling their weapons on rafts behind them . Once reaching the other side , they took possession of several guns and some ammunition , wood , and materials . Here they held their position until some artillery men managed to scramble across the wreck of the bridge at Gremsheim and support them . The pioneers and bridge builders reconstructed the bridges under Austrian fire , allowing the remainder of the 94th crossed the river . This accomplishment seemed to mark the turning point of the action , at least it did to Moreau , who mentioned it at length in his dispatch . A full Austrian Corps maintained a stand at Höchstädt , but were dislodged by repeated attacks of carabiners , cuirassiers and hussars , who took about 2 @,@ 000 of the Austrians and Würtembergers as prisoners , along with some cannons and standards .
= = Aftermath = =
Once the French had secured the downstream shores of the Danube , Kray had no choice but to evacuate his corps from Ulm , leaving only a small garrison behind . The French invested the fortress at Ulm immediately , and on the 20th , the 6th Chasseurs captured a convoy of 300 wagons loaded with grain . A few days later , a general armistice halted all fighting . Emperor Francis II dismissed Pál Kray and appointed his brother , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Archduke John , to command the Austrian army . To bolster the inexperienced archduke , the emperor named Franz von Lauer as deputy commander and Oberst ( Colonel ) Franz von Weyrother as Chief of Staff .
The campaign culminating in Kray 's evacuation of Ulm was one of Moreau 's most resounding triumphs . Napoleon Bonaparte had given Moreau specific instructions about the conduct of the campaign , all of which Moreau had ignored . Regardless , their combined efforts damaged Habsburg military operations . In Spring 1800 , while Moreau wrecked Austrian defenses in Germany , Massena and Desaix ran into stiff Austrian offensives in Northern Italy . Napoleon brought in the reserve corps and defeated the Austrians at Marengo . The battle near Höchstädt , five days after the Austrian disaster at Marengo , allowed the French to take Munich . The combined efforts forced the Habsburgs to accept an armistice ended hostilities for the rest of the summer , but the French extracted massive levies on the Bavarians . Despite these significant losses — both of them decisive — the Austrians were reluctant to accept disadvantageous peace terms . In mid @-@ November , the French ended the truce and Moreau inflicted another significant and decisive defeat at Hohenlinden on 3 December 1800 . The subsequent Peace of Lunéville stripped Austria of much of her Italian territories , obliged the Habsburgs to recognize the French satellites in the Low Countries , Switzerland , and northern Italy , and laid the groundwork for the mediatization of the small independent ecclesiastical and secular imperial polities by the duchies of Baden and Württemberg , and the Electorate of Bavaria .
= = = Books and encyclopedia = = =
Arnold , James R. Marengo & Hohenlinden . Barnsley , South Yorkshire , UK : Pen & Sword , 2005 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0967098500
Barnes , Gregory Fremont . Napoleon Bonaparte . Osprey Publishing , 2012 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0340569115
Blanning , Timothy . The French Revolutionary Wars , New York , Oxford University Press , 1996 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0340569115
Eggenberger , David . " Höchstädt II " , An Encyclopedia of Battles , Dover Publications , 2014 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0486249131
Herold , J. Christopher . The Age of Napoleon . Houghton Mifflin Company , 1963 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0618154616
History of the Wars of the French Revolution : Including Sketches of the Civil History of Great Britain and France , from the Revolutionary Movements , 1788 , to the Restoration of a General Peace , 1815 , Kuhl , France , 1820 .
Jomini , Antoine @-@ Henri ( Baron ) . The Art of War , Wilder Publications , 2008 , p . 173 . Originally published in English in 1862 . ISBN 9781934255582
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich . The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon . Indiana University Press , 1980 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0253202604
Sloane , W.M. Life of Napoleon . France , 1896 ( reprint , 1910 ) , p . 109 .
Smith , Digby . The Napoleonic Wars Data Book . London : Greenhill , 1998 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1853672767
van Ess @-@ Lodewyk , Willem . Extract of a letter from Gen. Moreau to the Minister of War , Neresheim , June 20 . The London Chronicle . W. Day , 1810 .
= York Park =
York Park is a sports ground in the Inveresk and York Park Precinct , Launceston , Australia . Holding 21 @,@ 000 people — the largest capacity stadium in Tasmania — York Park has been known as Aurora Stadium under a six @-@ year naming rights agreement signed with Aurora Energy in 2004 . Primarily used for Australian rules football , its record attendance of 20 @,@ 971 was set in June 2006 , when Hawthorn Football Club played Richmond Football Club in an Australian Football League ( AFL ) match .
The area was swampland before becoming Launceston 's showgrounds in 1873 . In the following decades the grounds were increasingly used for sports , including cricket , bowls and tennis . In 1919 , plans were prepared for the transformation of the area into a multi @-@ sports venue . From 1923 , the venue was principally used for Australian rules football by the Northern Tasmanian Football Association , and for occasional inter @-@ state games . Visiting mainland football clubs regularly played mid @-@ season or end @-@ of @-@ season matches at the ground . Other sports such as cricket , tennis , bowling , cycling and foot @-@ racing have been played at the venue .
Hawthorn has played between two and five AFL matches each season since 2001 , and the St Kilda Football Club played two games a year between 2003 and 2006 . In 2007 , the Tasmanian Government signed a $ 16 @.@ 4 million , five @-@ year sponsorship deal with Hawthorn , under which the club will play four regular season games and one National Australia Bank Cup pre @-@ season match at the venue each year .
Throughout its history , York Park has hosted major pop concerts and other entertainments . Since 2001 it has been a venue for international sports events , and in 2005 was redeveloped at a cost of $ 23 @.@ 6 million . On 21 February 2009 York Park became home to the Tasmanian Football Hall of Fame .
= = History = =
The area now known as York Park was originally " swampy , sour , and choked with weeds " . After European settlement , it was used for landfill before becoming the Launceston showgrounds in 1874 . By 1881 , 47 acres ( 0 @.@ 19 km2 ) of land ( now York and Invermay Parks ) had been taken over by the Launceston City Council " for the purpose of recreation , health and enjoyment " . The area was ready to be used for two cricket games by the end of 1886 . Cricketers were full of praise for the ground , but because winter rain caused it to become waterlogged , footballers ( Australian rules ) were often unable to use the facility .
At a council meeting in July 1901 , one member , Alderman Storrer , proposed that Inveresk Park be renamed York Park in honour of the Duke of York ( later King George V ) , who visited Tasmania during the Federation celebrations of 1901 . The proposal was passed 4 – 2 , although another member , Alderman Salder , noted that " Launceston was well known as a loyal community and did not need to change the park 's name " to prove their fidelity to the monarchy . A bowling green and tennis courts were completed by 1910 , along with the main oval which was used for state school sports . In 1919 , the council held a competition for the design of the York Park sports ground , the winner to receive £ 20 . The final design had to include two full sized tennis courts , a bowling green , a cycling track , cricket and football grounds with dressing rooms and facilities for spectators . Although not fully complete , York Park was officially opened by the St Andrews Caledonian Society on 1 January 1921 . A cycling track surrounding the perimeter fence was in use by September of the same year . On 4 May 1923 The Examiner reported on that " Work on the grandstand was completed for the opening of the 1923 football season , when the game was transferred from the NTCA Ground to York Park . Work on the grandstand and the seating round the oval has been proceeded with at top speed , and spectators at the game tomorrow should have little to complain of . " The first game between teams representing the northern and southern halves of Tasmania took place at the oval in August 1923 in front of a crowd of 9 @,@ 441 . A reporter from The Examiner commented : " The oval is in good order and well grassed and the new motor mower copes with the latter very effectively under favourable conditions . The whole five acres can be cut in six hours , as compared with twenty hours by the horse mower . " When the ground was harrowed , glass and other debris would surface ; a contemporary observer , John Orchard , later remembered : " they 'd line up a whole group of people , perhaps thirty or forty players , and we 'd go along with a container alongside each other and we 'd pick up everything that was likely to hurt a player . "
Heavy floods in 1929 caused substantial damage to the ground , destroying the cycling track , which was subsequently rebuilt . In the 1930s the Launceston Football Club , who played regularly at the ground , won six consecutive premierships before World War II intervened . As a consequence of the war NTFA matches were canceled after the 1941 season , not to resume until May 1945 . Three years later , 12 ornamental trees were planted at the ground , in memory of NTFA players who had lost their lives in the war .
In 1960 , York Park was the venue of a football match in which Tasmania defeated Victoria for the first time . The match was attended by a record crowd of approximately 15 @,@ 000 . Four years later , the southern stand ( demolished in 2004 ) was completed . In the 1970s another stand was added , capable of holding 650 spectators and incorporating sales kiosks and committee rooms .
Up to 1999 York Park had remained a sports ground used predominately for local events , generally attracting modest crowds ; according to ground manager Robert Groenewegen , supporters were able to " park [ their ] car [ s ] next to the boundary fence " . However , before the 1998 federal election the local member of parliament ( MP ) representing the Division of Bass , Warwick Smith — a minister from the ruling Liberal Party — promised public funding for the redevelopment of York Park . Although Smith lost his seat , the Liberals retained power and kept the promise . The $ 6 @.@ 4 million redevelopment completed in 2000 was the first major phase in the process of raising the ground to Australian Football League ( AFL ) standard . Work included the construction of the Gunns Stand , a two @-@ level grandstand originally holding 2 @,@ 500 ( now extended to 5 @,@ 700 ) which incorporates corporate facilities . Other improvements added were five 45 m ( 148 ft ) television standard light towers , a watering and drainage system able to disperse up to 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of rain an hour , and 85 in @-@ ground sprinklers capable of rising 15 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) .
In 2003 , the Government of Tasmania allocated $ 2 million to erect a roof above 6 @,@ 000 terrace seats , in readiness for the 2003 Rugby Union World Cup ; this meant that almost all of the seating area was protected from the weather . In 2004 , the ground became known as Aurora Stadium as the result of six @-@ year naming rights sponsorship deal with Aurora Energy . During 2006 , the state government supplied $ 150 @,@ 000 for new gates and ticket boxes at the stadium entry . The gates were later named after recently deceased Tasmanian Premier Jim Bacon . These gates , and the heritage @-@ listed Northern Stand , have been placed on the Tasmanian Heritage Register as culturally significant to the state . The two @-@ storey Cameron @-@ Tyson stand was in 2005 , replaced by an extension of the Gunns Stand .
In March 2008 , an arson attack destroyed part of the Northern Stand , causing between $ 300 @,@ 000 and $ 500 @,@ 000 damage . In December 2008 the Launceston City Council proposed a $ 7 million development for a replacement Northern Stand . The project includes the relocation of the old Northern Stand 's heritage roof into part of the redevelopment of facilities at Invermay Park . The old structure at York Park will be replaced with a 2 @,@ 125 @-@ seat grandstand which will include three AFL compliant changerooms , an AFL umpire changeroom , a corporate facility for 936 people in corporate boxes , suites and function rooms , coaches boxes , along with statistician , timekeepers and print media rooms . Post @-@ match press conference , drug testing , and radio rooms will also be included . The stand has increased the ground 's capacity to 21 @,@ 000 and the seating capacity to 13 @,@ 825 . The Australian Government was expected to contribute $ 4 million , the Tasmanian Government $ 2 million and Launceston City Council $ 500 @,@ 000 . The Hawthorn Football Club are currently asking for a " sizeable " contribution from the AFL towards the development , and Inveresk Precinct Authority chairman Robin McKendrick has indicated that a contribution of $ 1 million was possible .
= = Events = =
= = = Australian rules football = = =
Australian rules football is the main sport played at the stadium which has hosted Australian Football League ( AFL ) games since 2001 , when the state government started paying interstate clubs to relocate their home games . Melbourne @-@ based Hawthorn played one game in 2001 and two in 2002 , and in 2003 were joined by another Melbourne team , St Kilda . In 2004 , it was estimated that the cost to the government per game was between $ 300 @,@ 000 and $ 500 @,@ 000 , but Tasmanian Premier Jim Bacon stated that the government was making a profit on its investment , estimating that each game injected between $ 1 million and $ 1 @.@ 5 million into the Tasmanian economy .
The number of AFL matches peaked in 2006 , when Hawthorn played three home games and one pre @-@ season game , while St Kilda played two home games . The games drew an average crowd of 17 @,@ 108 , with a record attendance of 20 @,@ 971 for the match between Hawthorn and Richmond .
Controversy occurred at York Park when , in a game between St Kilda and Fremantle , the final siren was too quiet to be heard by any of the umpires ; play was restarted in error , and in the subsequent confusion St Kilda levelled the scores . After a protest , the AFL Commission convened and overturned the result , awarding Fremantle the victory . The stadium 's sirens have since been replaced , and the old ones will be put on display at the Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery .
In 2007 York Park benefitted from a five @-@ year , $ 16 @.@ 4 million sponsorship of Hawthorn by the state government . Under the sponsorship agreement the stadium is the venue for five of Hawthorn 's matches each year — one pre @-@ season and four premiership games . Hawthorn president Jeff Kennett has expressed interest in his club playing higher profile teams , such as Collingwood , at the stadium .
As well as being an AFL venue , York Park is the long @-@ term base of North Launceston , and thus hosts regular Tasmanian State League matches . The ground also hosted occasional Tasmanian Devils Football Club home games in the Victorian Football League , from 2001 until the club 's demise in 2008 .
= = = Other uses = = =
York Park hosted its first international sporting fixture in the group phase of the 2003 Rugby Union World Cup , when Romania and Namibia played in front of 15 @,@ 457 spectators . As a soccer venue the stadium has hosted one National Soccer League match and three A @-@ League pre @-@ season games . Melbourne Knights and Perth Glory played a national league match at the stadium during the 2001 – 02 NSL season . In July 2006 , after the A @-@ League replaced the NSL , the stadium hosted Tasmania 's first A @-@ League match when Melbourne Victory and Adelaide United played in the pre @-@ season competition . In 2007 , 8 @,@ 061 attended the corresponding match , which has since become a regular fixture . In addition to pre @-@ season matches , Aurora Stadium has also hosted regular season A @-@ League matches : on 1 February 2012 , Melbourne Victory played Gold Coast United FC in a regular season A @-@ League game in front of a crowd of 5 @,@ 268 people and on 12 January 2013 , Melbourne Victory played against Central Coast Mariners in front of a crowd of 6 @,@ 238 people . Inveresk Precinct Authority chairman Robin McKendrick has stated that ground authorities are attempting to win hosting rights for Australian national soccer team matches .
Among non @-@ sporting events , before its redevelopment the stadium hosted an Ike & Tina Turner concert and a Billy Graham religious revival meeting . The Crusty Demons performed at the stadium during 2006 and March 2008 . Elton John performed at York Park during his Rocket Man Solo Tour at the end of 2007 ; this remains his only appearance in Tasmania as of August 2009 .
= = Structures and facilities = =
York Park is an oval @-@ shaped grassed arena surrounded by several different stands , the largest being the two @-@ tier Gunns Stand on the ground 's western side . The stand originally had a capacity of 2 @,@ 500 , which was increased by an extension in 2005 to 5 @,@ 700 . The stand has two corporate box areas , the Gunns Function Centre and the Corporate Function Centre . Immediately north of the Stand is the Aurora Function Centre , which also houses coaches ' boxes , and is next to the heritage listed Northern Stand connecting the Northern , Southern and Eastern Terraces . The stands have a collective capacity of 6 @,@ 000 , bringing the ground 's total seating to 11 @,@ 700 . The Railway Workers Hill is a small , uncovered stand located at the eastern side of the ground between the Northern and Eastern Terraces . The ground has a parking capacity of approximately 2 @,@ 500 , from the use of large grassy areas at the adjacent Inveresk site , with an option of street parking .
York Park has often been criticised for its large playing surface , which is blamed for producing unattractive low @-@ scoring football . Prior to the start of 2009 , only 11 of 28 matches saw a score beyond 100 points . For a pre @-@ season match in 2009 , 13 metres of width was removed from the outer wing " in a bid to produce more attractive games . " Before the match , Groenewegen said , " Because that outer wing was so wide , once they [ a team ] chipped wide out there it was very easy for teams to flood back because you were so far away from the goals . " The ground is also known for its strong wind , which hinders the accuracy of long @-@ distance kicks that are propelled high into the air .
A grant of $ 50 @,@ 000 from the Tasmanian Community Fund in 2005 helped the Launceston City Council and AFL Tasmania construct a permanent Tasmanian Football Hall of Fame at York Park . The ground was chosen as the site because it is regarded as the home of Australian rules football in Tasmania . AFL Tasmania initiated the Hall of Fame nomination process , and since 2005 various clubs , players and grounds have been inducted . The Hall of Fame opened to the public on 21 February 2009 . As of May 2009 , $ 23 @.@ 6 million had been spent re @-@ developing the stadium .
= = Crowds = =
The ground 's record attendance is 20 @,@ 971 , at an AFL match between Hawthorn and Richmond on 18 June 2006 . This match occurred before the Northern Stand was damaged and the stadium 's capacity reduced . An AFL match between Hawthorn and St Kilda on 8 August 2009 saw a capacity crowd of 20 @,@ 011 , the largest crowd since the fire . The stadium 's lowest AFL attendance is 10 @,@ 513 for a match between Hawthorn and GWS on the 18 of May 2013 .
The highest recorded attendance for an interstate match at York Park is 15 @,@ 000 for the 1960 clash between Tasmania and Victoria .
The highest recorded attendance for a Tasmanian Football League match at York Park is 6 @,@ 755 for the 1989 Second Semi Final played between North Launceston and North Hobart on 2 September 1989 .
The highest recorded attendance for a soccer match is 8 @,@ 061 , when Melbourne Victory played Adelaide United on 16 July during a 2007 A @-@ League Pre @-@ Season Challenge Cup match . The Billy Graham religious revival meeting on 17 March 1959 attracted 17 @,@ 000 attendees , a record for a non @-@ sporting event at the ground .
= = Attendance records = =
Top 10 sports attendance records
Last updated on 1 January 2012
= Birkebeineren Ski Stadium =
Birkebeineren Ski Stadium ( Norwegian : Birkebeineren skistadion ) is a cross @-@ country skiing and biathlon venue located in Lillehammer , Norway . Situated 3 kilometers ( 2 mi ) from the town center and at 485 meters ( 1 @,@ 591 ft ) above mean sea level , it has two stadium areas , one for cross @-@ country and one for biathlon . The former has a capacity for 31 @,@ 000 spectators , and the latter for 13 @,@ 500 . The venue was built for the 1994 Winter Olympics , costing 83 @.@ 6 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . It was subsequently used by the 1994 Winter Paralympics for Paralympic Nordic skiing and Paralympic biathlon . After the games , ownership was transferred to the municipal Lillehammer Olympiapark . The venue has since been used for one Biathlon World Cup , three FIS Cross @-@ Country World Cup and nine FIS Nordic Combined World Cup tournaments , the latter with the ski jumping competition taking place at the nearby Lysgårdsbakkene Ski Jumping Arena . Birkebeineren is scheduled to host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics .
= = Construction = =
The location of the venue was decided in January 1990 , following Lillehammer 's successful bid to host the 1994 Winter Olympics . Construction was managed by the Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee ( LOOC ) . Architects were 2Ø Arkitekter and the main consultant was Tonning & Lieng . Construction started in early 1991 , before planning was completed , and lasted until 1993 . The construction work was subcontracted to several companies . Landscaping was completed in 1994 . The facilities used concrete and wood as the main materials . The stadium included 3 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 32 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of temporary buildings , a 1 @,@ 620 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 17 @,@ 400 sq ft ) building converted to a riding center after the Olympics , and a 3 @,@ 200 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 34 @,@ 000 sq ft ) tent . The land around the venue is a swamp , and most of the surface soil had to be removed and replaced with harder earth . The soil was used as fertilizer or fill in other parts of the arena . A creek had to be bypassed with a 220 meters ( 720 ft ) long pipe . The arena is also so flat that a drainage system had to be installed . After the Olympics , four temporary overpasses were removed . Construction of the tracks was done to minimize the impact on the forest .
The venue cost NOK 83 @.@ 6 million , and was inaugurated on 28 November 1992 with an international biathlon competition . In December 1992 , the LOOC stated that they wanted to upgrade the stadium spectator capacity , but that the transport systems would not allow more people . In 1993 , the stadium had World Cup tournaments in biathlon and cross @-@ country skiing as a trial before the Olympics . During several events , the computer system controlling the scoreboard and television scores collapsed . President Johan Baumann of the Norwegian Ski Federation criticized the venue and demanded that a new stadium be built . He stated that the stadium had been built to optimize television pictures , and that it had insufficient facilities for the spectators . In particular , he criticized the fact that the spectators were too far away from the skiers and the lack of a television screen and more scoreboards . In May , the LOOC announced that the stadium would be expanded for another 6 @,@ 000 people before the Olympics . On 7 September , the ownership of the venue was transferred from the LOOC to Lillehammer Municipality via the subsidiary Lillehammer Olympiavekst , which later changed its name to Lillehammer Olympiapark . In October , the forest along the tracks were partially cleared to allow spectators without tickets to watch the events .
= = Facilities = =
The arena covers an area of 200 hectares ( 490 acres ) , and is 3 kilometers ( 2 mi ) from the town center . For the Olympics , 27 kilometers ( 17 mi ) of cross @-@ country tracks and 9 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) of biathlon tracks were built . There are two stadiums , one for cross @-@ country skiing and one for biathlon . The former has a spectator capacity for 31 @,@ 000 , while the latter has a capacity for 13 @,@ 500 . In addition , up to 75 @,@ 000 people watched the events the trackside during the Olympics . Permanent buildings include a 214 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 300 sq ft ) finishing house for biathlon , a 155 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 670 sq ft ) finishing house for cross @-@ country , a 355 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 3 @,@ 820 sq ft ) plant room . The cross @-@ country stadium is 200 square meters ( 2 @,@ 200 sq ft ) long , while the biathlon stadium is 150 square meters ( 1 @,@ 600 sq ft ) long . The biathlon stadium has 30 shooting stations . The facility has a 1 @,@ 250 kVA transformer , with an additional transformer used during the Olympics . Critical systems , such as computers and time @-@ keeping equipment , have an uninterruptible power supply .
As a recreational venue , Birkebeineren connects to 450 kilometers ( 280 mi ) of skiing tracks , including a 5 kilometers ( 3 mi ) lighted track which is lit until 22 : 00 every day during winter , and is open to the public . During the summer , the tracks are available for jogging , running , roller skiing and similar activities . There is a café between the two stadiums , which also have dressing rooms and showers . The biathlon venue can be rented to hold private biathlon competition , with or without skis .
The dominant means of transport during the Olympics was by railway . Spectators heading to Birkebeineren were transported by train to Hovemoen Station on the Dovre Line , and would then be transported by shuttle bus to the stadium . In addition , spectators from certain areas were transported by bus directly to the stadium .
= = Events = =
During the 1994 Winter Olympics , the venue hosted ten cross @-@ country skiing events , six biathlon events and two Nordic combined events . Over 203 @,@ 000 people applied for the 31 @,@ 000 seats for the relay . During the 1994 Winter Paralympics , the venue hosted the Paralympic Nordic skiing events and Paralympic biathlon .
The FIS Cross @-@ Country World Cup has been hosted three times , in 1993 , 2000 and 2002 , all in February or March . The FIS Nordic Combined World Cup has been hosted seven times at the stadium , in 1998 , 2000 , 2003 , 2005 , 2006 , 2009 and 2010 . All tournaments have been held in December , and have seen the ski jumping competition hosted at Lysgårdsbakken , the Olympic ski jumping hill in Lillehammer . Birkebeineren hosted Biathlon World Cup events from 1993 to 1997 . The stadium has also since 1992 been used as the goal area for Birkebeinerrennet , an annual ski marathon with thousands of participants . It has also hosted the Norwegian Nordic Ski Championships in 1993 . Lillehammer is scheduled to host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics . Birkebeineren will host cross @-@ country , Nordic combined and biathlon events .
= = Results = =
The following is a list of all Winter Olympics and World Cup events to be held at the stadium . It includes date , sport ( cross @-@ country skiing , Nordic combined or biathlon ) , tournament , distance , and top three athletes ( gold , silver and bronze ) .
= Oil shale in Estonia =
Oil shale ( Estonian : põlevkivi ) is a strategic energy resource that constitutes about 4 % of Estonia 's gross domestic product . The oil shale industry in Estonia is one of the most developed in the world . In 2012 , the country 's oil shale industry employed 6 @,@ 500 people – about 1 % of the national workforce . Of all the oil shale fired power stations in the world , the two largest are in this country . In 2012 , 70 % of mined oil shale was used for electricity generation , accounting for about 85 % of Estonia 's total electricity production . A smaller proportion of the mined oil shale is used to produce shale oil , a type of synthetic oil extracted from shale by pyrolysis , which is sufficient to keep Estonia as the second largest shale oil producer in the world after China . In addition , oil shale and its products are used in Estonia for district heating and as a feedstock material for the cement industry .
There are two kinds of oil shale in Estonia , both of which are sedimentary rocks laid down during the Ordovician geologic period . Graptolitic argillite is the larger resource , but , because its organic matter content is relatively low , it is not used industrially . The other one is kukersite , which has been mined for almost a hundred years and is expected to last for another 25 – 30 years . By the end of 2012 , the total kukersite resource was 4 @.@ 8 billion tonnes , of which up to 650 million tonnes was recoverable . Kukersite deposits in Estonia account for 1 @.@ 1 % of global oil shale deposits .
In the 18th and 19th centuries , Estonian oil shale was described by several scientists and used as a low @-@ grade fuel . Its use in industry commenced in 1916 . Production of shale oil began in 1921 and oil shale was first used to generate electrical power in 1924 . Shortly thereafter , systematic research into oil shale and its products began , and in 1938 a department of mining was established at Tallinn Technical University . After World War II , Estonian oil shale gas was used in Saint Petersburg ( then called Leningrad ) and in northern cities in Estonia as a substitute for natural gas . Increased need for electricity in the north @-@ west of the Soviet Union led to the construction of large oil shale @-@ fired power stations . Oil shale extraction peaked in 1980 . Subsequently , the launch of nuclear reactors in Russia , particularly the Leningrad Nuclear Power Station , reduced demand for electricity produced from oil shale , and , along with a post @-@ Soviet restructuring of the industry in the 1990s , led to a decrease in oil shale mining . After decreasing for two decades , oil shale mining started to increase again at the beginning of the 21st century .
The industry continues to have a serious impact on the environment . In 2012 , it produced about 70 % of Estonia 's ordinary waste , 82 % of its hazardous waste , and more than 70 % of its greenhouse gas emissions . Its activities lower groundwater levels , alter water circulation , and spoil water quality . Water pumped from the mines and used by oil shale @-@ fired power stations exceeds 90 % of all water used in Estonia . Leachates from waste heaps pollute surface and groundwater . Former and current oil shale mines cover about one percent of Estonia 's territory .
= = Resource = =
= = = Graptolitic argillite = = =
Estonian graptolitic argillite ( also known as dictyonema argillite , dictyonema oil shale , dictyonema shale or alum shale ) is a marine @-@ type of black shale , belonging to the marinite @-@ type of oil shales . Although the name dictyonema argillite is widely used instead of graptolitic argillite , it is now considered a misnomer as the graptolite fossils in the rock , earlier considered dictyonemids , were reclassified during the 1980s as members of the genus Rhabdinopora .
Graptolitic argillite was formed some 480 million years ago during the Early Ordovician under a marine environment . In mainland Estonia , it occurs at the foot of the North Estonian Klint , ranging from the Pakri Peninsula to Narva in an area covering about 11 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 200 sq mi ) . When findings in the western Estonian islands are included , its extent increases to about 12 @,@ 200 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 700 sq mi ) . The thickness of the layer varies from less than 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 ft 8 in ) to a maximum of 8 metres ( 26 ft ) in western Estonia , and its depth below the surface varies from 10 to 90 metres ( 33 to 295 ft ) .
Resources of graptolitic argillite in Estonia have been estimated at 60 – 70 billion tonnes . Although resources of graptolitic argillite exceed that of kukersite , attempts to use it as an energy source have been unsuccessful due to its low calorific value and high sulfur content . Its organic content ranges from 10 to 20 % and its sulfur content from 2 to 4 % . Correspondingly , its calorific value is only 5 – 8 megajoules per kilogram ( MJ / kg ; 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 900 kcal / kg ) and its Fischer Assay oil yield is 3 – 5 % . However , the graptolitic argillite resource in Estonia contains a potential 2 @.@ 1 billion tonnes of oil . In addition , it contains 5 @.@ 67 million tonnes of uranium – making it one of the main potential sources of uranium in Europe – 16 @.@ 53 million tonnes of zinc , and 12 @.@ 76 million tonnes of molybdenum . There is as yet no economical and environmentally friendly technology to extract either the metals or the oil .
= = = Kukersite = = =
Kukersite is a light @-@ brown marine @-@ type Late Ordovician oil shale formed some 460 million years ago . It was named as kuckers by the Baltic German geologist Carl Friedrich Schmidt in the mid @-@ 19th century , and as kukersite by the Russian paleobotanist Mikhail Zalessky in 1916 . The name reflects the German name for Kukruse Manor where oil shale samples were obtained .
Kukersite deposits in Estonia are the world 's second highest @-@ grade oil shale deposits after the Australian torbanite . Its organic content varies from 15 % to 55 % , averaging over 40 % . Correspondingly , its mean calorific value is 15 MJ / kg ( 3 @,@ 600 kcal / kg ) . The conversion ratio of its organic content into usable energy ( shale oil and oil shale gas ) is between 65 and 67 % , and its Fischer Assay oil yield is 30 to 47 % .
The principal organic component of kukersite is telalginite , which originated from the fossil green alga Gloeocapsomorpha prisca , deposited in a shallow marine basin . Kukersite lies at depths of 7 to 170 metres ( 23 to 558 ft ) . The most significant kukersite deposits in Estonia – the Estonian and the Tapa – cover about 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 900 sq mi ) , and together with the Leningrad deposit ( an extension of the Estonian ) form the Baltic Oil Shale Basin . The Estonian deposit , which covers about 2 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 770 sq mi ) , is used industrially . It consists of 23 exploration and mining fields . The Tapa deposit is not accounted as a reserve due to its lower calorific value , which makes its extraction economically inexpedient . In northern Estonia there are 50 layers of kukersite ; the six lowest of these form a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ to @-@ 3 @-@ metre ( 8 ft 2 in to 9 ft 10 in ) thick mineable bed . In this area kukersite lies near the surface . To the south and west it lies deeper and its thickness and quality decrease .
According to the International Energy Agency , Estonia 's kukersite represents about 1 @.@ 1 % of global and 17 % of European oil shale resources . The total kukersite resources in Estonia are estimated to be about 4 @.@ 8 billion tonnes , including 1 @.@ 3 billion tonnes of economically proven and probable reserves . Economically proven and probable reserves consist of mineable deposits with energy ratings of at least 35 gigajoules per square metre and calorific values of at least 8 MJ / kg , located in areas without environmental restrictions . Up to 650 million tonnes of economically proven and probable reserves are designated as recoverable .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
It is often reported that 18th @-@ century naturalist and explorer Johann Anton Güldenstädt had mentioned a discovery of a " burning rock " near Jõhvi in 1725 , but his published travel notes mention neither oil shale nor Estonia . It is also often reported that the earliest documented record of oil shale in Estonia , authored by the Baltic German publicist and linguist August Wilhelm Hupel , dates to 1777 . However , this is based on a misinterpretation of the German word Steinöhl ( meaning : stone oil ) , which was used by Hupel but which most likely did not mean oil shale in the context of his publication .
In the second half of the 18th century , the St. Petersburg Free Economic Society started to search for information about combustible minerals which as fuels would replace the decreasing stock of trees in the European part of Russia . As a result of these inquiries , the Society received information about a combustible mineral found at the Kohala Manor near Rakvere . According to the landlord of the Kohala estate , Baron Fabian Reinhold Ungern @-@ Sternberg , the ' burning rock ' was discovered at a depth of about ten meters when a spring was opened on the slope of a sandy hump , as it was during the digging of a well some years earlier on the same slope . This discovery was briefly mentioned in a paper prepared by the German chemist Johann Gottlieb Georgi and presented by the Actual State Councillor Anton @-@ Johann Engelhardt at the meeting of the Society in 1789 . The first scientific research into the rock 's oil yield , using samples from the Vanamõisa village of the Kohala Manor , was published by Georgi at the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1791 . In 1838 and 1839 , the Baltic German geologist Gregor von Helmersen published a detailed description of the deposits of kukersite in Vanamõisa and graptolitic argillite in Keila @-@ Joa . In 1838 he made a thorough experiment to distil oil from the Vanamõisa oil shale deposit .
During the 1850s , large @-@ scale works were undertaken in Estonia to transform excessively wet land into land suitable for agriculture ; this included the digging of drainage ditches . In the process , previously unknown layers of oil shale were discovered in several locations . In the years 1850 – 1857 , the territory of Estonia was explored by the Baltic German geologist Carl Friedrich Schmidt who studied these findings of oil shale . Russian chemist Aleksandr Shamarin , who at the end of the 1860s had studied the composition and properties of oil shale originating from the Kukruse area , concluded it made sense to use oil shale for the production of gas and as a solid fuel . However , he considered shale oil production unprofitable . During the remainder of the 19th century oil shale was used locally as a low @-@ grade fuel only . For example , in the 1870s , Robert von Toll , landlord of the Kukruse Manor , started to use oil shale as a fuel for the manor 's distillery . There were failed attempts to use graptolitic argillite as fertilizer in the 19th century . In the beginning of the 20th century , geologist and engineer Carl August von Mickwitz studied self @-@ ignition of graptolitic argillite near Paldiski . At the University of Tartu oil shale geology and chemistry analyses were conducted during the 19th century by Georg Paul Alexander Petzholdt , Alexander Gustav von Schrenk , and Carl Ernst Heinrich Schmidt , among others .
= = = Beginning of oil shale industry = = =
Analysis of Estonian oil shale resources and mining possibilities intensified during the early 20th century while Estonia was part of the Russian Empire . Industrial development was under way in Saint Petersburg ( known as Petrograd in 1914 – 24 ) , but regional fuel resources were in short supply . A large shale oil extraction plant for processing Estonian oil shale was proposed in 1910 . The outbreak of World War I , coupled with a fuel supply crisis , accelerated the pace of the research .
In June 1916 , the Russian geologist Nikolay Pogrebov oversaw mining of the first tonnes of oil shale at Pavandu and delivered it to Saint Petersburg ( then Petrograd ) Polytechnic Institute for large @-@ scale experiments . These events marking the beginning of the Estonian oil shale industry took place more than half a century after an oil shale industry had emerged in Scotland , the leading oil shale industry in 1916 , and a decade before the industry emerged in China , which , besides Estonia , is today the other leading oil shale @-@ exploiting country . In 1916 a total of 640 – 690 tonnes of oil shale were sent to Saint Petersburg for testing . The tests proved that the oil shale was suitable for combustion as a solid fuel and for extraction of oil shale gas and shale oil . Based on these promising results , a plan for oil shale mining in Estonia was presented to the Emperor Nicholas II on 3 January 1917 . On 13 February 1917 , the Council of Ministers of Russia allocated 1 @.@ 2 million rubles to purchase land and start mining activities . After the February Revolution , the Russian Provisional Government appointed a special commissioner for oil shale purchasing and stockpiling who began preliminary work for the digging of an oil shale mine at Pavandu , with full @-@ scale construction carried out by about 500 workers , including war prisoners , in the summer of 1917 . After the October Revolution , financing ceased and construction stopped . Two private Saint Petersburg firms , established specially for oil shale mining , Böckel & Co. and Mutschnik & Co . , which in the fall of 1916 had begun surface mining at Kukruse and Järve , respectively , also terminated their mining activities in 1917 .
In February 1918 , the area surrounding the oil shale basin in northeast Estonia was occupied by German troops . During this occupation , mining activities were carried out at Pavandu by the German company Internationales Baukonsortium ( English : International Construction Consortium ) , including sending oil shale to Germany for research and experimentation . This work used a retort constructed by Julius Pintsch AG , known as a Pintsch generator . In late 1918 , German forces left Estonia , by which time no more than a single trainload of oil shale had been mined and sent to Germany .
= = = Developments in interwar Estonia = = =
After Estonia gained independence , the state owned oil shale enterprise , Riigi Põlevkivitööstus ( English : Estonian State Oil Shale Industry ) , was established as a department of the Ministry for Trade and Industry on 24 November 1918 . The enterprise , later named Esimene Eesti Põlevkivitööstus ( English : First Estonian Oil Shale Industry ) , was the predecessor of Viru Keemia Grupp , one of the current shale oil producers in Estonia . It took over the existing Pavandu open @-@ pit mine , and opened new mines at Vanamõisa ( 1919 ) , Kukruse ( 1920 ) , and Käva ( 1924 ) . Also , several private investors , including investors from abroad , initiated oil shale industries in Estonia by opening mines at Kiviõli ( 1922 ) , Küttejõu ( 1925 ) , Ubja ( 1926 ) , Viivikonna ( 1936 ) , and Kohtla ( 1937 ) . Pavandu mine was closed in 1927 and Vanamõisa mine was closed in 1931 . While in 1918 only 16 tonnes and in 1919 only 9 @,@ 631 tonnes of oil shale were mined , in 1937 the annual output exceeded one million tonnes . In 1940 , the annual output reached 1 @,@ 891 @,@ 674 tonnes .
Initially , oil shale was used primarily in the cement industry , but also for firing locomotive furnaces and as a household fuel . The first major industrial consumers of oil shale were cement factories in Kunda and Aseri . By 1925 , all locomotives in Estonia were powered by oil shale .
Shale oil production started in Estonia in 1921 when Riigi Põlevkivitööstus built 14 experimental oil shale processing retorts in Kohtla @-@ Järve . These vertical retorts used the method developed by Julius Pintsch AG that would later evolve into the current Kiviter processing technology . Along with the shale oil extraction plant , an oil shale research laboratory was founded in 1921 . Following the experimental retorts , the first commercial shale oil plant was put into operation on 24 December 1924 . The German @-@ owned company Eesti Kiviõli ( German : Estländische Steinöl , English : Estonian Stone Oil , predecessor of Kiviõli Keemiatööstus ) , affiliated with G. Scheel & Co. and Mendelssohn & Co . , was established in 1922 . By the end of 1930s , it had become the largest shale oil producer in Estonia . Around the company 's mine and oil plant , the Kiviõli settlement ( now town ) was formed in the same way as the Küttejõu settlement ( now district of Kiviõli ) formed around the mine owned by Eesti Küttejõud . In 1924 , the British investor @-@ owned Estonian Oil Development Syndicate Ltd . ( later Vanamõisa Oilfields Ltd . ) purchased an open @-@ pit mine in Vanamõisa and opened a shale oil extraction plant that was abandoned in 1931 due to technical problems . The Swedish – Norwegian consortium Eestimaa Õlikonsortsium ( Swedish : Estländska Oljeskifferkonsortiet , English : Estonian Oil Consortium ) , controlled by Marcus Wallenberg , was founded in Sillamäe in 1926 . New Consolidated Gold Fields Ltd. of the United Kingdom built a shale oil extraction plant at Kohtla @-@ Nõmme in 1931 . This facility continued to operate until 1961 .
In 1934 , Eesti Kiviõli and New Consolidated Gold Fields established the service station chain Trustivapaa Bensiini ( now : Teboil ) in Finland , which in 1940 sold more shale @-@ oil @-@ derived gasoline in Finland than did the entire conventional gasoline market in Estonia . Since 1935 , Estonian shale oil has been supplied to the German Kriegsmarine as a ship fuel . In 1938 , 45 % of Estonian shale oil was exported , accounting for 8 % of Estonia 's total exports . Although the price of oil shale @-@ based gasoline was at least triple that of global gasoline prices , high production and bilateral agreements with Germany facilitated its export . In 1939 , Estonia produced 181 @,@ 000 tonnes of shale oil , including 22 @,@ 500 tonnes of oil that were suitable gasoline equivalents . The mining and oil industry employed 6 @,@ 150 persons .
The oil shale @-@ fired electrical power industry started in 1924 when the Tallinn Power Station switched to oil shale . In 1933 , it reached a capacity of 22 megawatts ( MW ) . Other oil shale @-@ fired power stations were built in Püssi ( 3 @.@ 7 MW ) , Kohtla ( 3 @.@ 7 MW ) , Kunda ( 2 @.@ 3 MW ) , and Kiviõli ( 0 @.@ 8 MW ) . At the beginning of World War II , the total capacity of oil
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American war : " I know that the government will not do anything except issue some silly comments against brutality even after this attack . I do not issue comments , I believe in taking action . " An Awami National Party politician and senator called the incident a terrorist attack . Awami Muslim League party leader Sheikh Rashid Ahmed supported a blockade of NATO supplies " to teach an unforgettable lesson to USA and NATO forces for violating Pakistani soil . " MQM chief Altaf Hussain condemned the attack and directed his party to observe a " Stability and Solidarity Day " . Former president Pervez Musharraf heavily criticised the attack while giving a telephonic conference to the Karachi Press Club and advised the government to take strict measures at a diplomatic level . Many other leaders also called on the government to pull out of the war in Afghanistan and disassociate itself from the US alliance . The JUI called the attack a " shameful incident " and " a slap across the face of Pakistani foreign policy " adopted by rulers who " always bow before their foreign masters . " Protesters affiliated with the right @-@ wing Jamaat @-@ ud @-@ Dawa held a rally outside the Lahore Press Club where they urged the Pakistan Army to give a " befitting response " to NATO ; the leader of the party said " We have to eliminate all stations and bases given to the CIA if we want to end terrorism in Pakistan " .
= = = Public and media = = =
The NATO attack received considerable criticism and caused widespread outrage among the country 's civil society and media , with some perceiving it as an intentional act of war that may have been pre @-@ planned . Numerous protests were organised in several cities for a number of consecutive days after the attack occurred . Members of the public demanded an end to the US alliance and pressurised the government to consider pulling out from the War on Terror , permanently halt all NATO supplies , expel American citizens in Pakistan and plan a tit @-@ for @-@ tat military retaliation . Some locals in the tribal agencies demanded those who carried out the attack to be handed over to Pakistan . Hundreds of people organised a gathering outside the American consulate in Karachi to lodge a protest . Various lawyers ' associations throughout the country boycotted their usual court proceedings and observed a strike to mark the day . Many university students also boycotted their classes to protest . Students in Peshawar blocked a main road where they chanted " Quit the war on terror " and other anti @-@ American slogans . Schoolteachers and students in Azad Kashmir expressed their outrage during a protest in the capital Muzaffarabad . Protests were also organised in the northern towns of Skardu in Gilgit @-@ Baltistan and Chitral . Some faculty members of the University of the Punjab , the country 's oldest university , passed a " resolution " in which they backed the Pakistan Army , stating that " Pakistan does not want war , but war is being imposed on it " and said the War on Terror was a " drama " staged by the " US elite " and a certain group of rich international bankers referred to as the " high cabal " by Winston Churchill who wanted to establish a " world government " . The Federation of Pakistan Chamber of Commerce & Industry condemned the attack as well . Local television cable operators pulled out western channels such as BBC World News to deter what they called " anti @-@ Pakistan bias " in the media . Leaders of Pakistani Christian communities also condemned the attack and pledged their support for the armed forces along with calling for a UN inquiry ; speaking on the occasion , the president of the Pakistan Catholic Bishops ' Conference said : " Our soldiers lost their lives in the line of duty . They died fighting terrorism " . Religious leaders and scholars of the Hindu , Sikh , Muslim , Christian and Baha 'i communities also condemned the incident during an inter @-@ faith meeting .
= = = Reaction by the US and NATO = = =
The White House released a statement in which it said that senior American officials had expressed their condolences to Pakistan and that the officials expressed " our desire to work together to determine what took place , and our commitment to the U.S.-Pakistan partnership which advances our shared interests , including fighting terrorism in the region " . US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton , and Defense Secretary Leon Panetta spoke to their Pakistani counterparts to give their " deepest condolences " in a joint statement and also supported a NATO investigation . The commander of the International Security Assistance Force is " personally paying the highest attention " to the matter . The Obama administration pledged co @-@ operation with Pakistan and ordered a full investigation and inquiry to be conducted into the attack . A few days later after the incident , President Barack Obama personally phoned President Asif Ali Zardari to express his sorrow over the deaths of the soldiers and , according to a press release , " made it clear that this regrettable incident was not a deliberate attack on Pakistan and reiterated the United States ' strong commitment to a full investigation . " while stopping short of offering a formal apology .
A NATO spokesman said that NATO " regrets the loss of life of any Pakistani servicemen " .
On 27 November 2011 , NATO issued an apology for what it called a " tragic unintended incident " . In addition , NATO chief Anders Fogh Rasmussen is reported to have written to Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gilani commenting that " the deaths of Pakistani personnel are as unacceptable and deplorable as the deaths of Afghan and international personnel " . " We have a joint interest in the fight against cross @-@ border terrorism and in ensuring that Afghanistan does not once again become a safe haven for terrorists , " Rasmussen was quoted as saying .
The US Chief of Army Staff , General Martin Dempsey , said Pakistan 's anger was justified as it had a reason to be furious given the loss of life . However , Dempsey did not apologise , saying he did not know enough about the incident and an inquiry was still being conducted . A senior advisor to Afghan President Hamid Karzai warned that Pakistan and Afghanistan may be on a course toward military conflict . Hamid Karzai contacted the Pakistani Prime Minister to discuss the NATO strike and gave his condolences over the deaths of soldiers .
The commander of the International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) , General John R. Allen , presented condolences to the family members and loved ones of the dead soldiers and ordered a " thorough investigation " into the matter . NATO chief Anders Fogh Rasmussen wrote to Pakistan 's Prime Minister to say " the deaths of Pakistani personnel are ... unacceptable and deplorable . "
At the same time , US senators such as John McCain and Lindsey Graham said the United States needed to " fully review " its ties with Pakistan and consider enforcing cuts or new restrictions to military and economic aid , in response to attacks on American soldiers in Afghanistan which the United States accuses of having links to Pakistani intelligence agencies .
Dennis J. Kucinich , a US Congressman from Ohio , said while speaking at an event organised by the Association of Physicians of Pakistani Descent of North America ( APPNA ) that the United States must apologise to Pakistan and pay reparations to the families of the soldiers , adding : " I ’ m aware of complexities around US @-@ Pakistan relations , but you are our brothers and sisters , and we need to help facilitate those who want to take care of people here . "
The US embassy in Islamabad released a video statement on YouTube featuring Ambassador Cameron Munter standing in front of the American and Pakistani flags , in which he expressed his regrets for the attack . Giving his condolences , Munter said the United States took the attack " very seriously " and pledged " a full , in @-@ depth investigation . " He also pointed out that Pakistan and the United States had been friends for over 60 years and that having " weathered previous crises together " , he was certain they would both " weather this one too " to emerge as stronger partners .
= = = International reaction = = =
= = = = By country = = = =
China : The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs held a 40 @-@ minute telephone conversation with the Pakistani foreign affairs minister and released a statement afterwards in which it expressed China had " strong concerns " and was " deeply shocked " over the attack and maintained that " Pakistan 's independence , sovereignty and territorial integrity should be respected . "
During the first week of January 2012 , Chief of Army Staff General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani left for an official five @-@ day visit to China , a close ally of Pakistan , at the invitation of the Chinese leadership . According to military sources , the army chief was expected to meet the Chinese president and prime minister alongside top security officials , and a focal agenda of the meeting included discussions on the NATO incident , a briefing by Kayani on rewriting terms of engagement with the US , as well as security co @-@ operation between China and Pakistan . Commenting on the occasion , a security official said : " We want to take our relationship with China to the next level " .
Denmark : The foreign minister of Denmark , Villy Sovndal , sent an official letter to convey condolences on the dead soldiers . Sovndal said " Pakistan has already suffered enormous casualties with tens of thousands civilians and service personnel being killed by militants during the last 10 years . No country is so hard hit as Pakistan . It calls for our deepest sympathy and solidarity . "
France : A spokesman for the French Foreign Ministry said France extended its condolences for the " tragic and regrettable events that led to the death of at least 26 Pakistani soldiers " and called for co @-@ operation with the Pakistani government in addition to lending support for an inquiry into the facts behind the incident .
Germany : Guido Westerwelle , Foreign Minister of Germany , deplored the attack during a telephone call to Pakistan and said he supported an investigation into it .
Iran : Major General Mohammad Ali Jafari , commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps , condemned the NATO air raid in a message to Pakistan 's Chief of Army Staff : " There is no doubt that the horrible crime was in violation of international laws and regulations which once again unmasked the true face of the so @-@ called advocates of peace and human rights " . In addition , some 224 Iranian parliamentarians issued a joint statement in which they condemned the attack and encouraged Islamabad to show a " decisive move " to " prevent the United States ' future crimes and violation of Pakistan 's territorial integrity " .
Italy : Italian foreign minister Giulio Terzi contacted Pakistani foreign minister Hina Rabbani Khar , during which he condoled the loss of lives , terming the incident a matter of " huge concern . " Terzi commented that Pakistan was a major stakeholder in resolving stability in Afghanistan and that its presence would be greatly missed in the upcoming Bonn conference .
Russia : The Russian foreign minister stated it is unacceptable to violate the sovereignty of a state , even when planning and carrying out counter @-@ insurgent operations . In January 2012 , reports emerged that Pakistani foreign minister Hina Rabbani Khar was set to leave for Moscow in the first half of February to formally invite Russian president Dmitry Medvedev to pay a state visit to Pakistan . If Medvedev accepts the invitation , he would be the first Russian head of state to visit the country . The move is believed to be part of changes in Pakistan 's foreign policy which include efforts to open up relations with other regional powers following strains in relations with the United States .
Sri Lanka : Thousands of Sri Lankan protesters attended a gathering in a public square in Colombo organised by the Pakistan Sri Lanka Friendship Association and the National Freedom Front ( a political party and ally of the ruling coalition government ) , condemning the NATO 's actions and asking the US to " stop terrorizing Pakistan " . The attendees included several high profile Sri Lankan government officials , as well as journalists , government employees , lawyers and members of the civil society . Members of the Sri Lankan Muslim community and the Pakistani community in Sri Lanka were present . During the same gathering , protesters also criticised the United States for pushing an inquiry into the conduct of the Sri Lankan armed forces in the recently ended civil war against Tamil insurgents .
Turkey : The Turkish Minister for Foreign Affairs Ahmet Davutoğlu telephoned Pakistan and called the attack " unprovoked and totally unacceptable " . Davutoğlu assured that as a member of NATO , Turkey will ask for an impartial inquiry into the attacks . He further added that the loss of the Pakistani soldiers was " as painful as losing Turkish soldiers " .
United Arab Emirates : Sheikh Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan , the Foreign Affairs Minister of the United Arab Emirates , arrived in Islamabad on an unannounced visit and requested President Asif Ali Zardari to reconsider and withdraw Pakistan 's deadline set for the US to vacate the Shamsi Airbase . President Zardari is said to have rejected the request during the meeting , saying the decision was taken by the Defence Committee of the Cabinet and was in national interests . The Shamsi Airbase is believed to be under the control of the UAE , which leased it in the 1990s for facilitating visits of wealthy Arabs who used to visit Pakistan for falconry and hunting trips . The UAE is reportedly the party which allowed the US to use the air base for military purposes .
= = = = Organisations = = = =
United Nations : The office of the Security Council 's President , Ambassador Jose Filipe Moraes Cabral of Portugal , submitted Mr. Haroon 's letter for their information as well as the DCC statement , to be issued as a document of the UNSC . UN is still awaited for further comments .
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ( OIC ) : The Secretary General of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation ( OIC ) Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu condemned the NATO attacks and gave his condolences to the relatives of the dead soldiers . Ihsanoglu said the attacks were a " serious violation of Pakistan 's sovereignty and are totally unacceptable " and expressed solidarity with Pakistan .
European Union : Catherine Ashton offered her condolences for the deaths and said : " We underline the EU 's commitment to continue its engagement with Pakistan in pursuit of the shared goals of promoting peace , security and prosperity . Pakistan is a vital partner in the region and has an essential role to play in the resolution of the Afghan conflict . "
Syed Ali Shah Geelani , leader of the separatist Tehreek @-@ e @-@ Hurriyat party in Indian @-@ administered Kashmir said during a telephone address that Pakistan was facing problems due to its alliance with the United States .
The Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban ( TTP ) said NATO 's attack on Pakistani check posts proved that the US " can never be a friend of Pakistan " and said Pakistan ought to take revenge for the incident and cut off its ties with the USA . A TTP spokesperson maintained that no peace talks were being held with the government of Pakistan .
= = = = Third parties = = = =
John Rees , a British socialist and anti @-@ war political activist , called the NATO attack an " extremely dangerous incursion " and argued that the US and its allies were creating instability in the nuclear @-@ armed country . Ahmed Qureshi , an Islamabad @-@ based analyst , said during the same interview with state @-@ run Russia Today that the prevailing public outrage may force the government and the army to take some decisive measures against the United States .
Australian analyst Brian Cloughley said the attack would have severe consequences : " This is quite outrageous and I have no doubt it signifies the end of the last lingering shreds of trust that the Pakistani army had for the U.S. " . According to Coughley , the USAF had full knowledge of the locations of Pakistani border posts , and thus there was no excuse for this incident .
An article from the Asia Times by M K Bhadrakumar explains that US should learn from its experience with Iran . It has no answer to a resolute nation in its will to put up against an enemy and Pakistan is going to give a " Persian response " this time if the intention was to intimidate its army . According to Bhadrakumar , Pakistan 's calculated response following the attack stops short of directly terminating its participation in the war although in essence , this event may push Pakistan 's army " within inches of doing that " in the long @-@ term scenario .
A report published in the newspaper Pakistan Observer claimed that some military and defence observers at Islamabad believed NATO was playing a double game and was in league with the Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban ; according to the report , there was a theory being circulated which suggested that the attack carried out by NATO came just when some Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban ( TTP ) militants from Afghanistan who had entered the region had been completely encircled by Pakistani forces and were about to be eliminated " within the next few hours " . These check posts were there to check them and prevent from crossing the border in to Pakistan . Pakistani monitors and experts on Afghanistan believed that at least two Afghan military officials deployed on the border , Brigadier General Aminullah Amarkhel and Colonel Numan Hatifi ( of the 201st Silab Corps ) , have anti @-@ Pakistan sentiments and links to anti @-@ Pakistani elements .
An article published in People 's Daily , China 's top state newspaper , accused the United States and NATO of flouting international law and fanning terrorism . Simultaneously , many Chinese scholars , analysts and members of leading think tanks also expressed strong criticism of NATO 's attack . A former spokesperson for the US state department said China , which is a close ally of Pakistan , " sees this as a target of opportunity , both to tweak the US and to subtly suggest to Pakistan that if it really sours of its relationship with the US , it has an alternative " .
Writing for the Pakistani newspaper Express Tribune , Indian blogger Sanjay Kumar said the attack had elicited various reactions in India , with some vocal sections who saw Islamabad in " the prism of prejudice and paranoia " expressing glee and delight at the discomfort and supposed humiliation of their arch @-@ rival western neighbour . Kumar opinionated that " such sick thought has many takers in this healthy democracy which prides itself as the voice of the third world countries " . An opinion piece by Abdul Ruff Colachal published on the Indian Muslim Observer titled " NATO terrorism in Pakistan " said that Pakistan 's leadership was " interested mainly in promoting US imperialist goals and western capitalist interests " rather than protecting the interests of its people .
= = Gallantry awards = =
Recipients of the Sitara @-@ e @-@ Jurat :
Major Mujahid Ali Mirani Shaheed .
Recipients of the Tamgha @-@ e @-@ Basalat :
Captain Usman Ali Shaheed .
= = = Media reports = = =
The Salalah check post after NATO / ISAF attacks
Funeral prayer of martyred soldiers ’ offered
Nato attack : Funeral prayers of soldiers offered
Funeral prayers of soldiers at Peshawar on YouTube
Russia News – World war III will start if USA attacks Pakistan on YouTube
= = = Analysis and further reading = = =
Using the PAF ? – Dealing militarily and non @-@ militarily with USA without direct offensive confrontation .
Nato fuel tankers for US troops attacked in Pakistan
= Tremplin du Praz =
Tremplin du Praz is a ski jumping hill at Le Praz in Courchevel , France . The complex consists of four hills : a large hill with construction point of K @-@ 120 and hill size of HS132 , a normal hill at K @-@ 90 and HS96 , and two training hills at K @-@ 60 and K @-@ 25 . The complex also has a cross @-@ country skiing stadium used for Nordic combined . Jörg Ritzerfeld holds the large hill winter record of 134 @.@ 0 metres and Nicolas Mayer the normal hill record of 100 @.@ 5 metres .
La Praz received its first ski jumping hill in 1944 . Ahead of the 1992 Winter Olympics , the large and normal hills were built along with a cross @-@ country stadium to host ski jumping and Nordic combined events . Since 1997 , the hill has hosted an annual summer FIS Ski Jumping Grand Prix event . It has also been used for one FIS Ski Jumping World Cup and two FIS Nordic Combined World Cup rounds , in addition to four events of the FIS Ski Jumping Continental Cup . The medium hill opened in 2004 and the small hill in 2008 .
= = Construction = =
The first ski jump in Courchevel was built on the location of the large hill in 1944 . It was followed by a second in 1955 , located in Courchevel 1850 . The hills were used to incorporate ski jumping into the Alpine skiing training programs . In 1970 , a larger 50 @-@ metre hill was built in Courchevel 1850 . It was supplemented with a small 25 @-@ metre hill in the early 1990s .
In the Albertville bid for the 1992 Winter Olympics , La Praz was designated the host of the ski jumping and Nordic combined events . The site was chosen because it was sheltered from the wind , had good exposure to the sun and predictable snowfall . Planning for the new venue started in 1988 , after Albertville had been selected to host the games . The hills were designed so both could be used simultaneously , if desired . During the 1988 Winter Olympics , the ski jumps at Canada Olympic Park were subject to strong winds and several of the competitions were postponed . To avoid such inconveniences , Tremplin du Praz was built into the mountain side to minimize wind exposure . Although the size of the hills remained the same , the 1992 Olympics were the first to measure the sizes in construction points ( K @-@ points ) .
In 2004 , the venue was upgraded for € 1 million by installing a K @-@ 60 inrun between the normal and large hill . This allowed the medium inrun to use the same outrun as the normal hill . In 2008 , a small K @-@ 25 hill , named Ninoufbakken , was installed slightly away from the main hills . The venue 's certificate was due to expire in 2011 , after which the venue would have to meet the International Ski Federation 's ( FIS ) latest regulations . A € 1 @.@ 5 million upgrade program was initiated , which saw the inruns renovated , including installation of the Ski @-@ Line track system and new Porsgrund ceramic tracks . The outruns saw new plastic mats and a new sprinkler system . The Nordic House , a sports centre , was also built . Construction started on the normal hill in May 2011 and on the large hill in August 2011 , with completion scheduled for early 2012 .
= = Facilities = =
The venue is located in Le Praz , also known as Courchevel 1300 , a village at the base of the Courchevel skiing resort . The venue is 1 @,@ 300 m ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) above mean sea level and consists of four jumps . The large hill has a K @-@ point of K @-@ 120 and a hill size of HS132 . The normal hill has a K @-@ point of K @-@ 90 and a hill size of HS96 . The medium hill , with a K @-@ point of K @-@ 60 and hill size of HS65 , shares its outrun with the normal hill . The small hill , Ninoufbakken , has a K @-@ point of K @-@ 25 and a hill size of HS30 and is located away from the rest of the complex . The large and normal hill have an take @-@ off angle of 11 @.@ 5 ° and 10 @.@ 5 ° , and a landing angle of 37 @.@ 5 ° and 36 ° , respectively .
The venue covers an area of 0 @.@ 4 hectares ( 1 acre ) and features a judge tower , distance and speed measuring equipment , a weather station , snowmaking equipment , scoreboards and athlete preparation cubicles . The venue has 50 commentator booths , a VIP area and stands for 23 @,@ 000 spectators . Auxiliary facilities include a medical centre , a 900 m2 ( 9 @,@ 700 sq ft ) press and conference centere and 7 @,@ 000 m2 ( 75 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of parking . The Nordic House consists of rooms for organizers , accommodation for ski jumpers , stands for 200 spectators , a sports hall and a fitness centre .
Adjacent to the hills is stadium used for cross @-@ country part of Nordic combined . The stadium area is 0 @.@ 2 hectares ( 0 @.@ 49 acres ) and is made up of a timing and jury tower and preparation cubicles . There is capacity for 15 @,@ 000 spectators . For the Olympics , a 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) long loop was added , which ran around the village to the neighboring village of Saint @-@ Bon and back . Roads were crossed on wooden bridges and underpasses . The loop involved an extra round around the stadium area , with an altitude difference of 84 m ( 276 ft ) and a maximum climb of 43 m ( 141 ft ) . The total climb for the 15 kilometre individual Olympic race was 546 metres ( 1 @,@ 791 ft ) and for the 3 × 10 kilometre 346 m ( 1 @,@ 135 ft ) . Cross @-@ country proper was held at Les Saisies .
= = Events = =
= = = Men = = =
Tremplin du Praz hosted the ski jumping events and the ski jumping part of the Nordic combined at the 1992 Winter Olympics . The format went unchanged from the previous games , but the Albertville Olympics were the first to see the mainstream use of V @-@ style . The large hill competition was won by Austria 's Ernst Vettori , the normal hill event was won by Finland 's Toni Nieminen and the team event was won by Finland . Nieminen , Vettori and Austria 's Martin Höllwarth collected medals in all three events . In Nordic combined , France won a double with Fabrice Guy and Sylvain Guillaume in the individual event , while Japan won the team event .
The hill was scheduled to host two FIS Ski Jumping World Cup events in January 1991 , but they had to be cancelled due to lack of snow . In 1993 , the hills hosted a single large hill World Cup event . Since 1997 , Tremplin du Praz has been used annually for the FIS Ski Jumping Grand Prix , the premier international summer ski jumping tournament . Originally it consisted of a single competition in the large hill , but from 2010 , a qualification run was introduced the day before the main event . The venue has hosted the FIS Ski Jumping Continental Cup four times , in 2000 , 2002 , 2010 and 2011 . In February 2006 , the venue hosted two FIS Cup competitions in the normal hill . In January 2007 , Courchevel hosted two rounds of a FIS @-@ organized junior ski jump in the normal hill . In Nordic combined , the venue has hosted the FIS Nordic Combined World Cup twice , in 1991 and 1992 . It also held a World Cup B event in 1997 . The venue has been a popular training venue for national teams , and Germany often holds summer training in Courchevel .
The hill record in the large hill is 134 @.@ 0 metres , set by Germany 's Jörg Ritzerfeld in 2002 . However , in the summer the record is 137 @.@ 0 metres , set by Poland 's Kamil Stoch in 2011 . For the normal hill , the record of 100 @.@ 5 metres was recorded by Nicolas Mayer in 2010 .
= Ontario Highway 412 =
King 's Highway 412 , or simply Highway 412 , is a tolled controlled @-@ access highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The route is approximately 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) long , connecting Highway 401 with the eastern extension of Highway 407 . The route lies entirely within Whitby in the Regional Municipality of Durham , travelling within one kilometre of the border between Whitby and Ajax and Pickering ( Lake Ridge Road ) .
During planning , the route was known as the West Durham Link . Its designation as Highway 412 , the first new 400 @-@ series designation in several decades , was confirmed along with Highway 418 on February 6 , 2015 . Although initially planned to open in October 2015 , the opening was delayed until June 20 , 2016 . Highway 412 opened alongside the extension of Highway 407 ( Highway 407E ) from Brock Road in Pickering to Harmony Road in Oshawa . The Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) announced that the route would be free to travel until 2017 to make up for delays .
= = Route description = =
Highway 412 is a 10 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) four @-@ lane highway extending from Highway 401 to Highway 407E , just north of Highway 7 . The entire length of the route lay between Lakeridge Road and Coronation Road , within Whitby . At the southern end , the route begins at a three @-@ level stack interchange with a realigned Highway 401 , from which it proceeds north . It crosses Dundas Street ( former Highway 2 ) , where a partial interchange provides access to the north and from the south .
North of Dundas Street , the route swerves westward onto the alignment of Halls Road and crosses Rossland Road ; a future interchange is planned at this location . It continues north to a planned interchange with Taunton Road before diverging east from the Halls Road alignment to travel parallel between it and Coronation Road . The route crosses Highway 7 ( Winchester Road ) , where a partial interchange provides southbound access and a northbound exit ; a commuter carpool parking lot lay on the northwest corner . Immediately north of Highway 7 , the route ends at a three @-@ level stack interchange with Highway 407E .
= = History = =
The West Durham Link , as it was then known , was first presented to Whitby Council on February 10 , 1992 . It quickly drew the ire of local residents fearful of noise levels and the environmental effects on Lynde Creek . However , the recession of the mid @-@ 1990s resulted in Highway 407 being truncated in Markham temporarily . Slightly revised plans for the links appeared on the June 2007 Technically Recommended Route Report for the extension of Highway 407 to Highway 35 / 115 , which was submitted as part of the environmental assessment ( EA ) for the extension , but had been announced earlier that year on March 7 by the Government of Canada , as part of an investment in Greater Toronto Area infrastructure .
The EA report was released on August 17 , 2009 , including detailed plans for the configuration of the interchanges along the new highway . The route will run parallel to and east of Lake Ridge Road , partially overlapping the current route of Halls Road and partially along a new alignment one lot to the east . Both Halls Road and Coronation Road will be re @-@ aligned to accommodate the new highway . It will be six lanes throughout its length , with a concrete Ontario Tall Wall as a median . Highway 412 will cut into Lynde Creek , a small waterway that flows out to Lake Ontario .
Construction was underway by late 2013 . On February 6 , 2015 , it was announced by the MTO that the West Durham Link would be designated Highway 412 . Whitby Town Council has recommended to the province the route be named after Jim Flaherty .
Although initially expected to be completed on December 18 , 2015 , delays resulted in the opening being postponed until June 2016 . The highway was opened , alongside Highway 407E between Brock Road in Pickering and Harmony Road in Oshawa , on June 20 , 2016 .
= = Exit list = =
The following are the exits listed in the 407 East Environmental Assessment Report . Official lengths are not yet available . The entire route lies within Whitby in the Regional Municipality of Durham .
= Mayored to the Mob =
" Mayored to the Mob " is the ninth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 20 , 1998 . After Homer prevents Mayor Quimby and Mark Hamill from being trampled at a convention , Homer trains to become a bodyguard and is employed by Quimby . After Homer discovers Quimby has been making corrupt deals with Fat Tony and forces him to end the deal , Fat Tony threatens to kill Quimby , leaving Homer to defend the Mayor from threats . The episode was written by Ron Hauge and directed by Swinton O. Scott III , and received positive reviews from critics overall .
= = Plot = =
While watching television , the Simpson family sees a commercial for the " Bi @-@ Mon @-@ Sci @-@ Fi @-@ Con " , a science @-@ fiction convention featuring Mark Hamill and others , and decide to attend . A riot breaks out at the convention after Hamill offers the chance for someone in the crowd to act out a scene with him . Homer notices that Mark Hamill and Mayor Quimby are in danger of being trampled due to the riot and quickly rescues them . In gratitude , Quimby employs Homer as his bodyguard .
Homer begins training at " Leavelle 's Bodyguard Academy , " where he quickly graduates and begins his new job . Unbeknownst to Homer , Quimby made a deal with Fat Tony shortly after Homer was employed to provide milk to the schools of Springfield . Homer discovers the milk is from rats and confronts Quimby , accidentally knocking him out a window . Discovering Quimby hanging from a ledge , Homer makes him promise to expose Fat Tony in return for being pulled to safety .
Quimby organizes the arrests of Fat Tony and his men , but Fat Tony threatens Quimby 's life . Scared at having to defend Quimby due to the death threats , Homer attempts to reassure the Mayor by taking him to a dinner theater to see Mark Hamill portray Nathan Detroit in Guys and Dolls . Homer discovers Fat Tony is there alongside his henchman , Louie , having been released on bail , and unwittingly made the situation worse when he did what Fat Tony told him to do by planting a kiss on Mayor Quimby , oblivious to the fact that he had given the Mayor the kiss of death . Louie attempts to stab Quimby but is stopped in a scuffle with Homer after Hamill advises Homer to " use the forks . " However Fat Tony is still able to savagely beat Quimby with a baseball bat . Hamill says to Homer that Quimby will be fine , and Homer helps Hamill escape from the paparazzi .
= = Production = =
Ron Hauge , writer of the episode , wanted to do an episode where he would use Homer 's qualities such as oafishness , brute strength , thickness , and loyalty , for good . When Lisa says they have to go back for Maggie after the family escape the riot , Homer says " Forget Maggie , she 's gone . " Matt Groening claims this to be one of his favorite quotes in the show . Hamill only agreed to guest star if he was allowed to voice a character as well as himself . He stated that he loved doing the voice for bodyguard instructor Leavelle a lot more than he did providing the voice for himself .
= = Cultural references = =
The Bi @-@ Mon @-@ Sci @-@ Fi @-@ Con science @-@ fiction convention features numerous references to the genre . As well as Mark Hamill , guests at the convention include ALF from the television series ALF , Tom Baker in costume as the Fourth Doctor from the series Doctor Who , Gort from the film The Day the Earth Stood Still ( 1951 ) , Godzilla from the film series of the same name and Jonathan Harris in costume as Dr. Zachary Smith from the series Lost in Space TV show , as well as the robot from the show . Real @-@ life astronaut Neil Armstrong is also a guest .
Among the attendees is Üter , who wears a Futurama shirt ; Futurama , an animated science @-@ fiction comedy which was created by The Simpsons ' creator Matt Groening , did not premiere until the following year . Seymour Skinner is dressed as Spock from Star Trek , as are several others , and Edna Krabappel is dressed as Barbarella from the comic and film Barbarella ( 1968 ) . Other costumes include Xena from the series Xena : Warrior Princess , Terminator from The Terminator film series , Griffin from the novel The Invisible Man ( 1897 ) and later the comic book series The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen , as well as a Borg and Geordi La Forge from Star Trek . When Comic Book Guy meets a girl with similar interests to him at the convention , Alexander Courage 's piece " Under the Spell " from the original Star Trek pilot " The Cage " is played . A booth for the comic book Roswell , Little Green Man is seen at the convention ; the comic was published by Groening 's Bongo Comics Group .
The episode contains multiple references to Star Wars , the film series in which Hamill starred . Throughout the episode , Hamill wears the costume of his Star Wars character Luke Skywalker , and tells Homer to " use the forks , " spoofing the line " use the Force " from the series . The convention features a tag @-@ team wrestling match which sees " the mighty robots " ( the Cylons ) from the series Battlestar Galactica fight the " gay robots " ( R2 @-@ D2 and C @-@ 3PO ) from Star Wars . Somebody at the convention wears a costume of the Star Wars character Chewbacca . Homer and Mayor Quimby attend a production of the musical Guys and Dolls ( 1955 ) , starring Hamill as Nathan Detroit , who sings the Star Wars @-@ themed " Luke , Be a Jedi Tonight " to the tune of " Luck Be a Lady " .
Leavelle 's design is based on Texan detective Jim Leavelle , as he appeared when guarding Lee Harvey Oswald in the photograph of Oswald 's death at the hands of Jack Ruby following the former 's arrest for assassinating President John F. Kennedy in 1963 . Leavelle trains the bodyguards by pretending to shoot their protectee from a grassy knoll on a cart . This is a reference to the grassy knoll at Kennedy 's assassination location Dealey Plaza and a scene from the Kennedy assassination film Executive Action ( 1973 ) .
The plot shares elements with the film The Bodyguard ( 1992 ) , particularly Homer carrying Hamill away from the crowd at the end . Leavelle sings the song " I Will Always Love You " by Dolly Parton which was popularized by Whitney Houston as the theme for The Bodyguard ; it also plays at the end . After believing he has killed Mayor Quimby , Homer decides to take inspiration from the film Weekend at Bernie 's ( 1989 ) and " use the body to stage an elaborate farce . " The title of the episode is a reference to the film Married to the Mob ( 1988 ) . During the Guys and Dolls scene the cast members sing a song with the musical 's title to the tune of " Hooray for Hollywood " , which as Mark Hamill points out isn 't one of the show 's musical numbers .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Mayored to the Mob " finished 24th in ratings for the week of December 14 – 20 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 6 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Ally McBeal .
Empire named Hamill 's performance in the episode as the tenth @-@ best film gag in the show , commenting : " As a rule , celebrity cameos are rubbish , but good sport Hamill is hilarious when singing ' Luke , be a Jedi tonight ' in a production of Guys and Dolls , and makes this list for urging bodyguard Homer to ' use the forks . ' " Eric Goldman , Dan Iverson and Brian Zoromski of IGN marked Hamill 's guest appearance second on a list of " Top 25 Simpsons Guest appearances " saying that much of the episode 's humor came from Hamill being " a good sport about his past " . In addition , Hamill ranked 18th on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars , and Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked his performance as the third @-@ best guest appearance in the show 's history . Simon Crerar of The Times also listed Hamill 's performance as one of the thirty @-@ three funniest cameos in the history of The Simpsons .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote that " the best bits all involve either the convention or Mark Hamill 's repeated attempts to not be mobbed . Sadly , the main thrust of the story -- Homer 's protection of Quimby from Don Tony -- falls a bit flat . Nevertheless , when the jokes run free , they are of exceptionally high quality . " In his review of The Simpsons ' tenth season , James Plath of Dvdtown.com notes " Mayored to the Mob " to be " one of the funnier episodes . " IGN named it as the best episode of season 10 . In an interview with Australian newspaper mX , season 10 show runner Mike Scully marked " Mayored to the Mob " as fourth in his top @-@ five episodes from season 10 .
= Underneath It All =
" Underneath It All " is a song written by Gwen Stefani and Dave Stewart for No Doubt 's fourth album Rock Steady ( 2001 ) . The song features reggae production from Mad Lion and guest vocals from deejay Lady Saw . It received mixed reviews from pop music critics .
" Underneath It All " was released as the album 's third single in mid @-@ 2002 . It became No Doubt 's highest @-@ charting American single but was less successful elsewhere . The song won a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal at the 46th Grammy Awards . The song was featured in the film 50 First Dates ( 2004 ) .
= = Background and writing = =
The song was originally written by Stefani and Stewart during Stefani 's visit to boyfriend Gavin Rossdale in London . The two used backward string samples to write the song in only ten minutes . The song describes Stefani 's relationship with Rossdale , and the line " You 're really lovely underneath it all " comes from a journal entry that Stefani made after spending a day in the park with Rossdale . Guitarist Tom Dumont commented that Stewart 's experience helped them keep the song simple because he " would have way overthought those chord changes . " When the band was working on the album in Jamaica , producers Sly & Robbie called dancehall artist Lady Saw to have her contribute a guest toast . After listening to the track , Lady Saw wrote and recorded her part on the spot .
= = Music and structure = =
The song is a love song composed in the key of E major . It is written in common time and moves slowly at 69 beats per minute . Stefani avoids the heavy vocal vibrato that she often uses . Her vocal range spans under an octave and a half during the song , from F # 3 to B4 .
The song opens with a line sampled from Bob Clarke 's Sunday radio show on IRIE FM . The verses use a simple I @-@ vi chord progression , alternating between a first inversion E major chord and a second inversion C # minor chord , played on the off @-@ beats and switch to a IV @-@ iii progression . Each verse is followed by the chorus , which uses a I @-@ IV @-@ V @-@ IV progression . After the bridge , Lady Saw performs her toast . Stefani then sings the chorus twice , and Clarke closes the song after Stefani repeats the line " Mm mm mm underneath it all " four times .
= = Critical reception = =
" Underneath It All " received mixed reviews from music critics . Rolling Stone found its ska sound and Stefani 's questioning whether or not Rossdale is her soulmate tired . LAUNCHcast agreed the beat was one " that Sly & Robbie can do in their sleep " but added that the song " keeps its modern edge thanks to Lady Saw 's cooling rap . " Kitty Empire writing in NME also gave Lady Saw 's toast a positive review , stating that it " does an excellent job of sexing up all the sugar . " Stylus Magazine was pleased with Stefani 's performance on the song , stating that " she lets her voice ride gently on top of the melody , pushed along by the gentle steel drums in the background . " PopMatters commented that " No Doubt isn 't afraid of working with new ideas " but that the dancehall of " Underneath It All " was unsuccessful and sloppy . In its review of The Singles 1992 @-@ 2003 , OMH Media described the song as " an embarrassingly self @-@ conscious reggae pastiche , unimproved by a guest rap from Jamaican dancehall queen Lady Saw . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Underneath It All " peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 for two weeks , becoming No Doubt 's highest charting American single , since " Don 't Speak " was not allowed onto the Hot 100 because of a technicality . It was successful in mainstream music , topping the Top 40 Mainstream and reaching number two on the Top 40 Tracks . The song was also successful in the adult contemporary radio market , reaching number two on the Adult Top 40 chart with a 2004 re @-@ appearance atop the Top 40 Adult Recurrents and peaking at number twenty @-@ seven on the Adult Contemporary chart . It had some crossover success on urban contemporary and Hispanic rhythmic stations , reaching the top forty on the Latin Pop Airplay and Rhythmic Top 40 charts and number twenty @-@ three on the Latin Tropical / Salsa Airplay . At the 2004 Grammy Awards , " Underneath It All " won for Best Pop Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group . The song fared poorer on the Canadian Singles Chart , where it peaked at number thirty @-@ five .
" Underneath It All " debuted at number eighteen on the UK Singles Chart but was unable to reach a higher position . It was unsuccessful across Europe , only reaching the top forty in Austria and Sweden . On the ARIA Singles Chart , the song peaked at number twenty @-@ eight and remained on the chart for seven weeks . In New Zealand it peaked at number eight for two consecutive weeks and stayed on the chart for over four months .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was directed by Sophie Muller and directing collaborative Logan . It opens with a sequence of Stefani , as shown on the cover of the CD single , removing several pieces of clothing and later lying on a bed . After a scene with her in front of a white heart with roses , bassist Tony Kanal and drummer Adrian Young play basketball while Stefani stands against the wall . Stefani is then shown against a sparkling sky , followed by a scene of the whole band bicycling during Lady Saw 's toast . The video closes with a scene of Stefani jumping on a bed in white undergarments and without makeup .
Muller wanted to add more sexual themes to the look of the video to contrast with the innocence of the song 's lyrics . The original idea for the video was to show Stefani with heavy makeup " really over done like a stripper " and have her remove her clothing throughout the video . Muller found that this complicated the video too much , so each sequence shows Stefani with progressively less makeup instead . Muller decided to use a color scheme with bright colors such as orange , lime green , and pink , and the contrast was increased using Symphony in post @-@ production . The bicycling scene was to originally show footage that the band shot while recording in Jamaica since Stefani wanted to include a Jamaican theme . Instead , the scene was created by filming the individual band members on a twelve @-@ foot turntable in front of a bluescreen . Tracks were used to shoot two members riding next to each other , and Logan used computer @-@ generated imagery to show the entire band bicycling in Jamaica .
The music video was successful on video channels . It debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live 7 October 2002 at number seven . It reached number five on the countdown and was on the program for twenty @-@ four days . " Underneath It All " peaked at number two on MuchMusic 's Countdown in September 2002 . The video received nominations for Best Pop Video and Best Cinematography at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Justin Timberlake 's " Cry Me a River " and Johnny Cash 's cover of " Hurt " respectively .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Maxi single = = =
" Underneath It All " featuring Lady Saw ( Album Version ) - 5 : 03
" Underneath It All " ( Radio 1Live Acoustic Version ) - 3 : 44
" Just a Girl " ( Radio 1Live Acoustic Version ) - 3 : 30
" Underneath It All " Video - 5 : 03
= = = 2 @-@ track single = = =
" Underneath It All " featuring Lady Saw ( Album Version ) - 5 : 03
" Underneath It All " ( Radio 1Live Acoustic Version ) - 3 : 44
= = Cover versions = =
American rock band Zebrahead covered the song and released it as a single for their cover album Panty Raid .
On November 25 , 2013 , Tessanne Chin covered the song on Season 5 of NBC 's singing competition , The Voice for the Live Top 8 round . She also deejayed Lady Saw 's verse .
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= Saxaul sparrow =
The saxaul sparrow ( Passer ammodendri ) is a passerine bird of the sparrow family Passeridae , found in parts of Central Asia . At 14 – 16 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) and 25 – 32 grams ( 0 @.@ 88 – 1 @.@ 13 oz ) , it is among the larger sparrows . Both sexes have plumage ranging from dull grey to sandy brown , and pale brown legs . Females have less boldly coloured plumage and bills , lacking the pattern of black stripes on the male 's head . The head markings of both sexes make the saxaul sparrow distinctive , and unlikely to be confused with any other bird . Vocalisations include a comparatively soft and musical chirping call , a song , and a flight call .
Three subspecies are recognised , differing in the overall tone of their plumage and in the head striping of the female . The subspecies ammodendri occurs in the west of the saxaul sparrow 's range , while stoliczkae and nigricans occur in the east . This distribution falls into six probably disjunct areas across Central Asia , from central Turkmenistan to northern Gansu in China . A bird of deserts , the saxaul sparrow favours areas with shrubs such as the saxaul , near rivers and oases . Though it has lost parts of its range to habitat destruction caused by agriculture , it is not seriously threatened by human activities .
Little is known of the saxaul sparrow 's behaviour . Often hidden in foliage , it forages in trees and on the ground . It feeds mostly on seeds , as well as insects while breeding and as a nestling . When not breeding it forms wandering flocks , but it is less social than other sparrows while breeding , often nesting in isolated pairs . Nests are round bundles of dry plant material lined with soft materials such as feathers . They are built in holes in tree cavities , earth banks , rocky slopes , and within man @-@ made structures or the nests of birds of prey . Two clutches of five or six eggs are typically laid in a season . Both parents construct the nest and care for their eggs and young .
= = Description = =
The saxaul sparrow is one of the larger sparrows at 14 – 16 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) and 25 – 32 grams ( 0 @.@ 88 – 1 @.@ 13 oz ) . Wing length varies from 7 @.@ 1 to 8 @.@ 1 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 2 in ) , with males generally being larger . The tail is short at 6 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 95 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 48 – 2 @.@ 74 in ) . The saxaul sparrow 's legs are pale or pinkish brown , with a tarsus length of 1 @.@ 95 inches ( 50 mm ) . Its bill is 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 3 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 51 in ) long , pale grey on the juvenile , pale yellowish with a black tip on the breeding female , and black on the breeding male . Like all other sparrows , it flies swiftly and often at height .
Distinctive markings , especially on its head , make the saxaul sparrow unlikely to be confused with any other bird . It is dull @-@ coloured , with plumage ranging between dull grey and warm sandy brown , varying between and within subspecies . Birds of the subspecies ammodendri are a sandy grey , while nigricans birds are similar but darker , and stoliczkae birds are warm brown or russet . Birds of the subspecies stoliczkae and those from the southwest of the range of ammodendri also differ from usual ammodendri birds in their lack of streaking on the rump and upper tail coverts . Birds in Mongolia have a larger and deeper bill and broad bluish streaks on their chest .
The male saxaul sparrow has bold markings , with a black stripe along the top of its head and another through its eye . It has black feathering , or a " bib " , on its throat and upper belly . By comparison to other sparrows this is thin on the throat , but wide on the breast . The male has a bright russet patch on the sides of its crown and nape . Its cheeks are pale grey or buff , and its underparts are whitish , tinged buff or grey on its sides . Its back is grey or warm brown , streaked variably with black . Its shoulders are more lightly streaked with black bars . The male 's thin tail is brown , with the edges and tips of feathers paler . Its median coverts are black with a white tip , while its other wing feathers are variably dark brown , cinnamon , or black , tipped buff or whitish and edged grey . The non @-@ breeding male differs in having slightly paler plumage .
The female is similar in some ways to the male , but paler and duller . It is sandy grey or brown , with a back patterned like that of the male , and white or whitish underparts . The head of the females of the subspecies ammodendri and nigricans is dingy grey with darker smudges on the forehead , behind its eyes , and on its throat . The female of the subspecies stoliczkae is buff @-@ brown with a white throat , a conspicuous pale supercilium , darker forehead , and lighter cheeks . The juvenile is similar to the female , differing in its lack of dark tinges on its throat and crown . In adults , moulting begins in July and ends in late August or early September . The post @-@ juvenile moult is complete , and occurs variously from June to August .
The saxaul sparrow 's vocalisations are little reported . Its common call is a chirp , transcribed as cheerp cheerp , softer and more melodious than that of the house sparrow . It gives a flight call transcribed as twerp , and a song described by Russian naturalist V. N. Shnitnikov as " not loud , but pleasantly melodious with fairly diversified intonations " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The saxaul sparrow was first described by English zoologist John Gould in a March 1872 instalment of The Birds of Asia , from a specimen collected near Kyzylorda , now in southern Kazakhstan , by Russian naturalist Nikolai Severtzov . Severtzov had been planning to describe the species as Passer ammodendri for several years and had been distributing specimens among other naturalists . When natural history dealer Charles Dode escaped from the Paris Commune in 1871 with some of his collection , Gould obtained specimens from a set of rare birds Dode exhibited to the Zoological Society of London . Severtzov did not describe the species until 1873 , and some later writers preferred to attribute him , but Gould 's description takes priority over Severtzov 's . The saxaul sparrow 's species name refers to its desert habitat , coming from the name of the Ammodendron or sand acacia tree , which is in turn derived from the Ancient Greek άμμος ( ammos , " sand " ) and δένδρον ( dendron , " tree " ) . The English name saxaul sparrow refers to the saxaul plant , with which it is closely associated . The saxaul sparrow usually is classified in the genus Passer with the house sparrow and around twenty other species , although a genus Ammopasser was created for the saxaul sparrow by Nikolai Zarudny in 1890 .
The saxaul sparrow 's relations within the genus Passer are unclear , although with its black throat feathering it has usually been considered part of the " Palaearctic black @-@ bibbed sparrow " group related to the house sparrow . J. Denis Summers @-@ Smith considered that the Palaearctic Passer sparrows evolved about 25 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 years ago , during the last glacial period . During this time , sparrows would have been isolated in ice @-@ free refugia , such as a certain steppe region in Central Asia , where Summers @-@ Smith suggested the saxaul sparrow evolved . Genetic and fossil evidence suggest a much earlier origin for the Passer species , perhaps in the Miocene and Pliocene , as suggested by Luis Allende and colleagues in their 2001 phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA . This analysis also suggested that the saxaul sparrow may be an early offshoot or basal species in its genus , a relative of certain African sparrows such as the northern grey @-@ headed sparrow . If the saxaul sparrow is related to these species , either the saxaul sparrow formerly occurred in the deserts of Africa and Arabia , or each of the groups of Passer sparrows are of African origin .
Across its Central Asian distribution , the saxaul sparrow occurs in six probably disjunct areas , and is divided into at least three subspecies . The nominate subspecies Passer ammodendri ammodendri inhabits three of these areas , one in the Syr Darya basin of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan , and another to the south of Lake Balkhash and the north of Almaty , where it is only common in the valley of the Ili River . In a third area , sometimes recognised as a subspecies korejewi , ammodendri birds breed sporadically in parts of central Turkmenistan , Iran , and possibly Afghanistan , migrating to the south during the winter . The subspecies stoliczkae was named after Ferdinand Stoliczka in 1874 by Allan Octavian Hume , from specimens Stoliczka collected in Yarkand . This subspecies is separated from the other two subspecies by the Tian Shan mountains . It is found across a broad swath of China from Kashgar east to the far west of Inner Mongolia , through the areas around the Taklamakan Desert ( but probably not in the inhospitable desert itself ) , and through the east of Xinjiang , northern Gansu , and the fringes of southern Mongolia . In the extreme west of the Gobi Desert a disjunct population separated from the other stoliczkae birds by the Gurvan Saikhan Uul mountains occurs , which is sometimes separated as a subspecies timidus . The subspecies nigricans , described by ornithologist L. S. Stepanyan in 1961 , is found in northern Xinjiang 's Manasi River valley .
= = Habitat = =
The saxaul sparrow is found in remote parts of Central Asia , where its distribution is believed to fall into six disjunct areas , although this is uncertain due to the scarcity of records . It is found in deserts , especially around rivers and oases . It is usually found around shrubs such as saxaul ( Haloxylon ) , poplar ( Populus ) , or tamarisk ( Tamarix ) . Sometimes it occurs around settlements and grain fields , especially during the winter . It is not believed to be threatened , since it is reported as locally common across a wide range , and hence it is assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List . However , it seems to have lost large parts of its range to the intensification of agriculture and desertification caused by overgrazing .
= = Behaviour = =
Little is known of the saxaul sparrow 's behaviour , because of its remote range . It is shy in many areas , and spends much time hidden in foliage , but breeding birds in Mongolia were reported to be " quite confiding " . When not breeding , it is social , and can form flocks of up to fifty birds , sometimes associating with Eurasian tree , Spanish , and house sparrows . In some regions , it makes small local migrations . Towards the spring , saxaul sparrows form pairs within their flock , before dispersing in April . Seeds , especially those of the saxaul , are most of its diet , though it also eats insects , especially while breeding , most commonly weevils , grasshoppers , and caterpillars . It forages in trees and on the ground . In a study of insects fed to nestlings in the Ili River valley , it was found that beetles are predominant , with weevils and Coccinellidae comprising 60 and 30 percent of the diet of nestlings , respectively . Because of its desert habitat and scarcity , it is not a pest of agriculture . Where water is not available , the saxaul sparrow may fly several times each day over long distances to drink .
The saxaul sparrow is less social than other sparrows while breeding , due to its dry habitat and its choices of nesting locations , holes in trees and earth banks . Isolated pairs are usual , though it sometimes breeds in small groups , with members of its own species as well as house and Eurasian tree sparrows . The breeding season is short , lasting from May to July , with most young raised in April and June . Unusually for a sparrow , it has not been recorded nesting openly in branches , though this may simply represent the lack of published records . Nests are often built in tree cavities , where they are sometimes placed close together . Other common nesting localities are earth banks and rocky slopes , and nests have been recorded on the nests of birds of prey , unused buildings , walls , and electricity pylons . Nests in man @-@ made structures are increasingly common , as large trees in the saxaul sparrow 's habitat are removed . Nests may be quite close to the ground , especially when they are built in trees .
The saxaul sparrow 's nests are untidy dome @-@ shaped constructions , with an entrance in the side or top . They are built of grasses , roots , and other plant materials , and are lined with feathers , fur , and soft plant material . The nest is mainly built by the female , though the male may actively take part in building . Typical clutches have five or six eggs , and two clutches a year are normal . Eggs are broad and ovular , slightly pointed at an end . They are glossy , coloured white and shaded with rusty grey or yellowish brown . In some clutches , one egg is noticeably paler than the others . Four eggs collected by Zarudny from Transcaspia had an average size of 1 @.@ 9 cm × 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 75 in × 0 @.@ 55 in ) . Females play the main part in incubating eggs , and males can often be seen guarding the nests during incubation . Males and females share in feeding their young , which they do every 4 to 12 minutes . Young that have left their nest remain nearby until well after their moult , before departing for winter flocks , followed later by the adults .
= Aruba at the 2004 Summer Olympics =
Aruba sent a delegation to compete at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece from 13 to 29 August 2004 . The delegation 's participation in the Athens Olympics marked Aruba 's fifth appearance at the Summer Olympics since the Dutch colony 's debut at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea . Four athletes ( three men and one woman ) competed across three sports ( Pierre de Windt in track and field , Davy Bisslik and Roshendra Vrolijk in swimming , and Isnardo Faro weightlifting ) . None of the track or swimming athletes advanced past the first round in their events , and as of Athens , no Arubans had medaled in any events . Roshendra Vrolijk bore Aruba 's flag at the ceremonies .
= = Background = =
Aruba is a small island colony of 100 @,@ 000 people that is part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands , and has been under Dutch control since the 1630s . The island lies in the southern Caribbean Sea just to north of Venezuela , and is near to the Dutch colonies of Curaçao and Bonaire . The colony originally was part of an autonomous union with those two islands in what was known as the Netherlands Antilles , but Aruba seceded from that union in 1986 . The Netherlands continues to regulate all its foreign affairs . While the first Dutch Antilean delegation to the Olympics was sent during the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki , Finland , the first uniquely Aruban delegation participated two years after the island 's secession from the Netherlands Antilles at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea . Between then and the 2004 Athens Olympics , Aruba had sent a delegation to all five Summer Olympic games . The most substantial Aruban delegation was in 1988 , when it included eight athletes . This delegation included more women and encompassed more sports than any Aruban delegation since then ( including the Athens Olympics ) .
At the Athens Olympics , four athletes ( three men and one woman ) participated across three sports in four distinct events . Swimmer Roshendra Vrolijk was Aruba 's flag bearer at the ceremonies .
= = Athletics = =
Aruban athletes have so far achieved qualifying standards in the following athletics events ( up to a maximum of 3 athletes in each event at the ' A ' Standard , and 1 at the ' B ' Standard ) .
Pierre " Peppie " de Windt participated on Aruba 's behalf as its only athlete in a track and field event . Born in the Solito neighborhood of Aruba 's capital city , Oranjestad , de Windt was 21 at the time he ran at the Olympics in Athens . The Aruban athlete had not previously participated in any Olympic games . The event 's first round took place during the 21st of August. de Windt took part in the fourth heat against eight other athletes , although Greece 's Hristoforos Hoidis did not start . In his heat , de Windt placed sixth with a time of 11 @.@ 02 seconds . Paraguay 's Diego Ferreira ranked fifth ahead of de Windt , setting a national record in the process ( 10 @.@ 50 seconds ) , while Laotian athlete Chamleunesouk Ao Oudomphonh ranked directly behind de Windt ( 11 @.@ 30 seconds ) . The leaders of de Windt 's heat included first place finalist Shawn Crawford of the United States ( 10 @.@ 02 seconds ) and Barbados ' Obadele Thompson , who placed second and set his season best ( 10 @.@ 08 seconds ) . The Aruban sprinter did not advance to later rounds .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Swimming = =
Davy Bisslik represented Aruba as a swimmer in the men 's 100 meters butterfly , and was the only male Aruban athlete participating in swimming that year . Born in Aruba , Bisslik participated in the athletic programs at The College of New Jersey , and attended the 2000 Sydney Olympics on Aruba 's behalf in the men 's 50 meters freestyle , where he ranked 62nd during the qualification round . Bisslik returned to the Olympics at age 22 , although he entered in a different event entirely . During the qualification round on August 19 , Bisslik competed against seven other athletes . He finished the event in 57 @.@ 85 seconds , ranking last in his heat behind Guam 's Daniel O 'Keeffe ( 57 @.@ 39 seconds ) , who placed seventh , and Indonesia 's Andy Wibowo ( 56 @.@ 86 seconds ) who placed sixth . His heat was led by Czech swimmer Michal Rubáček ( 54 @.@ 87 seconds ) and Uzbekistan 's Oleg Lyashko ( 55 @.@ 90 seconds ) . Of the 59 participants in the qualification round , Bisslik ranked 56th . He did not advance to later heats .
Roshendra Vrolijk represented Aruba at the Athens Olympics as a swimmer participating in the women 's 50 meters freestyle . Born in Aruba , Vrolijk was 15 years old when she participated in the 50 meters freestyle at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , where she ranked 62nd in the qualification round . She returned to the Olympics as a 19 @-@ year @-@ old . During the qualification round of the event , which took place on August 20 , Vrolijk participated in the fourth heat against seven other athletes . She completed the event in
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28 @.@ 43 seconds , placing third in the event between Moldova 's Maria Tregubova ( 28 @.@ 40 seconds ) and Zambia 's Jakie Wellman ( 28 @.@ 56 seconds ) . Of the 73 finishing athletes , Vrolijk ranked 49th . She did not advance to later rounds .
= = Weightlifting = =
Isnardo " Junior " Faro participated in the 2004 Athens Olympics as Aruba 's only weightlifter . Born in Aruba in July 1978 , Faro was 18 at the time he represented Aruba at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics , where he finished in 21st place of the men 's middleweight class . Although Faro did not attend the 2000 Sydney Olympics , he returned to the Olympics in 2004 as a 26 @-@ year @-@ old in the men 's middle @-@ heavyweight class . During the event , which took place on August 23 , Faro participated alongside 24 other athletes . During the snatch phrase of the event , Faro was given three opportunities to score . During the first attempt , Faro successfully lifted 132 @.@ 5 kilograms ; on the next , 137 kilograms ; and on the final , 140 kilograms . During the next phase , clean and jerk , Faro was given another three opportunities . On his first try , Faro attempted and failed to lift 167 @.@ 5 kilograms . He succeeded in lifting this quantity on his next try . During his final attempt , Faro attempted and failed to lift 175 kilograms . Thus , as his scores were 140 and 167 @.@ 5 , the Aruban athlete 's final score was 307 @.@ 5 . 19 people of the 25 initial participants finished the event , and Isnardo Faro ranked 19th . He ranked behind 18th place finalist Furkat Saidov of Uzbekistan ( 320 points ) and 17th place finalist Dario Lecman of Argentina ( 340 points ) . The gold medalist was Bulgaria 's Milen Dobrev ( 407 @.@ 5 points ) .
= 373rd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division ( Wehrmacht ) =
The 373rd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division ( German : 373 . ( Kroatische ) Infanterie @-@ Division , Croatian : 373 . ( hrvatska ) pješačka divizija ) was a division of the German Army during World War II . It was formed in June 1943 using a brigade from the Home Guard of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) with the addition of a German cadre . The division was commanded by Germans down to battalion and even company level in nearly all cases , and was commonly referred to as a " legionnaire division " . Originally formed with the intention of service on the Eastern Front , it was used instead for anti @-@ Partisan operations in the territory of the NDH until the end of the war . It fought mainly in the western areas of the NDH , and was involved in the attempt to kill or capture the leader of the Partisans , Josip Broz Tito , in May 1944 . Severely depleted by desertion , the division withdrew towards the Reich border in the early months of 1945 , eventually surrendering to the Partisans on 10 May 1945 near Brežice in modern @-@ day Slovenia .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
After the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 , Ante Pavelić , the leader of the newly created Axis puppet state the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) , offered Adolf Hitler volunteers to serve on the Eastern Front . This offer soon resulted in the formation and deployment of army , air force and naval detachments which , after being trained and equipped by Germany , were committed to fighting the Red Army . The largest element was the 369th Croatian Reinforced Infantry Regiment , which was part of the 100th Jäger Division , but was decimated at Stalingrad in January 1943 . The Croatian forces performed creditably on the Eastern Front , and the Germans continued to support the development of NDH forces with the aim of raising several divisions to serve there . Due to the lack of trained leaders and staff , these divisions were raised using a German cadre .
The 373rd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division was assembled and trained in Stockerau and Döllersheim , Austria , commencing from the end of January 1943 as the second Croatian division raised for service in the Wehrmacht , following its sister formation , the 369th ( Croatian ) Infantry Division . It was built around a cadre of 3 @,@ 500 German troops , and 8 @,@ 500 soldiers of the 7th Mountain Brigade of the Croatian Home Guard , the regular army of the NDH . It was established with two infantry regiments of three battalions each . Each regiment was allocated the manpower from two of the four battalions of the 7th Mountain Brigade . It was formed under the command of Generalmajor ( Brigadier ) Emil Zellner , with the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross recipient Oberst ( Colonel ) Alois Windisch commanding the 383rd ( Croatian ) Grenadier Regiment and Oberst Boicetta commanding the 384th ( Croatian ) Grenadier Regiment . All battalions were commanded by Germans except for the reconnaissance battalion , which was commanded by a Croat officer , Major Bakarec . The Croatian divisions that served in the Wehrmacht were commonly known as " legionnaire divisions " .
Although originally intended for use on the Eastern Front , the division did not deploy there and returned to the NDH in May 1943 due to the need to combat the communist @-@ led Partisans in the territory of the NDH . The division left its training area in Austria over the period 1 – 12 May 1943 , travelling by train via the route Vienna – Graz – Marburg – Zagreb . It was known as the " Tiger Division " ( Croatian : Tigar Divizija ) , and was subordinated to the Croatia Command ( German : Befehlshaber Kroatien ) of General der Infanterie ( Lieutenant General ) Rudolf Lüters .
= = = 1943 = = =
= = = = Initial tasks = = = =
The first task of the division was to secure the area north and northwest of Mostar , which contained important bauxite reserves needed for the German war effort . The divisional headquarters was established in Bugojno with the regimental headquarters of the 383rd at Lise , and the 384th at Travnik . At the end of May , one battalion ( III / 383 ) and supporting artillery were deployed to Mostar to replace Italian forces . For the first few weeks the division had only minor contacts with Partisan forces , but by mid @-@ June the division began sending out strong Jagdkommandos , lightly armed and mobile " hunter teams " of company or battalion strength , to break up and harass Partisans operating in the divisional area of responsibility . In early July , a search and destroy operation was conducted west of the Kupres – Bugojno – Jajce road , during which local Chetniks units began cooperating with the division . On 5 July , Bakarec summoned the inhabitants of a village and shot six captured Partisans in front of them . The division lost 23 killed during this operation . Following the conclusion of this sweep , the division moved north , and its headquarters redeployed to Prijedor .
Throughout July and August 1943 the division patrolled constantly and fought minor engagements in its area of responsibility . On 5 August 1943 , Generalleutnant ( Major General ) Eduard Aldrian became divisional commander replacing Zellner , who was transferred to the Army Headquarters officers ' reserve pool ( German : Oberkommando des Heeres Führerreserve ) . On 16 August , Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) Mück replaced Windisch as commander of the 383rd Regiment , and the division was placed under the command of the 2nd Panzer Army , which had been redeployed to the Balkans from the Eastern Front . Over the period 18 – 22 August , 102 Croat and Bosnian Muslim soldiers deserted , ten of whom were later arrested . There were a range of factors encouraging desertion , including Partisan propaganda and infiltration , the influence of the Croatian Peasant Party , and reverses suffered by the Germans in North Africa and at Stalingrad and elsewhere on the Eastern Front .
= = = = Combat intensifies = = = =
In late August and early September 1943 , the division redeployed again , this time to Bihać , relieving the 114th Jäger Division which redeployed to the Adriatic coast . The move was difficult , with several significant ambushes resulting in numerous casualties and the loss of several vehicles and guns .
In September , it was placed under the command of the newly formed XV Mountain Corps led by Lüters . That month , the division concluded a collaboration agreement with the 260 @-@ strong Chetnik detachment of Mane Rokvić , who was in control of an area which included parts of both western Bosnia and Lika . The division utilised the Chetniks to protect railway lines and key industries in their area , as well as for scouting against the Partisans and attacks on the rear of Partisan formations . Desertions worsened particularly after the capitulation of Italy in early September 1943 . For example , during October 1943 , 334 men deserted from the division . It handled thousands of Italian prisoners in the aftermath of the surrender , feeding them and marching them under guard towards the Reich .
On 20 October 1943 , the Germans formally confirmed that the division would not be utilised outside the NDH . In the second half of October 1943 , Partisan forces surrounded the Croatian Home Guard garrison of Prijedor . The 383rd Regiment relieved the garrison and conducted clearing operations around the town until heavy snowfalls in the first week in November . On 4 December , Oberstleutnant Hühnewaldt replaced Mück as the commander of the regiment .
= = = = Operations Panther and Ristow = = = =
Between 10 and 24 December 1943 , the division , along with the 371st Infantry Division and the 1st Cossack Division , participated in Operation Panther . The aim of the operation was to encircle Partisan forces located within the Kostajnica forest and the area north of Bosanski Novi . The operation achieved little , and was immediately followed by Operation Ristow . The objective of this operation was to clear the area south of the Sana river between Bosanski Novi and Prijedor . The objective of the operation was the destruction of elements of the Partisan 7th Banija Division , which intelligence indicated were planning to establish winter quarters in the vicinity of Maslovare village , with the river Japra protecting their rear . The division committed the 383rd Infantry Regiment , reinforced by three tanks of the 202nd Panzer Battalion , and supported by the guns of I. Battalion , 373rd Artillery Regiment . The plan involved a three @-@ day operation commencing on 24 December . Following up reconnaissance by the Croatian 3rd Mountain Brigade , the objective of the first day was to thrust 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) eastward from Bosanski Novi to secure heights east of the Japra , and this was achieved against light resistance .
The following day saw heavy fighting before the German force secured their objectives , suffering ten wounded in the process . After mopping up on 26 December , orders were issued for I. Battalion to continue the advance south of the Sana towards the village of Trgovište , while II . Battalion was ordered to cross the Sana on rafts and continue the advance on the northern side of the river . On the morning of 27 December , I. Battalion successfully advanced to a point about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) west of Prijedor , and occupied Trgovište . Advancing further east , I. Battalion lost formation and suffered heavy attacks from Partisan forces who also infiltrated between the companies and attacked their flanks and rear . The entire force , less two companies and the tanks which remained north of the river , consolidated on heights south of the Sana , and throughout the night fought off several large Partisan assaults which were supported by heavy mortar fire . On 28 December , the German force fought its way to the south bank of the Sana , and evacuated its casualties across the river on rafts . The main body then fought its way east to Prijedor with covering fire provided by the two companies and tanks remaining on the northern bank , with the majority arriving on 29 December . Operation Ristow was very costly for the division , with I. Battalion alone suffering 100 casualties , mainly from mortar fire on the night of 27 / 28 December . Information from the local population indicated that the Partisans lost at least 76 dead during the operation .
= = = 1944 = = =
= = = = Battle of Banja Luka = = = =
In late December 1943 , Hühnewaldt was tasked with the defence of Banja Luka , the second largest city in Bosnia , which had been under Partisan pressure for several days . The headquarters of XV Mountain Corps was in Banja Luka , along with the divisional replacement battalion , divisional support troops , some police and a few tanks . Elements of the 4th Jäger Brigade of the Croatian Home Guard were also in the city . On 31 December , Hühnewaldt deployed I / 383 to Banja Luka to further bolster the defences . At 23 : 00 that day , a heavy artillery and mortar bombardment started , followed by a Partisan attack that quickly overran the Home Guard outposts and engaged the divisional units in heavy fighting . At first light on New Year 's Day , I / 383 counterattacked , recapturing the crucial power station . That evening the Partisans renewed their assault , overrunning the hospital and massacring the German sick and wounded , and capturing the railway station . By this point the defenders were concentrated in two blocks of the town centre and the Partisans were only 100 metres ( 330 ft ) away . A desperate but unsuccessful counterattack was mounted , and the city appeared lost when the force was relieved by the 901st Panzergrenadier Lehr Regiment . The Partisans quickly withdrew and the Ustaše Militia and Sicherheitsdienst ( Security Police ) subsequently executed all armed personnel captured in the city . Those killed during the battle included 67 Germans , 150 Croatian Home Guard and between 300 and 350 Partisans .
Following the battle , the division cleared and secured the area around Banja Luka , and in February 1944 Hühnewaldt was replaced as commander of the 383rd Regiment by Major Ristow of I / 383 . At the end of March , most of the 383rd Regiment was deployed to Knin with responsibility for the road between Knin and Bihać , with the regimental commander designated as the commander of the garrison . In the latter task , it was assisted by the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen . From 7 to 16 May 1944 , the division participated in Operation Morgenstern ( Morning Star ) in the Krbavsko Polje region west and southwest of Bihać , along with elements of its sister formation , the 392nd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division , the 92nd Motorised Regiment , the 1st Jäger Regiment of the Panzergrenadier Division Brandenburg , and Ustase units . The operation was a significant success , killing 438 Partisans and capturing 56 , along with large quantities of arms , ammunition , vehicles and supplies .
= = = = Operation Rösselsprung = = = =
The division formed a significant part of the ground force used by XV Mountain Corps in Operation Rösselsprung , which was launched on 25 May 1944 , with the objectives of killing or capturing the Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito , and destroying his headquarters at Drvar . The division was responsible for two of the nine coordinated thrusts converging on the Partisan stronghold in the Drvar @-@ Bosanski Petrovac area . The first thrust consisted of the 384th ( Croatian ) Infantry Regiment , referred to as Kampfgruppe Willam after its commander . The 384th Regiment group was to advance east at 5 am on 25 May from the village of Srb towards Drvar . Kampfgruppe Willam had the primary responsibility for relieving then taking command of 500th SS Parachute Battalion who would land by parachute and glider in Drvar on 25 May , and the regiment was then to attack in the direction of Bosanski Petrovac . The second thrust consisted of a battalion group from the division , which was to set out at 5 am on 25 May from Lapac and drive east through Kulen Vakuf to capture the crossroads at Vrtoče . If necessary , they were then to advance north @-@ west towards Bihać to open the road .
Throughout 25 May , the ground forces of XV Mountain Corps were not able to advance as quickly as expected . There was unexpected resistance from strong Partisan forces along their axes of advance , and there was very poor communication between the various elements which resulted in lack of coordination of their movements . They were also subjected to several Allied air attacks . In the meantime , Tito and his key staff escaped to the south and were flown to Italy . Kampfgruppe Willam was unable to overcome the resistance of the 2nd Lika Brigade , and to force its way through to Drvar until the paratroopers had been relieved around midday on 26 May by a stronger column attacking from the direction of Bihać . On 29 May the battalion group from the division attacked strong Partisan positions east , north and northwest of Prekaja , but the attack was held up by a lack of ammunition . The attack was renewed on 31 May after new orders had been issued , with the division occupying the Prekaja area and capturing two Partisan tanks . Operation Rösselsprung was a failure as Tito and his principal headquarters staff escaped .
= = = Final months = = =
After Rösselsprung , the division was deployed along the Una valley , with the exception of two battalions of the 383rd Regiment in the Prijedor – Ljubija area , and two battalions of the 384th Regiment in Drvar and Petrovac . In Drvar and Petrovac , the 384th Regiment was reinforced by the 1st Jäger Home Guard Regiment , and in the Prijedor – Ljubija area , the 383rd Regiment was reinforced by the 4th Jäger Home Guard Brigade . The 2nd Jäger Home Guard Brigade and 9th Ustaša Brigade were deployed in garrisons and fortifications protecting the communication routes through the Una valley . All garrisons were reinforced with local Chetnik and Ustaša Militia detachments , and all of these forces were under divisional command .
On 1 and 2 August , the Petrovac garrison , consisting of the 2nd Battalion of the 384th Regiment under Major Schreiber , repelled attacks by the Partisan 6th and 13th Krajina Brigades . The supporting Home Guard forces surrendered after the first shots were fired , but the Chetnik detachment provided a stiff defense , which allowed the garrison to hold Petrovac .
During the summer 1944 , the communications in the division 's area of responsibility were under constant Partisan attacks . The attacks intensified in early September , during the Operation Ratweek . It coincided with the German transportation of troops and military material to Serbia on the eve of Belgrade Operation . In one of these attaks , on 1 September , Kozara Partisan Detachment attacked and damaged the train carrying 2nd Company of the 202nd Tank Battalion between Bosanski Novi and Dobrljin .
On 6 September Partisan 4th Division attacked the Prijedor garrison , The main force of the garrison was the 7th Jäger Home Guard Regiment of the 4th Brigade , and it was reinforced with some Ustaša and Chetnik units . The Home Guard units were affected with intense demoralization , and offered little resistance . In the morning on 7 September Prijedor was liberated , and a 1 @,@ 000 strong mixed formation from the garrison headed towards Ljubija . Ljubija was defended by 1st Battalion of the 383rd Regiment of the 373rd Division , 4th and 6th Battalion of the 8th Ustaša Brigade , and Ustaša Militia , with total strength of around 2 @,@ 000 men . They were reinforced with the mixed Home Guard , Ustaša and Chetnik group from Prijedor . With the fall of Prijedor , Ljubija remained isolated , and when the Partisan attack had spread to Ljubija , the German Battalion Commander , Captain Ahrendt , decided to evacuate Ljubija , and to try to reach Bosanski Novi with his 3 @,@ 000 strong mixed group , moving aside of the roads . Under constant Partisan heavy fire , the movement became disorganized and chaotic . Captain Ahrendt suffered a nervous breakdown , and the command assumend Captain Rettich . Only a smaller part of the group reached Bosanski Novi . The German Battalion suffered losses of up to 100 men . The auxiliary troops did much worse : the Partisans in these two days in Prijedor and Ljubija killed 3 @,@ 337 and captured 552 , mostly Home Guard , Ustaša and Chetnik soldiers .
The Una valley was exposed to the pressure of both the 4th from the west , and the 5th Partisan Corps from the east . In September 1944 , the 4th Partisan Corps attacked Cazin and Sunja . Cazin was defended with the 5th Ustaša Battalion , backing on the strong formations of the 373rd Division in the nearby Ostrožac , Krupa and Bihać . In spite of the proximity of the strong forces , the Partisans on 13 September succeeded to destroy the Ustaša battalion , killing 273 and capturing 276 . The Cazin garrison was raided by 1st Kordun and 2nd UOG Brigade , while the 2nd Kordun Brigade blocked the relieve attempts . After the Partisan retreat , the new garrison was established in Cazin , this time reinforced with the elements of the 373rd Division .
On 7 November , the 4th Corps renewed the attack on Cazin with mostly the same units . The only difference was that this time the 1st UOG Brigade instead of 2nd Kordun Brigade was charged with the task of closing the road Bihać @-@ Izačić @-@ Cazin . The fighting lasted for two days , and was concluded with the utmost success for the Partisans , and almost total destruction of the garrison . Germans and Ustaše suffered losses of 481 killed ( 4 officers and 477 NCOs ) , 267 captured ( 1 officer and 266 NCOs and soldiers ) . The reinforced company of the 373rd Division in Cazin was completely destroyed , except two men who had hidden themselves at the friendly inclined civilians .
In the autumn of 1944 , the division absorbed the 2nd Jäger Brigade of the Croatian Home Guard as its third regiment , renamed the 385th ( Croatian ) Infantry Regiment . On 20 October , Oberst der Reserves Karl Hermann replaced Aldrian , and was in turn replaced by Oberst Hans Gravenstein on 14 November . On 6 December 1944 , the division participated in the defence of Knin against the Partisans , where it suffered serious losses . In January 1945 , Gravenstein was promoted to Generalmajor , and withdrew the survivors of the division to the northwest towards Bihać . During this withdrawal , the division assisted the 6 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 Chetniks of Momčilo Đujić that had fought alongside them at Knin and accompanied them towards Bihać . During an attack of the 35th Lika Division later that month , a large number of Croats from the division deserted to join the Partisans . This trend continued , with a further two companies of Croat soldiers deserting .
The division saw action against the Partisans until the end of the war . By April 1945 , a large part of its Croatian manpower had been lost or released , with the Croatian component reduced to between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 soldiers . During the last few months of the war , it fought in northern Dalmatia and parts of Lika and Kordun and later in Banija . When the Partisans launched their spring offensive on 20 March 1945 , it fought the Partisan 2nd Army as it advanced on Zagreb . The division withdrew from Gospić via Donji Lapac , Bosanska Krupa , Bosanski Novi and Kostajnica where most of its remaining Croatian soldiers were separated out from the German elements and probably dispersed . The remainder continued its withdrawal via Sunja , Sisak and Zagreb to Brežice in modern @-@ day Slovenia , where it surrendered to the Partisans at the village of Raka on 10 May 1945 , and the remaining Croat soldiers left the division . The division 's disarmed German troops were allowed to travel towards Germany for several days before becoming prisoners of war of the Partisans . Gravenstein was tried by the Yugoslav authorities in 1947 and hanged .
= = Organisational history = =
The initial composition of the division was :
383rd ( Croatian ) Grenadier Regiment ( I , II , III battalions )
384th ( Croatian ) Grenadier Regiment ( I , II , III battalions )
373rd Artillery Regiment ( I , II , III battalions )
373rd Fusilier Battalion
373rd Reconnaissance Battalion
373rd Pioneer Battalion
373rd Signals Battalion
373rd Division Support Units
In autumn 1944 the division absorbed the 2nd Jäger Brigade of the Croatian Home Guard , which created a third infantry regiment , the 385th ( Croatian ) Grenadier Regiment .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers commanded the division :
Generalmajor then from 1 April 1943 Generalleutnant Emil Zellner , 25 January 1943 – 5 August 1943
Generalleutnant Eduard Aldrian , 5 August 1943 – 20 October 1944
Oberst der Reserves Karl Hermann , 20 October 1944 – 14 November 1944
Oberst then from 1 January 1945 Generalmajor Hans Gravenstein , 14 November 1944 – May 1945
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals = = =
= = = Web = = =
= Dick Turpin =
Richard " Dick " Turpin ( bapt . 1705 – 7 April 1739 ) was an English highwayman whose exploits were romanticised following his execution in York for horse theft . Turpin may have followed his father 's trade as a butcher early in life , but , by the early 1730s , he had joined a gang of deer thieves and , later , became a poacher , burglar , horse thief and killer . He is also known for a fictional 200 @-@ mile ( 320 km ) overnight ride from London to York on his horse Black Bess , a story that was made famous by the Victorian novelist William Harrison Ainsworth almost 100 years after Turpin 's death .
Turpin 's involvement in the crime for which he is most closely associated — highway robbery — followed the arrest of the other members of his gang in 1735 . He then disappeared from public view towards the end of that year , only to resurface in 1737 with two new accomplices , one of whom he may have accidentally shot and killed . Turpin fled from the scene and shortly afterwards killed a man who attempted his capture . Later that year , he moved to Yorkshire and assumed the alias of John Palmer . While he was staying at an inn , local magistrates became suspicious of " Palmer " and made enquiries as to how he funded his lifestyle . Suspected of being a horse thief , " Palmer " was imprisoned in York Castle , to be tried at the next assizes . Turpin 's true identity was revealed by a letter he wrote to his brother @-@ in @-@ law from his prison cell , which fell into the hands of the authorities . On 22 March 1739 , Turpin was found guilty on two charges of horse theft and sentenced to death ; he was executed on 7 April 1739 .
Turpin became the subject of legend after his execution , romanticised as dashing and heroic in English ballads and popular theatre of the 18th and 19th centuries and in film and television of the 20th century .
= = Early life = =
Richard " Dick " Turpin was born at the Blue Bell Inn ( later the Rose and Crown ) in Hempstead , Essex , the fifth of six children to John Turpin and Mary Elizabeth Parmenter . He was baptised on 21 September 1705 , in the same parish where his parents had been married more than ten years earlier .
Turpin 's father was a butcher and inn @-@ keeper . Several stories suggest that Dick Turpin may have followed his father into these trades ; one hints that as a teenager he was apprenticed to a butcher in the village of Whitechapel , while another proposes that he ran his own butcher 's shop in Thaxted . Testimony from his trial in 1739 suggests that he had a rudimentary education and , although no records survive of the date of the union , that in about 1725 he married Elizabeth Millington . Following his apprenticeship they moved north to Buckhurst Hill , Essex ( on the modern boundary of north east London ) , where Turpin opened a butcher 's shop .
= = Essex gang = =
Turpin most likely became involved with the Essex gang of deer thieves in the early 1730s . Deer poaching had long been endemic in the Royal Forest of Waltham , and in 1723 the Black Act ( so called because it outlawed the blackening or disguising of faces while in the forests ) was enacted to deal with such problems . Deer stealing was a domestic offence that was judged not in civil courts , but before Justices of the peace ; it was not until 1737 that the more severe penalty of seven years ' transportation was introduced . However , in 1731 seven verderers became so concerned by the increase in activity that they signed an affidavit which demonstrated their worries . The statement was lodged with Thomas Pelham @-@ Holles , 1st Duke of Newcastle , who responded by offering a £ 10 reward to anyone who helped identify the thieves , plus a pardon for those thieves who gave up their colleagues . Following a series of nasty incidents , including the threatened murder of a keeper and his family , in 1733 the government increased the reward to £ 50 ( about £ 7 @,@ 100 as of 2016 ) .
The Essex gang ( sometimes called the Gregory Gang ) , which included Samuel Gregory , his brothers Jeremiah and Jasper , Joseph Rose , Mary Brazier ( the gang 's fence ) , John Jones , Thomas Rowden and a young John Wheeler , needed contacts to help them to dispose of the deer . Turpin , a young butcher who traded in the area , almost certainly became involved with their activities . By 1733 the changing fortunes of the gang may have prompted him to leave the butchery trade , and he became the landlord of a public house , most likely the Rose and Crown at Clay Hill . Although there is no evidence to suggest that Turpin was directly involved in the thefts , by summer 1734 he was a close associate of the gang , which may indicate that he had been known to them for some time .
By October 1734 several in the gang had either been captured or had fled , and the remaining members moved away from poaching , raiding the home of a chandler and grocer named Peter Split , at Woodford . Although the identities of the perpetrators are unknown , Turpin may have been involved . Two nights later they struck again , at the Woodford home of a gentleman named Richard Woolridge , a Furnisher of Small Arms in the Office of Ordnance at the Tower of London . In December Jasper and Samuel Gregory , John Jones , and John Wheeler , attacked the home of John Gladwin ( a higler ) and John Shockley , in Chingford . On 19 December Turpin and five other men raided the home of Ambrose Skinner , a 73 @-@ year @-@ old farmer from Barking , leaving with an estimated £ 300 .
Two days later , the gang — minus Turpin — attacked the home of a Keeper , William Mason , at Epping Forest . During the robbery Mason 's servant managed to escape , and returned about an hour later with several neighbours , by which time the house was ransacked and the thieves long gone . On 11 January 1735 the gang raided the Charlton home of a Mr. Saunders . For the robbery of a gentleman named Sheldon , one week later at Croydon , Turpin arrived masked and armed with pistols , with four other members of the gang . In the same month two men , possibly from the same gang , raided the home of a Reverend Dyde . The clergyman was absent but the two cut his manservant around the face " in a barbarous manner " . Another brutal attack occurred on 1 February 1735 at Loughton :
On Saturday night last , about seven o 'clock , five rogues entered the house of the Widow Shelley at Loughton in Essex , having pistols & c. and threatened to murder the old lady , if she would not tell them where her money lay , which she obstinately refusing for some time , they threatened to lay her across the fire , if she did not instantly tell them , which she would not do . But her son being in the room , and threatened to be murdered , cried out , he would tell them , if they would not murder his mother , and did , whereupon they went upstairs , and took near £ 100 , a silver tankard , and other plate , and all manner of household goods . They afterwards went into the cellar and drank several bottles of ale and wine , and broiled some meat , ate the relicts of a fillet of veal & c . While they were doing this , two of their gang went to Mr Turkles , a farmer 's , who rents one end of the widow 's house , and robbed him of above £ 20 and then they all went off , taking two of the farmer 's horses , to carry off their luggage , the horses were found on Sunday the following morning in Old Street , and stayed about three hours in the house .
The gang lived in or around London . For a time Turpin stayed at Whitechapel , before moving to Millbank . On 4 February 1735 he met John Fielder , Samuel Gregory , Joseph Rose , and John Wheeler , at an inn along The Broadway in London . They planned to rob the house of Joseph Lawrence , a farmer at Earlsbury Farm in Edgware . Late that afternoon , after stopping twice along the way for food and drink , they captured a shepherd boy and burst into the house , armed with pistols . They bound the two maidservants , and brutally attacked the 70 @-@ year @-@ old farmer . They pulled his breeches around his ankles , and dragged him around the house , but Lawrence refused to reveal the whereabouts of his money . Turpin beat Lawrence 's bare buttocks with his pistols , badly bruising him , and other members of the gang beat him around the head with their pistols . They emptied a kettle of water over his head , forced him to sit bare @-@ buttocked on the fire , and pulled him around the house by his nose , and hair . Gregory took one of the maidservants upstairs and raped her . For their trouble , the gang escaped with a haul of less than £ 30 .
Three days later Turpin , accompanied by the same men along with William Saunders and Humphrey Walker , brutally raided a farm in Marylebone . The attack netted the gang just under £ 90 . The next day the Duke of Newcastle offered a reward of £ 50 in exchange for information leading to the conviction of the " several persons " involved in the two Woodford robberies , and the robberies of the widow Shelley and Reverend Dyde . On 11 February Fielder , Saunders , and Wheeler , were apprehended . Two accounts of their capture exist . One claims that on their way to rob the Lawrence household the gang had stopped at an alehouse in Edgware , and that on 11 February , while out walking , the owner noticed a group of horses outside an alehouse in Bloomsbury . He recognised these horses as those used by the same group of men who had stopped at his alehouse before the Lawrence attack , and called for the parish constable . Another account claims that two of the gang were spotted by a servant of Joseph Lawrence . Regardless , the three , who were drinking with a woman ( possibly Mary Brazier ) were promptly arrested and committed to prison . Wheeler , who may have been as young as 15 , quickly betrayed his colleagues , and descriptions of those yet to be captured were circulated in the press . In the London Gazette Turpin was described as " Richard Turpin , a butcher by trade , is a tall fresh coloured man , very much marked with the small pox , about 26 years of age , about five feet nine inches high , lived some time ago in Whitechapel and did lately lodge somewhere about Millbank , Westminster , wears a blue grey coat and a natural wig " .
= = Breakup of the Essex gang = =
Once Wheeler 's confession became apparent , the other members of the gang fled their usual haunts . Turpin informed Gregory and the others of Wheeler 's capture , and left Westminster . On 15 February 1735 , while Wheeler was busy confessing to the authorities , " three or four men " ( most likely Samuel Gregory , Herbert Haines , Turpin , and possibly Thomas Rowden ) robbed the house of a Mrs St. John at Chingford . On the following day Turpin ( and Rowden , if present ) parted company with Gregory and Haines , and headed for Hempstead to see his family . Gregory and Haines may have gone looking for Turpin , because on 17 February they stopped at an alehouse in Debden and ordered a shoulder of mutton , intending to stay for the night . However , a man named Palmer recognised them , and called for the parish constable . A fracas ensued , during which the two thieves escaped . They rejoined Turpin , and along with Jones and Rowden may have travelled to Gravesend before returning to Woodford . Another robbery was reported at Woodford toward the end of February — possibly by Gregory and his cohorts — but with most avenues of escape cut off , and with the authorities hunting them down , the remaining members of the Essex gang kept their heads down and remained under cover , probably in Epping Forest .
Six days after the arrest of Fielder , Saunders , and Wheeler , just as Turpin and his associates were returning from Gravesend , Rose , Brazier , and Walker were captured at a chandler 's shop in Westminster , while drinking punch . Fielder , Rose , Saunders and Walker were tried at the Middlesex General Session between 26 February and 1 March 1735 . Turpin and Gregory were also named on the indictments for burglary . Walker died while still in Newgate Prison , but the remaining three were hanged at Tyburn gallows on 10 March , before their bodies were hung to rot in gibbets on Edgware Road . Walker 's body was hung in chains . Two days before the hanging , a report of " four suspicious men " being driven away from an alehouse at East Sheen appeared in a newspaper , and was likely describing Gregory and his companions , but the remaining members of the Essex gang were not reported again until 30 March , when three of them ( unsuccessfully ) tried to steal a horse from a servant of the Earl of Suffolk . Turpin was present with four of the gang at another robbery , reported on 8 March . Jasper Gregory meanwhile was captured , and then executed late in March . His brothers were arrested on 9 April in Rake , West Sussex , after a struggle during which Samuel lost the tip of his nose to a sword , and Jeremy was shot in the leg . He died in Winchester gaol ; Samuel was tried in May , and executed on 4 June . His body was later moved , to hang in chains alongside those of his colleagues at Edgware . Mary Brazier was transported to the Thirteen Colonies . Herbert Haines was captured on 13 April , and executed in August . John Wheeler , who had been instrumental in proving the cases against his former colleagues , and who was freed , died at Hackney in January 1738 . The reason for his death is not recorded , but is assumed to be natural causes .
= = Highwayman = =
With the Essex gang now smashed by the authorities , Turpin turned instead to the crime he became most noted for — highway robbery . Although he may have been involved in earlier highway robberies on 10 and 12 April , he was first identified as a suspect in one event on 10 July , as " Turpin the butcher " , along with Thomas Rowden , " the pewterer " . Several days later the two struck at Epping Forest , depriving a man from Southwark of his belongings . With a further bounty of £ 100 on their heads they continued their activities through the latter half of 1735 . In August they robbed five people accompanying a coach on Barnes Common , and shortly after that they attacked another coach party , between Putney and Kingston Hill . On 20 August the pair relieved a Mr Godfrey of six guineas and a pocket book , on Hounslow Heath . Fearing capture , they moved on to Blackheath in Hertfordshire , and then back to London . On 5 December the two were seen near Winchester , but in late December , following the capture of John Jones , they separated . Rowden had previously been convicted of counterfeiting , and in July 1736 he was convicted of passing counterfeit coin , under the alias Daniel Crispe . Crispe 's true name was eventually discovered and he was transported in June 1738 . Jones also suffered transportation , to the Thirteen Colonies .
Little is known of Turpin 's movements during 1736 . He may have travelled to Holland , as various sightings were reported there , but he may also have assumed an alias and disappeared from public view . In February 1737 though , he spent the night at Puckeridge , with his wife , her maid and a man called Robert Nott . Turpin arranged the meeting by letter , which was intercepted by the authorities . While Turpin eluded his enemies , making his escape to Cambridge , the others were arrested on charges of " violent suspicion of being dangerous rogues and robbing upon the highway " . They were imprisoned at Hertford gaol , although the women were later acquitted ( Nott was released at the next Assize ) . Although one report late in March suggests , unusually , that Turpin alone robbed a company of higlers , in the same month he was reported to be working alongside two other highwaymen , Matthew King ( then , and since , incorrectly identified as Tom King ) , and Stephen Potter . The trio were responsible for a string of robberies between March and April 1737 , which ended suddenly in an incident at Whitechapel , after King ( or Turpin , depending upon which report is read ) had stolen a horse near Waltham Forest . Its owner , Joseph Major , reported the theft to Richard Bayes , landlord of the Green Man public house at Leytonstone . Bayes ( who later wrote a biography of Turpin ) , tracked the horse to the Red Lion at Whitechapel . Major identified the animal , but as it was late evening and the horses had not yet been collected by their " owners " , they elected to hold a vigil . John King ( Matthew King 's brother ) arrived late that night , and was quickly apprehended by the party , which included the local constable . John King told him the whereabouts of Matthew King , who was waiting nearby . During the resulting mêlée , King was wounded by gunfire , and died on 19 May . Potter was later caught , but at his trial was released for lack of evidence against him .
= = Fatal shooting = =
Bayes ' statement regarding the death of Matthew King may have been heavily embellished . Several reports , including Turpin 's own account , offer different versions of what actually happened on that night early in May 1737 ; early reports claimed that Turpin had shot King , however by the following month the same newspapers retracted this claim , and stated that Bayes had fired the fatal shot . The shooting of King , however , preceded an event that changed Turpin 's life completely . He escaped to a hideaway in Epping Forest , where he was seen by Thomas Morris , a servant of one of the Forest 's Keepers . Turpin shot and killed Morris on 4 May with a carbine when , armed with pistols , Morris attempted to capture him . The shooting was reported in The Gentleman 's Magazine :
It having been represented to the King , that Richard Turpin did on Wednesday the 4th of May last , barbarously murder Thomas Morris , Servant to Henry Tomson , one of the Keepers of Epping @-@ Forest , and commit other notorious Felonies and Robberies near London , his Majesty is pleased to promise his most gracious Pardon to any of his Accomplices , and a Reward of 200l. to any Person or Persons that shall discover him , so as he may be apprehended and convicted . Turpin was born at Thacksted in Essex , is about Thirty , by Trade a Butcher , about 5 Feet 9 Inches high , brown Complexion , very much mark 'd with the Small Pox , his Cheek @-@ bones broad , his Face thinner towards the Bottom , his Visage short , pretty upright , and broad about the Shoulders .
Several newspapers suggested that on 6 and 7 May , he committed two highway robberies near Epping . Turpin may also have lost his mount ; on 7 May an Elizabeth King attempted to secure two horses left by Matthew King , at an inn called the Red Lion . The horses were suspected as belonging to " highwaymen " and King was arrested for questioning , but was later released without charge . Morris 's killing unleashed a flood of Turpin reports , and a reward of £ 200 was offered for his capture .
= = As John Palmer = =
Sometime around June 1737 Turpin boarded at the Ferry Inn at Brough , under the alias of John Palmer ( or Parmen ) . Travelling across the River Humber between the historic counties of the East Riding of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire , he posed as a horse trader , and often hunted alongside local gentlemen . On 2 October 1738 Turpin shot another man 's game cock in the street . While being rebuked by John Robinson , he then threatened to shoot him also . Three East Riding justices ( JP ) , George Crowle ( Member of Parliament for Hull ) , Hugh Bethell , and Marmaduke Constable , travelled to Brough and took written depositions about the incident . They threatened to bind him over , but Turpin refused to pay the required surety , and was committed to the House of Correction at Beverley . Turpin was escorted to Beverley by the parish constable , Carey Gill . Incomprehensibly , he made no attempt at escape ; Barlow ( 1973 ) surmises that at this point in his life , Turpin may have been wallowing in self @-@ pity , depressed that his life had thus far been a failure .
Robert Appleton , Clerk of the Peace for the East Riding , and the man whose account details the above incident , later reported that the three JPs made enquiries as to how " Palmer " had made his money , suspecting that his lifestyle was funded by criminal activities . Turpin claimed that he was a butcher who had fallen into debt , and that he had levanted from his home in Long Sutton , Lincolnshire . When contacted , the JP at Long Sutton ( a Mr Delamere ) confirmed that John Palmer had lived there for about nine months , but that he was suspected of stealing sheep , and had escaped the custody of the local constable . Delamere also suspected that Palmer was a horse @-@ thief and had taken several depositions supporting his view , and told the three JPs that he would prefer him to be detained . The three JPs now presumed that the case was too serious for Palmer to remain at Beverley House of Correction , and demanded sureties for his appearance at York Assizes . Turpin refused , and so on 16 October he was transferred to York Castle in handcuffs .
Horse theft became a capital offence in 1545 , punishable by death . During the 17th and 18th centuries , crimes in violation of property rights were some of the most severely punished ; most of the 200 capital statutes were property offences . Robbery combined with violence was " the sort of offence , second only to premeditated murder ( a relatively uncommon crime ) , most likely to be prosecuted and punished to [ the law 's ] utmost rigour " . Turpin had stolen several horses while operating under the pseudonym of Palmer . In July 1737 he stole a horse from Pinchbeck in Lincolnshire , and took it to visit his father at Hempstead . When Turpin returned to Brough ( stealing three horses along the way ) he left the gelding with his father . The identity of John Turpin 's son was well known , and the horse 's identity was soon discovered . On 12 September 1738 therefore , John Turpin was committed to gaol in Essex on charges of horse theft , but following his help in preventing a jailbreak , the charges were dropped on 5 March 1739 . About a month after " Palmer " had been moved to York Castle , Thomas Creasy , the owner of the three horses stolen by Turpin , managed to track them down and recover them , and it was for these thefts that he was eventually tried .
From his cell , Turpin wrote to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Pompr Rivernall , who also lived at Hempstead . Rivernall was married to Turpin 's sister , Dorothy . The letter was kept at the local post office , but seeing the York post stamp Rivernall refused to pay the delivery charge , claiming that he " had no correspondent at York " . Rivernall may not have wanted to pay the charge for the letter , or he may have wished to distance himself from Turpin 's affairs , and so the letter was moved to the post office at Saffron Walden where James Smith , who had taught Turpin how to write while the latter was at school , recognised the handwriting . He alerted JP Thomas Stubbing , who paid the postage and opened the letter . Smith travelled to York Castle and on 23 February identified Palmer as Turpin . He received the £ 200 ( about £ 29 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) reward originally offered by the Duke of Newcastle following Turpin 's murder of Thomas Morris .
= = Trial = =
Although there was some question as to where the trial should be held — the Duke of Newcastle wanted him tried in London — Turpin was tried at York Assizes . Proceedings began three days after the winter Assizes opened , on 22 March . Turpin was charged with the theft of Creasy 's horses : a mare worth three pounds , a foal worth 20 shillings , and a gelding worth three pounds . The indictments stated that the alleged offences had occurred at Welton on 1 March 1739 , and described Turpin as " John Palmer alias Pawmer alias Richard Turpin ... late of the castle of York in the County of York labourer " . Technically the charges were invalid — the offences had occurred at Heckington , not Welton , and the date was also incorrect ; the offences were in August 1738 .
Presiding over the trial was Sir William Chapple , a senior and respected judge in his early sixties . The prosecution was directed by King 's Counsel Thomas Place and Richard Crowle ( brother of George ) , and proceedings were recorded by a York resident , Thomas Kyll . Turpin had no defence barrister ; during this period of English history , those accused had no right to legal representation , and their interests were cared for by the presiding judge . Among the seven witnesses called to testify were Thomas Creasy , and James Smith , the man who had recognised Turpin 's handwriting . Turpin offered little in the way of questioning his accusers ; when asked if he had anything to ask of Creasy , he replied " I cannot say anything , for I have not any witnesses come this day , as I have expected , and therefore beg of your Lordship to put off my trial ' till another day " , and when asked about Smith , he claimed not to know him . When questioned himself , Turpin told the court that he had bought the mare and foal from an inn @-@ keeper near Heckington . He repeated his original story of how he had come to use the pseudonym Palmer , claiming that it was his mother 's maiden name . When asked by the judge for his name before he came to Lincolnshire , he said " Turpin " . Without leaving the courtroom the jury found Turpin guilty of the first charge of stealing the mare and foal , and following further proceedings , guilty of stealing the gelding . Throughout the trial Turpin had repeatedly claimed that he had not been allowed enough time to form his defence , that proceedings should be delayed until he could call his witnesses , and that the trial should be held at Essex . Before sentencing him , the judge asked Turpin if he could offer any reason why he should not be sentenced to death ; Turpin said : " It is very hard upon me , my Lord , because I was not prepar 'd for my Defence . " The judge replied : " Why was you not ? You knew the Time of the Assizes as well as any Person here . " Despite Turpin 's pleas that he had been told the trial would be held in Essex , the judge replied : " Whoever told you so were highly to blame ; and as your country have found you guilty of a crime worthy of death , it is my office to pronounce sentence against you " , sentencing him to death .
= = Execution = =
Before his execution , Turpin frequently received visitors ( the gaoler was reputed to have earned £ 100 from selling drinks to Turpin and his guests ) , although he refused the efforts of a local clergyman who offered him " serious remonstrances and admonitions " . John Turpin may have sent his son a letter , dated 29 March , urging him to " beg of God to pardon your many transgressions , which the thief upon the cross received pardon for at the last hour " . Turpin bought a new frock coat and shoes , and on the day before his execution hired five mourners for three pounds and ten shillings ( to be shared between them ) . On 7 April 1739 , followed by his mourners , Turpin and John Stead ( a horse thief ) were taken through York by open cart to Knavesmire , which was then the city 's equivalent of London 's Tyburn gallows . Turpin " behav 'd himself with amazing assurance " , and " bow 'd to the spectators as he passed " . He climbed a ladder to the gallows and spoke to his executioner . York had no permanent hangman , and it was the custom to pardon a prisoner on condition that he acted as executioner . On this occasion , the pardoned man was a fellow highwayman , Thomas Hadfield . An account in The Gentleman 's Magazine for 7 April 1739 notes Turpin 's brashness : " Turpin behaved in an undaunted manner ; as he mounted the ladder , feeling his right leg tremble , he spoke a few words to the topsman , then threw himself off , and expir 'd in five minutes . "
The short drop method of hanging meant that those executed were killed by slow strangulation , and so Turpin was left hanging until late afternoon , before being cut down and taken to a tavern in Castlegate . The next morning , the body was buried in the graveyard of St George 's Church , Fishergate , opposite what is now the Roman Catholic St George 's Church . On the Tuesday following the burial , the corpse was reportedly stolen by body @-@ snatchers . The theft of cadavers for medical research was a common enough occurrence , and was likely tolerated by the authorities in York . The practice was however unpopular with the general public , and the body @-@ snatchers , together with Turpin 's corpse , were soon apprehended by a mob . The body was recovered and reburied , supposedly this time with quicklime . Turpin 's body is purported to lie in St George 's graveyard , although some doubt remains as to the grave 's authenticity .
= = Modern view = =
Some of the Turpin legend can be sourced directly to Richard Bayes ' The Genuine History of the Life of Richard Turpin ( 1739 ) , a mixture of fact and fiction hurriedly put together in the wake of the trial , to satisfy a gullible public . The speeches of the condemned , biographies of criminals , and trial literature , were popular genres during the late 17th and early 18th centuries ; written for a mass audience and a precursor to the modern novel , they were " produced on a scale which beggars comparison with any period before or since " . Such literature functioned as news and a " forum in which anxieties about crime , punishment , sin , salvation , the workings of providence and social and moral transgression generally could be expressed and negotiated . "
Bayes ' document contains elements of conjecture ; for instance , his claim that Turpin was married to a Miss Palmer ( and not Elizabeth Millington ) is almost certainly incorrect , and the date of Turpin 's marriage , for which no documentary evidence has been found , appears to be based solely on Bayes ' claim that in 1739 Turpin had married 11 or 12 years earlier . His account of those present during the robberies committed by the Essex Gang often contains names that never appeared in contemporary newspaper reports , suggesting , according to author Derek Barlow , that Bayes embellished his story . Bayes ' description of Turpin 's relationship with " King the Highwayman " is almost certainly fictional . Turpin may have known Matthew King as early as 1734 , and had an active association with him from February 1737 , but the story of the " Gentleman Highwayman " may have been created only to link the end of the Essex gang with the author 's own recollection of events . Barlow also views the account of the theft of Turpin 's corpse , appended to Thomas Kyll 's publication of 1739 , as " handled with such delicacy as to amount almost to reverence " , and therefore of suspect provenance .
No contemporary portrait exists of Turpin , who as a notorious but unremarkable figure was not considered sufficiently important to be immortalised . An engraving in one edition of Bayes ' 1739 publication , of a man hiding in a cave , is sometimes supposed to be him , but the closest description that exists is that given by John Wheeler , of " a fresh coloured man , very much marked with the small pox , about five feet nine inches high ... wears a blue grey coat and a light coloured wig " . An E @-@ FIT of Turpin , created from such reports , was published by the Castle Museum in York in 2009 .
Turpin is best known for his exploits as a highwayman , but before his execution the only contemporary report of him as such was in June 1737 , when a broadsheet entitled " News news : great and wonderful news from London in an uproar or a hue and cry after the Great Turpin , with his escape into Ireland " was published . Although some of his contemporaries became the subject of chapbooks , names such as James Hind , Claude Duval and William Nevison , are not nearly as well @-@ known today as the legend of Dick Turpin , whose fictionalised exploits first began to appear around the turn of the 19th century . It was , however , the story of a fabled ride from London to York that provided the impetus for 19th @-@ century author William Harrison Ainsworth to include and embellish the exploit in his 1834 novel Rookwood . Ainsworth used Turpin as a plot device , describing him in a manner that makes him more lively than the book 's other characters . Turpin is introduced with the pseudonym Palmer , and is later forced to escape on his horse , Black Bess . Although fast enough to keep ahead of those in pursuit , Black Bess eventually dies under the stress of the journey . This scene appealed more to readers than the rest of the work , and as Turpin was depicted as a likeable character who made the life of a criminal seem appealing , the story came to form part of the modern legend surrounding Turpin . The artist Edward Hull capitalised on Ainsworth 's story , publishing six prints of notable events in Turpin 's career .
Ainsworth 's tale of Turpin 's overnight journey from London to York on his mare Black Bess has its origins in an episode recorded by Daniel Defoe , in his 1727 work A tour thro ' the Whole Island of Great Britain . After committing a robbery in Kent in 1676 , William Nevison apparently rode to York to establish an alibi , and Defoe 's account of that journey became part of folk legend . A similar ride was attributed to Turpin as early as 1808 , and was being performed on stage by 1819 , but the feat as imagined by Ainsworth ( about 200 miles in less than a day ) is impossible . Nevertheless , Ainsworth 's legend of Black Bess was repeated in works such as Black Bess or the Knight of the Road , a 254 @-@ part penny dreadful published in 1867 – 68 . In these tales , Turpin was the hero , accompanied by his trusty colleagues Claude Duval , Tom King , and Jack Rann . These narratives , which transformed Turpin from a pockmarked thug and murderer into " a gentleman of the road [ and ] a protector of the weak " , followed a popular cultural tradition of romanticising English criminals . This practice is reflected in the ballads written about Turpin , the earliest of which , Dick Turpin , would appear to have been published in 1737 . Later ballads presented Turpin as an 18th @-@ century Robin Hood figure : " Turpin was caught and his trial was passed , and for a game cock he died at last . Five hundred pounds he gave so free , all to Jack Ketch as a small legacy . "
Stories about Turpin continued to be published well into the 20th century , and the legend was also transferred to the stage . In 1845 the playwright George Dibdin @-@ Pitt recreated the most notable " facts " of Turpin 's life , and in 1846 Marie Tussaud added a wax sculpture of Turpin to her collection at Madame Tussauds . In 1906 actor Fred Ginnett wrote and starred in the film Dick Turpin 's Last Ride to York . Other silent versions appeared for the silver screen , and some adaptations even moulded Turpin into a figure styled on Robin Hood . Sid James appeared as Turpin in the 1974 Carry On film , Carry On Dick , and LWT cast Richard O 'Sullivan as Turpin in their eponymous series , Dick Turpin .
= 1933 FA Cup Final =
The 1933 FA Cup Final was a football match between Everton and Manchester City on 29 April 1933 at Wembley Stadium in London . The deciding match of English football 's primary cup competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup ( better known as the FA Cup ) , it was the 62nd final , and the 11th at Wembley . The 1933 final was the first where the players , including goalkeepers , were issued numbers for identification . Everton were allocated numbers 1 – 11 and Manchester City numbers 12 – 22 .
Each team progressed through five rounds to reach the final . Everton won 3 – 0 , with goals from Jimmy Stein , Dixie Dean and James Dunn , and won the cup for the first time since 1906 .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Everton = = =
Both teams entered the competition in the third round , the entry point for First Division clubs . Everton were drawn to play Leicester City at Filbert Street , an all First Division tie . The match was close ; Dixie Dean scored for Everton after three minutes , but Leicester quickly levelled the score . A goal by Jimmy Stein gave Everton a 2 – 1 half @-@ time lead , but Leicester again equalised . James Dunn eventually scored to secure a 3 – 2 win for Everton . Second Division Bury provided the opposition in the fourth round . Tommy Johnson scored twice for Everton in the opening half @-@ hour . From that point , though Bury enjoyed significant spells of possession , Everton thwarted their efforts by preying on Bury mistakes . In the second half Dean added a third goal from a rebounded Cliff Britton free @-@ kick , and Bury scored a late consolation goal . Everton were drawn at to play Leeds United at home in the fifth round . Leeds ' strong league form meant Everton entered the match as slight underdogs despite home advantage . Everton goalkeeper Ted Sagar made two important saves in the first half to deny Arthur Hydes and Billy Furness . Everton the gained the upper hand and scored twice , Dean with the first , and Stein with the second , direct from a corner .
Against Third Division Luton Town in the quarter @-@ final , Everton won comfortably . The match remained scoreless for half an hour , but after Stein opened the scoring for Everton the match became one @-@ sided , and ended 6 – 0 . Stein and Johnson both scored twice , along with a goal each for Dunn and Dean , the latter maintaining his record of scoring in every round . By this time Everton were viewed as favourites to win the competition . In the semi @-@ final they played West Ham at Molineux , Wolverhampton . Everton took the lead in the sixth minute . A corner kick by Stein was headed on by Johnson , and then headed into the net by Dunn . Everton had the better of the play in the first half , but Vic Watson scored for West Ham just before half @-@ time . In the second half West Ham 's Woods missed an open goal from six yards ( 5.5m ) . Everton then capitalised on their reprieve . With seven minutes remaining , a mistake by Jim Barrett allowed Edward Critchley to go clear on goal and score the winner .
= = = Manchester City = = =
Manchester City started the competition at Third Division Gateshead . Despite the disparity in league positions , a heavy pitch made for an even game , which finished 1 – 1 . The replay at Maine Road was one @-@ sided . A 9 – 0 Manchester City win featured six different scorers , including a hat @-@ trick from Fred Tilson . In the fourth round Manchester City faced another Third Division side , Walsall , who had provided the surprise result of the third round by defeating league leaders Arsenal . Brook scored both goals in a 2 – 0 win , in which Walsall 's Reed was sent off for a foul on Brook . The fifth round brought a short trip to Bolton Wanderers , where the attendance of 69 @,@ 920 was the highest of the round . Bolton took the lead , but Brook scored twice in quick succession to give Manchester City the advantage at the interval . Bolton equalised when a gust of wind caught Raymond Westwood 's corner . Brook completed a hat trick with a penalty to regain the lead , and in the closing minutes Tilson completed a 4 – 2 victory . The Manchester Guardian suggested Brook 's " magnificent display " made him a contender for an England call @-@ up .
Manchester City 's quarter @-@ final was against Burnley of the Second Division . City took the lead early in the match following a solo goal by Tilson . In the second @-@ half Burnley discarded their passing game in favour of a direct approach , and pressured the Manchester City goal . The City defence stood firm , and the match finished 1 – 0 . City 's opponents for the semi @-@ final , held at Leeds Road , Hudd
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worth of construction materials , and the European Union sent $ 443 @,@ 000 to the country .
On November 16 , the government of Haiti issued an appeal to the international community for assistance . In response , agencies through the United Nations donated $ 735 @,@ 000 , including 20 @,@ 000 water units and 3 @,@ 000 blankets . The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs flew 30 tons of supplies , financed by Italy and Luxembourg . The European Union donated about $ 3 @.@ 8 million to the country , and various countries sent about $ 1 @.@ 8 million in cash or the equivalent thereof in relief items . The Canadian government donated $ 485 @,@ 000 , and the government of Japan sent $ 400 @,@ 000 in aid . The government of France provided blankets , clothing , and tarpaulins , and the United States sent 5 @,@ 000 blankets . In the days after the storm , the Haitian Army and international workers made emergency repairs to the road between Jacmel and Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , which was permanently reopened on November 25 . The Haitian government provided $ 3 @.@ 2 million to repair damage and assist those affected by the storm . The government sent about $ 112 @,@ 000 to cities to provide for clearing roads , housing repairs , and for the funerals of storm victims . Workers from the United Nations set up relief work in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince . Assistance quickly reached the ravaged town of Jacmel , including 116 tons of food , 9 tons of medicine , and clothing . Six soldiers from the United States Special Forces rescued 35 Haitians using an inflatable boat . About 100 soldiers from the 10th Mountain Division assisted in relief operations in Jacmel , rescuing hundreds of people . About 12 @,@ 000 United States troops were already in the country when Gordon struck to restore democracy under ousted president Jean @-@ Bertrand Aristide .
Due to the crop damage in Florida , the price of vegetables across the United States rose . There were about 25 @,@ 000 insurance claims following the storm 's passage .
Despite the devastation in Haiti and the extensive damage in Cuba and Florida , Gordon was not retired by the World Meteorological Organization in Spring of 1995 . Member nations of the World Meteorological Organization must send a delegate to the annual meeting to formally submit a request for tropical cyclone name retirement ; for unknown reasons , Haiti did not send a delegate to the Spring 1995 meeting . The World Meteorological Organization issued an official statement crediting Jamaica and Cuba 's warning infrastructure for the low loss of life there from Gordon , and blaming Haiti 's lack of such a system for the large number of deaths there .
= Travis Ishikawa =
Travis Takashi Ishikawa ( born September 24 , 1983 ) is an American professional baseball first baseman in the San Francisco Giants organization . He stands 6 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) tall and weighs 220 pounds ( 100 kg ) . He bats and throws left @-@ handed . Previously , he has played for the San Francisco Giants , the Milwaukee Brewers , the Baltimore Orioles , and the New York Yankees . Ishikawa has also filled in as an outfielder at times in his career .
Ishikawa grew up in Washington State . He was drafted in the 21st round of the 2002 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft by the San Francisco Giants out of high school . He made his Major League debut with the Giants in 2006 , but it was not until 2009 that he made it to the major leagues full @-@ time . He started 2009 as the Giants ' first baseman but failed to produce offensively and was replaced part of the season by Ryan Garko . However , on defense he was third in the National League ( NL ) in fielding percentage . In 2010 , he served as a pinch @-@ hitter and defensive replacement for the Giants and won a World Series ring as the Giants won the 2010 World Series . Ishikawa was designated for assignment at the end of spring training in 2011 and spent the entire season in the minor leagues .
In 2012 , Ishikawa signed with the Milwaukee Brewers , who used him mainly as a pinch @-@ hitter and defensive replacement . Ishikawa spent most of 2013 in the minor leagues , though he played six games for the Baltimore Orioles and one game for the New York Yankees . In 2014 he made the Pittsburgh Pirates Opening Day roster . However his bat wasn 't as hot as it was during Spring Training so the Pirates traded for 1B Ike Davis from the New York Mets and Ishikawa was designated for assignment . He was re @-@ signed by his former team the San Francisco Giants in April and started for them in left field during the 2014 playoffs . On October 16 , 2014 , Ishikawa hit a walk @-@ off three @-@ run home run to give the Giants their third National League pennant in five years by defeating the St. Louis Cardinals .
= = High school years = =
Ishikawa attended Federal Way High School in Federal Way , Washington , where he lettered in baseball , leading his team to the Washington State Class 4A Title as a junior in 2001 and to the title game as a senior in 2002 . He was drafted in the 21st round of the 2002 Major League Baseball Draft by the San Francisco Giants . The Giants gave him a $ 955 @,@ 000 bonus to prevent him from attending Oregon State University . The bonus was the highest back then for a non @-@ first @-@ round player , cued on by the organization 's approaching signing deadline . The Giants could afford to pay a 21st @-@ round pick that much because their higher picks had signed quickly for routine bonuses .
= = Minor League career = =
Ishikawa began his career playing for the rookie @-@ league Arizona League Giants in 2002 . He batted .279 with 10 runs scored , 19 hits , one home run , and 10 Runs batted in ( RBI ) in 19 games ( 68 at @-@ bats ) before being called up to the Class A @-@ Short Season Salem @-@ Keizer Volcanoes of the Northwest League . With Salem @-@ Keizer , he hit .307 with 14 runs scored , 27 hits , one home run , and 17 RBI in 23 games ( 96 at @-@ bats ) . His performance helped Salem @-@ Keizer win the Northwest League championship .
In 2003 , Ishikawa was initially assigned to the Class A Hagerstown Suns of the South Atlantic League . After he batted .206 with 20 runs scored , 40 hits , three home runs , and 22 RBI in 57 games ( 194 at @-@ bats ) , he was demoted to Salem @-@ Keizer . In 66 games ( 248 at @-@ bats ) with the Volcanoes , he batted .254 with 53 runs scored , 63 hits , three home runs , and 31 RBI .
Coming into 2004 , Ishikawa was ranked the Giants ' seventh @-@ best prospect by Baseball America . He spent most of 2004 with the Suns , batting .257 with 59 runs scored , 92 hits , and 54 RBI in 97 games ( 355 at @-@ bats ) . He tied with Nate Schierholtz for the team lead with 15 home runs , and he won the Hagerstown Player of the Month award in July . In the last month of the season , Ishikawa was promoted to the Class A @-@ Advanced San Jose Giants of the California League , where he batted .232 with 10 runs scored , 13 hits , one home run , and 10 RBI in 16 games ( 56 at @-@ bats ) . He also played eight playoff games for San Jose .
Ishikawa was ranked the 10th @-@ best prospect in the Giants ' organization by Baseball America entering 2005 . In 2005 , he spent the entire season with San Jose . In 127 games ( 432 at @-@ bats ) , he batted .282 with 87 runs scored , 122 hits , and 79 RBI . His 22 home runs ranked fourth in the San Francisco Giants ' organization and tied with Bryan LaHair , Travis Metcalf , and Aneudi Cuevas for seventh in the California League . He appeared in six playoff games , batting .217 with four RBI as San Jose won the California League championship .
= = Major League career = =
= = = San Francisco Giants = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Before the season , Baseball America ranked Ishikawa the number four prospect in the Giants ' organization . He attended spring training with the Giants for the first time in his career . He was recalled from the minors for the first time on April 18 when Lance Niekro was placed on the Bereavement List , and made his major league debut the same day in a 7 – 4 loss to the Arizona Diamondbacks . His first big league hit came on April 19 as a pinch @-@ hit single off Brandon Webb in a 10 – 3 loss to Arizona . The next day , he returned to the minors to make room for Niekro . On May 26 , he was recalled when Daniel Ortmeier was sent to the minors . He had his first big league start that day against the Colorado Rockies and had three hits , two doubles and three RBI in a 9 – 0 victory . After the game , Kevin Frandsen and Todd Greene gave him a pie in the face to celebrate . After four games ( during which he hit .500 ) , he was returned to the minors on May 30 . He was recalled on June 13 when Niekro went on the disabled list again . After six games on this stint , he returned to the minors on June 21 when Frandsen was recalled . In the minor leagues that year , Ishikawa played for the Class AA Connecticut Defenders of the Eastern League . In 86 games ( 298 at @-@ bats ) , he batted .232 with 33 runs scored , 69 hits , 10 home runs , and 42 RBI . In 12 games ( 24 at @-@ bats ) with the Giants , he batted .292 with one run scored , seven hits , no home runs , and four RBI . After the season , he played for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the Arizona Fall League .
= = = = 2007 ( minors ) = = = =
Ishikawa attended spring training with the Giants in 2007 but was reassigned to the minors on March 6 . He spent the entire season in the minors , splitting time between Connecticut and San Jose . He began the season with Connecticut , hitting .214 with three home runs and 17 RBI in 48 games ( 173 at @-@ bats ) before suffering a knee injury . He was sent to San Jose on June 28 to recover from it , and he said that the Giants told him he would be promoted to Class AAA after a rehab assignment . However , he struggled and remained with San Jose for the rest of the year , batting .268 with 13 home runs , 34 RBI , and a .551 slugging percentage in 56 games ( 198 at @-@ bats ) . He batted .241 , hit two home runs , and posted five RBI in the playoffs as San Jose won another California League championship .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
In 2008 , Ishikawa again attended spring training for the Giants and again began the season in the minors . On August 13 , he was called up by the Giants to replace a slumping John Bowker as the Giants ' starting first baseman , a position Ishikawa held for most of the remainder of the season . Ishikawa hit his first major league home run on August 17 at Turner Field , a two run shot off Charlie Morton to right field in a 3 – 1 victory over the Atlanta Braves . He set a career high by having three hits on September 12 and 14 against the San Diego Padres . In 33 games ( 95 at @-@ bats ) with the Giants , Ishikawa batted .274 with 12 runs , 26 hits , six doubles , three home runs , and 15 RBI .
Prior to his callup by the Giants , Ishikawa played for Connecticut and the Class AAA Fresno Grizzlies of the Pacific Coast League , batting .299 ( 121 @-@ for @-@ 405 ) with 69 runs , 35 doubles , 24 home runs , and 94 RBI in 112 games with both clubs . Initially , he was assigned to Connecticut , where he batted .289 with 16 doubles , 8 home runs , and 45 RBI in 64 games before earning a promotion to Fresno on June 20 . In 48 games with Fresno , he batted .310 with 19 doubles , 16 home runs , and 46 RBI in 171 at @-@ bats . He had the fourth @-@ highest average , the second @-@ most home runs , and the third @-@ most RBI of players in the Giants ' organization . In May and June , Ishikawa was awarded the Giants Player of Month title ; from June 2 to 8 he was named the Eastern League Player of Week after amassing 10 hit in 22 at @-@ bats ( .455 average ) with three home runs and nine RBI .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
Ishikawa retained the position of starting first baseman in 2009 . In the first game of the season , Ishikawa had two hits , including a three @-@ RBI triple in the first inning against Milwaukee Brewers ' starting pitcher Jeff Suppan as the Giants won 10 – 6 . From May 25 through July 11 , Ishikawa had his best stretch of the year , batting .326 while hitting seven home runs and driving in 17 runs . He set a career high with four hits on May 25 and hit his first home run of the year , a three @-@ run shot against Buddy Carlyle , in an 8 – 2 victory over Atlanta . On July 3 , he hit a ball that was originally ruled a double against Felipe Paulino , but the umpires changed it to a three @-@ run home run after watching the replay as the Giants won 13 – 0 over the Houston Astros . Ishikawa and Juan Uribe hit the Giants ' first set of back @-@ to @-@ back home runs in 2009 against Josh Geer on July 9 in a 9 – 3 victory over the Padres . Through July 26 , he batted .269 with seven home runs and 30 RBI . On July 27 , the Giants traded for Ryan Garko from the Cleveland Indians , intending for him to replace Ishikawa at first base and provide more offense than Ishikawa had . However , Garko struggled to produce offensively , and at the end of August Ishikawa began making most of the starts at first for the rest of the year . On August 25 , he snapped a 2 – 2 tie with a game @-@ winning three @-@ run eighth @-@ inning home run against Jon Rauch as the Giants defeated Arizona 5 – 4 . In 120 games ( 326 at @-@ bats ) , Ishikawa batted .261 with 49 runs scored , 85 hits , 10 doubles , nine home runs , and 39 RBI . His batting average at AT & T Park was fifth in the National League ( NL ) for home stadiums at .349 , but he batted .162 in away games . Defensively , his .996 fielding percentage was third in the NL behind Adam LaRoche 's .999 and Todd Helton 's .998 .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
The Giants made Garko a free agent following the 2009 season , but they signed Aubrey Huff to play first base . As a result , Ishikawa spent most of 2010 pinch @-@ hitting , backing up Huff , and entering as a defensive replacement at first base late in games . Ishikawa hit his first home run of the year on April 7 , against Jeff Fulchino of the Astros in a 10 – 4 victory at Minute Maid Park . Huff began platooning in right field with Schierholtz ( and later , with Andrés Torres ) at the beginning of July , and Ishikawa got the starts at first base when Huff was in right field . On July 3 , Ishikawa hit his first career grand slam against Ubaldo Jiménez ( who had a 14 – 1 record at the time ) in an 11 – 8 victory over Colorado . Ishikawa hit .290 with two home runs and 17 RBI in 36 games from July 1 through August 13 , and he even saw his season batting average go over .300 at times during the stretch . However , the acquisition of José Guillén on August 13 moved Huff back to first base , which returned Ishikawa to a utility role . Giants ' manager Bruce Bochy said , " [ Ishikawa ] ' s done a nice job . "
Ishikawa ended up hitting .266 with three home runs and 22 RBI in 116 games ( 158 at @-@ bats ) for the season . He batted .315 as a pinch @-@ hitter , which ranked seventh in the NL . In a reverse from 2009 , he batted .326 on the road while only hitting .194 at AT & T Park . The Giants won the NL West for the first time since 2003 , and Ishikawa was on the Giants ' active roster throughout their postseason run . He had a pinch @-@ hit double against Mark Lowe in Game 1 of the World Series against the Texas Rangers as the Giants won 11 – 7 . In Game 4 , he got his first start of the postseason , playing first base in the Giants ' 4 – 0 victory . He earned a World Series ring as the Giants defeated Texas in five games to win their first World Series since 1954 .
= = = = 2011 ( minors ) = = = =
After the final game of spring training in 2011 , Ishikawa was designated for assignment and outrighted to the minors to make room for rookie first baseman Brandon Belt . On April 24 , Ishikawa hit a grand slam for Fresno against Kevin Mulvey in a 12 @-@ 5 victory over the Reno Aces . He did not appear for the Giants in 2011 , spending the season with the Grizzlies until he injured his shoulder diving for a ball early in the year and underwent season @-@ ending shoulder surgery in the summer of 2011 . In 56 games ( 175 at @-@ bats ) for the Grizzlies , Ishikawa batted .251 with 21 runs scored , 44 hits , 14 doubles , three home runs , and 18 RBI . On November 2 , the Giants made him a free agent .
= = = Milwaukee Brewers = = =
Ishikawa signed a minor league contract with the Milwaukee Brewers on December 12 , 2011 , and made the team out of spring training as a backup first baseman and pinch hitter . On May 2 , he became the starting first baseman for the Brewers after Mat Gamel tore his anterior cruciate ligament . He hit two home runs against Dillon Gee and had five RBI on May 15 in an 8 – 0 win over the New York Mets . He batted .250 with four home runs and 14 RBI in his first 32 games before going on the disabled list on May 27 with a left rib @-@ cage strain . He returned from the disabled list on June 23 , but by then Corey Hart had taken over the first base job , limiting Ishikawa to a reserve role for the rest of the year . On October 3 , the final game of the season , Ishikawa had four RBI against Andrew Werner in a 7 – 6 loss to the Padres . In 94 games ( 152 at @-@ bats ) , he hit .257 with four home runs and 30 RBI . On November 3 , Ishikawa elected to become a free agent after being outrighted off the Brewers ' 40 @-@ man roster the day before .
= = = 2013 = = =
On December 19 , 2012 , Ishikawa signed a minor league contract with the Baltimore Orioles . He spent most of spring training with the team but was assigned to the Class AAA Norfolk Tides of the International League on March 27 . In 49 games ( 177 at @-@ bats ) with Norfolk , he batted .316 with 56 hits , seven home runs , and 31 RBI . Ishikawa was brought up from the Tides on June 18 when pitcher Miguel González was placed on the paternity leave list ; Ishikawa was called up to play designated hitter and give Chris Davis days off at first base . Ishikawa appeared in six games for the Orioles , getting two hits in 17 at @-@ bats with 1 RBI . The Orioles designated him for assignment on June 29 to make room for Jair Jurrjens on the roster .
Ishikawa was claimed off assignment waivers by the New York Yankees on July 7 . He appeared in one game for the Yankees , starting at first base and going 0 – 2 with two strikeouts in a 5 – 1 loss to the Kansas City Royals . On July 14 , Ishikawa cleared waivers and elected free agency after being designated for assignment when Derek Jeter returned from the 60 @-@ day disabled list .
On July 18 , 2013 , Ishikawa signed a minor league deal with the Chicago White Sox and was assigned to the Charlotte Knights of the International League . In 34 games with the Knights ( 120 at @-@ bats ) , he batted .250 with 30 hits , two home runs , and 23 RBI . His combined totals between Norfolk and Charlotte were a .290 batting average , 86 hits , nine home runs , and 54 RBI in 83 games ( 297 at @-@ bats ) . Only able to see his family for 14 days between February and September , Ishikawa considered retirement .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates = = =
After Ishikawa decided to play for one more season , the Pittsburgh Pirates signed him to a minor league contract . After prospect Andrew Lambo struggled in 2014 spring training , Ishikawa made the Pirates ' roster . He started on Opening Day ( March 31 ) and platooned at first base with Gaby Sánchez , with Ishikawa playing against right @-@ hander and Sánchez playing against left @-@ handers .
Ishikawa batted .206 with one home run in 15 games . The Pirates traded for Ike Davis on April 18 and designated Ishikawa for assignment on April 19 . He became a minor league free agent on April 23 .
= = = Second stint with the Giants = = =
= = = = 2014 = = = =
Ishikawa signed a minor league deal with the Giants on April 24 . After languishing in the minors for several months , Ishikawa again considered retirement , but the Giants promoted him to the major leagues on July 29 after ongoing injuries to first baseman Brandon Belt and a roster re @-@ shuffle following a six @-@ game losing streak . In late September , with the return of Belt to first base and ongoing injuries to outfielders Michael Morse and Ángel Pagán , the Giants asked Ishikawa to play left field for the first time in his career . Despite being a career first baseman and with just three career regular season starts in left field , Ishikawa became the Giants starting left fielder during the 2014 postseason .
In the 2014 National League Championship Series , Ishikawa batted 5 @-@ for @-@ 13 ( .385 ) with 7 RBIs . He recorded the game @-@ winning RBI in Game 1 and drove in three runs via a bases @-@ loaded double in Game 3 . In Game 5 , with the Giants leading the series three games to one , Ishikawa hit a 3 @-@ run walk @-@ off home run in the bottom of the ninth inning off of St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Michael Wacha to clinch the pennant for the Giants and their third World Series appearance in the past five seasons . Ishikawa 's home run was the first to send a National League team to the World Series since Bobby Thomson 's Shot Heard ' Round the World in 1951 . Ishikawa 's home run was the first ever to end an NLCS and the fourth to end any LCS , after Chris Chambliss ( 1976 ALCS ) , Aaron Boone ( 2003 ALCS ) , and Magglio Ordonez ( 2006 ALCS ) .
Ishikawa earned his second World Series ring when the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals four games to three .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
On December 4 , 2014 , Ishikawa and the Giants agreed to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 1 million contract for 2015 . He started the 2015 season on the disabled list due to a back injury suffered near the end of spring training . At the conclusion of his rehab assignment , he was designated for assignment by the Giants and removed from the 40 @-@ man roster . Ishikawa subsequently cleared waivers and was sent to the Sacramento River Cats . On June 24 , 2015 , Ishikawa was called back up to the Giants to take the place of the injured Nori Aoki . He was designated for assignment again on July 3 .
= = = Second stint with the Pirates = = =
Ishikawa was claimed off waivers by the Pirates on July 5 , 2015 . In 38 games with the Pirates , Ishikawa hit .224 with one home run and 8 RBI .
= = = 2016 = = =
In January 2016 , Ishikawa was reportedly close to signing a minor @-@ league contract with the Seattle Mariners , but the deal fell through . He signed a minor @-@ league contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 9 . He opened the 2016 season with the Class AAA Charlotte Knights . He was released on May 24 , 2016 . On June 8th , Ishikawa signed a minor league deal to return to the San Francisco Giants organization .
= = Personal life = =
Ishikawa 's father , Alan Ishikawa , is the controller for a chain of Washington supermarkets and a third @-@ generation Japanese American ( Sansei ) . His mother is European @-@ American . His paternal grandparents were held in an internment camp in Colorado during World War II .
Ishikawa met his wife , Rochelle , a dental assistant , after being hit by a pitch in the face in his first game with San Jose . They married in 2007 and have three children , including a daughter who was born on Ishikawa 's 25th birthday , September 24 , 2008 . Ishikawa became a Christian in 2007 , which he believes helped him out of his slump that year . He says , " Faith will always be the biggest part of anything that happens . "
= Mycena adonis =
Mycena adonis , commonly known as the scarlet bonnet , is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family . Found in Asia , Europe , and North America , it produces small orangish to reddish inedible mushrooms with caps up to 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter , held by thin pinkish @-@ white stems reaching 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long . The fungus prefers to grow in conifer woods and peat bogs , suggesting a preference for acidic environments . The appearance of several atypical fruitings of Mycena adonis on deciduous wood in the Netherlands in the late 1970s was attributed to increases in atmospheric pollution that raised the acidity of the wood substrate . Mushrooms resembling M. adonis include M. acicula , M. aurantiidisca , and M. rosella .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first named Agaricus adonis in 1792 by Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard , and placed in Mycena by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821 . Rolf Singer successively moved it to Hemimycena ( 1943 ) , then Marasmiellus ( 1951 ) . Singer later changed his mind about these placements , and his 1986 Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy , he considered the species a Mycena ; the binomials resulting from the prior generic transfers are synonyms .
The mushroom is commonly known as the " scarlet bonnet " . Samuel Frederick Gray called it the " Adonis high @-@ stool " in his 1821 Natural Arrangement of British Plants , while Mordecai Cubitt Cooke named it the " delicate Mycena " .
= = Description = =
The cap initially has a sharply conic shape , but expands to a narrow bell @-@ shape or a broad cone in maturity , typically reaching 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter . The cap margin , which is initially pressed against the stem , is opaque or nearly so at first . It is scarlet red when fresh and moist , becoming orange or yellowish orange before losing moisture . The mushroom is hygrophanous , and fades to an orange buff color when dry . The flesh is thin , the same color as the cap , fragile , and without any distinctive taste or odor . The gills are ascending @-@ adnate ( the gills attach at much less than a right angle , appearing to curve upward toward stem ) or attached by a tooth , subdistant to close , with 14 – 16 gills reaching the stem . Additionally , there are two or three tiers of lamellulae — short gills that do not extend fully from the cap edge to the stem . The gills are narrow , and yellowish or with a reddish tinge at first ; the margins are paler and the same color as the faces . The stem is 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) long and 1 – 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 0 – 0 @.@ 1 in ) thick , and roughly equal in width throughout . It is tubular , fragile , initially pruinose ( covered with a fine powder ) , polished and smooth with age , pale yellow , becoming whitish , with the base often dirty yellow or brownish . Mycena adonis mushrooms are inedible .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are narrowly ellipsoid , nonamyloid , and measure 6 – 7 by 3 – 3 @.@ 5 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored and measure 20 – 22 by 6 – 7 µm . The cheilocystidia and pleurocystidia ( cystidia found on the edges and faces , respectively , of the gills ) are abundant and similar in shape and markings , 40 – 58 by 10 – 15 µm , tapering somewhat on either end and usually with a long needle @-@ shaped neck ( which is branched in some ) . The cystidia are generally smooth , but when dried material is mounted in potassium hydroxide for observation under light microscopy , an amorphous substance apparently holds spores and debris around the neck or apex , making them appear encrusted . The flesh of the gill is very faintly vinaceous @-@ brown when stained in iodine . The cap flesh has a thin , poorly differentiated pellicle with a region of slightly enlarged cells beneath it ; the remainder is filamentous , and the filamentous portion stains vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine .
= = = Similar species = = =
There are several other mycenas with which Mycena adonis could be confused . M. acicula is typically a smaller mushroom with a deep orange @-@ red cap rather than the typical bright salmon @-@ pink color of M. adonis . Since the colors and sizes of M. acicula and M. adonis are similar , a microscope is needed to reliably distinguish between them , with spore size and shape being different . M. strobilinoides can be distinguished from M. adonis by its orange cap and amyloid spores . M. aurantiidisca can be distinguished from M. adonis by it lack of scarlet to pinkish tones in the cap and lack of gelatinized cortical hyphae . Mycena oregonensis is differentiated from M. adonis by its orange to yellow cap and lack of scarlet to pinkish tones . M. roseipallens has a smaller fruit body , wider spores , a less intensely colored and less conical cap , and grows on the decaying wood of elm , ash , and alder .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Mycena adonis grow solitarily or in groups in conifer forests , and appear in the spring and autumn . The fruit bodies grow in groups or scattered on needle beds under spruce and hemlock in the wet coastal conifer forests , or in the higher mountains , where it is not uncommon in the spring and autumn months . In one instance , fruit bodies were found growing on the deciduous trees Spanish Maple ( Acer granatense ) and willow ( Salix alba ) near Amsterdam , Holland . It was hypothesized that the bark of these trees had become more acid in recent years because of increasing atmospheric pollution ( specifically , increases in the levels of sulfuric and nitric acid from industrial smoke ) , providing a more suitable substrate for the fungus .
The fungus is found in western North America , and in 2007 , it was reported from the valley of the Ussuri River in the northeast of China . It is also found in Europe ( Britain , Germany , Holland Scotland ) and the Canary Islands . Mycena specialist Alexander H. Smith has found the species in Washington , Oregon , and California .
= Chi ( Chobits ) =
Chi ( Japanese : ちぃ , Hepburn : Chyi ) is a fictional character in the manga series Chobits and its anime adaptation . Chi is a Chobit , a type of personal computer called a persocom that is far more technologically advanced than regular persocoms , and who are said to possess true machine intelligence rather than relying on software programs like other persocoms . She is found by Hideki , a high school graduate who has no idea about her unique abilities or of her past . Over the course of the series Hideki tries to discover what type of persocom Chi is , being told that she is something special . He finds her a job , and has to deal with her being kidnapped at one point . Chi learns about the things around her and what it means to be in love . At the end of the series , Chi finds the person " just for her " , and her forgotten identity is revealed , causing Hideki to confront his feelings .
In two interviews describing the series Chi 's creators , CLAMP , said it would be much easier if computers could speak to you when they had errors . Chi is voiced by Rie Tanaka in the anime and Georgette Rose in its English counterpart . The manga and anime follow Hideki 's find of Chi and their relationship , but differ in the storyline . Chi 's critical reception has been mostly positive , with reviewers calling her " cute " . In addition to Chobits , she is also a crossover character in the series Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle and is referenced in other works .
= = Concept = =
In an interview when describing Chi 's character , CLAMP member Satsuki Igarashi stated " Lately we 've been saying that the easiest to understand is Chii from ' Chobits . ' Errors occur with computers . Things like ' Although it 's fine to speak the instructions ' and ' Please fix this problem here ' might be spoken in a cute voice . " In addition , an explanation for Chobits 's plot was given by Igarashi who stated : " Back then , when our computer had problems all we would get were these inscrutable error messages . However , we had no idea what was wrong because it wouldn 't tell us any more " . CLAMP also describes Chobits as a variation of the " boy living with mysterious girl " genre . Chi 's design as a personal computer resulted from Ohkawa 's wish to increase the sense of " emotional discomfort " around becoming emotionally involved with something considered to be merely a lifeless machine .
The name " Chobi " , came from the name of a cat at the place of Nekoi 's former employment , which the group made into " Chobits " , as the characters Elda and Freya were twins . In the series , CLAMP had Chi 's creator , Ichiro Mihara ( a character from their shared universe work Angelic Layer ) , use the word " Chobi " to describe anything he thought was " small and hopelessly adorable " ; two Chobi ( the sisters Elda and Freya ) become " Chobits " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In the manga = = =
Chi first appears atop a trash pile in an alley where she is found by Hideki Motosuwa , a high school graduate who knows very little about computers or the androids known as " persocoms " ( personal computers ) that have become the fashionable item to have in the city . Unlike other persocoms , her activation switch is located in an unusual place : her crotch . She has difficulty communicating with Hideki at first ; the only word that she says is " chi " , which becomes her given name , but slowly she learns how to speak . Having no memory of her past life , she is taught by Hideki to perform simple tasks . Hideki 's neighbor Shinbo and computer prodigy Minoru determine that Chi is no ordinary persocom , and may be a legendary " Chobit " , possessing synthetic intelligence .
At one point Hideki considers having to take on a second job due to his poor financial state . He is eventually able to convince his former employer Hiroyasu Ueda to hire Chi at his bakery during his anniversary sale . Chi eventually finds herself kidnapped by Yoshiyuki Kojima . Yoshiyuki initiates a program that he had created especially for Chi , which is designed to break through her firewalls , and when he embraces and gropes her , Freya intervenes by binding him with wires connected to Chi and releasing a powerful , concussive blast . Hideki and Shinbo find her , and Freya vanishes , causing Chi to collapse from the energy used . She recovers and briefly reunites with Hideki , before losing consciousness . Shinbo then forces Yoshiyuki to transfer his persocom Kotoko 's registration to Hideki to prevent Yoshiyuki from deleting her memories , so that a record of his kidnapping exists .
Hideki later learns that before he found Chi , her name was Elda . After Ichiro 's wife , Chitose Hibiya , noticed that Freya — the first Chobit who was created to be the daughter she and her husband could never have — was becoming increasingly depressed as time went by , Elda was created to be her younger sister to cheer her up . Freya , however , had fallen in love with Ichiro , and the emotional pain of her unrequited love and her wish to not disturb her parents ' happiness eventually caused her to severely malfunction . Elda took Freya 's program , which included her mind and memories , into herself to preserve her memory . Before losing her own memories as a result of her actions , Elda requested to be left alone outside , away from her family , so that she would not have the possibility of suffering the same fate as her sister . Her father then gifted her with a program which will delete the recognition programs of all persocoms if she fails to find her soulmate , while her mother authored the children 's book series A City with No People , a story within a story about the relationships between persocoms and people , to help Chi in her quest .
Towards the end of the series , Zima and Dita , persocom agents for the Japanese government who know the outcome of Chi 's special program , arrive at Hideki 's apartment . A minor scuffle ensues between Dita and Chi , before Zima restrains Dita , wishing to see the outcome of Hideki 's decision and ultimately too falling under Chi 's influence . Hideki confirms his love for Chi , only to find that Freya has taken control of her body . Learning that he that he can never engage in sexual intercourse with Chi without rebooting her systems , erasing everything that makes her a unique individual , Hideki states that he will love Chi regardless . Freya confirms that while Chi and herself are indeed the legendary Chobits , they possess neither sentience nor emotions , but rely on software programs just like every persocom . Again , Hideki stands by his love for Chi . Hideki declines her offer to tell him about Chi 's special ability , and Freya vanishes after imploring him to take care of her sister . Chi awakens , embracing Hideki . The series ends with Chi holding Hideki 's hand with visible rings Chi had chosen for the two of them .
= = = In the anime = = =
Chi 's character is voiced by Rie Tanaka , and Georgette Rose in its English counterpart . The anime and manga storylines are essentially the same , but they differ slightly . These differences include the events in the ending , other things such as describing Elda 's memory loss , and her special program . In the anime for example , it is explained that Hibiya reset Elda 's memories after her husband 's death rather than Elda losing them when she took Freya 's program in . Another difference is the special program that was placed into Elda in the anime , this program appears to have an alternate effect . If Chi finds the Person just for her , all persocoms would be granted the ability to feel emotion . The reason for this is since Ichiro Mihara was the creator of persocoms , he viewed them all as his children . His wish was that if Chi were able to find someone who loved her in return , all his children would be able to share in this happiness by being able to feel emotions the way humans do .
In the anime , an organization known only as " The Syndicate " is aware of Chi and her special programming . Under the impression that something terrible will happen if her program executes successfully , they send two persocoms , Zima and Dita , to destroy her . Towards the end of the series Chi tells Hideki of her love , asking if it is requited . Hideki responds with a yes , and they embrace briefly before Chi 's program executes . Chi floats up to the roof of the apartment and begins to run her program . Hideki makes his way on to the roof to save her . Chi is able to complete her program but chooses not to . She retreats inside herself , and Freya takes control as Chitose Hibiya arrives on the rooftop .
Freya explains how she came to inhabit Chi 's body . She reveals that she and Chi merely switched places inside the body , but Chi has shut herself away and Freya cannot contact her . Hideki asks why , and Freya explains that Chi discovered there were certain things that humans could do that she could not , leading her to believe that while Hideki would love her , it would make her existence unbearable . Hideki protests that it would not , but Freya tells him that Chi thought otherwise . She then tells Chitose that the time has come to destroy both of them , and she reluctantly agrees . Against Hideki 's protestations , she deactivates Freya . Chi , however , has survived the deactivation and comes to the conclusion that while life with Hideki may seem painful because of her limitations , it is even more painful without him . She regains control of her body and completes her program , giving every persocom the ability to love then embraces Hideki .
= = = In other media = = =
Chi makes several appearances in Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle , and is voiced by in the anime by : Kaori Nazuka ( Japanese version ) and Trina Nishimura ( English version ) . In this crossover series , she is created by Fai D. Flourite as a guardian of the pool where his brother 's body , and eventually the sealed Ashura @-@ ou are kept . Fai modeled Chi after his memories of his mother , and was created using one of Princess Sakura 's feathers . Chi eventually disintegrates after the feather is removed and given back to Sakura . Another version of Chi appears in episode 32 of the anime where she is the queen of a world that is in a never @-@ ending night . Chi 's character is also cosplayed in the anime adaptation of Hanaukyo Maid Team : La Verite . While trying to sell manga at the " Comic manga market " , Ikuyo Suzuki has the cast of characters cosplay and Mariel goes as Chi .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of Chi 's character have been mostly positive . Nanase Ohkawa of CLAMP stated : " We had a lot of letters with comments saying Chi was really cute " THEM Anime Reviews critiqued Chi for being a main character but " not having a personality " in the series . Tony Chen from Anime News Network said that " The way CLAMP executes the development of Chi 's character , growing her from what is basically the mental equivalent of a five @-@ year @-@ old child to a much more intelligent and complex being , is not only clever but also very cute . " On the website Screen Junkies , Chi is ranked number 3 of 10 of a " Top 10 anime girls " pick and number 6 of 10 for best anime couples ( Chi and Hideki ) . In his book The Anime Machine : A Media Theory of Animation , Thomas LaMarre describes Chi as " lighter than air " and a " slight slender undefined " body and with not much potential for physical movement . Thomas also describes Chi as " bony " and skeletal " in a physiological way and compares her to a curled up cat when reclining . Chi is also a cosplayed character by fans at anime conventions and related events .
= Defender ( 1981 video game ) =
Defender is an arcade video game developed and released by Williams Electronics in February 1981 . A horizontally scrolling shoot ' em up , the game is set on a fictional planet where the player must defeat waves of invading aliens while protecting astronauts . Development was led by Eugene Jarvis , a pinball programmer at Williams ; Defender was Jarvis ' first video game project and drew inspiration from Space Invaders and Asteroids .
Defender was one of the most important titles of the Golden Age of Video Arcade Games , selling over 55 @,@ 000 units to become the company 's best selling game and one of the highest @-@ grossing arcade games ever . Praise among critics focused on the game 's audio @-@ visuals and gameplay . It is frequently listed as one of Jarvis ' best contributions to the video game industry , as well as one of the most difficult video games . Though not the first game to scroll horizontally , it created the genre of purely horizontal scrolling shooters . It inspired the development of other games and was followed by sequels and many imitations .
There were many ports to contemporary systems , most of them by either Atari , Inc. or its software label for non @-@ Atari platforms , Atarisoft .
= = Gameplay = =
Defender is a two @-@ dimensional side @-@ scrolling shooting game set on the surface of an unnamed planet . The player controls a space ship as it navigates the terrain , flying either to the left or right . A joystick controls the ship 's elevation , and five buttons control its horizontal direction and weapons . The object is to destroy alien invaders , while protecting astronauts on the landscape from abduction . Humans that are abducted return as mutants that attack the ship . Defeating the aliens allows the player to progress to the next level . Failing to protect the astronauts , however , causes the planet to explode and the level to become populated with mutants . Surviving the waves of mutants results in the restoration of the planet . Players are allotted three ships to progress through the game and are able to earn more by reaching certain scoring benchmarks . A ship is lost if it is hit by an enemy , or hit by an enemy projectile , or if a hyperspace jump goes wrong ( as they randomly do ) . After exhausting all ships , the game ends .
= = Development = =
Defender was Williams Electronics ' first attempt at developing a new video game ; the company 's earlier game was a Pong clone . The popularity of coin operated arcade games in 1979 spurred the company to shift its focus from pinball games to arcade games . The company chose Eugene Jarvis , who had a successful record of Williams pinball games , to head development . Larry DeMar , Sam Dicker , and Paul Dussault assisted Jarvis . At the time , Williams had a small staff and the management was unfamiliar with technology used for its electronic games . As a result , the staff was afforded a large amount of creative freedom .
= = = Initial development = = =
Space was a popular setting for video games at the time , and Jarvis felt the abstract setting would help obscure simple graphics that lacked realism . Initially , Jarvis spent 3 – 4 months developing color variations of Taito 's Space Invaders and Atari 's Asteroids . First inspired by Space Invaders , he created a similar game with new gameplay mechanics . After spending a few weeks on the design , however , the team abandoned the idea , believing it lacked enjoyment . Development then shifted to emulating Atari 's Asteroids , but hardware differences between Asteroids and Defender 's proposed specifications were problematic . Asteroids displays vector graphics on a special monitor , while the staff planned to use pixel graphics on a conventional monitor . The team experimented with recreating the game with pixel graphics , but also abandoned it because they felt the gameplay lacked enjoyment and visual appeal .
Believing their first attempts to be too derivative , the developers held brain storming sessions . During a session , they agreed that one of Asteroids 's favorable elements was its wrapping effect . They felt a game that allowed the player to fly off the screen would be exciting , and decided to create a game world larger than the screen displayed . The game 's environment was made longer than the screen , with the visible area scrolling horizontally . Expanding on the idea , they envisioned a version of Space Invaders rotated 90 degrees . By changing the orientation of Space Invaders ' design , the ship moved up and down while flying horizontally . Large asteroids , an element from Asteroids , were then added to the game world , but were later removed because the staff felt it lacked enjoyment . Jarvis intended the screen to scroll only from left to right ; fellow Williams employee Steve Ritchie , however , convinced him the game should be able to scroll in either direction .
After six months of development , the team felt the game had not made enough progress . They examined other games and concluded that survival was a necessary component to implement . To achieve this , they devised enemies to present a threat , the first of which was the " Lander " . Jarvis enjoyed violent , action entertainment , and wanted the game to have those elements . However , he felt the action should have a reasonable objective . Inspired by the 1960s television show The Defenders , Jarvis titled the game Defender , reasoning that the title helped justify the violence . He added astronauts to expand on the space theme and give players something to defend while they shot enemies . The element of flying over a planetscape was added after a brainstorming session between Jarvis and Ritchie . The landscape is depicted as a line only a pixel wide , primarily because the hardware was not powerful enough to generate anything more detailed .
= = = Later development = = =
By July , development was behind schedule and Jarvis 's superior began to pressure him to finish the game in time for an upcoming trade show , the AMOA , in September . Jarvis spent several weeks creating the astronauts , which his boss felt should be omitted if the process didn 't speed up . The pressure frustrated him to the point he considered resigning . Around that time , a new programmer named Sam Dicker was hired . He assisted programming the game and added visual and audio effects . For example , Dicker implemented a particle effect algorithm to generate unique explosions for destroyed enemies . The new elements re @-@ invigorated Jarvis , who felt the project began to show promise .
Development then shifted focus to the enemies . Landers were given the ability to capture humans , and a new
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the storm . The strongest winds were confined to a very small area near the edge of the convection . Initially , the hurricane was tracking west @-@ southwestward , steered by a mid @-@ level ridge to its northwest .
On September 12 , the entrainment of drier air weakened Florence to tropical storm status . At the same time , its motion became nearly stationary as a ridge to its southeast weakened steering currents . An eye developed in the center of the cyclone , and Florence again attained hurricane status late on September 12 . Cooler water temperatures caused the hurricane to again weaken to tropical storm status on September 13 . The next day , increased vertical wind shear accelerated the weakening , leaving its cloud pattern disorganized . An approaching short @-@ wave trough turned Florence to the east @-@ southeast and later to the east @-@ northeast as its forward motion increased . Convection increased near the center as the overall structure improved . Based on reports from the Hurricane Hunters , Florence was upgraded to hurricane status on September 16 about 200 mi ( 320 km ) southwest of Bermuda . Later that day , the hurricane passed about 75 mi ( 120 km ) northwest of Bermuda , its closest approach . Late on September 16 , Florence reached peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) as an eyewall became apparent . Cooler waters weakened the hurricane to tropical storm status by September 17 as its motion accelerated further due to the approaching trough . Later that day , Florence was absorbed by the extratropical storm associated with the trough about 80 mi ( 130 km ) south of Cape Race on the island of Newfoundland .
= = Impact and naming = =
Early in its duration , Hurricane Florence produced large swells that affected the East Coast of the United States . Rip currents caused three deaths due to drowning in North Carolina , all in the southern portion of the state . Seven other people needed rescue , and at least two beaches were closed . Florence contributed to a locally high number of rip current @-@ related deaths in 2000 ; in response , the National Weather Service office in Wilmington implemented a new rip current warning system for the summer of 2001 .
On September 14 , the government of Bermuda issued a tropical storm watch for the island ; it was upgraded to a tropical storm warning the next day and later to a hurricane warning . The island endured sustained winds of 41 mph ( 67 km / h ) , gusting to 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) . Rainfall at L.F. Wade International Airport accumulated 0 @.@ 47 in ( 12 mm ) . Later , the remnants of Florence produced significant rainfall , peaking at 2 @.@ 26 in ( 57 @.@ 5 mm ) , along Newfoundland 's Avalon Peninsula . Waves up to 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high churned the waters off the east coast of the island .
= John Cooke ( Royal Navy officer ) =
John Cooke ( c.1762 – 21 October 1805 ) was an experienced and highly regarded officer of the Royal Navy during the American War of Independence , the French Revolutionary Wars and the first years of the Napoleonic Wars . Cooke is best known for his death in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with French forces during the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 . During the action , his ship HMS Bellerophon was badly damaged and boarded by sailors and marines from the French ship of the line Aigle . Cooke was killed in the ensuing melee , but his crew successfully drove off their opponents and ultimately forced the surrender of Aigle .
Aside from his death , remarkably little is known of Cooke 's circumstances . Even his date of birth is unclear , and unlike many of his fellow officers , Cooke was never a notable society figure . He was however well respected in his profession and following his death was the subject of tributes from officers who had served alongside him . Memorials to him were placed in St Paul 's Cathedral and his local church in Wiltshire .
= = Early life = =
John Cooke was baptised on 5 March 1762 at St. Mary , Whitechapel , the second son of Francis Cooke , an Admiralty clerk , and his wife Margaret . John Cooke first went to sea at the age of eleven aboard the cutter HMS Greyhound under Lieutenant John Bazely , before going ashore to spend time at Mr Braken 's naval academy at Greenwich . He was entered onto the books of one of the royal yachts by Sir Alexander Hood , who would become an enduring patron of Cooke 's . In 1776 he obtained a position as a midshipman on the ship of the line HMS Eagle , aged thirteen . Cooke served aboard Eagle , the flagship of the North American Station , during the next three years , seeing extensive action along the eastern seaboard . Notable among these actions were the naval operations around the Battle of Rhode Island in 1778 , when Eagle was closely engaged with American units ashore . He distinguished himself in the assault , causing Admiral Lord Howe to remark " Why , young man , you wish to become a Lieutenant before you are of sufficient age . " On 21 January 1779 , Cooke was promoted to lieutenant and joined HMS Superb in the East Indies under Sir Edward Hughes , but was forced to take a leave of absence due to ill @-@ health .
Cooke returned to England and then went to France to spend a year studying , before rejoining the navy in 1782 with an appointment to the 90 @-@ gun HMS Duke under Captain Alan Gardner . Cooke saw action at the Battle of the Saintes , at which Duke was heavily engaged . He remained with Gardner following the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 , bringing an end to the American War of Independence , and served as his first @-@ lieutenant aboard his next command , the 50 @-@ gun HMS Europa . Gardner became commodore at Jamaica , flying his broad pennant aboard Europa and retaining Cooke as his first @-@ lieutenant until Cooke was injured in a bad fall and had to be invalided home . He had recovered sufficiently by the time of the Spanish Armament in 1790 to be able to take up an appointment from his old patron , Sir Alexander Hood , to be third @-@ lieutenant of his flagship , the 90 @-@ gun HMS London . When the crisis passed without breaking into open war , London was paid off and Cooke went ashore .
= = Frigate command = =
With the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in February 1793 , Cooke rejoined Hood and became first @-@ lieutenant of his new flagship , the 100 @-@ gun HMS Royal George , part of the Channel Fleet . On 21 February 1794 , Cooke was promoted to commander and given his first independent command , the small fireship HMS Incendiary . Three months later , Incendiary was a signal repeater for the Channel Fleet during the Atlantic campaign of May 1794 , relaying Lord Howe 's signals to the fleet and operating as a scout in the search for the French fleet under Villaret de Joyeuse . On 1 June 1794 , Cooke was a witness to the battle of the Glorious First of June , although his tiny ship was far too small to engage in combat . In the action 's aftermath , Cooke was included in the general promotions issued to the fleet , becoming a post captain on 23 July 1794 . For a year , Cooke was stationed off Newfoundland as flag captain to Sir James Wallace aboard the 74 @-@ gun HMS Monarch , before returning to Britain and being offered command of the 28 @-@ gun HMS Tourterelle . Cooke accepted , but when he found out she was ordered to the West Indies , he resigned it , having been told by Gardner that further service in the West Indies would likely kill him .
Instead in early 1796 he took command of the 36 @-@ gun frigate HMS Nymphe . Nymphe was employed in the blockade of the French Atlantic ports over the next year , and on 9 March 1797 was in company with HMS St Fiorenzo when they encountered the returning ships of a short @-@ lived French invasion attempt of Britain that had been defeated at Fishguard in Wales . The French ships attempted to escape into Brest , but were hunted down by the British , who forced the surrender of Résistance and Constance in turn after successive short engagements . Neither of the British ships suffered a single casualty in the combat , and both French ships were subsequently purchased into the Royal Navy , bringing prize money to Cooke and his crew .
Despite this success , Cooke was unpopular with his men due to the strict discipline he enforced aboard his ship . This was graphically demonstrated just two months after the action off Brest , when Nymphe became embroiled in the Spithead mutiny . Cooke attempted to assist Admiral John Colpoys at the mutiny 's outbreak , and was ordered ashore by his crew when he tried to return to his ship . Cooke was tactfully removed from command by the Admiralty following the mutiny , although he was returned to service two years later aboard the new frigate HMS Amethyst in preparation for the Anglo @-@ Russian invasion of the Batavian Republic . During the invasion , Amethyst conveyed the Duke of York to the Netherlands and later participated in the evacuation of the force following the campaign 's collapse .
Cooke was involved in operations in Quiberon Bay during the remainder of 1799 , and in 1800 participated in an abortive invasion of Ferrol . During this time , Amethyst captured six French merchant ships and small privateers . During 1801 , Cooke participated in the capture of the French frigate Dédaigneuse off Cape Finisterre , helping Samuel Hood Linzee and Richard King chase her down on 26 January . Amethyst was not heavily engaged with Dédaigneuse and received no damage , but aided in pursuing and trapping the French ship so that she could be seized . Dédaigneuse was later purchased into the Royal Navy as HMS Dedaigneuse . Shortly afterwards , Cooke captured the Spanish ship Carlotta and the French privateer Général Brune in the same area .
= = Trafalgar = =
With the Peace of Amiens , Cooke briefly retired on half @-@ pay before being recalled to the fleet at the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 . Cooke was requested as flag captain by Admiral Sir William Young at Plymouth , but Cooke tactfully refused , instead applying for active service . He received command of HMS Bellerophon on 25 April 1805 . In May , after the large combined French and Spanish fleet , under Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve escaped from Toulon , beginning the Trafalgar Campaign , Cooke was ordered to join a flying squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood . The squadron arrived off Cadiz on 9 June and Collingwood detached Bellerophon and three other ships to blockade Cartagena under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Bickerton . When the combined fleet entered Cadiz on 20 August , Collingwood recalled Bickerton 's force and mounted a blockade of the port . Collingwood was reinforced with more ships , and was later superseded by Nelson . Cooke was heard to say at this time that " To be in a general engagement with Nelson would crown all my military ambition " . Nelson had Villeneuve 's fleet trapped in Cadiz and was blockading the harbour awaiting their expected attempt to escape .
The Franco @-@ Spanish fleet escaped Cadiz on 18 October 1805 , but was soon chased down by Nelson and brought to battle on 21 October . Nelson formed his fleet into two divisions ; the weather column would attack to the north under his direct command and the lee column would operate to the south under the command of Cuthbert Collingwood in HMS Royal Sovereign . Cooke was stationed fifth in Collingwood 's line , and so was one of the first ships engaged in action with the combined fleet . Cooke took the unusual step of informing his first lieutenant William Pryce Cumby and his master Edward Overton of Nelson 's orders , in case he should be killed .
Bellerophon was soon closely engaged with the French , breaking through the enemy line and closing with Aigle . As with the other French ships in the fleet , Aigle 's rigging and mastheads were occupied by musketeers and grenadiers , who kept up a steady fire on Bellerophon and took a heavy toll of sailors exposed on the British ship 's deck . Much of the fire was directed at the quarterdeck , where Cooke , Cumby and Overton stood . Cumby noted with surprise that Cooke was still wearing his uniform coat , which sported epaulettes that marked him out as the ship 's captain to French snipers . Cooke had forgotten to remove the epaulettes and recognised the danger they represented , but replied " It is too late to take them off . I see my situation , but I will die like a man " . It was reported that Cooke was killed by sniper fire , command being then taken by the First Lieutenant who mustered the top @-@ side crew in the tween @-@ deck and prepared to repel any boarders ; the ship 's guns were then elevated to fire on the French gathered for boarding and this suggests that boarding was prevented .
As the action continued , the Captain Pierre @-@ Paul Gourège of Aigle ordered his crew to board and seize Bellerophon , hoping to use their superiority of numbers to overwhelm the British crew . Cooke sent Cumby below to make sure that the lower @-@ deck guns continued to fire into the French ship as the battle continued overhead , and threw himself at the French sailors pouring onto Bellerophon 's quarterdeck , shooting an enemy officer dead and engaging in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with the men behind him . Within minutes Cumby had returned to the deck with reinforcements from below , passing the mortally wounded Overton on the ladder . The badly wounded ship 's quartermaster was also present , and he informed Cumby that Cooke had fallen in the melee . Cumby 's charge cleared the French from the deck of Bellerophon , and he found Cooke dead on the quarterdeck , two musket balls lodged in his chest . Cooke 's last words had been " Let me lie quietly a minute . Tell Lieutenant Cumby never to strike . "
Cumby took charge of the battered Bellerophon , directing her fire into Aigle and ultimately forcing the French ship 's surrender after the arrival of other British vessels . Bellerophon had suffered grievously , losing 27 dead and 127 wounded . Although Aigle was lost in the chaotic storm which followed the battle , Bellerophon survived , primarily due to Cumby 's leadership . He was later promoted to post captain for his services in the action . Cooke 's body was buried at sea the day after the battle with the other fatal casualties from Bellerophon .
= = Family and legacy = =
Cooke 's death , as with those of George Duff and Admiral Nelson himself , was widely mourned in Britain . Cooke 's widow Louisa and their eight @-@ year @-@ old daughter were given numerous awards and presents , including the gold medal minted for the captains who had fought at the action , and a large silver vase presented by Lloyd 's Patriotic Fund . At least some of the money the family received was spent on a large wall plaque mounted in St Andrew 's Church in Donhead St Andrew in Wiltshire , close to the family home . The plaque commemorates Cooke 's life and death and also that of his wife . A memorial was also raised to him in St Paul 's Cathedral . Tributes from fellow officers were also forthcoming , including from the future explorer John Franklin , who had served on Bellerophon at Trafalgar and had said of Cooke that he was " very gentlemanly and active . I like his appearance very much . " A number of letters that Cooke wrote to his brother prior to Trafalgar are held by the National Maritime Museum .
Cooke had married Louisa , née Hardy , on 15 June 1790 at St Leonard 's , Shoreditch . Louisa was the fourth daughter of Josiah Hardy , the former Governor of New Jersey , and later consul at Cadiz . They had a single daughter together , born on 26 January 1797 at Stoke Damerel . Louisa died at Cheltenham on 5 February 1853 aged 96 .
= House of Lords Act 1999 =
The House of Lords Act 1999 ( c . 34 ) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that was given Royal Assent on 11 November 1999 . The Act reformed the House of Lords , one of the chambers of Parliament . For centuries , the House of Lords had included several hundred members who inherited their seats ; the Act removed such a right . However , as part of a compromise , the Act did permit ninety @-@ two hereditary peers to remain in the House on an interim basis . Another ten were created life peers to enable them to remain in the House .
The Act decreased the membership of the House from 1 @,@ 330 in October 1999 to 669 in March 2000 . As another result of the Act , the majority of the Lords were now life peers , whose numbers had been gradually increasing since the Life Peerages Act 1958 . As of August 2012 , there were 825 Peers , of whom 26 were senior Church of England bishops , whose determination is governed by the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847 .
= = Background = =
Prior to the 16th century , the Lords was the stronger of the two houses of Parliament . A process of gradual evolution combined with such moments of crisis as the English Civil Wars transferred the political control of England , first from the Crown to the House of Lords and then to the House of Commons . The rising wealth of the Commons eventually allowed it to wage two civil wars , dethrone two Kings , and gradually reduce the power of the Lords . Prior to the House of Lords Act 1999 the power of the Lords had been diminished by the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 which stripped the Lords of the ability to block , or veto , adoption of most bills ; at most it could delay bills for one year . Furthermore , the Commons has absolute power when it comes to money bills .
After eighteen years of Conservative rule , the Labour party led by Tony Blair won a landslide victory at the 1997 general election , in the process inflicting the biggest defeat for the Conservatives since 1832 . The Labour Party had for years endorsed abolition of the unelected House of Lords in its election platforms , though since 1992 this had changed to a policy of reforming the House instead .
During the 20th century Liberal and Labour governments proposed many bills that were opposed by the House of Lords , which had been dominated by Conservatives since the 1890s , leading to delay and where proposed before elections , their dropping from the legislative agenda . In the first year of the Blair government , the Lords passed back Government bills 38 times . The rejection considered the most contentious was of the European Elections Bill , against which the Lords voted five times . Blair stated that the Conservatives were using the hereditary peers to " frustrate " and " overturn the will of the democratically elected House of Commons " . Here Blair found an opportunity to implement one of Labour 's campaign promises , reforming the Lords .
On 24 November 1998 , in opening the second session of Parliament , the Queen delivered her annual Speech from the Throne ; the Speech is written for her by the ruling party and outlines that party 's legislative agenda for the upcoming year . In it , she suggested that her Government ( i.e. the ruling Labour Party ) would pursue a reform of the House of Lords . These remarks were followed by shouts of " Hear ! Hear ! " from supportive Labour Members of Parliament , and by similar shouts of " Shame ! Shame ! " from Conservative peers ; such outbursts were unprecedented , for the Queen 's Speech is with few exceptions heard by a silent Parliament .
= = The House of Lords Bill = =
The House of Lords Bill was expected to face a tough fight in the House of Lords . Several Lords threatened to disrupt the Government 's other bills if they continued with the plan to abolish the hereditaries ' right to sit in the House of Lords . The Earl of Onslow , for instance , said , " I 'm happy to force a division on each and every clause of the Scotland Bill . Each division takes 20 minutes and there are more than 270 clauses . " Lords had plenty of other means by which they could obstruct the Government 's programme .
Lord Randall put forward the idea of phasing out the hereditary peers by disqualifying their heirs .
Baroness Jay reminded the House that under the Salisbury Convention they could not block the bill .
In order to convince some peers to vote for reform , Tony Blair announced that he would compromise by allowing a number of hereditary peers to remain in the House of Lords on an interim basis . On 2 December 1998 , the Conservative Leader of the Opposition , William Hague , rose in the House of Commons to attack Blair 's plans . He suggested that Blair 's changes indicated his lack of principles , claiming that Blair wanted to turn the House of Lords into a " House of Cronies " . Hague further suggested that the Conservative Party would never agree to such constitutional reforms that were " based on no comprehensive plan or principle . " Hague 's remarks backfired when Blair revealed that the Conservative Party in the House of Lords , rather than oppose his reforms , would definitely support them , and that he had done a secret deal with the Conservative leader in the House of Lords , Viscount Cranborne . Hague immediately removed Cranborne from office , but , in protest , several Conservative Lords who held front @-@ bench positions resigned .
On 19 January 1999 , the Leader of the House of Commons , Margaret Beckett , introduced the House of Lords Bill into the House of Commons . The House of Commons passed the bill by a vote of 340 to 132 on 16 March . The next day it was presented to the House of Lords , where debate on the bill was far longer . One significant amendment made to the Bill was the so @-@ called Weatherill Amendment , named for the Lord Weatherill , the former Speaker of the House of Commons . The Weatherill Amendment put into place the deal agreed to by the Prime Minister and Viscount Cranborne , and allowed 92 hereditary peers to remain members of the House of Lords .
Several controversies relating to the technicalities of the bill were brought up in the House of Lords . One issue regarded the language used in clauses 1 to 7 , which was described by Lord Mayhew of Twysden as " uncertain in its effects and would leave the position of most hereditary Peers uncertain if the Bill was enacted . " A second issue was related to the Acts of Union 1707 uniting Scotland and England into the Kingdom of Great Britain . After lengthy debates , both matters were referred to the House of Lords Committee on Privileges .
Under the Acts of Union 1707 , Scottish Lords would be entitled to elect 16 representative peers to sit on their Lordships ' behalf in the House of Lords . In 1963 , the Peerage Act was passed , allowing all Scottish peers to sit in the House , not just 16 of them . It was felt that removing all Scottish representation would breach the Articles . The Government , however , responded that the Articles did envisage a change in the election of representative peers . It was argued that some portions of the Treaty were entrenched , while others were not . For instance , Scotland and England were united " forever , " the Scottish Court of Session was to " remain in all time coming within Scotland as it is now constituted , " and the establishment of the Church of Scotland was " effectually and unalterably secured . " However , it was suggested , the election of Scottish representative peers was not entrenched , and therefore could be amended . Furthermore , the Government argued that Parliament was entirely sovereign and supreme , and could at its will change the Articles of Union . For example , the Treaty of Union joining Great Britain and Ireland required that the two nations be united " forever " . Nonetheless , in 1922 , by an Act of Parliament , most of Ireland was made independent as the Irish Free State . Thus , even entrenched clauses were argued to be open to amendment by the authority of Parliament . The Committee agreed and reported to the House on 20 October 1999 that the Bill was indeed lawful in this regard .
After the Committee 's first and second reports were considered , the Lords passed the bill 221 to 81 on 26 October 1999 . During the session , Charles Beauclerk , son of a hereditary peer , launched a protest at the constitutional implications of the bill from the woolsack , and was ejected from the chamber . Once the Lords settled the differences between their version of the bill and the Commons version thereof , the Bill received Royal Assent on 11 November 1999 and became an Act of parliament . The Act then came into force the same day .
= = Membership of the House of Lords = =
The House of Lords Act 1999 provides firstly that " No @-@ one shall be a member of the House of Lords by virtue of a hereditary peerage . " ( The Act treats the Principality of Wales and the Earldom of Chester as hereditary peerages , though those titles , granted normally to the heir @-@ apparent , are never inherited . ) The Act then provides that 92 peers , including the Earl Marshal , the Lord Great Chamberlain and 90 other peers elected in accordance with the Standing Orders of the House , would be excepted from the exclusion of hereditary peers , and that after the first session of the next Parliament , whenever one of these seats fell vacant , the Lords would have to proceed to a by @-@ election . The Act also provided that a hereditary peer would be entitled to vote in elections for , and sit in , the House of Commons , unless he or she was a member of the House of Lords . Previously , hereditary peers had been constitutionally disqualified from being electors to , or members of , the House of Commons . The first hereditary peer to gain a seat in the Commons under this provision was John Thurso .
The Act prevents even hereditary peers who are the first to hold their titles from sitting automatically in the House of Lords . The Government did agree , however , to give life peerages ( the titles of which are indicated in parentheses ) to four such new hereditary peers : Toby Austin Richard William Low , 1st Baron Aldington ( Baron Low ) , Frederick James Erroll , 1st Baron Erroll of Hale ( Baron Erroll of Kilmun ) , Francis Aungier Pakenham , 7th Earl of Longford , 1st Baron Pakenham ( Baron Pakenham of Cowley ) and Antony Armstrong @-@ Jones , 1st Earl of Snowdon ( Baron Armstrong @-@ Jones ) . Additionally , life peerages were created for former Leaders of the House of Lords : John Julian Ganzoni , 2nd Baron Belstead ( Baron Ganzoni ) , Peter Alexander Rupert Carington , 6th Baron Carrington ( Baron Carington of Upton ) , Robert Gascoyne @-@ Cecil , Viscount Cranborne ( Baron Gascoyne @-@ Cecil ) , George Patrick John Rushworth Jellicoe , 2nd Earl Jellicoe ( Baron Jellicoe of Southampton ) , Malcolm Shepherd , 2nd Baron Shepherd ( Baron Shepherd of Spalding ) and David James George Hennessy , 3rd Baron Windlesham ( Baron Hennessy ) .
Life peerages were also offered to members of the royal family with new hereditary peerages , but declined ( as it would have meant they would hold seats in the House of Lords ) : Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh ; Charles , Prince of Wales ; Prince Andrew , Duke of York ; and Prince Edward , Earl of Wessex . The Dukes of Gloucester and Kent had both inherited their titles from their fathers , the first dukes .
= = = First election to the House of Lords = = =
Before the granting of Royal Assent , the Lords had adopted a Standing Order making provision for the election of peers . The Order provided that there be elected :
Two Labour peers
Three Liberal Democrat peers
Twenty @-@ eight Crossbench peers
Forty @-@ two Conservative peers
Fifteen peers , to serve as Deputy Speakers and in other offices , by the entire House of Lords
The elections for officers of the House were held on 27 and 28 October 1999 , while those for peers elected by party were held on 3 and 4 November ; the results were proclaimed to the House on 29 October and 5 November . Voters were required to rank in order of preference , on a ballot prepared by the Clerk of the Parliaments , as many candidates as there were places to be filled . The candidates receiving the greatest number of votes ( without regard to the ranking on the ballots , so in effect block voting ) were declared elected . Only if there were ties would the ranking be examined . Thereafter , until November 2002 , if a vacancy occurred , the next @-@ highest vote @-@ getter ( the rankings being examined , again , only in the case of ties ) in the original election would fill the seat . This procedure was used on two occasions .
= = = Subsequent by @-@ elections = = =
Since November 2002 , by @-@ elections have been held to fill vacancies . Two by @-@ elections were held in 2003 , one in 2004 , four in 2005 , one in each of 2007 , 2008 and 2009 , two in 2010 , four in 2011 , two in 2013 , four in 2014 and six in 2015 . Voting is by preferential voting , with peers ranking the candidates in order of preference . As many or as few preferences as desired may be indicated . To win the election , a peer must receive a majority of first preference votes . If no candidate receives such a majority , the candidate with the fewest number of first preference votes is eliminated , with each of his votes being redistributed according to the second preference marked on the ballot ( see Instant @-@ runoff voting ) . The process is continued until one candidate receives a majority .
= = Labour proposals to remove remaining hereditary peers = =
The Labour Government expected eventually to present a bill for a second stage of House of Lords reform , thus removing the remaining 92 hereditary peers ; the history of such attempts between 1997 and 2009 is set out in a report in The Guardian . Proposals called The House of Lords : Reform were published by order of the House on 1 January 2007 , with a foreword by Jack Straw . In 2009 , Labour introduced the Constitutional Reform and Governance Bill , which would have ended the by @-@ elections to fill vacancies for hereditary peers , thereby removing them through attrition . However , in order to ensure the passage of the bill through Parliament before the 2010 general election , this clause was dropped from the bill entirely , along with other clauses relating to the exclusion and suspension of peers from the House of Lords .
= = Proposals in 2012 for elections to most seats in the Lords = =
In August 2012 , the coalition government of David Cameron and Nick Clegg dropped plans to reform the House of Lords by making it mostly elected and slashing its size . Deputy Prime Minister and Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg spearheaded the push to bring in the changes . The government wanted four @-@ fifths of members of a reformed House of Lords to be elected . They would have served 15 @-@ year terms of office , after which they could not run for re @-@ election . The number of peers was to be almost halved , from 826 to 450 . The chamber would have kept the title of House of Lords , after names like Senate and Reformed House were rejected . Peers were each to represent a specific region of the United Kingdom , as constituted for the election of Members of the European Parliament . One @-@ third of seats would have been filled by elections held every five years . Of the remaining 90 members , 12 — rather than the current 26 — would have been Church of England bishops . The remainder were to continue to be appointed , and all hereditary peers were to be removed . The government had scheduled passage of its bill for the spring of 2013 , and the elections were to have taken place in 2015 , but the effort stalled when in July 2012 , 91 Conservatives in the Commons , including Jacob Rees @-@ Mogg , rebelled against the government in a vote on how to timetable the House of Lords Reform Bill .
= Mega Man 6 =
Mega Man 6 , known in Japan as Rockman 6 : Shijō Saidai no Tatakai ! ! ( ロックマン6 史上最大の戦い ! ! , Rokkuman Shikkusu Shijō Saidai no Tatakai ! ! , lit . " Rockman 6 : The Greatest Battle Ever ! ! " ) , is a action @-@ video game developed by Capcom for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . It is the sixth installment in the original Mega Man series and was originally released in Japan on November 5 , 1993 and in North America the following March . It was included in the Mega Man Anniversary Collection released in 2004 . Its first PAL region release was June 11 , 2013 for the 3DS Virtual Console , nearly twenty years after the game 's first release .
The story of Mega Man 6 opens during a competitive robot fighting tournament with entrants from all around the globe . A villainous figure known as " Mr. X " announces he has reprogrammed the eight powerful contestants with intent to use them for taking over the world . The game 's robotic protagonist Mega Man , who was sent to oversee the tournament , springs into action to foil X 's plot . A standard action @-@ platformer , Mega Man 6 plays nearly identically to its five predecessors with a few added features such as stages with alternate pathways and new Rush adaptors .
Mega Man 6 is the first game in the series to receive character design input from fans outside Japan . This late @-@ era game was also the last in the series released on Nintendo 's 8 @-@ bit console . Due to the declining support of the NES and the growing presence of the newer and more powerful Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) , Capcom decided not to publish Mega Man 6 in North America . The North American version of Mega Man 6 was released by Nintendo of America instead . Critical reviews favored the game 's comparable presentation and use of the established gameplay model from preceding chapters in the series , though nearly all judged it a redundant sequel .
While the first five Mega Man games are available on the Wii 's Virtual Console , this game is absent from the Wii Shop Channel ; however the game was released via the 3DS Virtual Console in Japan and Europe , with North America on June 20 , 2013 . It was also released via the Wii U Virtual Console in Japan on May 14 , 2014 , in Europe on July 24 , 2014 and in North America on August 21 , 2014 .
= = Plot = =
Mega Man 6 's story takes place after the events of Mega Man 5 . To counter Dr. Wily 's repeated attacks , the Global Robot Alliance was formed , and one year later the " First Annual Robot Tournament " is held in order to determine the world 's strongest peacekeeping robot . The tournament is hosted by a man known only as " Mr. X " , the leader of the mysterious " X Foundation " and many strong robots participate . Dr. Light , a pacifist , decides not to enter the competition , but sends the robotic hero Mega Man to supervise it . Before the event can begin , however , Mr. X announces that he has reprogrammed eight of the strongest contestants to do his bidding in taking over the world : Blizzard Man , Centaur Man , Flame Man , Knight Man , Plant Man , Tomahawk Man , Wind Man , and Yamato Man , and tells Mega Man he had been manipulating Dr. Wily from the beginning . Following this , Mega Man and Rush set out to put an end to Mr. X 's plan . Mega Man destroys the eight Robot Masters , then makes his way to Mr. X 's fortress . The villain is beaten and quickly reveals himself as none other than a disguised Dr. Wily . The evil scientist flees to a new fortress stronghold where Mega Man pursues and defeats him again . The game ends with Dr. Wily finally brought to justice and sent to prison .
= = Countries and Robot Masters = =
Flame Man Wind Man Centaur Man Knight Man Yamato Man Tomahawk Man Plant Man Blizzard Man
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay in Mega Man 6 is largely similar to its five NES counterparts . The player takes control of Mega Man to complete a series of side @-@ scrolling platform stages littered with smaller robot enemies and occasional larger mini @-@ bosses . The player 's primary method of attack is the " Mega Buster " cannon , which can be charged for more powerful shots . At the end of each of the initial eight stages is a boss battle , where the player inherits that Robot Master 's unique " Master Weapon " if successful . These eight levels can be completed in any order , although all Robot Masters are weak to a specific Master Weapon , adding an element of strategy to the order chosen by the player . The player 's health is represented by a gauge that can be refilled by picking up energy pellets . Extra lives , reserve energy tanks , and pellets that refill Master Weapon power can also be found throughout each level . Mega Man 6 introduces the " Energy Balancer " , which automatically refills the weapon with the lowest energy when picking up Master Weapon power .
Previous Mega Man games typically allowed the player to call on the transformable dog Rush or use other support items in order to traverse difficult or otherwise inaccessible parts of a stage . Mega Man 6 instead features a pair of " Rush Adaptors " that fuse Mega Man and Rush into special forms . The first , " Jet Mega Man " , lets the player fly upward or hover for a brief period of time , but prevents the use of charge shots . The second , " Power Mega Man " , utilizes a powerful , short @-@ range punch attack for destroying large blocks . The player cannot slide when using either adapter . Mega Man 6 also presents less linear ways to complete the stages than in previous entries in the series . There are two pathways in many of the stages that lead to boss rooms , but the player is often required to use one of the Rush adaptors to begin an alternate route . Although either one will clear the stage , only one of them will give the player a letter circuit board for assembling the helper bird Beat . Collecting all four parts will allow the player to call on Beat to attack enemies .
= = Development = =
Mega Man 6 was developed at the same time as the franchise 's first spin @-@ off , Mega Man X for Nintendo 's newer console , the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Series artist Keiji Inafune , credited as " Inafking " , stated that having a video game franchise with six titles is very rare , and one of the advantages to this is that players expect certain aspects of each game to be repeated in the next . After having implemented so many different mechanics to the gameplay of past entries , Inafune thought that Rush adaptor assembly was inevitable . The artist struggled with the adaptor designs and ultimately found them to be unrealistic . According to Inafune , " If you think about it , they shouldn 't be able to combine like this . It would be awkward if parts of Rush like his neck were left over after they combined , so what was I supposed to do ? "
The Robot Masters featured in some of the previous Mega Man games were the result of design contests held in Japan , in which fans of the series would submit their character ideas to Capcom . Keeping with the tradition , Japan held a design contest for Mega Man 6 . After the release of Mega Man 5 , the magazine Nintendo Power held a similar contest in North America . Only eight out of the more than 200 @,@ 000 worldwide character submissions for Mega Man 6 were accepted for the game . Six of the Robot Masters were designed by Japanese fans , while the remaining two ( Knight Man and Wind Man ) were designed by North American fans who entered the Nintendo Power contest . The North American cover of the game pays homage to the two designers by featuring their Robot Masters on it . Inafune admitted that it was stressful when the last characters being designed for the game were not meeting with the development team 's schedule . He concluded , " For having hit a lot of roadblocks , I feel like we got a lot done for 6 . The theme for our designs was ' The world is our stage , ' and I really enjoyed bringing what I felt was the unique flavor of different countries into the game . " Yuko Takehara , credited as " Yuko " , composed the musical score for Mega Man 6 . Takehara collaborated with several other composers for the follow @-@ up Mega Man 7 in 1995 .
A few months after the publication of Mega Man 5 , Capcom announced the sixth installment in the original series , as well as Mega Man Soccer and Mega Man X for the SNES , making Mega Man 6 the last title in the franchise to be released on the 8 @-@ bit NES . Capcom chose not to publish the game outside Japan . Instead , Nintendo of America published it in March 1994 . Before the NES era in North America was about to end , Nintendo of America made a plan to help sell it along with Zoda 's Revenge : StarTropics II and the NES version of Wario 's Woods , which were also published by Nintendo in North America during the same time . Their plan was to release the top @-@ loading NES @-@ 101 for a retail price of $ 49 @.@ 99 to attract consumers to buying the updated version of the original NES along with one or more new titles for the console , including Mega Man 6 . The game was also showcased alongside Mega Man X at the 1994 Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas .
Mega Man 6 was re @-@ released for the PlayStation in 1999 as part of the Rockman Complete Works series exclusive to Japan . This version of the game features a number of extras including remixed music , artwork galleries , and a " navi mode " to help guide players . A port of the Complete Works edition was released on the North American @-@ exclusive Mega Man Anniversary Collection for the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube in 2004 and Xbox in 2005 .
Mega Man 6 was released on Japanese mobile phones via the i @-@ mode service in 2007 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Mega Man 6 has enjoyed a favorable reception from gaming publications and websites . The graphics , play control , challenge level , and added power @-@ ups were generally praised . GamePro was impressed with some of the newer enemies and larger mid @-@ stage bosses , but was displeased with the game 's recycling of Master Weapons seen in previous Mega Man games . Overall , the magazine described the graphics , audio , and level design in Mega Man 6 as standard fare for the franchise and called the game a " rock of reliable NES fun " in a series that is as " predictable as the tide " . Destructoid editor Tony Ponce considered Mega Man 6 the best game in the entire series . He argued that the game " was retro before retro was cool " due to Capcom 's decision to develop it as a higher profile game on the NES during the era of fourth generation consoles . He also expressed appreciation for its music , introductions for each Robot Master , and the use of branching pathways in each level , among many other reasons . Nintendo Power listed Mega Man 6 as the best NES game of 1993 , stating , " His sixth NES adventure , in which he uses two new , Special Power @-@ Ups , might just be his best " . Craig Skistimas of ScrewAttack also appreciated these innovations and regretted missing out on the game when it was first released . Mega Man 6 is listed by IGN as the 58th best game on the NES . The writers summarized , " Mega Man 6 is considered by many to be the last worthwhile NES release in the catalog , and though that 's not saying much when looking at the title 's contemporaries , Mega Man 6 is still as good as it gets in many respects . "
Mega Man 6 is occasionally seen as " redundant " to the series . GameSpot editors Christian Nutt and Justin Speer labeled Mega Man 6 the " cheesiest " among the NES titles : " If you 're looking for mega @-@ laughs , you might want to try this one out . " 1UP.com contributors likewise found that the game 's " inane " storyline and villains both insult fans of the series and outweigh the game 's good soundtrack and interesting power @-@ ups . The four members of the Electronic Gaming Monthly review panel all voiced similar opinions regarding the game 's familiar 8 @-@ bit presentation and its addition to the already repetitive nature of the series . One reviewer commented , " OK , Mega Man was fun and original back in the days when the letters ' N E S ' meant something . Now the game is just getting redundant . Oh sure , Mega Man may learn a few new tricks here and there but this series has to end soon . "
Elements of the game made their way into the Mega Man series from Archie Comics prior to it going on indefinite hiatus . Some notable liberties were taken , such as introducing a creator character for Plant Man , Dr. Pedro Astil , and introducing the X Foundation @-@ renamed the X Corporation @-@ at the conclusion of the Mega Man 3 adapt . The latter concept notably featured Mr. X as a separate character from Dr. Wily and as a future version of Xander Payne , a character exclusive to the comics who became involved in time travel after being part of an anti @-@ robot extremist group known as the Emerald Spears . A view of the events of Mega Man 6 in the series ' final issue prior to the hiatus hinted as Xander 's overthrow and Wily 's seizure of his resources and alias . The X Corporation 's resources also provide Wily with the means of laying the groundwork for other schemes , including the abduction of Kalinka Cossack leading into Mega Man 4 . Its membership was shown to include numerous identically costumed grunts and Madame Y , a character based on an " alternate universe " concept by Mega Man artist Hideki Ishikawa .
= Sahifah of al @-@ Ridha =
The Sahifah of al @-@ Ridha ( Arabic : الصحیفة الرضا , al @-@ Sahīfa al @-@ Riḍā , lit . " The Pages of al @-@ Ridha " ) , also known as the Sahifat of al @-@ Reza ( Persian : صحیفهٔ امام رضا : Ṣaḥīfe ye Imam Reżā ) and the Musnad al @-@ Imam al @-@ Ridha ( " The Book of Imam al @-@ Ridha " ) , is a collection of 240 hadiths attributed to Ali ibn Musa al @-@ Ridha , the eighth Shiite Imam .
The Sahifah is one of the major sources of Shia belief and has attracted the attention of Shia and Sunni scholars such as Ibn Babawayh , Sheikh Tabarsi , and Abu Hanifa . It contains hadiths on various topics including the invocation of Allah ; the importance of praying five times a day and of saying the prayer for the dead ; the excellence of the household of Muhammad , of the believer , of good manners , of the names Muhammad and Ahmad , of various foods , fruits , and ointments , of obeying parents , of strengthening the bonds of kinship , and of jihad ; a warning against cheating , backbiting , or tattling ; and other miscellaneous traditions . The section on Muhammad 's household discusses each of its fourteen members separately .
= = Chain of authority = =
The book was allegedly first written by Abdallah ibn Aḥmad ibn Amer , who said he had heard its contents from his father Aḥmad ibn Amer , who said he had heard them from Ali al @-@ Ridha in Medina in 194 AH ( 809 @-@ 10 CE ) . Abdallah ibn Aḥmad ibn Amer was subsequently recognized as a credible narrator of hadith by Najasi , one of the important Shia scholars .
The version printed in Cairo by al @-@ Ma 'ahid Press in the year 1340 AH ( 1921 – 1922 ) begins with the following chain of authorities : Its editor al- ' Allāma ' Abd al @-@ Wāsi ' stated he received its contents on the authority of Sheikh ' Abd al @-@ Wāsi ' , who received it from Imam al @-@ Qāsim ibn Mohammed , who received it from Sheikh al @-@ Sayyid Amīr al @-@ Dīn ibn ' Abd Allah , who received it from al @-@ Sayyid Ahmed ibn ' Abd Allah al @-@ Wazīr , who received it from Imam al @-@ Mutahhar ibn Mohammed ibn Sulayman , who received it from Imam al @-@ Mahdi Ahmed ibn Yahya , who received it from Sulayman ibn Ibrahīm ibn ' Umar al- ' Alawi , who received it from his father Ibrahīm , who received it from Rida ' al @-@ Dīn Ibrahīm ibn Mohammed al @-@ Tabari , who received it from Imam Najm al @-@ Dīn al @-@ Tabrīzi , who received it from al @-@ Hafiz Ibn ' Asakir , who received it from Zahir al @-@ Sinjani , who received it from al @-@ Hafiz al @-@ Bayhaqi , who received it from Abu al @-@ Qasim al @-@ Mufassir , who received it from " Ibrahīm ibn khu 'ra " ( by mistake in text " Ju 'da ' , who received it from Abu al @-@ Qasim ' Abd Allah ibn Ahmed ibn ' Amir al @-@ Ta 'i in Basra , who received it from Ali al @-@ Ridha , who claimed his father Musā claimed his father Ja 'far claimed his father Muhammad claimed his father ' Ali claimed his father Husayn claimed his father ' Ali , son of Abū Tālib , had heard or witnessed its contents in the company of the Prophet Muhammad .
= = Context = =
The principal narrator of the work was Abdallah ibn Aḥmad ibn Amer , who retells the words of Ali al @-@ Ridha with each entry beginning with a variation of " Through his chain of authorities , he said " . His father , who was said to have related these words to him , was killed at the Battle of Siffin . The family were descendants of Wahb ibn Amer who was killed with Husayn , son of Ali , at the Battle of Karbala .
Ali al @-@ Ridha was born around 151 AH ( 768 – 769 ) although possibly as late as 159 AH ( 775 – 76 ) , to the Imam Musa al @-@ Kadhim and one of his slaves , probably Nubian . His father died in a Baghdadi prison in Rajab , 183 AH ( September , 799 ) , during the caliphate of Harun al @-@ Rashid , one of the Abbasid dynasty . Ali al @-@ Ridha succeeded to his father 's property but not fully to his title . He began to teach and issue fatwas from the mosque in Medina , where he lived , but the caliphs did not confirm his title and many of his father 's trustees withheld their support ( and tithes ) under the pretense that his father would soon return as the Mahdi . Following Harun 's death in 809 , a civil war broke out between his sons Al @-@ Amin and Al @-@ Ma 'mun . Al @-@ Amin was beheaded in September 813 during the Siege of Baghdad but his followers continued their resistance under local governors or in favor of Al @-@ Ma 'mun 's uncle as late as 827 .
The death of Al @-@ Amin permitted Ali al @-@ Ridha greater opportunity to teach . In 200 AH ( 815 – 816 ) , Ali al @-@ Ridha was invited or forced by Al @-@ Ma 'mun to quit his home and estates in Medina and leave for the imperial capital in Khorasan . Al @-@ Ma 'mun proclaimed him as the new Imam throughout the empire upon his arrival at Merv in 201 AH ( 817 ) . He went further and named Ali al @-@ Ridha as his crown prince and successor to the caliphate . Following the assassination of the imperial vizier and during a relocation of the capital back to Baghdad , Ali al @-@ Ridha died suddenly , most probably on the last day of Safar , 203 AH ( September , 818 ) . Most sources accuse Al @-@ Ma 'mun of having poisoned him .
= = Contents = =
The version printed in Cairo by al @-@ Ma 'ahid Press in the year 1340 AH ( 1921 – 1922 ) contained 163 hadiths divided into ten sections , the first nine of which concern particular topics and the last of which includes the remainder on miscellaneous topics . The last section ends with a note that the author " dropped some traditions mentioned in these two books of the Imām " , considering them to be fabricated . He further noted that other scholars do not ascribe the book to Ali al @-@ Ridha at all .
The ten sections are :
I : On the Invocation of God
II : On the Call to Prayer
III : On the Mandatory Prayers
IV : On the Excellence of the Household of the Prophet , in 3 parts :
Part One : On the Excellence of Ali bin Abu Talib
Part Two : On the Excellence of Fatima
Part Three : On the Excellence of Hasan and Husayn and the Household in General
V : On the Excellence of Believers , Good Manners , and Those Named Muhammad or Ahmad
VI : On Foods and Ointments
VII : On Filial Obedience and Strengthening Family Ties
VIII : On Avoidance of Cheating and Backbiting
IX : On the Excellence of Jihad , which is not given in full but condensed into a paraphrase
X : Miscellaneous Hadith
Some hadiths from the Sahifah :
6 . Through his chain of authorities , he , peace be on him , said [ that Muhammad said ] : " The best deeds with Allah are : belief without doubt , invasion without stealing from war booty before it is distributed ( ghulul ) , and proper hajj . The first to enter the Garden will be a martyr ; a slave who worships his Lord well and is sincere to his master ; and a chaste man who abstains from what is forbidden , has a family , and strives to secure the daily bread of his own family . The first to enter the Fire will be a domineering Imam [ or leader ] who does not treat with justice ; a possessor of wealth of property who does not pay the right against it ; and a boastful , poor [ person ] . "
99 . Through his chain of authorities , he , peace be on him , said [ that Muhammad said ] : " The best of the people in faith are the best of them in good manners and the gentlest of them toward their families , and I am the gentlest of you toward my family "
122 . Through his chain of authorities , he , peace be on him , said [ that Ali , son of Abu Talib , said : ] " Gabriel , peace be on him , came to the Prophet , may Allah bless him and his family , and said : ' Cling to al @-@ Barni dates , for it is the best kind of your dates ; it brings [ men ] nigh to Allah and send [ them ] away from the Fire ' " .
123 . Through his chain of authorities , he , peace be on him , said [ that Husayn ibn Ali said : ] " The Commander of the Faithful , peace be on him , ordered us to rinse out mouth three times after we had eaten " .
142 . Through his chain of authority , he , peace be on him , said [ that Ali ibn Husayn said that Ali , son of Abu Talib , was asked : ] " ' O Commander of the Faithful , tell me about the excellence of the invasion in the path of Allah . ' He , peace be on him , answered : ' I was riding behind Allah 's Messenger , may Allah bless him and his family , on his she @-@ camel al- ' Adbā ' when we came beck from the Campaign of Dhāt al @-@ Salāsil . I asked him about what you have asked me about , and he answered : ' Surely , if the invaders intend to make an invasion , Allah writes for them freedom from the Fire , and if they prepare themselves , Allah vies with the angels through them , etc . ' " The tradition is long ; the greatest of Messengers , may Allah bless him and his family , has presented therein the excellence of invasion and jihād in the path of Allah , which is one of the gates to the Garden , and which Allah has opened for his special friends , as it was said by the Commander of the Faithful , peace be on him " .
= = Manuscripts = =
The following versions are available :
At the Allameh Amini library , written by Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abd al @-@ Qahhar Shirazi , in 761 AH
At the library of the Grand Mosque in Qom , written by Ridha bin Nizam bin Fakhruddin Hasani Amolie in 848 AH
At the library of Astan Quds Razavi , written by Ismail bin Abdul Momin Qaany in 881 AH
At the National Library of the Academy of Rome , narrated by Judge Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Hamza bin Abi Najma
In Egypt . The chain of narrators of this manuscript ends with Al @-@ Bayhaqi .
= Battle of Solachon =
The Battle of Solachon was fought in 586 CE in northern Mesopotamia between the East Roman ( Byzantine ) forces , led by Philippicus , and the Sassanid Persians under Kardarigan . The engagement was part of the long and inconclusive Byzantine – Sassanid War of 572 – 591 . The Battle of Solachon ended in a major Byzantine victory which improved the Byzantine position in Mesopotamia , but it was not in the end decisive . The war dragged on until 591 , when it ended with a negotiated settlement between Maurice and the Persian shah Khosrau II ( r . 590 – 628 ) .
In the days before the battle , Philippicus , newly assigned to the Persian front , moved to intercept an anticipated Persian invasion . He chose to deploy his army at Solachon , controlling the various routes of the Mesopotamian plain , and especially access to the main local watering source , the Arzamon river . Kardarigan , confident of victory , advanced against the Byzantines , but they had been warned and were deployed in battle order when Kardarigan reached Solachon . The Persians deployed as well and attacked , gaining the upper hand in the centre , but the Byzantine right wing broke through the Persian left flank . The successful Byzantine wing was thrown into disarray as its men headed off to loot the Persian camp , but Philippicus was able to restore order . Then , while the Byzantine centre was forced to form a shield wall to withstand the Persian pressure , the Byzantine left flank also managed to turn the Persians ' right . Under threat of a double envelopment , the Persian army collapsed and fled , with many dying in the desert of thirst or from water poisoning . Kardarigan himself survived and , with a part of his army , held out against Byzantine attacks on a hillock for several days before the Byzantines withdrew .
= = Background = =
In 572 the Byzantine ruler Justin II ( reigned 565 – 578 ) refused to renew the annual payments to Sassanid Persia that had been part of the peace agreement concluded by his uncle , Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) and the Persian shah Khosrau I ( r . 531 – 579 ) in 562 . This marked the culmination of the progressive deterioration of Byzantine – Persian relations over the previous years , which manifested itself in diplomatic and military manoeuvring in their geopolitical periphery . Thus the Byzantines initiated contacts with the Central Asian Göktürks for a joint effort against Persia , while the Persians intervened in Yemen against the Christian Axumites , allies of Byzantium . Justin furthermore regarded the annual tribute as an indignity unworthy of Romans , and used the outbreak of a major revolt in Persian Armenia in 571 – 572 as a pretext for refusing to continue the payments .
Justin 's refusal was tantamount to a declaration of war , the fourth fought between the two great powers of Late Antiquity in the 6th century . After initial Persian successes such as the capture of Dara , the conflict proved inconclusive and became a drawn @-@ out affair , with Byzantine victories followed by Persian successes , intermittent negotiations , and temporary truces . In 582 , Maurice ( r . 582 – 602 ) , who had served as a general in the war , ascended to the Byzantine throne at Constantinople ; by that time , the Persians had gained the upper hand in Mesopotamia through their capture of Dara in 574 , while the Byzantines prevailed in Arzanene .
= = Initial moves and dispositions = =
Following the failure of another round of peace negotiations , about which little is known , Maurice appointed his brother @-@ in @-@ law Philippicus as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief for the Mesopotamian front ( magister militum per Orientem ) in 584 . Philippicus raided the region around the major Persian fortress of Nisibis in 584 , while in 585 he raided in Arzanene . The Persian commander , Kardarigan — " black hawk " , an honorific title rather than a proper name — responded with an unsuccessful siege of Philippicus ' main base , Monokarton .
In spring 586 Maurice rejected new Persian proposals involving the conclusion of peace in exchange for renewed payments in gold . The contemporary historian Theophylact Simocatta reports that Philippicus ' army was eager to confront the Persians in battle , and the Byzantine commander marched south from his base at Amida , crossed the Arzamon river ( modern Zergan in south @-@ east Turkey and north @-@ east Syria ) to its eastern bank and advanced some 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) east to the plain of Solachon , where he pitched his camp . This position , south of the fortresses of Mardes and Dara , allowed Philippicus ' army to control the passage of the Arzamon river and forced the Persian army under Kardarigan to advance across the waterless plain , away from their supply routes , before meeting the Byzantine force .
On the Persian side , Kardarigan was also eager to fight and confident of victory . He arranged to be escorted by many camels carrying water for his troops in case the Byzantines refused to engage but continued to block access to the Arzamon , and had allegedly prepared iron bars and chains for the prisoners he would take . His movements , however , were detected when the Byzantines ' Arab foederati captured a few of his men , allowing Philippicus to prepare his forces . This early warning was of particular importance since Kardarigan intended to attack on Sunday , a day of rest for the Christian Byzantines .
= = Battle = =
Both armies appear to have been composed exclusively of cavalry , comprising a mix of lancers and horse @-@ archers , possibly with a few cataphract units included . When Philippicus ' scouts reported the Persians ' approach , he positioned his men on elevated ground facing the direction from which the Persian army advanced , with his left flank protected by the foothills of Mount Izalas . The Byzantines appear to have been arranged in a single battle line with three divisions . The left division was commanded by Eiliphredas , the dux of Phoenice Libanensis , and included a Hunnic contingent of horse @-@ archers under Apsich . The centre was commanded by the general Heraclius the Elder , later Exarch of Africa and father of Emperor Heraclius ( r . 610 – 641 ) , while the right wing was commanded by the taxiarchos Vitalius . This arrangement was also adopted by the Persians as soon as they came into view of the Byzantine army . On the Persian side , the right division was under Mebodes , the centre under Kardarigan himself , and the left wing under Kardarigan 's nephew , Aphraates . Unlike the Persian general , Philippicus remained with a small force at some distance behind the main battle line , directing the battle .
After a short halt to leave their baggage train behind and form a battle line the Persian army quickly advanced on the Byzantines , shooting arrows as they approached . The Byzantines responded in kind and then sallied forth to meet the oncoming enemy . On the Byzantine right Vitalius was quickly victorious , his heavy cavalry breaking through the Persian flank and pushing his opponents to the left behind their own main line . At this point , however , disaster threatened as many of Vitalius ' troopers broke formation and headed towards the enemy camp , intending to loot it . Philippicus , however , saw what had happened and reacted quickly . He gave his distinctive helmet to one of his bodyguards , Theodore Ilibinus , and sent him to rally the cavalry on pain of punishment by the army commander himself . The ruse worked : the men recognized the helmet and returned to order just in time to stop the Persians , who had regrouped in the centre and were pushing the numerically inferior Byzantines back .
To counter this , Philippicus ordered the men of the central division to dismount and form a shield @-@ wall with their lances projecting from it ( the fulcum formation ) . It is not clear what happened next , but apparently the Byzantine archers shot at the Persians ' horses , breaking their momentum . At the same time , the Byzantine left managed to launch a successful counter @-@ thrust which drove back the opposing Persian right in disarray . Soon the Persian right broke and fled , pursued by the Byzantines . With both wings having disintegrated , the Persian centre was now subjected to an attack from the reformed Byzantine right , which drove them towards the area once occupied by the Persian right . Outnumbered and attacked from several sides , the Persians soon began to break and flee .
The defeated army suffered greatly , not only from the Byzantine pursuit , but also due to lack of water : before the battle , Kardarigan had ordered the water supplies poured to the ground , trying to make his men fight harder to break through the Byzantine army and reach the Arzamon . In addition , the surviving Persians were refused entry into Dara since , according to Simocatta , Persian custom forbade entrance to fugitives . Simocatta also narrates that many Persians died of thirst or from water poisoning when they drank too much water from wells after their ordeal . Kardarigan himself had managed to find refuge on a nearby hilltop with a small detachment and withstood several Byzantine attacks . Finally , after three or four days , the Byzantines , not aware that the enemy commander was there , abandoned the effort . Kardarigan thus escaped , although his men suffered further casualties in the process , up to a thousand according to Simocatta , from Byzantine patrols .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the battle Philippicus rewarded the soldiers who had distinguished themselves and divided the spoils of the defeated Persians among them . He then proceeded to invade Arzanene again . However , his attempt to capture the fortress of Chlomaron was thwarted when Kardarigan arrived with reinforcements . The Byzantine army retreated to the fortress of Aphumon , fighting rear @-@ guard actions with the shadowing Persians .
The victory of Solachon allowed the Byzantines to regain the upper hand in the region of the Tur Abdin and , in its aftermath , they began to re @-@ establish their control over the region around Dara . The war continued for a few years without a decision until the revolt of Bahram Chobin caused the rightful Persian shah , Khosrau II ( r . 590 – 628 ) , to find refuge in Byzantine territory . A joint expedition restored him to his throne and a peace treaty was concluded in 591 that left most of Armenia in Byzantine hands .
= Tales of a Third Grade Nothing =
" Tales of a Third Grade Nothing " is the sixth episode of the seventh season of Family Guy that aired on November 16 , 2008 and ended the first half of the season . The episode follows Peter ( voiced by show creator Seth MacFarlane ) as he goes back to finish the third grade so that he is able to get a promotion at work . It also follows Brian ( also voiced by MacFarlane ) and Frank Sinatra , Jr . ( voiced by himself ) as they buy a club and give it to Stewie ( MacFarlane ) so that he can remodel it .
The episode was written by Alex Carter and directed by Jerry Langford , their firsts for the Family Guy series . Besides Sinatra , the episode featured guest performances by Bob Barker , James Burkholder , Max Burkholder , Chace Crawford , Elisha Cuthbert , Kaylee DeFer , Andy Dick , Carrie Fisher , Caitlyn Jenner ( then Bruce ) , Phil LaMarr , John Kassir , Debbie Reynolds , Sinbad , Billy Unger and Mae Whitman , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . The episode was seen by 8 @.@ 52 million viewers , and it received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
= = Plot = =
Peter is sent upstairs by his boss to deliver shipping reports to the CEO . On his way to deliver the reports , he decides to go into the executive bathroom . When he discovers how lavish the bathroom is , he becomes motivated to do well at work so that he can become an executive so he can use the executive bathroom . But while trying to impress his boss Angela by blowing up a competitor 's billboard , he inadvertently blows up part of a children 's hospital . Nevertheless , she is impressed by his improvement at work and recommends an open executive spot for him . However , Human Resources tells him he must first complete the third grade in order to qualify .
Peter does badly at school and offends his teacher Mrs. Wilson by telling an inappropriate story about her ( forgetting that Mrs. Wilson was also Peter 's teacher when he was a third grader ) , and makes fun of top student Omar . Mrs. Wilson allows Peter to attend the spelling bee after spelling out " buttlickers " which even Omar can 't spell . Omar fails the spelling bee because he misspelled " coagulate " , but Peter succeeds after correctly spelling the word " lesbians " . When Peter goes back to work , Angela tells him that he will be going to jail for the hospital explosion instead of getting promoted . Fortunately for him , he receives only one week in prison and is told he will be released the following Sunday night at 9 : 00 ( Family Guy 's usual time slot )
Meanwhile , Frank Sinatra , Jr. comes back to town to perform with Brian at the Quahog Cabana Club . Since the club owner is looking to sell , Brian and Frank buy the establishment and they let Stewie transform it into a hip , modern nightclub called pLace . At first , Frank and Brian feel uncomfortable , but their feelings change once they get into the club life themselves . However , the club swiftly loses its popularity once Andy Dick is seen there . Once the club has emptied , Frank and Brian perform another song .
= = Production = =
" Tales of a Third Grade Nothing " was written by newcomer Alex Carter . It was directed by former Mission Hill and The Oblongs director Jerry Langford , who had joined the show 's directing staff that season making this his first Family Guy episode , he would direct the episode " Stew @-@ Roids " later that season . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors . Composer Walter Murphy , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Tales of a Third Grade Nothing " .
Actress Carrie Fisher , who is most famous for her role as Princess Leia in Star Wars ,
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returned to voice Peter 's boss , Angela , as she first did in the fourth season episode " Jungle Love " . Fisher has been given high praise for her portrayal of the character , with The Hollywood Reporter calling it one of her " 5 Most Iconic Roles . " Singer Frank Sinatra , Jr. also returned to voice himself , as he did in another fourth season episode " Brian Sings and Swings " .
In addition to Fisher , Sinatra and the regular cast , former game show host Bob Barker , actor James Burkholder , actor Max Burkholder , actor Chace Crawford , actress Elisha Cuthbert , actress Kaylee DeFer , comedian Andy Dick , athlete Caitlyn Jenner ( then Bruce ) , voice actor Phil LaMarr , actress Debbie Reynolds , actor Sinbad , child actor Billy Unger , and voice actress Mae Whitman guest starred in the episode . Recurring voice actors Lori Alan , Alexandra Breckenridge , writer Steve Callaghan , Ralph Garman , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , writer John Viener , and writer Wellesley Wild made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
" Tales of a Third Grade Nothing " makes several media references . The name of the episode itself is a reference to Judy Blume 's children 's book Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing , whose narrator @-@ protagonist is likewise named Peter . The first few minutes feature a parody of the film Jurassic Park where Peter enters the executive bathroom and inside there is a helicopter that takes Peter to an island ; John Hammond , who is inside the helicopter , welcomes Peter , and the music playing while the helicopter flies above the island is that which was used in the movie . Peter using the restroom and commenting on how peaceful everything is also a reference to a far different scene in the movie when a lawyer was eaten by a Tyrannosaurus Rex after attempting to hide in a bathroom stall . Yosemite Sam , one of the classic Looney Tunes characters , is seen trying on skinny jeans in Barney 's . The Emperor from the Star Wars movies requests that the song " On the Dark Side " by John Cafferty & The Beaver Brown Band be played at Brian and Frank 's club . A video of John Madden 's wedding is shown . Stewie references singer Michael Jackson and how his dance styles appeared to be violent to his own genitalia . Peter says he feels sympathy for John Wilkes Booth then it cuts to Booth at the theater while being annoyed by an obnoxious Abraham Lincoln . A cutaway gag featuring Stewie as a grape stomper references a news reporter who was doing the same thing , fell , got her wind knocked out and reacted hysterically . Near the end of the episode , Frank and Brian perform a duet of a song called " Take Me Out to pLace Tonight , " which uses Billy May 's orchestral arrangement of " On the Road to Mandalay , " as featured on Frank Sinatra Sr. ' s 1958 album , Come Fly with Me .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast in the United States on November 16 , 2008 , " Tales of a Third Grade Nothing " was watched by 8 @.@ 52 million homes and acquired a 4 @.@ 2 Nielsen rating , the audience measurement systems developed to determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States .
The episode received positive reviews . Ahsan Haque of IGN praised " Tales of a Third Grade Nothing " , writing that it had " a convoluted storyline that actually has some kind of logical flow , and more than a fair share of genuinely funny and outrageously offensive jokes . " . He graded the episode 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club wrote that the episode was an above average episode , and graded it B. In contrast , Robin Pierson of The TV Critic gave the episode a negative review , saying that while it was funnier than the usual episodes of the show it was still " plotless ramblings " .
= Space Pilot 3000 =
" Space Pilot 3000 " is the pilot episode of Futurama . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 28 , 1999 . It is also the first episode to be set in the 30th century as the third season and beyond are set in the 31st century . The episode focuses on the cryogenic freezing of the series protagonist , Philip J. Fry , and the events when he awakens 1 @,@ 000 years in the future . Series regulars are introduced and the futuristic setting , inspired by a variety of classic science fiction series from The Jetsons to Star Trek , is revealed . It also sets the stage for many of the events to follow in the series , foreshadowing plot points from the third and fourth seasons .
The episode was written by David X. Cohen and Matt Groening , and directed by Rich Moore and Gregg Vanzo . Dick Clark and Leonard Nimoy guest starred as themselves . The episode generally received good reviews with many reviewers noting that while the episode started slow the series merited further viewing .
= = Plot = =
On December 31 , 1999 , a pizza delivery boy named Philip J. Fry delivers a pizza to " Applied Cryogenics " in New York City only to discover that the order was actually a prank call . Dejected and demoralized , he stops in the deserted lab to eat the pizza while outside the whole world is getting ready to celebrate the beginning of New Year . At midnight , Fry falls into an open cryonic tube and is frozen as it immediately activates . He is defrosted on Tuesday , December 31 , 2999 , in what is now New New York City . He is taken to a fate assignment officer named Leela , a purple @-@ haired cyclops . To his misfortune , Fry is assigned the computer @-@ determined permanent career of delivery boy , and flees into the city when Leela tries to implant Fry 's career chip designating his job .
While trying to track down his only living relative , Professor Farnsworth , Fry befriends a suicidal robot named Bender . As they talk at a bar , Fry learns that Bender too has deserted his job of bending girders for suicide booths . Together , they evade Leela and hide in the Head Museum , where they encounter the preserved heads of historical figures . Fry and Bender eventually find themselves underground in the ruins of Old New York .
Leela finally catches Fry , who has become depressed that everyone that he knew and loved is dead and tells her that he will accept his career as a delivery boy . Leela sympathizes with Fry — she too is alone , and hates her job — so she quits and joins Fry and Bender as job deserters . The three track down Professor Farnsworth , founder of an intergalactic delivery company called Planet Express . With the help of Professor Farnsworth , the three evade the police by launching the Planet Express Ship at the stroke of midnight amid the New Year 's fireworks . As the year 3000 begins , Farnsworth hires the three as the crew of his ship . Fry inquires at what his job is , and learns that he will be a delivery boy . Fry , ironically , cheers at his new job .
= = Continuity = =
While the plot of the episode stands on its own , it also sets up much of the continuing plot of the series by including Easter eggs for events that do not occur until much later : as Fry falls into the freezer , the scene shows a strange shadow cast on the wall behind him . It is revealed in " The Why of Fry " that the shadow belongs to Nibbler , who intentionally pushes Fry into the freezer as part of a complex plan to save Earth from the Brainspawn in the future . Executive producer David X. Cohen claims that from the very beginning the creators had plans to show a larger conspiracy behind Fry 's journey to the future . In the movie Futurama : Bender 's Big Score , it is revealed that the spacecraft seen destroying the city while Fry is frozen are piloted by Bender and those chasing him after he steals the Nobel Peace Prize .
At the end of the episode , Professor Farnsworth offers Fry , Leela and Bender the Planet Express delivery crew positions . The professor produces the previous crew 's career chips from an envelope labeled " Contents of Space Wasp 's Stomach " . In a later episode , " The Sting " , the crew encounters the ship of the previous crew in a space beehive . When discussing this discontinuity in the episode commentary , writer of " The Sting " Patric Verrone states " we made liars out of the pilot " .
This episode introduces the fictional technology that allows preserved heads to be kept alive in jars . This technology makes it possible for the characters to interact with celebrities from the then @-@ distant past , and is used by the writers to comment on the 20th and 21st centuries in a satirical manner .
= = Production = =
In the DVD commentary , Matt Groening notes that beginning any television series is difficult , but he found particular difficulty starting one that took place in the future because of the amount of setup required . As a trade off , they included a lot of Easter eggs in the episode that would pay off in later episodes . He and Cohen point these out throughout the episode . The scene where Fry emerges from a cryonic tube and has his first view of New New York was the first 3D scene worked on by the animation team . It was considered to be a defining point for whether the technique would work or not .
Originally , the first person entering the pneumatic tube transport system declared " J.F.K. , Jr . Airport " as his destination . After John F. Kennedy , Jr . ' s death in the crash of his private airplane , the line has since been redubbed on all subsequent broadcasts and the DVD release to " Radio City Mutant Hall " ( a reference to Radio City Music Hall ) . The original version was heard only during the pilot broadcast and the first rerun a few months later . Although the original line is still used on repeat broadcasts in the UK on Satellite channel Sky One . ( The Region 2 DVD has the redubbed line ) . According to Groening , the inspiration for the suicide booth was the 1937 Donald Duck cartoon , " Modern Inventions " , in which the Duck is faced with — and nearly killed several times by — various push button gadgets in a Museum of the Future .
= = Cultural references = =
In their original pitch to Fox , Groening and Cohen stated that they wanted the futuristic setting for the show to be neither " dark and drippy " like Blade Runner , nor " bland and boring " like The Jetsons . They felt that they could not make the future either a utopia or a dystopia because either option would eventually become boring . The creators gave careful consideration to the setting , and the influence of classic science fiction is evident in this episode as a series of references to — and parodies of — easily recognizable films , books and television programs . In the earliest glimpse of the future while Fry is frozen in the cryonic chamber , time is seen passing outside the window until reaching the year 3000 . This scene was inspired by a similar scene in the film The Time Machine based on H.G. Wells ' novel . When Fry awakens in the year 2999 , he is greeted with Terry 's catchphrase " Welcome to the world of tomorrow " . The scene is a joke at the expense of Futurama 's namesake , the Futurama ride at the 1939 World 's Fair whose tag line was " The World of Tomorrow " . Dick Clark made a cameo as a head in a jar , hosting Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 3000 .
In addition to the setting , part of the original concept for the show was that there would be a lot of advanced technology similar to that seen in Star Trek , but it would be constantly malfunctioning . The automatic doors at Applied Cryogenics resemble those in Star Trek : The Original Series ; however , they malfunction when Fry remarks on this similarity . In another twist , the two policemen who try to arrest Fry at the head museum use weapons which are visually similar to lightsabers used in the Star Wars film series ; however , they are functionally more similar to nightsticks . The interaction between the characters was not overlooked . The relationship formed between Fry and Bender in this episode has been compared to the relationship between Will Robinson and the robot in Lost in Space .
Although both Futurama and The Simpsons were created by Matt Groening , overt references to the latter are mostly avoided in Futurama . One of the few exceptions to this rule is the appearance of Blinky , a three @-@ eyed orange fish seen on The Simpsons , as Fry is going through the tube . A running gag of the series is Bender 's fondness for Olde Fortran malt liquor , named after Olde English 800 malt liquor and the programming language Fortran . The drink was first introduced in this episode and became so closely associated with the character that he was featured with a bottle in both the Rocket USA wind @-@ up toy and the action figure released by Moore Action Collectibles .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
In a review by Patrick Lee in Science Fiction Weekly based on a viewing of this episode alone , Futurama was deemed not as funny as The Simpsons , particularly as " the satire is leavened with treacly sentimental bits about free will and loneliness " . The episode was rated as an " A- pick " and found to " warrant further viewing " despite these concerns . Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette noted that although the episode contained the same skewed humor as The Simpsons , it was not as smart and funny , and he attributed this to the large amount of exposition and character introduction required of a television series pilot , noting that the show was " off to a good start " . Andrew Billen of the New Statesman found the premise of the episode to be unoriginal , but remained somewhat enthusiastic about the future of the series . While he praised the humorous details of the episode , such as the background scenes while Fry was frozen , he also criticized the show 's dependence on in @-@ jokes such as Groening 's head being present in the head museum .
In its initial airing , the episode had " unprecedented strong numbers " with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 2 / 17 in homes and 9 @.@ 6 / 23 in adults 18 – 49 . The Futurama premiere was watched by more people than either its lead @-@ in show ( The Simpsons ) or the show following it ( The X @-@ Files ) , and it was the number one show among men aged 18 – 49 and teenagers for the week . The episode was ranked in 2006 by IGN as number 14 in their list of the top 25 Futurama episodes .
= Boys Don 't Cry ( film ) =
Boys Don 't Cry is a 1999 American romantic drama film directed by Kimberly Peirce and co @-@ written by Peirce and Andy Bienen . The film is a dramatization of the real @-@ life story of Brandon Teena , an American trans man played in the film by Hilary Swank , who adopts a male identity and attempts to find himself and love in Nebraska but falls victim to a brutal hate crime perpetrated by two male acquaintances . The film also stars Chloë Sevigny , Peter Sarsgaard , Brendan Sexton III , and Alicia Goranson . After reading about the murders while in college , Peirce researched the case and worked on the screenplay for almost five years . Peirce was inspired by All She Wanted , a 1996 book about the killing written by Aphrodite Jones ; however , she chose to focus the story of the film on the relationship between Brandon and his girlfriend Lana Tisdel . Many actors sought the lead role during a three @-@ year casting process before Swank was cast . Swank was chosen because her personality seemed similar to Teena 's . Sevigny initially auditioned for the role of Brandon , but Peirce could not picture her playing a man , so she was ultimately cast as Teena 's girlfriend Lana . Most of the film 's characters were based on real @-@ life people ; others were composites .
Filming occurred during October and November 1998 in the Dallas , Texas area . The producers initially wanted to film in Falls City , Nebraska , where the real @-@ life events had taken place ; however , budget constraints meant that principal photography had to occur in Texas . The film 's cinematography uses dim and artificial lighting throughout and was influenced by a variety of styles , including neorealism and the films of Martin Scorsese , while the soundtrack consisted primarily of country , blues , and rock music from the film . The film 's themes , which have been explored by many scholars , include the nature of romantic and platonic relationships , the causes of violence against LGBT people , transgender people and the gender binary , and the relationship among social class , race , and gender .
The film premiered at the New York Film Festival on October 8 , 1999 , before appearing at various other film festivals . Distributed by Fox Searchlight Pictures , the film received a limited release in the United States on October 22 , 1999 , and it performed well at the North American box office , gaining three times its production budget by May 2000 . The film received overwhelming acclaim from critics . It was widely lauded as one of the best films of the year ; praise focused on the lead performances by Swank and Sevigny as well as the film 's depiction of its subject matter . However , some people who had been involved with Brandon in real life criticized the film for not portraying the events accurately . Boys Don 't Cry was nominated for multiple awards ; at the 72nd Academy Awards in 2000 , Swank was awarded the Academy Award for Best Actress and Sevigny was nominated for Best Supporting Actress . The pair were also nominated at the 57th Golden Globe Awards , with Swank winning the Best Actress – Drama award . Boys Don 't Cry , which dealt with controversial issues , was initially assigned an NC @-@ 17 rating but was later reclassified to an R rating . It was released on home video in September 2000 .
= = Plot = =
Brandon Teena ( Hilary Swank ) is a young trans man whose birth name was Teena Renae Brandon . When Brandon is discovered to be transgender by a former girlfriend 's brother , he receives physical threats . Soon after , he is involved in a bar fight and is evicted from his cousin 's trailer . Brandon moves to Falls City , Nebraska , where he befriends ex @-@ convicts John Lotter ( Peter Sarsgaard ) and Tom Nissen ( Brendan Sexton III ) , and their friends Candace ( Alicia Goranson ) and Lana Tisdel ( Chloë Sevigny ) . Brandon becomes romantically involved with Lana , who is unaware of his biological sex and troubled past . The two make plans to move to Memphis , where Brandon will manage Lana 's karaoke singing career .
The police detain Brandon on charges that arose prior to his relocation ; they place him in the women 's section of the Falls City prison . Lana bails Brandon out and asks why he was placed in a women 's prison . Brandon lies to her , saying he was born a hermaphrodite and will soon receive a sex change . Lana declares her love for Brandon , regardless of his sex or gender . Tom and John become suspicious after reading a newspaper article about Brandon that refers to him by his birth name , Teena Brandon . They force Brandon to remove his pants and reveal his genitals . They try to make Lana look , but she shields her eyes and turns away . After this confrontation , Tom and John drag Brandon into John 's car and drive to an isolated location , where they beat and rape him . Afterwards , they take Brandon to Tom 's house . Though injured , Brandon escapes through a bathroom window . Although his assailants threaten Brandon and warn him not to report the attack to the police , Lana persuades him to do so .
Later , John and Tom get drunk and decide to kill Brandon . Lana attempts to stop them , but the pair drive to Candace 's remote house where they find Brandon , who has been hiding in a nearby shed . John shoots Brandon under the chin . Tom shoots Candace in the head as Lana fights with them , begging them to stop . Tom stabs Brandon 's lifeless body and tries to shoot Lana but John stops him . John and Tom flee the scene while Lana lies with Brandon 's body . The next morning , Lana awakens next to Brandon 's corpse . Her mother arrives and takes her away from the scene . As Lana leaves Falls City , a letter Brandon wrote to her is heard in a voiceover .
= = Cast = =
Hilary Swank as Brandon Teena
Chloë Sevigny as Lana Tisdel
Peter Sarsgaard as John Lotter
Brendan Sexton III as Marvin ' Tom ' Nissen
Alicia Goranson as Candace
Jeannetta Arnette as Linda Tisdel , Lana 's mother
Matt McGrath as Lonny , Brandon 's cousin
Alison Folland as Kate Lotter , John 's sister and Lana 's best friend
Lou Perryman as Sheriff Charles B. Laux
Cheyenne Rushing as Nicole , Brandon 's fictional first girlfriend in Lincoln
Libby Villari as the Nurse
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Brandon Teena was a trans man who was raped and murdered by two male acquaintances in December 1993 , when he was 21 . Kimberly Peirce , at the time a Columbia University film student , became interested in the case after reading a 1994 Village Voice article by Donna Minkowitz . Peirce became engrossed in Brandon 's life and death ; she said , " the minute I read about Brandon , I fell in love . With the intensity of his desire to turn himself into a boy , the fact that he did it with no role models . The leap of imagination that this person took was completely overwhelming to me . " The sensationalist news coverage of the case prolonged her interest . Peirce said she looked beyond the brutality of the case and instead viewed the positive aspects of Brandon 's life as part of what eventually causes his death . She admired Brandon 's audacity , ability to solve complicated problems , and what she perceived as the sense of fantasy invoked by his personality .
Peirce wanted to tell the story from Brandon 's perspective . She was familiar with Brandon 's desire to wear men 's clothing : " I started looking at all the other coverage and a great deal of it was sensational . People were focusing on the spectacle of a girl who had passed as a boy because that is so unfamiliar to so many people . Where to me , I knew girls who had passed as boys , so Brandon was not some weird person to me . Brandon was a very familiar person . " Peirce was influenced by the public perception of the case , believing the American public were generally misinformed : she said , " People were also focusing on the crime without giving it much emotional understanding and I think that 's really dangerous , especially with this culture of violence that we live in " . Peirce began working on a concept for the film and gave it the working title Take It Like a Man .
The project drew interest from various production companies . Diane Keaton 's production company , Blue Relief , showed interest in the screenplay in the mid @-@ 1990s . Initially , the film was to be largely based on Aphrodite Jones ' 1996 true crime book All She Wanted , which told the story of Brandon 's final few weeks . Earlier drafts of the script incorporated scenes featuring Brandon 's family background , including his sister Tammy and mother Joann , as well as some of Teena 's ex @-@ girlfriends . However , Peirce modified the script to fit her vision to focus on the relationship between Brandon and his 19 @-@ year @-@ old girlfriend Lana Tisdel , which Peirce termed a " great love story " , in contrast to All She Wanted , which did not place an emphasis on the relationship . To fund the writing and development of the project , Peirce worked as a paralegal on a midnight shift and as a 35mm film projectionist ; she also received a grant from New York Foundation for the Arts . The project attracted the attention of producer Christine Vachon , who had seen a short film Peirce had made for her thesis in 1995 . IFC Films , Hart Sharp Entertainment , and Killer Films , Vachon and Eva Kolodner 's production company , provided financing for the project . IFC contributed roughly $ 1 million , but the film 's eventual budget remained under $ 2 million . Peirce co @-@ wrote the screenplay with Andy Bienen . They worked together for 18 months on the final drafts and were careful not to " mythologize " Brandon ; the aim was to keep him as human as possible . In the editing stage of the script , Peirce sent the draft to Fox Searchlight Pictures , which agreed to produce and distribute the film while giving Peirce artistic license .
Prior to filming , Peirce researched the facts by interviewing the people surrounding the case . She immersed herself in the information available about the murder , including trial transcripts . She met Lana Tisdel at a convenience store and interviewed her at Tisdel 's home . Tisdel , who began dating Brandon just two weeks before he was murdered , was 19 @-@ years @-@ old at the time of the murders and lived in Falls City with her mother . Peirce also interviewed Tisdel 's mother and Brandon 's friends . However , she was unable to interview Brandon 's mother or any of his biological family . Much factual information , including Nissen being a convicted arsonist , was incorporated into Boys Don 't Cry .
= = = Casting = = =
The filmmakers retained the names of most of the case 's real @-@ life protagonists , but the names of several supporting characters were altered . For example , the character of Candace was named Lisa Lambert in real life . The casting process for Boys Don 't Cry lasted almost four years . Drew Barrymore was an early candidate to star in the film . Peirce scouted the LGBT community , looking mainly for masculine , lesbian women for the role of Brandon Teena . Peirce said the LGBT community was very interested in the project because of the publicity surrounding the murder . High @-@ profile actors avoided Peirce 's auditions at the request of their agents because of the stigma associated with the role . At one point , the project was nearly abandoned because Peirce was not satisfied with most of the people who auditioned . In 1996 , after a hundred female actors had been considered and rejected , the relatively unknown actor Hilary Swank sent a videotape to Peirce and was signed on to the project . Swank successfully passed as a boy to the doorman at her audition . During her audition , Swank , who was 22 , lied to Peirce about her age . Swank said that like Brandon she was 21 years of age . When Peirce later confronted her about her lie , Swank responded , " But that 's what Brandon would do " . Swank 's anonymity as an actor persuaded Peirce to cast her ; Peirce said she did not want a " known actor " to portray Teena . In addition , Peirce felt that Swank 's audition was " the first time I saw someone who not only blurred the gender lines , but who was this beautiful , androgynous person with this cowboy hat and a sock in her pants , who smiled and loved being Brandon . "
Peirce required that Swank " make a full transformation " into a male . Immediately after being cast , Peirce took Swank to a hairdresser , where her lower @-@ back length hair was cut and dyed chestnut brown . When she saw her then @-@ husband , Chad Lowe , again , he barely recognized her . Swank prepared for the role by dressing and living as a man for at least a month , including wrapping her chest in tension bandages and putting socks down the front of her trousers as Brandon Teena had done . Her masquerade was convincing ; Swank 's neighbors believed the " young man " coming and going from her home was Swank 's visiting brother . She reduced her body fat to seven percent to accentuate her facial structure and refused to let the cast and crew see her out of costume . Swank earned $ 75 per day for her work on Boys Don 't Cry , totaling $ 3 @,@ 000 . Her earnings were so low that she did not qualify for health insurance .
For the role of Brandon 's girlfriend , Lana Tisdel , Peirce had envisioned a young Jodie Foster . The role was also offered to Reese Witherspoon and Sarah Polley . Peirce ultimately decided to cast Chloë Sevigny based on her performance in The Last Days of Disco ( 1998 ) . Sevigny had auditioned for the role of Brandon , but Peirce decided Sevigny would be more suited to playing Lana because she could not picture Sevigny as a man .
" There 's a moment in The Last Days of Disco when Chloë does this little dance move and flirts with the camera , " she says . " She has this mix of attractiveness , flirtation and sophistication that she gives you , but then takes away very quickly so that you want more : you want to reach into the screen and grab her . When I saw that , and her confidence and wit , I thought : if she could flirt with Brandon and the audience in that way , that 's exactly what we need for Lana . I said to her , ' Will you please audition to play Lana ? ' She said , ' No . ' And I said , ' OK , you can have the role . ' "
Sevigny dyed her hair red for the role to match Lana 's strawberry blonde hair . Peirce later said , " Chloë just surrendered to the part . She watched videos of Lana . She just became her very naturally . "
Peter Sarsgaard played John Lotter , Lana 's former boyfriend , who raped and murdered Teena . Sarsgaard was one of the first choices for the role . He later said he wanted his character to be " likable , sympathetic even " , because he wanted the audience " to understand why they would hang out with me . If my character wasn 't necessarily likable , I wanted him to be charismatic enough that you weren 't going to have a dull time if you were with him . " In another interview , Sarsgaard said he felt " empowered " by playing Lotter . In an interview with The Independent , Sarsgaard said , " I felt very sexy , weirdly , playing John Lotter . I felt like I was just like the sheriff , y 'know , and that everyone loved me . " Sarsgaard recalled watching footage of and reading about Lotter to prepare for the role . Peirce cast Alicia Goranson , known for playing Becky on the sitcom Roseanne , as Candace because of her likeness to Lisa Lambert . Like Sevigny , Goranson had initially auditioned for the lead role .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Initially , Boys Don 't Cry was scheduled to film for thirty days . However , principal photography for the film lasted from October 19 to November 24 , 1998 . The small budget dictated some of the filming decisions , including the omission of some incidents to speed up the overall pacing . Timing constraints and Peirce 's visions relating to the plot limited what could be achieved with the narrative . For example , the film portrays a double murder when in actuality a third person , Phillip DeVine — a black disabled man — was also killed at the scene . At the time , he had been dating Lana Tisdel 's sister , Leslie , who was omitted from the story . Boys Don 't Cry was primarily filmed in Greenville , Texas , a small town about 45 mi ( 72 km ) northeast of Dallas . Most of the incidents in the case took place in Falls City , Nebraska , but budget constraints led the filmmakers to choose locations in Texas . Peirce initially wanted to shoot in Falls City , but Vachon told her that filming there would not be possible . Afterwards , the film was going to be shot in Omaha , Nebraska , but Peirce felt that " none of [ the places ] looked right . " In addition , Peirce also scouted filming locations in Kansas and Florida before deciding on Texas . One of Peirce 's main goals was for the audience to sympathize with Brandon . On the film 's DVD commentary track , Peirce said , " The work was informing me about how I wanted to represent it . I wanted the audience to enter deeply into this place , this character , so they could entertain these contradictions in Brandon 's own mind and would not think he was crazy , would not think he was lying , but would see him as more deeply human " .
Some scenes in Boys Don 't Cry required emotional and physical intensity ; these were allocated extended periods of filming . The scene in which Brandon , at the wishes of his friends , bumper @-@ skis on the back of a pickup truck , was delayed when a police officer , just arriving at a shift change , required a large lighting crane to be moved from one side of the road to the other . The scenes took six hours to shoot and were filmed at sunrise , resulting in a blue sky being seen in the background . There were some technical complications : some of the filming equipment got stuck in mud , and radio wires in some of the scenes conflicted with the sound production . Swank required a stunt double for a scene in which she falls off the back of a truck . Teena 's rape scene was given an extended filming time ; Sexton , who portrayed one of the attackers , walked away in tears afterward . Swank found portraying her character daunting and felt the need to " keep a distance " from the reality of the actual event . When scenes became difficult , Swank requested the company of her husband on set . At times , Peirce worked for seventeen hours a day in order to complete more work , but the other crew members told her that this was taking up potential nighttime filming hours .
= = = Cinematography = = =
Peirce , who had originally sought a career in photography before moving into filmmaking , applied techniques she had learned into the film . She described the film 's mood as " artificial night " . Director of Photography Jim Denault showed her the work of photographer Jan Staller , whose long @-@ exposure night photography under artificial lighting inspired Denault to avoid using " moonlight " effects for most of the film . As a way to further incorporate the sense of artificial night , John Pirozzi , who had been experimenting with time @-@ lapse photography using a non @-@ motion @-@ controlled moving camera , was invited to create the transition shots seen throughout the film .
The film 's visual style depicts the Midwestern United States in a " withdrawn " , dark and understated light to give a " surreal " effect . Denault shot Boys Don 't Cry in flat , spherical format on 35 mm film using Kodak Vision film stock . The film was shot with a Moviecam Compact camera fitted with Carl Zeiss super speed lenses . For the scene in which Brandon is stripped , a hand @-@ held camera was used to give a sense of subjectivity and intimacy .
The use of low natural light and heavy artificial light is illustrated early in the film in the opening roller rink scene in which Brandon pursues his first relationship with a young woman . For this scene , Peirce used a three @-@ shot method similar to that used in a scene in The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) in which Dorothy leaves her house and enters Oz . The scene consists of a three @-@ shot sequence meant to symbolize Brandon 's metaphorical " entrance to manhood " , or Brandon 's social transition from a woman to a man . Some scenes were given a prolonged shooting sequence to induce a feeling of hallucination . An example is the sequence in which Brandon and Lana first have sex , followed by a shot of her , Brandon , Candace , and Kate driving in a car against a city skyline backdrop . The scene in which John and Tom strip Brandon was filmed with three cameras due to time constraints , even though Peirce wanted six cameras to film it . The scene took an hour and a half to film in total .
Peirce drew inspiration from the filming style of John Cassavetes and the early work of Martin Scorsese , and she incorporated neo @-@ realist techniques into the film . She was also influenced by a second style of work — the " magical " films of Michael Powell and Kenji Mizoguchi . The former style is used when Brandon joins the social circle of John , Tom , Lana and her mother , while the latter is used when Brandon and Lana begin to depart from that life . The film was also influenced by Bonnie and Clyde ( 1967 ) . Peirce incorporated influences from Raging Bull ( 1980 ) by opening the film with a shot of Brandon traveling along a highway , as seen from the character 's imaginative or dream perspective , similar to the beginning of Raging Bull . When a character expresses a dream or hopeful assertion , Peirce cuts to an " eerily lit " dream landscape . The Pawnbroker ( 1964 ) inspired the cinematography and editing of Brandon 's rape scene , particularly in its use of fast cutting .
= = = Music = = =
Because the film is set in the rural Midwestern United States , the Boys Don 't Cry soundtrack album features a compilation of country , blues and rock music . Nathan Larson and Nina Persson of The Cardigans composed an instrumental version of Restless Heart 's 1988 country @-@ pop song " The Bluest Eyes in Texas " , a variation of which was used as the film 's love theme and score . The song itself is heard during a karaoke scene , sung by Sevigny 's character , and at the end of the film . The title of the film is taken from the song of the same name by British rock band The Cure . An American cover of the song , sung by Nathan Larson , plays in the background in the scene in which Lana bails Brandon out of jail and during one of their sex scenes . However , the song is not included on the released soundtrack . Songs by Lynyrd Skynyrd ( " Tuesday 's Gone " ) , Paisley Underground band Opal ( " She 's a Diamond " ) and The Charlatans ( " Codine Blues " ) also appear in the film , as do cover versions of other songs . The soundtrack was released on November 23 , 1999 , by Koch Records . " The Bluest Eyes in Texas " was played when Hilary Swank went onstage to receive her Academy Award for Best Actress in 2000 . The song also plays over the film 's end credits .
= = Themes and analysis = =
Boys Don 't Cry has been widely discussed and analyzed by scholars and others . Roger Ebert described the film as a " romantic tragedy " embedded in a working class American setting , calling it " Romeo and Juliet set in a Nebraska trailer park " . Philosopher Rebecca Hanrahan argued that the question of identity — particularly Brandon 's — is alluded to frequently in Boys Don 't Cry and that Peirce poses the nature of identification and self as the film 's main question . Journalist Janet Maslin said the film is about accepting identity , which in turn means accepting the fate predisposed for that identity . Paula Nechak called the film a " bold cautionary tale " ; she regarded the film as a negative , dismal depiction of Midwestern America , writing that " [ Peirce 's film has ] captured the mystique and eerie loneliness " and " isolation of the Midwest , with its dusty desolation and nowhere @-@ to @-@ go frustration that propels people to violence and despair " .
Christine Vachon , the film 's executive producer , said , " It 's not just about two stupid thugs who killed somebody . It 's about these guys whose world is so tenuous and so fragile that they can 't stand to have any of their beliefs shattered " , referring to John and Tom 's views of their lives , Brandon 's aspirations and his biological sex . Along with other turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ millennium films such as In the Company of Men ( 1997 ) , American Beauty ( 1999 ) , Fight Club ( 1999 ) , and American Psycho ( 2000 ) , Vincent Hausmann said Boys Don 't Cry " raises the broader , widely explored issue of masculinity in crisis " . Jason Wood said the film , together with Patty Jenkins 's Monster ( 2003 ) , is an exploration of " social problems " .
= = = Romantic and platonic relationships = = =
Several scholars commented on the relationship between Brandon and Lana as well as Brandon 's relationship to John and Tom . Carol Siegel regarded the film as a thematically rich love story between two ill @-@ fated lovers , similarly to Romeo and Juliet . Judith Halberstam ( or Jack Halberstam ) attributed Boys Don 't Cry 's success to its ostensible argument for tolerance of sexual diversity by depicting a relationship between two unlikely people . This tragic aspect of the love story led Halberstam to compare Brandon and Lana 's relationship and subsequent drama to classic and modern romances including Romeo and Juliet , often using the term star @-@ crossed lovers . In the Journal for Creativity in Mental Health , Jinnelle Veronique Aguilar discussed Brandon 's ability to create interpersonal relationships in the film . She opined that Brandon wanted to create close relationships , but he could not due to his transgender status until he became close with Lana . " Although Brandon is able to make a brief but authentic connection with Lana , he continues to experience a sense of aloneness in the world . He consistently faces a sense of fear related to the power @-@ over dynamics that he and others who are transsexual face … Brandon experiences the central relational paradox , in which he yearns for connection ; however , due to the real threat he faces , he is unable to make that connection . "
Myra Hird , in the International Feminist Journal of Politics , argued that John and Brandon exemplify two different and contrasting types of masculinity , and that Brandon 's version is preferred by the film 's female characters , comparing them to Arnold Schwarzenegger and Jimmy Stewart , respectively . " Throughout the film , John offers the viewer a typified narrative of heteronormative masculinity . [ … ] Against this hegemonic masculinity , Brandon offers a masculinity reminiscent of a by @-@ gone era of chivalry . " Furthermore , she contended that John was threatened by Brandon 's version of masculinity . " Gender boundaries are taken extremely seriously in Western society , and Boys Don 't Cry depicts how intensely threatened John and Tom are by Brandon 's superior portrayal of a masculinity ' schedule ' . John cannot abide Brandon 's desire , and clear ability , to access male privilege , and his reaction is to force Brandon to be female through the act of rape . "
= = = Causes of violence against LGBT people = = =
Other commentators discussed the more complex psychological causes of Brandon 's murder . Halberstam commented on the complicated causes of the murder , and whether it was due to transphobia or homophobia : " Ultimately in Boys [ Don 't Cry ] , the double vision of the transgender subject gives way to the universal vision of humanism , the transgender man and his lover become lesbians and the murder seems instead to be the outcome of vicious homophobic rage . " Ebert called the film a " sad song about a free spirit who tried to fly a little too close to the flame " . In the same journal , Julianne Pidduck commented on the film 's rape and murder scenes , " Effectively , the viewer is asked to experience the rape from the victim 's point of view . The film invites political , emotional and corporeal allegiances linked to known and imagined risk , especially for female and / or queer viewers . An allegiance with Brandon 's outsider status aligns the viewer with Brandon 's initial exhilaration at his transgressive success as a boy , drawing us through to the film 's disturbing finale . "
= = = Self @-@ identity , transgender identity and the gender binary = = =
Many scholars addressed the various performances of gender by the characters in the film ; Moss and Lynne Zeavin offered a psychoanalytic analysis , calling the film a " case report " that " presents [ Brandon 's ] transsexual inclinations as a series of euphoric conquests " and " focuses on a range of anxious reactions to her [ sic ] transsexuality . [ … ] or a case not for what they might reveal about female hysteria , but for what they might reveal about misogyny " . Elaborating on the themes of the film , they wrote :
In her film , Pierce [ sic ] inserts the unconventional problems of transsexuality into a conventional narrative structure . Throughout the film Brandon is presented as a doomed , though beguiling and beautiful rascal , recognizably located in the lineage of well @-@ known cinematic bad @-@ boys like James Dean , Steve McQueen , and Paul Newman . Like these predecessors , Brandon 's heroic stature derives from her [ sic ] unwillingness to compromise her [ sic ] identity … Pierce [ sic ] presents Brandon 's struggles against biological determinism as the struggles of a dignified renegade .
Brenda Cooper , in Critical Studies in Media Communication , argued that the film " can be read as a liberatory narrative that queers the centers of heteronormativity and hegemonic masculinity by privileging female masculinity and celebrating its differences from heterosexual norms . " She argued that the film challenged heteronormativity by criticizing the concept of the American Heartland , by presenting problems with heterosexual masculinity and its internalised aggression , by " centering female masculinity " , and blurring gender boundaries . Later on in the same essay , she commented that Brandon both embodied and rejected traditional masculinity , providing a new outlook on what it means to be a man which excited and thrilled the women in the film : " Brandon ’ s performance of masculinity , however , can be interpreted as operating on two levels in the narratives : When Brandon tries to establish his male identity with his new buddies , he imitates the kind of overly aggressive macho machismo that John and Tom represent . But Lana falls for Brandon because of his version of masculinity , which contradicts and challenges traditional assumptions about what it takes to be a man and to please a woman . Brandon ’ s articulation of manhood effectively mocks sexist masculine ideals and appropriates the codes of normative masculinity . " Michele Aaron , in Screen , claimed that the film was primarily centered on " the spectacle of transvestism " and that the film as a whole was " a tale of passing " .
Jennifer Esposito wrote that " We watch onscreen as Brandon binds his breasts , packs a dildo , fixes his hair in a mirror . His masculinity is carefully scripted . John and Tom … are never shown preparing for masculinity . They are already masculine . " Melissa Rigney argued that the film defied traditional portrayals of transgender characters by not confining Brandon to certain stereotypes . " On the surface , Boys Don 't Cry appears to hold the potential of rendering gender in excess : the figure of Brandon Teena can be read variously as butch , male , lesbian , transgender , transsexual , and heterosexual . [ … ] Although female masculinity comes to the forefront in this film , I argue that the film attempts to subsume the transgressive potential of the gender outlaw within a lesbian framework and narrative , one that reduces and , ultimately , nullifies Brandon 's gender and sexual excess . " In contrast , Annabelle Wilcox opined that the film primarily reinforced the gender binary by showing that " Brandon 's body is branded by such rhetoric and representation , and is assumed to be a site of ' truth ' that closes the question that being transgender poses for subjectivity , gender , and sexuality . " She also went on to note that many film critics either disregarded Brandon 's male identity or used female pronouns when referring to him . Rachel Swan , writing for Film Quarterly , wrote that Brandon 's masculinity was often contrasted with Lana 's femininity as a means of illustrating the two sides of the gender binary . In addition , she regarded John and Tom 's rape of Brandon as an attempt to psychologically castrate him .
In another piece , Halberstam compared the media portrayal of Brandon to that of Billy Tipton , a jazz musician who no one knew was transgender until the post @-@ mortem discovery that he was assigned female at birth . She wrote , " On some level Brandon 's story , while cleaving to its own specificity , needs to remain an open narrative — not a stable narrative of FTM transsexual identity nor a singular tale of queer bashing , not a cautionary fable about the violence of rural America nor an advertisement for urban organizations of queer community ; like the narrative of Billy Tipton , Brandon 's story permits a dream of transformation . " Christine Dando argued that " masculinity is associated with outside and femininity with interior spaces . "
= = = Social class and race = = =
Lisa Henderson commented on the intersection between social class and gender in the film , particularly Brandon 's working @-@ class status : " My reading of Boys [ Don 't Cry ] through the lens of class representation is not born of a univocal search for so @-@ called positive images , but I do recoil at what appears to me to be a new instalment in a long history of popular images of working @-@ class pathology . [ … ] But that is not the whole story . Within this universe of feeling and reaction structured by lack and tinted blue by country lyrics and a protective and threatening night @-@ time light , characters imbricate gender and class through their longings for love , acceptance and a better life . " Jennifer Devere Brody commented on the film 's exclusion of Philip DeVine , a disabled African @-@ American man who was another victim of the shooting . " Perhaps one can only speculate about the motivations behind this decision . But the effects are familiar ones in the history of racist representations . The erasure of DeVine from the narrative places the white female bodies as the only true victims of crime ; and the film 's inability to show DeVine as violated rather than violator perpetuates the myth of the black man as always already a perpetrator of crime . " Regarding Devine , Halberstam wrote , " Peirce perhaps thought that her film , already running close to two hours , could not handle another subplot , but the story of Philip DeVine is important and it is a crucial part of the drama of gender , race , sexuality , and class that was enacted in the heartland . Race is not incidental to this narrative of mostly white , Midwestern small towns and by omitting DeVine 's story from Boys Don 't Cry , Peirce contributes to the detachment of transgender narratives from narratives about race , consigning the memory of DeVine to oblivion . "
= = = Culture of the Midwestern United States = = =
Several authors commented on the possible impact that the film 's setting of Falls City , Nebraska , located in the Midwestern United States , could have had on the film 's plot . Maslin called Boys Don 't Cry a tale of a trapped , small town character 's search for life beyond the rural existence and the high price he pays for his view of the " American dream " . Regarding the film 's portrayal of Nebraska , Halberstam wrote , " The landscape of Nebraska then serves as a contested site upon which multiple narratives unfold , narratives indeed which refuse to collapse into simply one story . Some of these narratives are narratives of hate , some of desire ; others tell of ignorance and brutality ; still others of isolation and fear ; some allow violence and ignorant prejudices to become the essence of white poor rural identity ; still others provoke questions about the deployment of whiteness and the regulation of violence . "
Christina Dando wrote that the typical portrayal of the Midwest as a " frontier " area did not come through in the film until the setting switched from Lincoln to Falls City : " The flat landscape , the spacious sky , the home , evoke two different Plains time periods familiar to many Americans through historic photographs : the early settlement process … and 1930s Farm Security Administration photographs . It is virtually timeless . There is also a sense of both place and placelessness . While the landscape is distinctively Plains , it could be described as nowhere . " She went on to argue that the setting is not only conveyed visually , but also through the characters ' homes . " While there is no trailer park in Falls City , Brandon 's community there occupies the margin : Candace and Lana 's homes appear to be on the outskirts of town , or even outside of town . There are no complete families , only the family that that has been created . The men appear to have no homes , relationally or physically : none are shown to have family . Speaking about the film 's cinematography and the relation to its themes :
The Plains frontier landscape as it is constructed in Boys Don 't Cry is dark , literally and figuratively . Most of the scenes are set at night , utilizing night Plains skies with time @-@ lapse clouds , heightening the isolation . Film frames of placeless and timeless . The community also is dark . It is marginal , just managing to get along , and in the end deadly . While the classic Western dichotomy of men associated with exteriors and women with interiors is apparent , so too is Brandon 's border @-@ crossing . He appears to be able to easily handle both landscapes , yet belong to neither .
Dando compared the film to other tragic books and films that have been set on the Great Plains , including My Ántonia , Giants in the Earth , The Grapes of Wrath , In Cold Blood , and Badlands , writing that unlike the other works , " Brandon is [ a ] character who truly crosses frontiers . "
= = Release = =
= = = Premiere and commercial performance = = =
Boys Don 't Cry aired in Canada at the Toronto International Film Festival ( TIFF ) in September 1999 . It premiered in the U.S. at the New York Film Festival on October 8 , 1999 , to critical acclaim . It was shown at the Reel Affirmations International Gay and Lesbian Film Festival in early October , where it won further praise and appeared at the Venice International Film Festival . Boys Don 't Cry was given a special screening in snippets at the Sundance Film Festival . At that time , the film was still called Take It Like a Man . The film received a limited release theatrically on October 22 , 1999 , in the U.S. , where it was distributed by Fox Searchlight Pictures , a subsidiary of Twentieth Century Fox that specializes in independent films . Initially , many viewers complained via email to Peirce that the film was not being shown near them , as the film was only being shown on 25 screens across the country . However , this number increased to nearly 200 by March 2000 . The film grossed $ 73 @,@ 720 in its opening week . By December 5 , the film had grossed in excess of $ 2 million . By May 2000 , it had a U.S. total gross of $ 11 @,@ 540 @,@ 607 — more than three times its production budget . Internationally , the film was released on March 2 , 2000 in Australia and on April 9 , 2000 , in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critics lauded Boys Don 't Cry in 1999 , with many calling it one of the best films of the year . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports 88 % of 75 professional critics gave the film a positive review ; the site consensus is that " Hilary Swank 's acclaimed performance pays fitting tribute to the tragic life of Brandon Teena " . Another review aggregator , Metacritic , gave the film an 86 of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " . One reviewer said the film was a " critical knockout " .
Critics often praised the performances by Swank and Sevigny ; Peter Travers said the pair " give performances that burn in the memory " , and The Film Stage termed Swank 's performance " one of the greatest " Best Actress Oscar @-@ winning performances . Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle lauded the lead acting performances of Swank , Sevigny , Saarsgard , and Sexton III , writing , " It may be the best @-@ acted film of the year " . Online film reviewer James Berardinelli gave the film three and a half stars out of four ; he highlighted the performances of Swank and Sevigny as the film 's greatest success and likened the film 's intensity to that of a train wreck . Berardinelli wrote that Swank " gives the performance of her career " and that " Sevigny 's performance is more conventional than Swank 's , but no less effective . She provides the counterbalance to the tide of hatred that drowns the last act of the film . " Emanuel Levy of Variety Magazine called the acting " flawless " and concluded that the " stunningly accomplished " and " candid " film could be " seen as a Rebel Without a Cause for these culturally diverse and complex times , with the two misfits enacting a version of the James Dean — Natalie Wood romance with utmost conviction , searching , like their ' 50s counterparts , for love , self @-@ worth and a place to call home " . Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post said the performances are of such " luminous humanity that they break your heart " . Premiere listed Swank 's performance as one of the " 100 Greatest Performances of All Time " . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly called Swank a " revelation " and wrote , " by the end , her Brandon / Teena is beyond male or female . It 's as if we were simply glimpsing the character 's soul , in all its yearning and conflicted beauty . "
Other reviewers were positive towards the way Boys Don 't Cry portrayed its subject matter. and Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times listed Boys Don 't Cry as one of the five best films of 1999 , saying , " this could have been a clinical movie of the week , but instead it 's a sad song about a free spirit who tried to fly a little too close to the flame " . Janet Maslin of The New York Times said the film was " stunning " and gave it four stars out of four stars . Maslin said , " unlike most films about mind @-@ numbing tragedy , this one manages to be full of hope " . Kenneth Turan of The Los Angeles Times praised the lack of romanticization and dramatization of the characters , and wrote , " Peirce and Bienen and the expert cast engage us in the actuality of these rootless , hopeless , stoned @-@ out lives without sentimentalizing or romanticizing them " and that " Boys Don 't Cry is an exceptional — and exceptionally disturbing film " . Mike Clarke of USA Today commended Peirce 's depth of knowledge of the case and the subject matter , writing , " Peirce seems to have researched her subject with grad @-@ school @-@ thesis intensity " .
Jay Carr of The Boston Globe wrote , " Boys Don 't Cry not only revisits the crime , but convinces us we 're being taken inside it " . Stephanie Zacharek of Salon gave a positive review , singling out the directing and acting . She wrote , " Peirce ... covers an extraordinary amount of territory , not just in terms of dealing with Brandon ’ s sexual @-@ identity and self @-@ fulfillment issues , but also in trying to understand the lives of those around him " . Zacharek described Swank 's performance as " a continual revelation " and Sevigny 's performance as " transformative " . She said , " When Brandon dies , " Boys Don ’ t Cry " reaches an emotional intensity that ’ s almost operatic . The saddest thing , though , is seeing Sevigny ’ s Lana crumpled over his corpse — the way she plays it , you know that when Brandon went , he took a part of her with him , too " . David Edelstein of Slate was also very positive towards the film , calling it " a meditation on the irrelevance of gender . " He went on to praise Swank , Sevigny , and Sarsgaard in their roles , especially Sevigny , writing that she " keeps the movie tantalizing " .
The film was not without detractors , who focused on the film 's portrayal of Brandon and his actions . Richard Corliss of Time magazine was one of the film 's negative reviewers ; he wrote , " the film lets down the material . It 's too cool : all attitude , no sizzle " . Peter Rainer of New York Magazine compared the film unfavorably with Rebel Without a Cause ( 1954 ) , calling it a " transgendered " version , elaborating that the film " could have used a tougher and more exploratory spirit ; for Peirce , there was no cruelty , no derangement in Brandon 's impostures toward the unsuspecting . " In 2007 , Premiere ranked the film on its list of the " The 25 Most Dangerous Movies " .
The film was generally well @-@ received by the LGBT community . Boys Don 't Cry 's release came a year after the murder of a homosexual teenager , Matthew Shepard , which occurred October 12 , 1998 . The murder sparked additional public interest in hate crime legislation in America and in Brandon Teena , and increased public interest in Boys Don 't Cry . Cooper wrote that Boys Don 't Cry " is perhaps the only film addressing the issue of female masculinity by a self @-@ described queer filmmaker to reach mainstream audiences and to receive critical acclaim and prestigious awards . " However , Noelle Howey , writing for Mother Jones , wrote that despite the critical acclaim , relatively few critics understood what she perceived as the main point of the film — Brandon being a victim of trans bashing . Howey said , " Even a cursory glance at reviews of " Boys Don 't Cry " reveals that while most critics admired the film , few absorbed its main point : that Brandon Teena was a biological girl who felt innately that she was a man . Most of the media instead cast Teena as a Yentl for the new millennium , rather than a victim of anti @-@ transgender bigotry . "
= = = = Factual accuracy = = = =
The accuracy of Boys Don 't Cry was disputed by real @-@ life people involved in the murder . The real Lana Tisdel declared her dislike for the film ; she said Brandon never proposed to her and that when she discovered the truth about Brandon 's sex , she ended the relationship and left him . Tisdel disliked the way she was portrayed in the film , and called the film the " second murder of Brandon Teena " . Before the film 's theatrical release , Lana Tisdel sued the film 's producers , claiming that the film depicted her as " lazy , white trash and a skanky snake " and that her family and friends had come to see her as " a lesbian who did nothing to stop a murder " . Tisdel said the film falsely portrayed her continuing her relationship with Teena after she discovered he was transgender . Tisdel settled her lawsuit against Fox Searchlight for an undisclosed sum . Sarah Nissen , cousin of perpetrator Marvin Nissen , was also critical of the film , saying , " There 's none of it that 's right . It was just weird . " Leslie Tisdel , Lana 's sister , called the film " a lie of a movie " . Leslie was not included in the film , and her ties with the third victim , Phillip DeVine
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1951 to 1962 , it was co @-@ located next to Caribou Air Force Station .
Loring was home to a civilian population , many of whom were employed alongside active duty service members . The base included many amenities , such as a hospital , school , and ski hill , which facilitated the adjustment to Maine life by the civilians .
The 1991 Base Realignment and Closure Commission recommended that Loring be closed and its aircraft and mission be distributed to other bases in the nation . The base was closed in September 1994 after over forty years of service . It was redeveloped by the Loring Development Authority as the Loring Commerce Centre , an industrial and aviation park ; the airfield is operated as Loring International Airport .
= = Overview = =
For the majority of its operational lifetime , Loring was a heavy bomber , aerial refueling , and interception facility for military aircraft , equipment , and supplies first as part of Strategic Air Command ( SAC ) ( 1947 – 1992 ) , then as part of the succeeding Air Combat Command ( ACC ) ( 1992 – 1994 ) .
Loring was planned in 1947 as Limestone Army Air Field and was designed with a capacity of over 100 B @-@ 36 Peacemaker strategic bombers . This plan was only partially completed due to budget constraints , but , over time , Loring became one of the largest air bases of SAC . After the B @-@ 36 was phased out , the B @-@ 52 Stratofortress was based at Loring , first with D models , then with B @-@ 52Gs . The Boeing KC @-@ 97 Stratofreighter was also based there for a number of years , until it was replaced by the better @-@ known KC @-@ 135A Stratotanker .
Loring was also home to many facilities that were a part of the base , or were nearby . Caribou Air Force Station was the weapons storage area that operated separately from Loring until it was absorbed in 1961 . Caswell Air Force Station operated to the east , but had a unit associated with Loring before it became fully operational . On @-@ base facilities included the Alert Area , which operated as a separate facility within Loring , due to crews being constantly stationed on alert . The Double Cantilever Hangar was the largest hangar at the facility , with the capacity to hold six parked B @-@ 52s , or five B @-@ 36s .
One of Loring 's major secondary missions included serving as the headquarters for the 45th Air Division from 8 October 1954 to 18 January 1958 , and on 20 November 1958 . The host wing at Loring was the 42d Bombardment Wing for all but a small portion of its early existence . Loring was primarily home to active duty units , although this changed in the 1980s , when the Massachusetts Air National Guard 's 101st Fighter Squadron sent a detachment to Loring . As the base was the closest in the U.S. to Europe , it also functioned as an important stopover point .
The 1991 Base Realignment and Closure Commission recommended closure of Loring AFB and it was officially closed in September 1994 . It was later reopened as the Loring Commerce Centre .
= = Major units = =
= = = 42nd Bomb Wing = = =
The 42nd Bomb Wing was the host unit at Loring AFB from 1953 until 1994 , supporting national security objectives with mission @-@ ready B @-@ 52G Stratofortresses , and KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker aircraft . The wing had the ability to deploy at any time to support both SAC , and later , ACC missions . It was operational at Loring from 1953 to 1994 .
The 42nd Operations Group ( OG ) formerly supported national security objectives , as directed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff , utilizing B @-@ 52 and KC @-@ 135 aircraft . Operational squadrons during the time of its operation at Loring included :
69th Bombardment Squadron ( B @-@ 52 , 1952 – 1991 )
70th Bombardment Squadron ( B @-@ 52 , 1953 – 1966 )
75th Bombardment Squadron ( B @-@ 52 , 1953 – 1956 )
42d Air Refueling Squadron ( KC @-@ 135 , 1955 – 1994 )
407th Air Refueling Squadron ( KC @-@ 135 , 1968 – 1990 )
All B @-@ 52s carried the " LZ " Tailcode . In addition to the 42nd OG , other components of the 42nd Bomb Wing were :
42nd Organizational Maintenance Squadron
42nd Field Maintenance Squadron
42nd Avionics Maintenance Squadron
42nd Munitions Maintenance Squadron
42nd Combat Support Group
42nd Transportation Squadron
42nd Supply Squadron
42nd Civil Engineering Squadron
42nd Consolidated headquarters Squadron
42nd Security Police Squadron
42nd Airborne Missile Maintenance Squadron ( 1964 – 1974 ) , responsible for maintenance of missiles that were fitted onto the B @-@ 52s
2192nd Communications Squadron , Air Force Communications Command unit absorbed into 42nd Bomb Wing in 1990
In 1991 , it was announced that Loring would close in 1994 . This led to the 42nd being moved to Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama , where it became the 42nd Air Base Wing . All other squadrons of the wing were inactivated and have remained inactive , except for the 69th , which was reactivated in 2009 at Minot Air Force Base .
= = History = =
Loring AFB was named in 1954 for Major Charles J. Loring , Jr . , USAF , a Medal of Honor recipient during the Korean War . During the morning of 22 November 1952 , he led a flight of F @-@ 80 Shooting Stars on patrol over Kunwha . After beginning a dive bombing run and getting hit , he entered into a controlled dive and destroyed a Chinese gun emplacement on Sniper Ridge that was harassing United Nations troops . Limestone Air Force Base was renamed in his honor .
= = = Previous designations = = =
Designations of Loring Air Force Base :
Limestone Army Air Field ( 15 April 1947 – 5 June 1950 )
Limestone Air Force Base ( 5 June 1950 – 1 October 1954 )
= = = Major commands assigned = = =
Major commands to which the base was assigned :
Strategic Air Command , 15 April 1947 – 1 June 1992
Air Combat Command , 1 June 1992 – 30 September 1994
= = = Major units assigned = = =
Major units which were assigned to Loring :
= = = Operational history = = =
= = = = Origins = = = =
Loring AFB was carved out of the woods of Maine beginning in the late forties and officially dedicated in 1953 , named after Charles J. Loring , Jr . , who was killed in the Korean War . The closest Air Force base on the east coast to Europe , it was originally built with a capacity of 100 B @-@ 36 Peacemaker bombers and equipped with a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) runway .
Loring was built on 14 @,@ 300 acres ( 58 km2 ) of land , making it the biggest SAC base in the country . This in turn allowed for it to have the largest capacity for weapon storage and for fuel storage in all of SAC . ( Its overall capacity ranked second among all 21 SAC bases ) . The weapons storage capacity was the highest in all of SAC , 10 @,@ 247 @,@ 882 NEW ( Net Explosive Weight ) , and it was first in all of SAC in fuel storage capacity ( 9 @,@ 193 @,@ 374 gallons ) . Fuel was delivered to the base via a 200 @-@ mile pipeline to Searsport , Maine . Ramp space at Loring exceeded 1 @.@ 1 million square yards , which made it second among all SAC bases in total ramp space , and first in excess ramp space . Furthermore , it was one of two fully capable conventional weapons storage facilities in CONUS maintained by SAC .
During the Cold War , new U.S. Air Force bases were constructed along the northern border of the continental U.S. ; their most direct route to the Soviet Union was through the Arctic Circle . These sites were high @-@ importance strategic bases for hosting long @-@ range missiles and aircraft . In 1947 , the New England Division of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers chose a site in northeastern Maine , within both the Limestone Township and Caswell Plantation . The remote site consisted mostly of dense forest , shallow marshes , and wild blueberry bogs , on a slight plateau over the town , which helped keep it above the fog most of the time . Only a small part of the base was suitable for farming , so there was little impact on Aroostook County 's agricultural community . Additionally , Loring was not far from sources of materials for runway , taxiway , and parking apron construction . The most important benefit of the site was that it was a few hundred miles closer than any other base to potential targets in Europe .
= = = = Construction = = = =
On 15 April 1947 , construction commenced on Limestone Army Air Field , the first Strategic Air Command base designed and built to host high @-@ speed aircraft , including the new B @-@ 36 Peacemaker . Original plans for Limestone called for two parallel north − south runways , a 12 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 660 m ) east − west runway , and accommodations for over 100 aircraft . The multimillion @-@ dollar project was not built to the specifications of the original Army Corps of Engineers plan , and only one north − south runway was constructed .
On 23 May , a 17 @-@ million @-@ dollar contract was awarded to two companies , with the aim of completing the first phase of construction . This included the north − south runway , a parallel taxiway ( Taxiway J ) , a parking apron , the Arch Hangar , a base operations building , a control tower , a power plant , a 250 @-@ person barracks ( which would later become Building 6000 ) , a water supply system , and a railroad spur to the base ( now part of the Montreal , Maine and Atlantic Railway ) .
One of the first structures was the Arch Hangar . At the time , it was the largest monolithic arch roof structure in the United States , and one of the largest hangars in the world . The construction of the hangar was also groundbreaking , including a foundation set on bedrock , extensive footing structures , intricate formwork , and a 340 @-@ foot arch span .
The runway was another major construction task . The airfield in northern Maine was subject to freeze @-@ thaw cycles and had bogs and various types of groundcover ; 2 @.@ 1 million cubic yards of material was removed . The foundation of the runway was constructed to a depth of 70 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) of a flexible bituminous @-@ concrete pavement . This was all done on a runway that was 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 050 m ) in length and 300 feet ( 90 m ) wide .
The month of June 1950 began 44 years of constant activity at Limestone . On the 10th , the 7 officers and 78 airmen of the Limestone Detachment arrived , as the tenant unit during construction . Two days later , an aircraft from Oklahoma arrived . On the 15th , limited operations began at Limestone , as Cold War tensions began to heat up . The next day , a B @-@ 36 Peacemaker arrived and later departed . 1 July brought the re @-@ designation of the Limestone Detachment as the 4215th Base Service Squadron . After the Korean War broke out , the decision was made to increase the squadron 's size to 28 officers , 340 airmen , and 20 civilians . August brought the first permanently assigned aircraft , a C @-@ 47 Skytrain , and more aircraft using the base as a stopover between the States and Europe .
The war brought increased funding to Limestone in 1951 . Eight additional hangars were constructed at the southwestern end of the runway , as well as a 2 @,@ 100 @-@ foot ( 640 m ) addition to the northern end of the runway . The Department of Defense allocated funds for the North River Depot , a weapons storage facility to the northwest of the base . It later became Caribou Air Force Station and was absorbed into the facility in the 1960s . The end of the year brought the completion of a communications facility , a hospital , three barracks , a school , an officers club , a bakery , and a briefing and training building . The base was one of the first constructed after World War II and also one of the first to retain as much surrounding vegetation as possible in case there was a need to camouflage the airfield and surrounding facilities . It ditched the traditional layout of a grid system for roads .
Hangars were built for the additional aircraft at the base , including the 250 @-@ by @-@ 600 @-@ foot ( 80 by 180 m ) double cantilever hangar , one of the first built by the Air Force in response to a demand for more efficient maintenance space ; it could house five B @-@ 36 Peacemakers and six B @-@ 52 Stratofortresses , and nine planned concrete arch hangars were no longer needed .
The runway was resurfaced in 1955 in anticipation of the arrival of the B @-@ 52 Stratofortress in 1956 . Eighteen additional " nose @-@ dock " hangars ( hangars which could contain the nose and wings of the aircraft , allowing for maintenance to the cockpit area by the crew , without the need to use the larger hangars ) were built in 1956 to the northwest of the runway , near the main parking area , along with parking areas and taxiways for these hangars .
= = = = Early history = = = =
On 8 February 1953 , Curtis E. Lemay , Commander of SAC , visited the base to review the construction 's progress . During this visit , he indicated that Limestone was operationally ready . Later that month , command capabilities were formally transferred to SAC , ending an almost six @-@ year command by the Army Corps of Engineers . Furthermore , personnel of the 4215th Base Service Squadron were reassigned to the 42d Bombardment Wing , which was reactivated and assigned to the 8th Air Force . On 23 February , Limestone Air Force Base officially became operational .
During the first few months , the wing was not assigned any aircraft , and thus worked with other units who were in possession of the B @-@ 36 Peacemaker . In March and April , the base began preparing for operations of the B @-@ 36 , which arrived later in April . This gave the newly activated 69th Bombardment Squadron a full complement of aircraft . By the end of August , the number had increased to 27 bombers , 322 officers , 313 airmen , and 350 civilians . Additionally , more buildings were constructed on base , making it more of a home for airmen and their families .
January 1954 brought the declaration of the 42nd being capable of implementing its Emergency War Plan . On 1 October , the base was renamed after Charles Loring Jr . , and became " Loring Air Force Base " . One week later , the 45th Air Division was activated at Loring and designated the primary base unit . It was also designated that month as the primary staging location for fighter aircraft flying out of the Continental United States to and from Europe . Loring had 63 permanent aircraft assigned , and air traffic was significantly increased .
As the Cold War progressed , so did the need for new aircraft and techniques . The first KC @-@ 97 Stratofreighter arrived at Loring with the activation of the 42d Air Refueling Squadron in January 1955 . The B @-@ 36 's were not actually equipped to perform aerial refueling , so the planes supported other units until the arrival of the B @-@ 52 in 1956 . Eventually , 21 tankers were based at Loring , along with 30 air crews .
By 1955 , the base consisted of the 42d , 69th , 70th , and the 75th Bombardment Squadrons . A hospital became operational . The next January , a B @-@ 52 landed at the airfield as part of a cold weather testing program . Five months later , the first Stratofortress , the " State of Maine " , was permanently stationed at Loring .
In November 1956 , the Air Force used the base for publicity . On 10 November , the Soviet Union threatened to oust British and French troops from the Middle East , days after the end of the Suez Crisis . After a response by president Dwight D. Eisenhower to the United Nations , a reporter with the Associated Press visited Castle Air Force Base in California after SAC was alerted to support whatever action the U.S. might take . The reporter was unable to find out classified information , and instead invented maintenance records of the fleet that painted a dismal picture . On 24 and 25 November , four B @-@ 52 's of the 93rd Bombardment Wing and the 42nd flew nonstop around the perimeter of North America in Operation Quick Kick , which covered 15 @,@ 530 mi ( 13 @,@ 500 nmi ; 24 @,@ 990 km ) in 31 hours , 30 minutes . SAC noted the flight time could have been reduced by 5 to 6 hours if the four inflight refuelings had been done by fast jet @-@ powered tanker aircraft rather than propeller @-@ driven KC @-@ 97 Stratofreighters . After the flight ended , the planes landed at Friendship International Airport . The operation distracted public attention from the reporter 's story .
The base was also the location of an experimental system of steam pipes in 1957 , to test the viability of using steam to melt the snow on the runways . Pipes were spaced at different intervals in the experiment . That same year , the first KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker , christened the " Aroostook Queen " , arrived at Loring . By December , all of the KC @-@ 97s had left , and by April 1958 , 20 KC @-@ 135s had arrived , allowing the 42nd Air Refueling Squadron to reach full operational capacity in May . Later that year , an alert force was created at Loring , consisting of six B @-@ 52 's . The following year , in response to a conflict in Lebanon , the entire wing was placed on alert .
An Alert Force was established at Loring AFB in October 1957 . The wing began supporting the force with six B @-@ 52s in January 1958 . In response to a conflict in Lebanon , the Alert Force was expanded to include the entire bombardment wing in July 1958 , when the SAC bomber force went to full alert status . SAC 's overall goal was achieved in 1960 .
On 11 March 1958 , base personnel were the first members of the Air Force to land a B @-@ 52 in a belly @-@ up configuration at Westover AFB near Springfield , Massachusetts . After being lifted up and onto its wheels , the plane was flown to Kelly AFB at San Antonio , Texas , for a complete overhaul and inspection , before it was returned to the 42nd .
Loring was also home to an administrations support base of a Green Pine communications crew from Naval Station Argentia . The detachment did not even officially exist on the base , even though it was located on the top floor of the Bachelors Officers Quarters and consisted of six men .
= = = = = Assigned aircraft = = = = =
Various aircraft were assigned to the base , including the massive B @-@ 36 Peacemaker , which was assigned to the 42d Bombardment Wing from 1 April 1953 to 6 September 1956 ; the KC @-@ 97G Stratotanker , which was assigned from 15 February 1955 to 16 December 1957 ; the B @-@ 52C Stratofortress , which was assigned 16 June 1956 to January 1957 ; the | KC @-@ 135A Stratotanker , which was assigned from 16 October 1957 to 7 May 1990 ; the B @-@ 52G , which was assigned from January 1957 to 16 November 1993 ; and the KC @-@ 135R , which was assigned from 1990 to March 1994 .
Fighter aircraft were also assigned to the base during its operation . The F @-@ 102 Delta Dagger , which was assigned to the 27th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron , was located on base from 1957 to 1960 while the F @-@ 106 Delta Dart was assigned from 16 October 1959 to 1 July 1971 , and to the 83d Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron from July 1971 to June 1972 .
= = = = = Weapons Storage Area = = = = =
The Nuclear Weapons Storage Area at Loring once operated as a separate , top secret facility . Originally called the North River Depot , the remote area to the northeast of Loring 's property was the first U.S. operational site specifically constructed for the storage , assembly , and testing of atomic weapons .
In 1951 , the Department of Defense ( DOD ) allocated funds for the construction of an ordnance storage site at Loring AFB . The designs called for a self @-@ sufficient " maximum security storage area for the most advanced weapons of mankind " . The mission of the facility would be the protection and maintenance of the weapons used by SAC . The facility was in the northeast comer of the base , and construction began on 4 August 1951 . In addition to 28 storage igloos and other weapons storage structures , the facility included weapons maintenance buildings , barracks , recreational facilities , a warehouse , and offices .
A parallel series of four fences , one of which was electrified , surrounded the heart of the storage area . This area was nicknamed the " Q " Area , which denoted the Department of Energy 's Q clearance required to have access to Restricted Data .
In June 1962 , the Atomic Energy Commission released its custody and ownership of the weapons to the Air Force . The personnel and property of the later named Caribou Air Force Station were absorbed into the adjacent Loring Air Force Base .
= = = = = Nike defense area = = = = =
To provide air defense of the base , four United States Army Nike @-@ Hercules surface @-@ to @-@ air missile sites were constructed during 1956 . Sites were located near Caribou ( L @-@ 58 ) 46 ° 53 ′ 02 ″ N 068 ° 00 ′ 32 ″ W ; Caswell ( L @-@ 13 ) 47 ° 01 ′ 42 ″ N 067 ° 48 ′ 35 ″ W ; Connor Twp . ( L @-@ 85 ) 47 ° 00 ′ 29 ″ N 068 ° 01 ′ 06 ″ W , and Limestone ( L @-@ 31 ) 46 ° 55 ′ 04 ″ N 067 ° 47 ′ 32 ″ W Maine .
The New England Division of the Army Corps of Engineers managed the construction of these sites . The sites were manned by men from the 3rd Missile Battalion , 61st Air Defense Artillery Regiment , and provided defense for Loring and the northeastern approaches to the United States . In 1960 , sites L @-@ 13 and L @-@ 58 underwent conversion from Ajax missiles to the MIM @-@ 14 Nike @-@ Hercules missiles . These sites remained operational until 1966 , although the site at Limestone was closed in September 1958 .
Members of the 3rd Missile Battalion gained distinction in November 1958 during the Annual Service Practice wargames at Fort Bliss in Texas when they simulated launching 12 Nike Ajax missiles and recorded 12 kills – a United States Army Air Defense Command first .
= = = = = Operation Head Start = = = = =
Operation Head Start was conducted at the base from September to December 1958 . It helped to demonstrate that a continuous airborne alert could be maintained successfully .
Before each flight , a briefing was held , alerting the crewmembers to basic world events as well as safety criteria . At least 15 hours before takeoff , the crew would thoroughly pre @-@ flight their aircraft . Inadvertently , this also increased efficiency in terms of maintenance and other pre @-@ flight routines .
Every six hours , a bomber would take off with live warheads and continue on a pre @-@ determined path over Greenland and eastern Canada , a trip that ended 20 hours later . Frequently , " Foxtrot : No message required " messages were sent to the bomber from Strategic Air Command headquarters at Offutt Air Force Base , keeping the crews alert .
While entering the landing pattern , crash trucks would travel to the runway and await landing . This was standard procedure for all Head Start landings . After landing , the crew was interrogated prior to being released , so that maintenance , intelligence , and other crews could be alerted to the performance of the plane and other items that the crew might have noticed during their flight . After release , they would typically go to the Physical Conditioning room for a steam bath and rubdown .
Operation Head Start eventually lead to Operation Chrome Dome . Chrome Dome was an operation where bombers would be in constant airborne alert and loiter at points just outside the Soviet Union .
= = = = Second @-@ half of the Cold War = = = =
Although it is unknown when it was opened , Loring was host to a Conventional Enhanced Release Training bomb range , which was located adjacent to the runway . Loring was one of four Strategic Air Command bases with a range of this type , and it was used frequently . The base was also located next to Condor 1 and Condor 2 airspace , which allowed for low @-@ level training . The routes and training opportunities within the restricted airspace allowed training to be accomplished . One disadvantage of the location of Loring was its distance from the Strategic Training Route Complex and bombing ranges in Nevada and Utah . The ranges out west were the only location where the B @-@ 52s were allowed to drop live munitions , although SAC training only required crews to drop live munitions twice a year on these ranges .
In 1974 , President Richard Nixon stopped at Loring on 3 July in Air Force One ( SAM 27000 ) as he returned from a summit in Moscow , where he and Leonid Breshnev had signed the Threshold Test Ban Treaty . In a speech in front of 5 @,@ 000 people in the double cantilever hangar , he talked about the importance of the treaty . President and Mrs. Nixon were welcomed home by vice president Gerald R. Ford , who flew from Washington . His daughter Julie Nixon Eisenhower was also in attendance . Nixon resigned from office five weeks later .
On 11 March 1976 , SAC headquarters announced that the 42d Bombardment Wing would be inactivated , citing the poor condition of Loring 's facilities . In 1976 , it was estimated that Loring needed up to $ 300 million in facilities improvements . Between 1976 and 1979 , considerable debate took place over the strategic importance of Loring , resulting in a reversal of the Air Force decision to close Loring . When the decision to keep Loring AFB open was made in 1979 , Congress committed itself to upgrading Loring 's facilities . After 1981 , nearly $ 300 million in military construction and operations and maintenance funds were spent to upgrade the facilities . Congressman Tip O 'Neill of Massachusetts and Senator William Cohen of Maine were firm supporters of the base during the time when it was proposed to be closed .
During the time that Loring was proposed for closure , the region experienced economic uncertainty . Once the Air Force made its intent known in 1976 , property values plummeted , and people delayed buying homes , fearing that they would need to relocate . The reduction in the base of around 80 % meant that possibly 60 % of Aroostook County would need to relocate , according to county officials . A $ 25 @,@ 000 study , commissioned by the Department of Labor and conducted at Northeastern University , calculated that the region had lost over $ 14 million in these three years of economic uncertainty .
On 5 September 1983 , members of the 42d Air Refueling Squadron escorted a crippled F @-@ 4E Phantom II over the Atlantic Ocean after it experienced the loss of an engine . For its actions , crew E @-@ 113 received the Mackay Trophy for refueling it four times and towing it with its refueling boom .
In 1988 , the Air Force decided to close three of its nuclear weapons stations at its SAC bases . In addition to Loring , other bases around the world were scaled back . As the B @-@ 1B Lancer was now predicted to become the mainstay of nuclear defense for the country , Loring was deemed unnecessary for nuclear weapons stationing . That same year , fears began to surface that Loring would be an on the list of the 1988 Base Realignment and Closure Commission . As a result , the community began to rally around the base , which at the time included 3 @,@ 800 military personnel , 1 @,@ 000 civilian employees , generated an $ 80 million payroll the previous year , and was the subject of $ 34 million in construction services .
In 1981 , Loring 's bombers were placed on alert after Soviet submarines were spotted off the coast of the region . The base was briefly mentioned in the 1983 movie WarGames , although the film erroneously listed Loring as being home to the 43rd Bombardment Wing . In 1982 , the base was hit by two earthquakes , which damaged the base hospital and caused cracks to appear on the walls of the control tower .
The 5th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron based at Minot AFB in North Dakota maintained a detachment of three F @-@ 15 Eagles at Loring . When the 5th was inactivated in 1987 , F @-@ 4 Phantom II 's from the Minnesota Air National Guard 's 148th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Group 's 179th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron sent a detachment to Loring . After the detachment left , the Massachusetts Air National Guard 's 102nd Fighter Interceptor Wing 's 101st Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron deployed F @-@ 15s to the base , the same ones that were part of the 5th . A second north @-@ south runway , one that had been in the Loring 's original plans , was created on Taxiway J as a " pre @-@ launch survivability " runway . This made Loring one of three SAC bases with two runways .
In 1989 , it was proposed to list Loring on the Environmental Protection Agency 's National Priorities List . This was due to the presence of waste oil , fuel , solvents , and pesticides in the soil . Additionally , the burning of waste also created problems , in addition to the use of landfills in old gravel pits on site . The fire training area also needed clean up , as materials were burned until 1974 on that site . Loring was officially added to the list in February 1990 .
During Operation Desert Storm , Loring 's tankers were responsible for refueling aircraft transiting the Atlantic . It was also used as a stopover for aircraft travelling to the Persian Gulf region due to its vital position . The base was also vital because it allowed planes to be maintained , planes which sometimes would be unable to reach their destination without maintenance . Between 2 August 1990 and 10 May 1991 , more than 1 @,@ 700 aircraft transiting between America and the Persian Gulf region landed at Loring . These included the C @-@ 141 Starlifter , C @-@ 5 Galaxy , C @-@ 130 Hercules , C @-@ 21A , A @-@ 4 Skyhawk , A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt II , Boeing 707 , F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon , F / A @-@ 18 Hornet , F @-@ 111 Aardvark , P @-@ 3 Orion , TR @-@ 1A Dragonlady , U @-@ 2 Dragonlady , B @-@ 52 Stratofortress , KC @-@ 10 Extender , KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker , E @-@ 3A Sentry , EA @-@ 6B Mercury , and E @-@ 8A Joint Stars aircraft .
= = = = = UFO sighting = = = = =
During the fall of 1975 , the base was the location of unidentified flying object sightings . During the night of 27 October , an unidentified object was spotted hovering near the secure weapons area ( the former Caribou AFS ) . Around 1945 hrs , a member of the 42nd Security Police Squadron spotted an apparent aircraft over the northern perimeter of Loring , at a low altitude . A later teletype message to the National Military Command Center in Washington , D.C. , stated : " The A / C [ aircraft ] definitely penetrated the LAFB [ Loring Air Force Base ] northern perimeter and on one occasion was within 300 yards ( 270 m ) of the munitions storage area perimeter . " In the control tower , a member of the 2192nd Communications Squadron was on duty , when he picked up the craft on radar , nearing the base . After trying to contact the unidentified aircraft to warn it that it was approaching a restricted area , the aircraft entered the airspace over the nuclear weapons storage area and hovered over it at an altitude of 300 feet ( 91 m ) , later lowering to 150 feet ( 46 m ) . Commander of the 42d Bombardment Wing , Colonel Robert E. Chapman arrived 15 minutes later at the weapons storage area and police units were ordered in as well . At this time , he also declared a Security Option 3 .
At 2045 hrs , another person on duty in the control tower received a call to track the mysterious craft on radar . For the next 40 minutes , it was observed circling around the weapons storage area , when it suddenly vanished , as though it had landed or dropped below the radar . Witnesses later observed it flying away towards Grand Falls , New Brunswick , twelve miles to the east . Messages were sent to the National Military Command Center , the Air Force Chief of Staff , and Strategic Air Command headquarters at Offutt Air Force Base . The base continued to remain on a high state of alert until the following morning , as efforts to identify the unidentified aircraft through the Maine State Police , local police departments , and the Houlton Federal Aviation Administration office remained elusive .
The next night at 1945 hrs , a craft similar to the one the night before approached the base . In addition to being tracked on radar , it hovered around the area for 30 minutes , with characteristics of movement similar to a helicopter . Additionally , it hovered above the weapons storage area at the same altitude as the night before . At this time , possibly another object ( it is unclear if it was the same one as the over the weapons storage area , but it is possible ) was spotted over the flightline . The cigar @-@ shaped object was described as hovering in mid @-@ air , jerking around , and turning on and off its lights once . During the blackout , it traveled from the flightline , to the northern end of the runway . According to one service member , the object was chased , and eventually discovered to be hovering five feet off the ground . During this time , it was determined that the object was four car lengths long .
Once again , the object was tracked on radar , taking off towards New Brunswick . Teletype messages were again sent to higher commands , with no explanation being found . One teletype sent on November from Loring 's Office of Special Investigations detachment to the National Military Command Center and OSI headquarters reported another , " unidentified helicopter sighted at low level over Loring AFB " over the past two nights ( 31 October – 1 November ) . It also referred to the intruder as an " unknown entity . " Additionally , Captain Richard R. Fuhs an Operations Officer in the 42nd Security Police Squadron ( SPS ) stated , " ... advised that there had been three verified sightings of an unidentified A / C [ aircraft ] flying at low level over and in the vicinity of LAFB " during this period . An initial sighting was made by a member of the 42nd , who was on duty at 23 : 14 hours Another member spotted the object near the East Gate , going from east to west .
= = = = = BRAC 1991 and closure = = = = =
In 1991 , Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney , upon the recommendation of Secretary of the Air Force Donald B. Rice , identified Loring and five other SAC bases for closure through the BRAC Commission . The commission recommended that the 42d Bomb Wing be disestablished , and the B @-@ 52Gs transferred to the 410th Bomb Wing at K.I. Sawyer AFB near Marquette , Michigan . The KC @-@ 135 aircraft were realigned to USAF Reserve and other active units .
The justification for the closure of Loring was that the Air Force had six more strategic bases than were needed to support the number of bomber and tanker aircraft in the Defense Department 's Structure Plan . The base was evaluated against eight selection criteria and a large number of subelements specific to Air Force bases and missions . Even though Loring was in good condition and had strong community support , it ranked low in the criteria when compared to twenty other bases in the strategic category . One of the things that hurt Loring was its limited peacetime value as a tanker base , as well as its distance from bombing ranges . The commission did note that the facilities at Loring were above average , and the cost to close Loring would be low , the latter of which contributed to its closure .
The commission also projected an impact on the future of the community ; 22 @,@ 000 people were projected to leave the region with 9 @,@ 900 direct and indirect jobs affected , and a loss of over $ 92 million of regional income . This was in contrast to a regional population of over 49 @,@ 100 , available jobs of 33 @,@ 320 , and an annual income of $ 755 million . The net savings by the end of 1997 from closing the base was $ 182 million , or about $ 61 @.@ 8 million annually .
As the Cold War ended , so did the mission of SAC , and it was disestablished on 1 June 1992 . The last B @-@ 52 departed Loring in November 1993 , and ceremonies were held in February 1994 to celebrate the end of the flying mission . The following month saw the last KC @-@ 135 depart and after 41 years , Loring AFB officially closed on 30 September 1994 .
= = = Accidents and incidents = = =
On 22 November 1958 , a B @-@ 47B Stratojet crashed while taking off from Loring , killing all four crewmembers on board . The plane belonged to a unit at McCoy Air Force Base in Orlando , Florida . The plane was described as having reached two @-@ thirds of the way down the runway , when it veered sharply to the right , eventually crashing 400 feet north of the runway . On 25 November 1958 , a KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker of the 42d Air Refueling Squadron crashed on takeoff roughly in the same area as the B @-@ 47 three days before . Two crewmembers were thrown to safety by the impact of the crash . The Air Force stated that after a four @-@ hour mission , the crewmembers were practicing taking off and landing on the runway . On 18 November 1960 , a KC @-@ 135 crashed upon landing at Loring , killing one and injuring sixteen others . The plane landed after a six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour training mission , veered off to the left of the runway , and skidded three thousand feet while on fire . Surviving crewmembers were able to use the emergency chutes to evacuate the plane safely . On 9 May 1962 , six crewmembers of a KC @-@ 135 were killed when their plane crashed during takeoff into a surrounding marsh , about fifteen hundred feet north of the runway . On 4 January 1965 , four crewmembers were killed three miles north of Loring when their KC @-@ 135 crashed into the ground after takeoff . On 5 September 1969 , a B @-@ 52 Stratofortress crashed approximately three miles north of the runway after taking off . Seven men were killed , including six crewmembers , during a Minimum Interval Takeoff drill . On 4 October 1989 a KC @-@ 135 crash killed all 4 crewmembers . The jet , which crashed about 2 @.@ 4 miles off the TransCanada highway in New Brunswick , was attempting to land at Loring .
Loring also had its share of incidents that did not result in fatalities over the years . On 6 March 1955 , a B @-@ 36 Peacemaker crashed and burned in a snowbank at Loring . All crewmembers were able to escape unharmed . On 26 June 1958 , a B @-@ 52D ( 55 ‑ 0102 ) burned on the ground at Loring and was destroyed . On 25 May 1969 , a KC @-@ 135A ( 56 – 3602 ) broke in two after aborting takeoff . The cause was a frozen water injection surge tube . On 19 July 1970 , a B @-@ 52G ( 58 ‑ 0208 ) also caught on fire and was destroyed on the ground .
= = = Base culture and civilian life = = =
Families at the base were able to take advantage of many of the opportunities that the facility provided for them , as life at Loring was not all military @-@ related . Although Loring was constructed with support facilities including a hospital , chapel , and schools , other forms of civilian life were added over the years as well .
= = = = Education = = = =
Younger students on the base attended Damon Elementary School . Kindergarten @-@ age children would attend school in either morning or afternoon sessions , and the older students were given the standard fare of lunch offerings . Damon 's educators were rated highly in the state . Students in grades 9 through twelve attended the nearby Limestone High School .
To those who were no longer in secondary education , there were opportunities as well . The Northern Maine Vocational Technical Institute offered courses that would help students with introductory college @-@ level classes . Husson College offered credits to those working to earn an associate 's or baccalaureate degree in business . The nearby University of Maine at Presque Isle offered classes in the social and behavioral sciences , as well as humanities and liberal studies . Embry @-@ Riddle Aeronautical University offered a bachelor 's degree in professional aeronautics . Credits earned through these programs counted as " on campus " or " residential credit " to those who were enrolled in them . Additionally , day , evening , and night classes were offered in nearby Caribou and Presque Isle .
For those who wanted to earn a graduate degree , the University of Denver offered a twelve course program for those wanting to earn a Master of Science degree in systems management . Emery @-@ Riddle also offered three graduate degrees , including the Master of Aeronautical Science . The University of Maine at Presque Isle also offered a Master of Public Administration as well .
The base 's Education Center also provided testing service for those interested in taking exams . It provided the CLEP , DANTES Exams , SAT , ACT , the LSAT and GRE exams . The Community College of the Air Force also enrolled active duty personnel in its programs as well . Credits taken there could be transferred to other affiliated Air Force technical institutions , and personnel could qualify for commissioning programs .
= = = = Healthcare = = = =
The Loring Air Force Base Hospital had two buildings during its operation . The first , Building 3500 , which was known as the " Green Monster , " was damaged during an earthquake on 9 January 1982 . The two earthquakes , which were centered in Miramichi , New Brunswick caused irreparable structural damage to the facility , which led to it being replaced with a sturdier hospital in 1987 . The new hospital included a dental clinic and outpatient rooms , in addition to over twenty beds . Internal medicine , optometry , general surgery , pediatrics , mental health , and radiology services were also provided at the base , in addition to the 24 @-@ hour emergency support services . Veterinary services were also offered in a separate building to base personnel and their families .
= = = = Family services = = = =
Military members adjusting to Loring had many facilities available to them . This included the Family Service Center , the Family Services Lending Closet , and the Corey Center .
The base was also served by an independent bank , and included help for many types of financial needs , and an ATM . The Country Federal Credit Union was located right outside the facility , and helped supplement the bank itself .
Shopping at Loring could be completed at the Maine Exchange Shopping Mall , which was designed to be a one @-@ stop shop for the shopping needs of the residents . Goods could also be purchased at the base commissary as well , which included a Class VI store .
Loring also was built with a non @-@ denominational chapel , which helped to welcome new members onto the base . Services were offered to those of the Roman Catholic , Protestant denominations , and Judaic faiths . Members of the chapel also provided food for those who ate in Loring 's dining hall , and helped to share the word of God to those who were believers .
The base also came with its own newspaper , named Limelite . The on @-@ base newspaper helped to provide readers with information on the USAF and Strategic Air Command , as well as information on the events happening around the facility .
The main dining hall on base was named Dahlgren Hall , after Maine native Edward Dahlgren , who was a recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions in World War II .
= = = = Leisure activities = = = =
When it came to leisure , the area surrounding Loring offered many options . Many recreation areas and campgrounds were located in and around the base region , with some being as far as two hundred miles away . The Morale Welfare and Recreation center offered equipment for these outings , including fishbait and tackle , as well as boat rentals . Loring 's bowling center was twenty @-@ two lanes , and one of the most modern in the area . Finally , the base library loaned books to both residents and students alike .
A small downhill ski area provided recreation for personnel and their dependents , operating on the base from the early 1960s until Loring 's closure in 1994 . This ski chalet also included a lighted skating rink and could be used to host events in the area . The base also offered trips to regional ski resorts periodically , and cross country skiing was offered at the local golf course .
The base also contained a Noncommissioned Officers Club and an Officers Club . The Noncommissioned Officers Club , or Club 42 as it was known , allowed in all military members and civilians up the GS @-@ 7 . Many varieties of food were also offered there , and it could be used for live entertainment , in addition to the booking of parties . As the Visiting Officers Quarters and the Unaccompanied Officers Quarters were nearby , the club was also a convenient stopover for transient officers as well .
= = Current status = =
Loring AFB was set to close as a result of the 1991 Base Realignment and Closure Commission , officially closing on 30 September 1994 . Immediately , Limestone was decimated . The population of Limestone dropped 76 % , from 10 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 , in the six years following the base 's closure . Regional economic activity was severely lowered , as 19 % of the local economy was related to Loring Air Force Base .
One of the more immediate ideas for redevelopment of the base was to turn it into a federal prison , something which had been done previously at the former Carswell AFB in Texas when the Federal Medical Center , Carswell was opened on its grounds . Many other former Air Force facilities have had prisons opened up on their grounds as well . From the outset , there was some reluctance in the town about turning it into creating a prison culture in Limestone , but this was lessened once the government decided that it did not want to build a federal prison on the grounds of the former air base .
In 1998 , the former base was considered for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places , as previous studies had found that 88 buildings were eligible for inclusion on the list , including the base 's arch hangar .
The Loring Development Authority created the Loring Commerce Centre on 9 @,@ 472 @-@ acre ( 38 @.@ 33 km2 ) of the site . It was marketed as an " excellent solution for your business real estate needs at a very reasonable cost . " Bigelow Aerospace maintains a call center at Loring . In addition to the Sitel site , other call centers exist on the former base , as well as food processing , forestry operations , light manufacturing , and aviation services . The military has made a return to Loring over the years through the Defense Finance and Accounting Service Limestone office , a major component of the Defense Finance and Accounting Service . The 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission consolidated DFAS ' 26 offices into 5 , with Loring being one of the consolidation points . This facility is located in the old base hospital .
Cleanup continued at the base , including the removal of hazardous materials , which prevented further waste from entering the nearby Greenlaw Brook , as it received drainage from the flightline and nose dock areas .
= = Demographics = =
During the 1970s , the population of the base declined due to the possible closure of the base and the draw down in personnel from the Vietnam War . In 1972 , the base 's population was around 12 @,@ 000 , while in 1975 the population was 10 @,@ 758 . In 1978 , 9 @,@ 233 persons resided on the base , which declined to 8 @,@ 116 the next year .
As of the census of 2000 , there were 225 people , 82 households , and 57 families residing on the former base . The population density was 27 @.@ 4 / mi ² ( 10 @.@ 6 / km ² ) . There were 355 housing units at an average density of 43 @.@ 2 / mi ² ( 16 @.@ 7 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the base was 81 @.@ 33 % White , 10 @.@ 22 % African American , 2 @.@ 22 % Asian , 5 @.@ 33 % from other races , and 0 @.@ 89 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13 @.@ 78 % of the population .
= Talbot Tagora =
The Talbot Tagora is an executive car developed by Chrysler Europe and produced by Peugeot Société Anonyme ( PSA ) . The Tagora was marketed under the Talbot marque after PSA took over Chrysler 's European operations in
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